The Heaven and Earth Society and the Red Turban Rebellion in ...
The Heaven and Earth Society and the Red Turban Rebellion in ...
The Heaven and Earth Society and the Red Turban Rebellion in ...
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leader called himself “tangzhu 堂 主 (lodge master)”. 40 In o<strong>the</strong>r words, <strong>the</strong> Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui groups, as represented<br />
by such scattered, <strong>in</strong>coherent, <strong>and</strong> irregular hordes, were local <strong>in</strong> nature. However, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early fifties, <strong>the</strong><br />
Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui groups were supposed have embarked on a greater enterprise under <strong>the</strong> leadership of Chen<br />
Song 陳 松 . <strong>The</strong>y found <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>in</strong> need of two weapons: general leadership <strong>and</strong> a tighter organization.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se needs were filled by <strong>the</strong> efforts of Chen Song <strong>and</strong> his colleagues who provided a useful<br />
organizational framework that allowed much swifter mobilization of followers than would o<strong>the</strong>rwise have<br />
been possible. 41<br />
Noth<strong>in</strong>g concrete is known of Chen Song’s personal background o<strong>the</strong>r than his Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui activities<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guangdong. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Guangdong prov<strong>in</strong>cial government records <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Canton Archives, on<br />
March 1854, Chen Song sent Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui agitator Zhongde 鐘 德 , <strong>in</strong>to X<strong>in</strong>qiao 新 橋 <strong>and</strong> Dong’guan to contact<br />
<strong>the</strong> leader of local Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui lodges such as Chen Xianliang 陳 顯 良 , He Liu, <strong>and</strong> Yuan Yushan 袁 玉 山 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
hope of stirr<strong>in</strong>g up a general upris<strong>in</strong>g. 42 After Zhongde’s arrestment by Q<strong>in</strong>g authority, Chen Song appo<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
Li Wenmao 李 文 茂 as a leader of <strong>the</strong> Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui lodges around Guangzhou (P<strong>in</strong>gj<strong>in</strong>gwang 平 靖 王 ) <strong>and</strong><br />
planned to rise up <strong>in</strong> early July. 43 But <strong>the</strong> first major outbreak came <strong>in</strong> a month earlier than <strong>the</strong>ir orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g date, with <strong>the</strong> revolt of He Liu, a local Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui leader, <strong>in</strong> Shi'long. He Liu is from a merchant family<br />
<strong>in</strong> Shunde county <strong>and</strong> said to have been moved <strong>in</strong>to Shi’long village of <strong>the</strong> Dong’guan county where he<br />
come under <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence of <strong>the</strong> Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui leader. 44<br />
After <strong>the</strong> Taip<strong>in</strong>g rose <strong>in</strong> 1851, <strong>the</strong> authorities <strong>in</strong> Huizhou made strenuous effort to raise money for<br />
defense. <strong>The</strong>ir fund rais<strong>in</strong>gs generally took <strong>the</strong> form of surtaxes or of “contributions” that were anyth<strong>in</strong>g but<br />
voluntary. <strong>The</strong>se exactions roused oppositions <strong>in</strong> Shi’long, <strong>and</strong> many of local Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui members were<br />
actively participated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> tax-resistance movement. 45 But <strong>in</strong> October <strong>the</strong> situation fur<strong>the</strong>r deteriorated when<br />
a b<strong>and</strong> allied with <strong>the</strong> Small Sword rebels of Amoy were driven out of <strong>the</strong>ir center at <strong>the</strong> Bogue, to <strong>the</strong> south<br />
of Guangzhou, <strong>and</strong> established <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>in</strong> Huizhou. In <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g months, severe disorders were<br />
reported from Huizhou <strong>and</strong> Dong’guan. 46 <strong>The</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>cial comm<strong>and</strong>er-<strong>in</strong>-chief was sent to <strong>the</strong> area, <strong>and</strong><br />
reported a victory that was followed up with great severity. 47 Unleashed banner troops not only executed<br />
alleged local Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui members but also wiped out entire villages.<br />
On 17 June, 1854, He Liu, a leader of <strong>the</strong> Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui local lodge (Hongyitang 洪 義 堂 ), animated by<br />
Chen Song’s direction, seized <strong>the</strong> opportunity to rebel by proclaim<strong>in</strong>g a revenge for his blood-oath bro<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
who had been killed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> suppression of <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g’s purge at Shi’long. A local gazetteer (Dong’guan<br />
Xianzhi) along with <strong>the</strong> Gr<strong>and</strong> Council records (Junjichutang zouzhe lufu) details <strong>the</strong> number of factors that<br />
had come toge<strong>the</strong>r to precipitate <strong>the</strong> revolt <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g maladm<strong>in</strong>istration by local magistrate, Jiang<br />
40 With <strong>the</strong> source of <strong>the</strong> term tangzhu clarified, it becomes easy to recognize <strong>the</strong> effect of this<br />
decentraliz<strong>in</strong>g system on <strong>the</strong> organization of <strong>the</strong> Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui. <strong>The</strong> characteristic of <strong>the</strong> units led by <strong>the</strong><br />
tangzhu was that, <strong>in</strong> spite of <strong>the</strong>ir similarities <strong>in</strong> organization, each one had an <strong>in</strong>dependent zhu or “host,”<br />
above whom <strong>the</strong>re was no central body for general leadership. Thus <strong>the</strong> system was a reflection of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence of leaders <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> decentralization of <strong>the</strong> entire Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui that existed before Chen Song’s<br />
arrestment <strong>in</strong> late 1854. See Hu Zhusheng 胡 珠 生 , Q<strong>in</strong>gdai Hongmenshi 请 代 洪 门 史 (Shenyang: Liaon<strong>in</strong>g<br />
renm<strong>in</strong> chubanshe, 1996), 309; F.O. 931.1439.<br />
41 Wakeman argues that <strong>the</strong>re is no evidence to show that <strong>the</strong> rebellion was planned <strong>in</strong> advance. “Ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
rebellion engendered rebellion, <strong>in</strong> a dist<strong>in</strong>ct crescendo of disorder after He Liu’s revolt.” But Wakeman<br />
failed to provide <strong>the</strong> explanation on how such a large number of people could have ga<strong>the</strong>red so suddenly<br />
<strong>and</strong> have organized attacks on adm<strong>in</strong>istrative seat. In contrast to Wakeman’s contention, many resources<br />
show us that <strong>the</strong>re was plotted conspiracy under a Ti<strong>and</strong>ihui leader, Chen Song. See “Huifei zongtoumu<br />
Chen Song shiyou 會 匪 總 頭 目 陳 松 事 由 ,”<strong>in</strong> Sasaki Masaya 佐 佐 木 正 哉 , edit. Sh<strong>in</strong>matsu no himitsu<br />
kessha .Shiryō hen 淸 末 的 秘 密 結 社 - 資 料 篇 ,(Tōkyō: K<strong>in</strong>dai Chūgoku Kenkyū I<strong>in</strong>kai, 1967), p. 21; F.O.<br />
931.1090 Information regard<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>and</strong>it <strong>in</strong> Guangzhou (1850s); 1439 Reports on Chen Song (1854), 1484<br />
List of 36 <strong>Red</strong> <strong>Turban</strong> rebels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nanhai area (1854). For Wakemen’s argument, see Wakeman,<br />
Strangers, p, 139.<br />
42 F.O. 931.1090.<br />
43 “Huifei zongtoumu,” 21.<br />
44 F.O. 931.1439.<br />
45 Nishikawa Kikuko, 13-16.<br />
46 Ch<strong>in</strong>a Mail 27 (October 1853); Guangzhou Fuzhi 廣 州 府 志 , 82.2b.<br />
47 Wakeman, Strangers, 138.<br />
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