The origins of narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder a

THE ORIGINS OF NARCISSISM 77
as, in Kohut’s (1977, p. 99) phrase, “a center of initiative and a recipient
of impressions” and (b) objective self-awareness, or observations of
oneself as an object among other objects, a self among selves. Reflexive
self-awareness, or self-reflexivity, is the capacity to integrate these distinct
sources of knowledge-to move easily between subjective and
objective perspectives on the self. As such, it is the opposite of egocentrism
(Piaget, 1924/1952, 1926/1960, 1937/1954). Because one
cannot simultaneously regard oneself as an object and immerse oneself
in one’s own subjectivity, except perhaps during mystical experiences
or states of ecstasy, and because these two modalities for self-knowledge
can result in highly discrepant self-images, the capacity for reflexive
self-awareness necessarily produces psychological tension and
conflict, especially about one’s conception of oneself (Lichtenstein,
1963).
A Definition of Narcissism in Terms of Self-Reflexivity
Narcissism is here defined as the attempt to escape, whether through
self-enhancement or self-effacement, the conflicts that result from selfreflexivity-to
replace a necessary division within the self with an illusory
oneness. It thus shares much with Rothstein’s (1984) ego-psychological
definition of narcissism as the pursuit of the felt experience
of perfection. On the other hand, in seeing self-reflexivity and the
concomitant experience of separateness as factors fundamental to the
tensions underlying narcissism, this approach rejects the notion of a
tensionless developmental period, whether before or after birth. It further
rejects the notion that a drive to recover a prenatal state underlies
the yearning for oneness (Lachmann & Beebe, 1989). The conceptual
roots of this reformulation are in object-relations theory, developmental
psychology, social cognition, and Lacanian theory, rather than
ego psychology. Most essential to this account are the writings of Bach
(1985), Blatt (1974, 1983; Blatt & Shichman, 1983), Broucek (1982),
Westen (1990a), and other commentators who have explored the relationships
among self-reflexivity, egocentrism, and narcissism.
Although objective self-awareness is a complex skill, its crucial feature,
from the standpoint of this reconceptualization of narcissism, is
that it creates a state of psychological tension or of negative affect.
Duval and Wicklund (1972), in their empirical analysis of the differences
between objective and subjective self-awareness, propose that