Lifeline to recovery - RSPB

(rspb-images.com) 

Lifeline to recovery 

– the RSPB’s species recovery success in the UK

Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) 

Lifeline to recovery – the RSPB’s 

species recovery success in the UK 

Foreword by Professor Ian Newton FRS, Chairman, The RSPB 

David Kjaer (rspb-images.com) 

The RSPB’s species recovery work is a lifeline for species in trouble – such as this skylark on a lowland arable farm. 

Ask the average person what they 

associate with the RSPB, and the 

chances are they’ll mention ‘rare 

birds’ and ‘nature reserves’. And 

they’d be right – at least in part. 

Throughout its history, the 

RSPB has had a vision of our 

countryside, our coasts and our 

seas alive with birds, and has 

always been ready with a lifeline 

for species in trouble – hence the 

title of this review. Early on, the 

focus was on protecting birds from 

being killed, or their eggs from 

being plundered. Later, the first 

nature reserves were established 

to help secure the habitat 

necessary to sustain populations 

of rare species. 

Protecting birds, their eggs and the 

places they live remains a vital part 

of our conservation work, but the 

founders of the RSPB would be 

amazed at the diversity and complexity 

of this work today, and at the oncecommon 

species which are now 

priorities for action. We are no longer 

concerned only with rare birds, 

although work on such species 

remains undiminished. Priorities now 

include widespread birds, common 

for so long but now declining, such 

as lapwings, skylarks and even house 

sparrows. Indeed, house sparrows 

were once so abundant that the RSPB 

was frequently asked how to keep 

them from dominating other species 

at birdtables! Nowadays, many people 

have noticed their decline and are 

anxious to see it reversed. Sound 

science is key to the RSPB’s 

successes, and it is to the RSPB’s 

credit that it has pioneered 

conservation techniques that are built 

on robust research and practical 

experience. The RSPB targets its work 

carefully to achieve the most from 

scarce resources. Recovery projects 

follow the same four essential steps – 

look at the figure on page six to see 

how this works. The species profiled in 

this review are at different stages in 

their recovery, and success can be 

measured by how much the population 

trend is upward, rather 

than downward as before. 

But there is one more essential 

ingredient in bird conservation – 

2 

Lifeline to recovery – the RSPB’s species recovery success in the UK

Right: Habitat restoration is a major part of the RSPB’s work, but it takes 

some ‘fine-tuning’ to make it right for individual species. 

Below: Species recovery needs people – from research biologists 

to support from RSPB members and the public. 

Chris Gomersall (rspb-images.com) 

namely, people. The projects described 

in this booklet depended on the skills 

of many experts, some from within the 

RSPB and others from outside. Many 

people, including the RSPB’s one 

million members, want to see our 

countryside, seas and coasts once 

more alive with birds. They support 

the work of the RSPB magnificently; 

through their membership and through 

donations and legacies. Some also 

give vital support as volunteers, 

offering skills, enthusiasm and sheer 

hard work with astonishing generosity, 

or through participation in large-scale 

science projects, helping us gain more 

understanding of what is happening 

to birds in our countryside. So 

celebrate, as I do, the successes 

described on the pages that follow. 

For example, in the mid-1980s, who 

would have thought that red kites 

would be re-established over much 

of the UK? Celebrate too the 

dedicated visionaries who have 

made this recovery possible. 

The following pages will also 

mention the considerable challenges 

that lie ahead. With your support, 

the RSPB will strive to meet these 

challenges, ensuring a better 

environment for wildlife and 

people alike. 

Contents 

The need for a lifeline 4 

Making it happen 6 

Bittern 8 

Black grouse 10 

Capercaillie 12 

Chough 14 


Cirl bunting 16 

Corncrake 18 

Hen harrier 20 

Lapwing 22 

Osprey 24 

Pine hoverfly 26 

Red kite 28 

Skylark 30 

Stone-curlew 32 

Tree sparrow 34 

White-tailed eagle 36 

The future 38 

3



The need for a lifeline 


Conserving and restoring habitats at a landscape scale is a vital part of nature conservation. 

The challenge 

2010 is an important date for wildlife. 

By that year, the world is committed 

to reducing the rate of decline of 

biodiversity significantly. In the UK, 

and the rest of the European Union, 

the target is more ambitious: to halt 

the loss of biodiversity. Achieving 

these targets will be a challenge, 

but a start has been made. 

The RSPB has been at the forefront 

of meeting this challenge for many 

decades. Our ambition is not just 

to halt the decline, but to achieve 

a recovery. This review shows how 

we have been doing this for species 

that might otherwise have been lost 

from the UK, or that are back after 

many years of absence. 

Why species? 

Conserving biodiversity is about 

genetic variety, species, habitats and 

ecosystems. All are important, but 

it is often most appropriate, practical 

and effective to focus on species, 

be it birds, mammals, invertebrates 

or plants, from the most imposing 

predator to the smallest lichen. After 

all, these are the building blocks 

of biodiversity. 

Some species have obvious public 

appeal. People can identify, name, 

and relate to a lapwing much more 

easily than to coastal floodplain 

grazing marsh or an ecologically 

functioning landscape. 

Species often indicate the health 

of our environment and can be the 

easiest and most appropriate level 

of biodiversity to monitor. In addition, 

interest in species, such as the bittern, 

can provide support, profile and 

impetus for habitat conservation. 

Having a specific focus often makes 

conservation sense. 

Over the years we have lost many 

native species from the UK, and the 

rate of loss has increased in the last 

200 years. Some, such as the wolf, 

beaver and osprey are well known, 

but the demise of many others will 

4 


Recovery work for one species often 

benefits others. Habitat management 

for corncrakes on the Western Isles of 

Scotland also helps the great yellow 

bumblebee, a UK BAP priority 

species. 

Mike Edwards (rspb-images.com) 

have gone unrecorded. With modern 

conservation awareness, there is a 

welcome and popular commitment 

to maintaining the diversity of 

species in the UK. Nevertheless, over 

the last 50 years we have witnessed 

the severe decline of far too many 

once widespread, common and 

familiar species. 

Conservation is not just about 

avoiding extinctions but about restoring 

or recovering species populations 

to secure sustainable levels, and 

preventing other species from 

reaching such a perilous situation 

in the first place. 

Species, by their very nature, have 

specific ecological requirements. They 

may appear to share the same habitat 

with many others but they each have 

a different, specific niche. It is what 

sets them apart, and makes them 

what they are. 

Conserving and restoring habitats 

at a landscape scale is a vital part 

of nature conservation, especially 

to make biodiversity robust to 

environmental change. However, 

to really deliver conservation benefit, 

habitats must meet the needs of 

the species that depend on them. 

Restoring reedbeds alone would not 

have enabled the bittern population 

to recover. The water levels in the 

reedbeds have to be right, with 

thriving fish populations, management 

informed by dedicated research. 

Habitat loss has historically been 

a key factor in the decline of many 

species in the UK. However, the 

way existing habitats are managed 

is also important. Many of the 

meadows and grasslands that used 

to echo the rasping call of the 

corncrake remain throughout the UK. 

But fairly simple changes, such as 

cutting the grass earlier in the summer, 

has resulted in the corncrake’s 

disappearance from what otherwise 

appears to be suitable habitat. 

Generalised habitat management, that 

does not take account of the needs of 

key species, can be very damaging. 

In some cases, even restoring habitat 

and managing it in the right way is not 

enough to return species to areas from 

which they have been lost. Some may 

not readily re-colonise favourable 

habitat or will only do so by chance. 

In these circumstances, it may be 

appropriate to re-introduce a species 

to its former range. This is not a 

measure to undertake lightly: projects 

are invariably long-term, expensive 

and complex. Nevertheless, in the 

right circumstances, reintroduction 

can be an important part of the 

conservation toolkit. 

Setting targets 

Having identified the priorities, a 

conservation programme is most 

effective when working to clear, 

quantifiable targets against which 

progress can be measured. It may 

be a pragmatic milestone or an 

end-point at which the status of 

the species is favourable. It may 

be a minimum figure, a bottom line 

below which things really cannot be 

allowed to slip, or a goal to restore 

or enhance its population or range. 

It must be achievable, yet ambitious, 

something to aspire to. Most 

importantly it must provide a focus on 

real biological outcomes, or to put it 

somewhat informally, ‘bums on nests’. 

The RSPB sets biological targets 

for all its priority species and habitats, 

often framed as a contribution towards 

a broader objective set in the UK 

Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) 

or agreed with statutory conservation 

bodies. 

Using the right toolkit 

Nature surprises and inspires us 

precisely because each species is 

different, so when we need to secure 

its recovery, we have to use the right 

tools. For localised species or those 

where the population is small, it 

is possible to use hands-on 

management – literally, for example, 

in the case of stone-curlews. 

(see page 32). 

Where we are influencing a large 

proportion of a small population 

directly, dedicated projects are very 

effective. Some of the work reported 

here has almost certainly prevented 

extinction from the UK, though 

the need for this last-chance 

conservation effort is a symptom 

of land management that has failed 

for wildlife. 

For more widespread species, 

such as the skylark, it is not feasible 

to manage specifically for every pair 

in the country. Here, we must 

develop recovery measures that can 

be incorporated into land-use policies, 

illustrated by the adoption of skylark 

plots into the Environmental 

Stewardship Scheme for farmers 

in England. 

We hope that in the pages that follow, 

we will show how we translate careful 

planning into real action on the ground. 

5



Making it happen 

This recovery curve illustrates broadly the sequence of activity that can take a declining species 

to recovery. 

Sustainable 

management 

Recovery 

management 

Population 

Trial management 

Research 

Time 

Research 

Trial 

management 

Recovery 

management 

Sustainable 

management 

Understanding a species’ 

requirements and the 

specific threats that it faces 

are key. It is important that 

conservation efforts are 

based on sound knowledge, 

so detailed ecological 

research is often the first 

step towards species 

recovery. 

The RSPB turns this 

knowledge into a 

programme of conservation 

action, which may involve 

testing out management 

prescriptions or conducting 

feasibility studies for 

re-introduction projects. 

RSPB nature reserves 

are often used to trial 

management under 

controlled conditions. 

Once conservation 

measures have been tested 

and shown to work, they 

can be implemented as part 

of a recovery programme 

in the wider countryside, 

working in partnership 

with other conservation 

organisations, farmers, 

foresters and industry, and 

with government policies 

to ensure that public 

funding benefits, or at least 

does not threaten, wildlife. 

Ultimately, this is where 

we want to be. If all species 

were here, there would 

be no need for a species 

recovery programme. 

It is vital to monitor the 

progress of recovery work 

so that adjustments can 

be made, and effort can be 

increased or curtailed 

once targets are met. 

6 Lifeline to recovery – the RSPB’s species recovery success in the UK

Right: work to reverse the alarming 

declines in the numbers of lapwings 

on wet grassland is in the early 

stages, but on RSPB reserves we 

have maintained their numbers. 

Below: the return of the osprey to 

the UK is an inspiration. In much of 

Scotland, this bird is now in the 

sustainable management phase after 

50 years of dedicated effort by the 

RSPB and others. 

Mark Hamblin (rspb-images.com) 

Making it happen 

At any particular time, 

a species may be at 

a different stage of the 

recovery curve according 

to local conditions. 

There is rarely a single 

solution, and recovery to 

the levels of sustainable 

management can take 

several decades. 

Once the population has recovered 

sufficiently, intensive recovery work 

can be replaced by management 

aimed at sustaining an enhanced 

population. This might be incorporated 

into dedicated conservation work (for 

localised species that live in specialised 

habitats, such as reedbeds or lowland 

heath) or into land-use practices for 

more widespread species. 

This means that recovery has to be 

about more than just the biological 

needs of the species. It has to identify 

the sustainable economic and social 

context for biodiversity conservation. 

For example, recovering the population 

of corncrakes in the Scottish islands 

would not be possible without 

integrating management for this 

species into support for crofting 

agriculture. This brings other benefits 

for those who work the land and 

visit the islands, and the many other 

species that depend on the rich 

machair habitats. As such, species 

recovery work can be an important 

contribution to sustainable 

development. 

Celebrate success 

Focusing action on the right species, 

setting clear biological objectives 

and using the right tools means that, 

when delivered well, species recovery 

work has successes that are worth 

celebrating. We hope that you’ll 

celebrate with us, and if you helped 

to make some of these stories 

a reality, we thank you. 


7

Bittern 

In 2004, the UK bittern population reached the milestone 

of 50 booming males that was set in the UK Biodiversity 

Action Plan. 

Species status 

Phase of recovery: 

Recovery 

Red list Bird of Conservation Concern 

UK BAP lead partner – the RSPB 


Bittern numbers crashed during the late 20th century, but although still vulnerable, bitterns are on the way to recovery. 

Bitterns are large birds that live 

in reedbeds and are more often 

heard than seen. When we count 

the number of bitterns in an area, 

we do this by noting the number 

of birds that boom (the call the 

male birds use to attract a mate). 

This amazing booming sound can 

be heard from up to 5 km away 

and each male’s boom is slightly 

different, so we can identify each 

male individually. 

Drastic decline in 

bittern numbers 

Once common in wetlands, bitterns 

became extinct as breeding birds in 

the UK in the late 19th century, as 

a result of wetland drainage and 

hunting. These birds were next 

recorded as breeding in Norfolk in 1911. 

They slowly recolonised from there 

and by 1954 there were around 80 

booming males. However, numbers 

dropped again as their reedbed 

habitats became drier through lack 

of management. By 1997 only 11 

booming bitterns were recorded in 

the UK and there was a similar pattern 

of decline in bitterns across western 

Europe. 

Back from the brink 

Alarmed by the plunging bittern 

numbers, the RSPB started a research 

programme to investigate the needs 

of this previously little-studied bird. 

This led to some clear management 

recommendations that have been, 

and still are being, implemented 

at many sites in the UK. 

Bitterns are difficult to study as 

they are found at low densities in 

habitats that are difficult to work in. 

The research looked at the habitat 

that bitterns prefer, their feeding 

requirements, the home range of male 

bitterns, as well as female nesting 

requirements, chick diet and their 

dispersal. To find this information, 

lightweight radio-transmitters were 

attached to bitterns at two RSPB 

reserves so that their movements 

could be tracked. Later, young birds 

at the nest were also radio-tagged 

and their food preferences studied. 

8 


Right: The EU-Life fund has enabled 

the creation and restoration of reedbeds 

– the future challenge is to manage these 

in a cost-effective and ecologically 

sustainable manner. 

Below: RSPB research found that bitterns 

need early successional wet reedbeds 

with extensive pool and ditch systems 

to provide feeding opportunities where 

the reedbed and water meet. 


Continuing the improvement 

The research results meant that 

we understood what bitterns needed 

so we could manage the habitat 

appropriately for them. Much of the 

work to make habitats more suitable 

has been carried out through two 

large RSPB-led projects funded by 

the EU-Life programme. 

The first project, centred on East 

Anglia, was a partnership of seven 

organisations and ran from 1996– 

2000 at thirteen sites. The project 

concentrated on restoring reedbeds 

by raising the water levels, controlling 

the growth of bushes, and excavating 

and reshaping pools and ditches in the 

reedbeds. By 2004, bittern numbers 

had increased at 10 of the 13 project 

sites. At the RSPB’s Minsmere nature 

reserve, two booming bitterns in 1997 

had increased to nine by 2004. 

The second bittern project, from 

2002–2006, is developing a wider 

network of reedbeds suitable for 

breeding or wintering bitterns. Eight 

organisations are involved at 19 sites. 

Much of the work involves creating 

700 hectares of new reedbeds. 

Improvements are also being made 

to encourage more fish for the birds 

to eat, which will increase the bitterns’ 

breeding success. 

By 2004, the UK bittern population 

had risen to a minimum of 55 booming 

male birds. This was achieved because 

detailed RSPB research was rapidly 

put into practice, the conservation 

organisations managing reedbeds 

developed strong partnerships and 

because a high percentage of 

reedbeds in the UK are managed 

by conservation organisations. 

The way ahead 

Management work to date has 

stopped reedbed degradation and 

the projects underway should provide 

significant areas of high-quality 

reedbed in the future, although it will 

take many years for these new sites to 

mature. The knowledge that the RSPB 

has gained about bitterns’ needs, as 

well as how to manage and create 

reedbeds, is being shared among 

those managing reedbeds. Overall, 

the prospects for UK bitterns appear 

to be good, though the population is 

at risk from climate change. As sea 

levels rise, saltwater could flow into 

coastal reedbeds, making the habitat 

unsuitable for bitterns. As a result, 

several new reedbeds are being 

created inland, away from vulnerable 

coasts, such as Lakenheath Fen in 

Suffolk and the Hanson–RSPB Wetland 

Project in Cambridgeshire, where 500 

hectares of reedbed are planned. 


Two major habitat projects have resulted in more bitterns, 

and in more places 

Number of males/sites 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

2010 UK BAP target 

0 

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 

Booming males 

Occupied sites 

Acknowledgements 

The research was undertaken as part of Action for Birds in England, a conservation partnership 

between English Nature and the RSPB. Key work was undertaken by partners within the two 

bittern projects funded by the EU-LIFE programme. These include English Nature, The Broads 

Authority, The Wildlife Trusts, The Environment Agency, The National Trust and The Lee Valley 

Regional Park Authority. 

9

Black grouse 

Black grouse are declining in most European 

countries. Having reversed the decline in England 

and Wales, the challenge is to sustain the recovery 

and to trial similar management in Scotland. 



Research/Trial 

Red list Bird of conservation concern 

UK BAP lead partner – the RSPB/Game 

Conservancy Trust 


This splendid male grouse is at a lek, a flamboyant display taking place on an area of flat, open ground where the males gather 

to compete for the attention of the hens. The dominant male is likely to mate with most of the visiting hens. 

Black grouse were formerly 

widespread but have been 

declining since the early 1900s. 

The decline has accelerated since 

newly-planted forestry matured 

in the 1980s. This bird has 

become locally extinct in many 

regions. Black grouse are 

monitored by counting the 

number of males at leks, where 

birds gather to display to females 

in spring. A survey in 1995/96 

found only 6,500 lekking males – 

most of them in Scotland, with 

smaller numbers in England 

and Wales. 

A range of problems 

Black grouse need a mosaic of 

habitats. Over the last 50 years 

there have been considerable changes 

in the landscape of the UK. Farming 

has intensified and large-scale forestry 

plantations have matured, and this 

gives a uniform habitat rather than the 

patchwork that black grouse need. 

As black grouse numbers have fallen, 

other factors have become more 

important, which larger populations 

should be able to withstand. Birds are 

killed by predators, by crashing into 

deer fences and as a result of bad 

weather. Isolated populations have 

disappeared altogether. Some factors 

have affected black grouse on a 

regional basis, while others have 

operated on a UK-wide scale. Some 

are less of a threat than they were. 

Often a combination of factors drives 

the populations to low levels, when 

a chance occurrence can kill a small 

number of birds and so cause a local 

extinction. 

Black grouse projects 

Several recovery projects have 

been set up, using the best available 

research, to focus on the needs of 

the black grouse on a regional basis. 

Project officers, usually supported by 

a partnership of government and 

voluntary organisations, work with 

farmers, foresters, estate managers 

and gamekeepers to safeguard and 

create vital habitat, often funded by 

government grants. Working with 

local people, project officers also 

monitor the fortunes of black grouse, 

to see how they respond to the 

10 


Until recently, this moorland and 

blanket bog was afforested, holding 

little value for black grouse or other 

wildlife. Pioneering work by the RSPB 

and Forestry Commission Wales has 

opened out the habitat, and black 

grouse have recolonised this site 

at Penaran Forest. 


changes in management. 

These regional projects are testing 

the mix of management measures, 

both to secure regional populations 

and to inform future land management 

policies. There are currently four 

partnership recovery projects: two 

in Scotland, one in Wales and one 

in England. As well as advice and 

assistance in finding grants, project 

officers also organise training events 

for land managers and advisers who 

want to help black grouse. 

■ The Welsh Black Grouse 

Recovery Project is focusing on 

key areas in mid and north Wales 

that hold the largest remaining 

populations. Work to restore the 

diversity of moor edge, rough 

grazing and woodland has seen 

an 85% increase in the number of 

lekking males between 1997 and 

2002. Much of this has been thanks 

to major restructuring of forestry 

plantations. Where management 

work has not been carried out, 

the numbers of black grouse have 

continued to fall. 

■ The North Pennines Black 

Grouse Recovery Project 

encourages farmers and landowners 

to improve the conditions for black 

grouse on their land. This includes 

reducing grazing on the moor edges 

and adjacent rough pastures, the 

re-establishment of traditional hay 

meadow management, planting of 

small-scale upland ghyll woodlands 

and control of foxes, crows and 

stoats. There has been an increase 

in the number of displaying males 

by 5% each year where grazing by 

sheep has been reduced through 

agri-environment schemes. This 

compares with a decline of 2% 

each year where grazing was 

not restricted. 

■ The Dumfries and Galloway 

Black Grouse Recovery 

Project is working to stem the 

decline of black grouse in this area. 

In recent decades, there has been 

a huge reduction in numbers, due 

to overgrazing, the lack of moorland 

management, and the maturation 

of conifer plantations. With 

plantation forestry accounting for 

over one quarter of Dumfries and 

Galloway – the highest density 

anywhere in the UK – a crucial 

aspect of the project is incorporating 

the needs of black grouse into 

Forest Design Plans. Through 

these, we have the best chance of 

securing the future of black grouse 

during future forestry changes. 

■ The Argyll and Bute Black 

Grouse Recovery Project 

has identified a core area of 

suitable habitat around important 

lek sites, which is being targeted 

for conservation action. 

Annual % population change 

30 

20 

10 

0 

-10 

1986-1997 1997-2002 

Areas where management started in winter 1997 

Sustaining recovery 

On our reserves, we are trialling 

management to increase numbers of 

black grouse. At Corrimony, Highland, 

we have increased numbers from 16 

lekking males in 1997 and maintained 

these at over 35 since 2001. 

The four recovery projects show what 

can be done for black grouse. Learning 

from these projects, the partners hope 

to build the needs of black grouse 

into farming, moorland and forestry 

management policies and practices. 

A survey of UK black grouse in 2005 

will tell us how much the population 

has changed over the last 10 years. 

We will continue to work for the 

recovery of this species and hope 

that land management for black grouse 

will help numbers to increase over 

a wider area. 

The change in numbers of lekking males on managed areas in Wales 

shows how they can respond to suitable habitat management 


No management 

Welsh Recovery Project: This Project was funded by the European Union (European Agriculture Guidance and 

Guarantee Fund), the National Assembly for Wales (Rural Development Grant), the RSPB, Countryside Council for Wales 

and Forest Enterprise Cymru. 

North Pennines recovery project: a partnership between English Nature, the Game Conservancy Trust, Ministry 

of Defence, the RSPB and Northumbrian Water. 

Dumfries and Galloway recovery project: a partnership between the RSPB and Scottish Natural Heritage, assisted 

by Forestry Commission Scotland 

Argyll and Bute recovery project: a partnership of Forestry Commission Scotland, Scottish Power, 

the RSPB, Scottish Natural Heritage, supported by an award from the Esmée Fairbairn Foundation. 

11

Capercaillie 

Capercaillie populations have shown hopeful signs of starting 

to recover. However, they are very vulnerable and could still be 

lost from the UK in the next couple of decades. Management is 

helping to ensure that we don’t lose this magnificent bird again. 



Recovery 


UK BAP lead partner – the RSPB/the 

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology 


The capercaillie is the largest grouse in the world. In the UK it is now only found in Scotland, where it is associated with 

semi-natural Scots pine woods, though capercaillie also live in commercial conifer forests. 

Most of the capercaillie 

remaining in Scotland are found 

in Strathspey – with a significant 

proportion of the population 

on RSPB nature reserves. 

The rise and fall of 

the capercaillie 

It is believed that capercaillie 

became extinct in England in the 

17th century and the last known 

record of a native capercaillie in 

Scotland was in 1785. The birds 

disappeared because of extensive 

felling of forests. 

In the 19th century more forests 

were planted and capercaillie were 

successfully reintroduced from 

1837 onwards. They quickly recolonised 

the pinewoods of northern Scotland 

and their numbers grew to a peak in 

the early 1900s. 

The demand for wood during the 

two World Wars meant that much 

suitable capercaillie habitat was 

destroyed. Consequently, the number 

of birds fell and, although there was 

some increase in numbers in the 

1960s, by 1999 only 1,000 birds 

remained. 

What was the problem? 

The decline in capercaillie numbers 

over the last 30 years has resulted 

from poor breeding. The lack of food 

at crucial times in the breeding cycle, 

as a result of climate-induced changes, 

may be a factor in these failures. 

However, the effects of this have 

been compounded by: 

■ limited food for young capercaillie 

because of grazing of shrubs such 

as blaeberry by deer 

■ capercaillie dying as a result 

of flying into forest fences 

■ foxes and crows, which eat 

capercaillie and their eggs 

■ disturbance by people and some 

unsympathetic forest management. 

Scotland is not the only place to 

experience such declines. Capercaillie 

populations have also been falling in 

countries in central Europe, such as 

12 


To stop capercaillie from flying into 

fences and dying like this one, the 

RSPB worked with Forestry 

Commission Scotland to review 

their fencing policy, and the Scottish 

Executive funded the marking or 

removal of hundreds of kilometres 

of threatening deer fences in 

capercaillie woods. 


Switzerland. Large populations still 

exist in Scandinavia and northern 

Russia, but even these are declining. 

Identifying the problem 

Capercaillie have been studied by the 

RSPB and the Centre for Ecology and 

Hydrology (CEH) to monitor breeding 

success and survival in forests across 

the range. This quickly identified 

problems with breeding and collisions 

with deer fences. 

The studies found that capercaillie 

chicks need a diet rich in invertebrates, 

such as caterpillars, and that blaeberry 

was the best habitat for chicks. This 

habitat was scarce in many forests 

because of heavy grazing by deer. 

Fences, put up to keep deer out of 

pine woods and forestry plantations, 

proved to be a significant problem, 

with many birds flying into them and 

dying. Predation by crows also limited 

breeding success at the RSPB’s 

Abernethy reserve. 

Partnership approach 

proves effective 

The RSPB bought the Forest Lodge 

Estate at Abernethy in 1988 and since 

then has been heavily involved in 

conserving capercaillie. Work was 

undertaken to restore the habitat, 

crows and foxes were controlled and 

fences were removed or marked 

to make them more visible to the 

birds. The number of capercaillie 

subsequently increased to 100 birds. 

Work in one single forest would not 

help the capercaillie as there are no 

Scottish forests big enough to support 

a viable population of the birds on 

their own. However, the RSPB’s 

Abernethy reserve has proved a 

valuable example for conservation 

work throughout Scotland. 

Conservation work on a large scale 

is now being carried out at all the key 

sites for capercaillie in Scotland, based 

on what has been learnt at Abernethy 

and on research work carried out by 

the CEH and the RSPB. This work 

accords with the forests being used 

commercially and for recreation. 

Conservation work for the capercaillie 

has benefited from EU funding. More 

than £215 million is directly supporting 

jobs in forestry throughout rural 

Scotland. The capercaillie is probably 

not the only species to benefit, as 

managing the woodlands for them, 

particularly thinning, should increase 

the diversity of other vertebrates, such 

as small mammals, and invertebrates 

too, from wood ants to pinewood 

beetles. 

Number of birds 

25,000 

20,000 

15,000 

10,000 

5,000 

0 

20,000 

BAP target 5000 birds by 2010 

2200 

1970 1994 

The future for capercaillie 

More than 50,000 hectares of native 

pinewoods have been planted, with 

the support of Forestry Commission 

Scotland. The network of capercaillie 

Natura sites (Special Protection Areas) 

is also being expanded by the Scottish 

Executive – so capercaillie should have 

more suitable habitat in future. All the 

key forests for capercaillie are now 

being managed with the birds in mind, 

and the RSPB will continue to provide 

advice until the capercaillie population 

is secure. 

The main difficulty ahead for these 

birds may be the damaging impact 

that the weather can have during the 

breeding season. However, we hope 

that by improving the habitat there 

will be more food and shelter to help 

chicks to survive in bad weather. 

Capercaillie populations in Scotland had crashed by the end of the 

last century but are showing some signs of recovery 


1100 

1999 

2000 

2004 

Much of the work for capercaillie has been funded by EU-Life. Partners in the Capercaillie BAP Group are 

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (Joint lead partner), Scottish Natural Heritage, Forestry Commission 

Scotland, Scottish Rural Property and Business Association, Game Conservancy Trust, Royal Zoological 

Society of Scotland, Scottish Gamekeepers’ Association, Forestry and Timber Association, Deer Commission 

for Scotland, and Dr Robert Moss. Project partners carry out work and/or provide co-financing to the project. 

We would also like to thank innumerable forest owners and land managers, and enthusiastic individuals 

too numerous to mention. 

13

Chough 

Following a huge historic decline, chough populations are 

showing signs of recovery. However, the RSPB is urging 

government to develop agri-environment policies to secure 

suitable grazing management for choughs. 



Recovery 

Amber list Bird of Conservation Concern 

BAP priority: Wales and Northern Ireland 


The future looks brighter for choughs in the UK than it has done for decades. 

Chough declines 

These striking black birds with 

red beaks are members of the 

crow family and in the past, 

especially during the 19th 

century, their numbers declined 

because they were shot as pests. 

Once the chough had become 

rare, their eggs became attractive 

to egg collectors. Even now 

choughs are persecuted – 

sometimes as they are mistaken 

for other birds in the crow family 

– and egg theft still takes place. 

Changes in farming seem to have 

contributed to the decline in some 

areas. Choughs need enclosed nest 

sites and well grazed cliff slopes 

or hillsides to feed on. Livestock 

has been moved away from some 

of these areas, which leads to the 

vegetation becoming too tall for the 

birds to feed. Some of these grassy 

clifftops are now used for arable 

cropping. 

What choughs need 

Over the last 10 years choughs have 

been studied to see what they eat and 

where they prefer to feed. We found 

that choughs take invertebrates from, 

or just below, the surface and that they 

prefer to feed in very short vegetation 

with bare areas. 

Taking action 

Choughs are found predominantly on 

western coasts. There are choughs on 

a number of RSPB reserves including 

South Stack and Ramsey Island in 

Wales, Oronsay and Loch Gruinart, 

Smaull Farm, the Oa and Ardnave 

on Islay, Scotland. The RSPB is also 

involved with protecting isolated 

populations in Cornwall and Northern 

Ireland, and is helping to find out 

more about chough feeding habits on 

the Isle of Man to secure their future. 

Different approaches to managing 

the land for choughs are being taken 

in different places in the UK. Some 

management is geared towards 

providing nesting sites, which are 

usually ledges on cliffs or in caves, 

and the lofts of derelict buildings. 

Other work is to ensure there are 

places for choughs to feed, by using 

livestock to graze the land. 

14 


Right: Choughs feed on invertebrates 

from, or just below, the surface and 

will also take invertebrates from dung. 

Grazing is essential to maintain 

a suitable vegetarian structure 

Below: Extensive research and 

monitoring (here in Northern Ireland) 

has given us a much better 

understanding of the chough’s 

requirements. 


This also benefits other species: the 

bare soil that results from grazing may 

benefit insects such as the hornet 

robber fly, and on machair in the 

Western Isles of Scotland, wading 

birds breed on chough feeding habitat. 

Government and EU funding in Wales 

has enabled the RSPB to work with 

landowners to provide suitable habitat 

for choughs in 18 key areas, mainly 

coastal, and in the west of the country. 

In Scotland, a government-funded 

scheme has secured agreements 

with landowners to provide suitable 

management for choughs, such as 

winter grassland grazing by livestock. 

There are good reasons for optimism: 

chough numbers have increased 

over the last 20 years and birds have 

recolonised sites from which they had 

previously disappeared. In Cornwall, 

a pair of choughs has bred successfully 

since 2002, after half a century of 

absence. Volunteers watch the site 

24-hours a day during the incubation 

stage to protect it from egg thieves, 

and large numbers of visitors enjoy 

seeing these birds from a public 

viewpoint. 

Choughs have also returned to 

Northern Ireland. There, the RSPB 

works closely with local farmers and 

the Environment and Heritage Service, 

to manage the grazing to benefit 

choughs within the Antrim Coast, 

Glens and Rathlin Island 

Environmentally Sensitive Area. 

What next? 

The prospects for choughs are better 

than for several decades, with birds 

breeding in all four countries of the 

UK. The UK and Isle of Man hold the 

majority of the northwest European 

breeding population. The RSPB is 

providing suitable conditions for 

choughs on its nature reserves, 

including Rathlin Island, in Northern 

Ireland, which we hope they will 

recolonise. Farmers, using 

agri-environment schemes, 

have the potential to encourage 

further increases in numbers. 

However, to ensure this recovery 

continues, it is essential that grazing is 

maintained in coastal areas to keep 

the land suitable for choughs to 

find food. 

The RSPB is providing advice on the 

development of agri-environment 

schemes, such as Tir Gofal, for Wales, 

and other European funding schemes. 

We are also urging the Countryside 

Council for Wales to consider 

designating key chough areas as 

Special Protection Areas. 


National surveys, held every five years, show that the numbers 

of choughs have increased since 1982 in most parts of the UK 

Wales 

Scotland 

Isle of Man 

Northern Ireland 

England 

UK/IoM total 

1982 

142 

72 

60 

10 

0 

284 

1992 

177 

88 

77 

2 

0 

344 

2002 

262 

83 

151 

1 

1 

498 

Because of the difficulties of surveying choughs these figures are subject to slight variation. 


Thanks to farmers and landowners across the UK who have supported our work to manage coastal and hill land 

for choughs. Also to: The Welsh European Funding Office, Countryside Council for Wales and Enfys, for funding chough 

work in Wales. Other key partners in Wales are Snowdonia and Pembrokeshire National Parks, Pembrokeshire’s Living 

Heathland project and Ceredigion County Council. Scottish Natural Heritage and Heritage Lottery Fund for funding 

chough management in the Hebrides. The Manx Government for financial support for chough studies on the Isle of 

Man, and Manx Atlas for their administrative support. The Department of Agriculture and Rural Development in 

Northern Ireland, in partnership with the NI Chough BAP Group. 

Monitoring chough breeding in England, and favourable habitat management of coastal habitats in Devon and Cornwall, 

is part of Action for Birds in England, a conservation partnership between English Nature and the RSPB. 

15

Cirl bunting 

The cirl bunting is the UK’s rarest resident farmland bird. 

Twenty-five percent of the population is threatened directly 

or indirectly by development. 



Recovery 


UK BAP lead partner – the RSPB/English 

Nature 


RSPB research found that the widespread loss of low intensity mixed farms was responsible for the decline of the cirl bunting. 

The cirl bunting is the UK’s 

rarest resident farmland bird 

with a population of only 700 

pairs. These birds are found in 

Devon, in an area up to 15 km 

from the coast between Exeter 

and Plymouth. 

Agricultural changes 

In the 1930s cirl buntings were 

widespread in southern England 

and were known as the village 

bunting. Numbers have crashed 

since then and by 1989 there were 

only about 120 pairs left in the UK, 

most of these in south Devon. 

RSPB research discovered 

that changes in land management 

had reduced the food available 

to the buntings – especially in winter – 

and the number of suitable nest sites. 

■ Changing from spring to autumn 

sown cereals meant there were 

fewer winter food sources. The 

decline of stooking (the gathering 

of cut wheat or straw into bundles, 

ready to be taken to the farmyard), 

the loss of threshing yards, and the 

increased use of pesticides resulted 

in fewer weedy stubbles. 

■ Using more pesticides and fertilisers 

on crops and grassland meant there 

were fewer insects – especially 

grasshoppers – for the young 

birds to eat in summer. 

■ Removing hedges and bushes 

meant there were fewer suitable 

places for nesting. 

■ Traditional mixed farms have virtually 

disappeared and areas have become 

specialised so that there is mostly 

grassland in the west and arable 

land in the east. 

Cirl buntings don’t travel far, usually 

moving no more than 2 km between 

their breeding and wintering areas. This 

lack of movement may be the key to 

why cirl buntings were almost lost 

from the UK. Losing just one habitat 

component from an area, such as 

winter food, makes it unsuitable for 

these birds and they are likely to be 

lost. Once cirl buntings are lost from 

an area, they are unlikely to recolonise 

unless there are breeding birds within 

about 2 kms. 

16 


Right: As well as helping birds, 

some of our rarest arable 

plants are benefiting from 

cereals grown with reduced 

pesticides, such as this 

weasel’s snout. 

(Malcolm Storey www.bioimages.org.uk) 

These findings were used to develop 

specific options for cirl buntings within 

the Countryside Stewardship Scheme, 

the forerunner to the Government’s 

Environmental Stewardship Scheme. 

Making progress 

The cirl bunting is a UK and Devon 

Biodiversity Action Plan species and 

since 1993 a cirl bunting project officer 

has worked with landowners to provide 

cirl buntings with good quality habitat. 

Suitable habitat for the birds has 

been created through project officer 

advice and government grants to 

hundreds of land managers, enabling 

them to farm in a wildlife friendly way. 

A special management prescription 

for the cirl bunting, for which the 

RSPB pressed hard, has encouraged 

many landowners to provide weedy 

stubbles that are vital for the birds’ 

winter survival. 

Thanks to this work, the cirl bunting 

population has increased dramatically 

to around 700 pairs. Cirl buntings 

increased by 146% on farms that were 

part of the Countryside Stewardship 

Scheme (CSS) compared with only 

56% on areas that were not. Now, 

more than 50% of cirl buntings breed 

on land managed for them as part of 

the CSS and another 45% are within 

two kilometres of a CSS scheme. The 

farmers who have joined the scheme 

say that they have found the support 

and advice from the RSPB, the 

Farming and Wildlife Advisory 

Group and Defra very valuable. 

Habitat that is good for cirl buntings 

is also good for skylarks and woodlarks 

to nest in. Brown hares also benefit 

from spring cropping. Thick hedges 

where cirl buntings nest are a 

wonderful habitat too and barn owls 

also use rough grassland around fields. 

Stubbles are a vital winter food source 

for many of our farmland birds, and can 

even provide habitat for rare mosses 

What next? 

The cirl bunting population remains 

vulnerable. Although numbers have 

increased, there has not been a 

corresponding expansion in range. The 

species can be vulnerable to severe 

winter weather: prolonged snow cover 

would be less worrying if the 

population was more widely dispersed. 

Birds that rely on small areas of habitat 

are also very susceptible to any loss 

or changes. Away from the coast, 

cirl buntings often breed around the 

edges of settlements, inhabiting land 

between housing and farmland. This 

is prime development land, which can 

result in the loss of habitat. If there 

is nowhere for the cirl buntings to 

go, they are lost. 

The future 

Cirl bunting territories 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

1982 1985 

Voluntary 

set-aside 

1988 

Setaside 

RSPB 

stubbles 

The RSPB continues to work with 

farmers and local communities to help 

the cirl bunting population to grow. Its 

future looks more secure than it did 

10 years ago, but there are still big 

challenges to be met. 

We will be working with Local Authorities 

and developers to ensure that important 

areas are not developed, and that any 

impacts on cirl buntings are minimised. 

To secure a long-term future for cirl 

buntings, their range needs to be 

expanded. This will only be achieved 

through further and more wide ranging 

changes in agricultural policy to 

encourage farming that supports both 

farmers and wildlife. To aid the recovery 

and to reduce the risk of the Devon 

population crashing, the RSPB and 

English Nature are working on plans 

to establish a population outside 

the county. 

Cirl bunting populations have responded well to species 

recovery initiatives 


Countryside 

Stewardship 

Special project 

1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 

Thank you to all the farmers and volunteers who have been involved with the project, without the support 

of farmers, cirl buntings could have been lost from the UK. Thanks also to the Defra project officers, local 

authority staff who have supported the project, CJ Wildbird Foods who have provided free seed and other 

non-governmental organisations, particularly the National Trust, who have helped to promote cirl bunting 

conservation. 

Cirl bunting recovery work is part of Action for Birds in England, a conservation partnership between 

English Nature and the RSPB. 

17

Corncrake 

The recovery of the corncrake population in Scotland, which 

started in the early 1990s, is continuing. A translocation project 

is underway to assist the return of the corncrake to England. 



Recovery 




After more than 20 years of species recovery work, the call of the corncrake is being heard more widely once again. 

Corncrakes are closely related to 

moorhens and coots. They spend 

the winter in Africa, returning to 

the UK in spring. The males arrive 

in April, and start singing to 

attract a female as they return 

from migration. Their distinctive 

rasping ‘crex crex’ call gives 

them their scientific name: Crex 

crex. 

Corncrakes retreat 

Corncrakes used to be widespread 

and common across the UK, but 

about 150 years ago it was noticed 

that they were declining from the 

east. Knowledge of this familiar 

but secretive bird was very sketchy 

and, although it was suspected that 

the decline was linked to changes 

in management of grass fields and 

meadows, it was unclear what was 

happening. The decline continued 

through the 20th century until, by the 

1990s, they were restricted almost 

entirely to the islands on the north 

and west coasts of Scotland. 

Corncrakes have been lost from many 

areas of Europe and, although some 

big populations remain in eastern 

states, most countries have lost 

at least 20% of their corncrakes. 

What happened? 

By the late 1980s, it was clear that 

the UK corncrake population was in 

a critical state. However, it was also 

evident that our understanding of 

this bird’s ecology was relatively poor. 

RSPB research revealed that 

corncrakes need tall (20 cm+) 

invertebrate-rich vegetation throughout 

the breeding season, that the birds can 

easily walk through. It also found that 

the species is adversely affected by 

mechanical mowing. This information 

was used to develop and refine 

management techniques, which were 

trialled on RSPB reserves, notably on 

the Hebridean islands of Coll and Islay. 

Measures included the adoption of 

‘corncrake friendly’ mowing methods. 

This means that fields are mowed in a 

way which pushes the birds towards 

cover in which they will be safe once 

18 


Right: RSPB reserves have hosted 

detailed research into practical ways 

to provide corncrake habitat. 

Below: simple measures, such as this 

‘corncrake corridor’ – ideal habitat 

for corncrakes – can make all 

the difference for these birds. 


the crop is cut without forcing them to 

cross an already-cut area. This usually 

means mowing fields from the centre 

outwards, rather than the more 

traditional out-in, which traps the birds 

in the centre. Other measures include 

changes in grazing management to 

provide areas of vegetation cover 

throughout the breeding cycle, and 

the provision of corncrake ‘corners’ 

and ‘corridors’ to ensure that sufficient 

cover is available during the early and 

late parts of the breeding season. 

Taking the initiative 

Once successful management 

techniques had been developed, 

these were implemented in the key 

corncrake areas. Fieldworkers advised 

farmers and crofters and offered them 

grant aid to support corncrake friendly 

practices through the RSPB/Scottish 

Crofting Foundation/Scottish Natural 

Heritage Corncrake Initiative. The key 

techniques were demonstrated on 

nature reserves so that other land 

managers could see at first hand 

what is involved. The RSPB pressed 

successfully for the inclusion 

of corncrake measures in 

agri-environment funding schemes 

for farmers. Working in partnership 

with crofters and farmers has resulted 

in changes in grassland management 

leading, in turn, to an increase in the 

UK corncrake population. It has also 

benefited other important species 

such as the great yellow bumblebee, 

a BAP species for which the RSPB is 

lead partner. 

The future 

The corncrake remains in a precarious 

position, but current signs are 

encouraging. The population recovery, 

which started in the early 1990s, 

continues, with a survey of Core Areas 

(Orkney and the Hebrides, generally 

encompassing around 90% of the 

national population) recording 1,042 

calling males in 2004. The next 

challenge is to expand the species’ 

range. Management work will be 

targeted towards areas with high 

re-colonisation potential. The RSPB 

is undertaking a trial to re-establish 

corncrakes in eastern England. Though 

it is too early to say whether this will 

be successful in the long term, a first 

breeding record at the release site 

is encouraging. 

The Corncrake Initiative remains 

an important mechanism for funding 

corncrake management. However, 

favourable grassland measures under 

agri-environment schemes (such as 

the Environmentally Sensitive Areas 

scheme and the Rural Stewardship 

Scheme in Scotland) are increasing 

the land under favourable 

management. This will be essential 

if the recovery of the corncrake 

is to be assured. 


Five-yearly national surveys show a steady increase in population, and 

counts in core areas in Scotland demonstrate the sustained recovery 

Calling males 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

1978 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1999 

2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

Total in GB & IoM 

Total in Core Areas 


The recovery of the corncrake in Scotland has been the result of a partnership between the 

RSPB, Scottish Natural Heritage, the Scottish Executive, farming and crofting organisations, 

and the agricultural communities of the north and west coast. 

The re-introduction of corncrakes to the Nene Washes is part of Action for Birds in England, 

a conservation partnership between English Nature and the RSPB with the Zoological Society 

of London. We would also like to thank Chester Zoo. 

19

Hen harrier 

RSPB nature reserves hold around 7% of the UK hen harrier 

population, even though moorland managed by the RSPB 

accounts for just under 1% of the UK’s total. 



Recovery 


BAP priority: Wales and Northern 

Ireland 

Laurie Campbell (rspb-images.com) 

The RSPB monitors and protects hen harriers on the most important remaining site for hen harriers in England, in the Forest 

of Bowland, with the support and encouragement of landowner United Utilities. 

What is the problem? 

The hen harrier population declined 

markedly during the 19th century 

as a result of persecution. By 1900, 

hen harriers were only found on 

Orkney and the Western Isles in 

the UK. By the 1970s, they had 

recolonised the mainland, but 

numbers were well below the 

carrying capacity of the available 

habitat. 

Hen harriers continue to decline in 

northern England, and south and 

east Scotland, areas dominated by 

heather moorland that is managed 

for driven grouse shooting. Illegal 

persecution is the main factor 

behind the hen harrier’s continued 

unfavourable status here. 

Food for harriers 

Hen harriers are declining in other 

parts of Europe because of habitat 

degradation. This may also have been 

true of Wales, Orkney and Northern 

Ireland, though numbers have 

shown a recovery in both countries 

since the late 1990s. 

On Orkney, we found that the problem 

was a shortage of food. Farm 

intensification, particularly the 

ploughing and reseeding of heather 

moorland and in-bye, had reduced 

the natural food available, particularly 

Orkney voles. To overcome this, 

grazing trials were carried out to 

enhance the quality of rough grazing 

areas for foraging hen harriers. 

The outcome of these has helped 

to inform the prescriptions in agrienvironment 

and management 

schemes for Sites of Special 

Scientific Interest (SSSIs). 

Illegal killing 

RSPB research has also been 

fundamental in showing the acute 

impact of illegal persecution on hen 

harriers. They are killed or prevented 

from nesting successfully because 

they eat red grouse, sometimes in 

large quantities, before the grouseshooting 

season starts in August. Hen 

harrier survival is twice as good on 

moors not managed for driven grouse 

20 


RSPB nature reserves hold around 

7% of the UK hen harrier population, 

though at Geltsdale, Cumbria, even 

this protected area has not prevented 

illegal killing of hen harriers and 

other birds of prey. 


shooting than those that are, and 

nesting success is three times greater. 

The RSPB has contributed to a greater 

understanding of the impact that hen 

harriers have on stocks of red grouse, 

through part-funding of the Joint 

Raptor Study and trials to test the 

benefits of providing alternative food 

for hen harriers to reduce the number 

of red grouse that they eat. 

Such is the scale of illegal killing, the 

RSPB has stepped up its efforts to 

secure protection for nesting and 

wintering hen harriers. This has helped 

to raise the profile of hen harriers and 

has resulted in several convictions for 

hen harrier related persecution 

offences. 

Nature reserves 

Numbers of hen harriers on RSPB 

reserves have almost doubled since 

1999. RSPB nature reserves provide 

secure areas for hen harriers to nest, 

with average productivity almost 

double that on grouse moors in 

Scotland and England.The birds simply 

need a varied heather and grass 

structure, with long heather for nesting 

and shorter grassy vegetation full of 

voles and meadow pipits as food. 

Legal protection 

Illegal interference of hen harriers is 

considered the number one wildlife 

crime by the police and government. 

Advocacy by the RSPB is helping to 

ensure that strong legal protection is 

maintained for hen harriers, and that 

action to reduce the conflict with 

managers of driven grouse shoots 

is approached in a measured and 

scientifically rigorous way that does 

not further threaten the species’ 

conservation status. 

The scale of illegal killing has prompted 

a range of initiatives by the 

government, police and statutory 

conservation agencies, including 

Operation Artemis (a police crackdown 

on hen harrier destruction) and English 

Nature’s Hen Harrier Recovery Project. 

What next? 

The prospects for the hen harrier are 

mixed, in the short-term at least. In 

the west of the UK, where there is 

little driven grouse-shooting and fewer 

sheep, the prospects are better than 

for several decades. Populations in 

Wales, Northern Ireland, the Isle of 

Man and some of the Hebrides are at 

their highest since the 1970s. In 2004, 

there were 749 nesting pairs in the UK, 

a 44% increase in just six years. New 

agri-environment schemes provide an 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

0 

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 

Nesting females 

even greater opportunity for land 

managers to help upland wildlife, 

including hen harriers. 

However, numbers in England and 

south and east Scotland, where driven 

grouse shooting is a major land use, 

have fallen. An end to persecution 

would allow the population to rise by 

an estimated 13% each year. For hen 

harrier numbers to recover in these 

areas, moorland managers need to 

consider whether driven grouse 

shooting can only be sustained by 

killing rare and protected birds. 

In the longer term, climate change 

could have a major impact on upland 

birds and grouse shooting. However, 

the hen harrier may prove more 

adaptive than many other species, 

as it is equally at home in grassland. 

Hen harrier numbers on RSPB reserves have increased in recent 

years, driven in part by habitat restoration in Orkney 

The RSPB supports: 

Av. no. young per female 

Acknowledgements: 

We would like to acknowledge landowners and managers across the 

UK, who permit access to their land for the RSPB and Raptor Study 

Groups to monitor hen harriers and other upland birds, and who 

ensure that birds are not illegally killed on their land. The survival of 

nesting hen harriers in England is due to a partnership between the 

RSPB and United Utilities, Raptor study groups, volunteers and other 

enthusiasts who monitor the fortunes of birds of prey across the UK. 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

21

Lapwings 

on RSPB lowland wet grassland reserves 

Breeding lapwing numbers on lowland wet grassland have crashed, 

and in some parts of the UK they are largely dependent on nature 

reserves (where numbers have been maintained). Current research is 

looking at ways to help this bird in the wider countryside. 



Trial management/recovery 

Amber list Bird of Conservation 

Concern 

BAP priority: Wales and Northern 

Ireland 

Bob Glover (rspb-images.com) 

Lapwings have declined in many habitats as a result of changing land use. Declines have been particularly severe on lowland 

wet grassland. 

This familiar farmland bird is 

also known as the green plover 

or peewit, and is regarded by 

many with much affection. Its 

wheezing calls and tumbling 

flight are emblematic of wet 

meadows. 


There has been a decline in the 

number of lapwings on lowland 

wet grassland as a result of 

changes in farming practices, 

changes in land use, drainage and 

unsuitable grazing. In some parts 

of the UK, lapwings are now 

restricted to nature reserves. 

Management solutions 

Research has focused on studying the 

best ways to manage wet grassland 

for lapwings. Much of this research 

has occurred on RSPB reserves and 

it has included looking at water level 

management, and the effect of 

livestock grazing and trampling and 

research into the best ways of 

encouraging invertebrates that 

chicks depend on. 

Trials showed that prolonged and 

widespread flooding of wet grassland 

was not successful as it reduced 

invertebrates in the soil. We now 

know that the best way to manage 

for lapwings on wet grasslands is 

to produce a mosaic of flooded and 

non-flooded ground, with short 

vegetation, plenty of invertebrates and 

some semi-permanent pools. Grazing 

is vital to maintain the optimum sward, 

but a balance between the correct level 

of grazing and risk of nest trampling 

must be struck. This knowledge has 

been incorporated into agri-environment 

schemes and plans for managing other 

wet grassland sites. 

Wet grassland has declined and is 

now rare in some areas. The RSPB 

has acquired lowland wet grassland 

or land to recreate wet grassland to 

help maintain the lapwing’s range. 

Our reserves at West Sedgemoor, 

Somerset; Ynys Hir, Cardiganshire; 

Otmoor, Oxfordshire; Berney Marshes, 

22 


Right: RSPB wet grassland reserves, 

such as Otmoor in Oxfordshire, are 

helping to maintain the lapwing’s range. 

Below: the RSPB is looking at ways to 

increase the abundance of invertebrates 

that are vital food for lapwing chicks. 


Norfolk; Campfield Marsh, Cumbria 

and Insh Marshes, Highland, are also 

used as demonstration sites so other 

land managers can learn how to create 

ideal conditions for lapwings. 

Lapwing numbers are being 

maintained on the RSPB’s lowland wet 

grassland reserves in contrast to the 

national trend, and our management 

benefits other breeding wading birds 

such as black-tailed godwits, snipe and 

redshanks. Invertebrates also benefit 

from our management of coastal 

grazing marsh including the pride 

of Kent – a beetle that only occurs 

on RSPB reserves managed for 

wading birds. 

What next? 

Although we now have a good idea 

how to create the best habitat to 

encourage breeding lapwings on wet 

grassland reserves, there is still much 

we don’t know. For example, we are 

continuing research to investigate 

ways of increasing the number of 

chicks that fledge. RSPB researchers 

are currently investigating low cost 

ways of creating wet patches on drier 

areas of land, and working out how 

to increase densities of invertebrate 

food for lapwing chicks. 

Lowland wet grassland is still a 

threatened habitat, affected by many 

factors. We will continue to press for 

agri-environment schemes that can 

secure good management of wet 

grassland sites. Water supply is also 

critical to managing this habitat, and 

we will continue to press government 

for action on flood management, 

water abstraction and water quality. 

In some areas, lapwings are now 

dependent on nature reserves or Sites 

of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). 

The RSPB is pressing for lapwings to 

be included in SSSI designations on 

key lowland wet grassland sites that 

are important for the species. The 

RSPB is also urging that more should 

be done to get existing lowland wet 

grassland SSSIs into favourable 

condition. 

Climate change 

Climate change is an increasingly 

important consideration for managing 

lapwings and other species on wet 

grassland. Wetland habitats will be 

affected by changes in both the 

amount and the seasonal timing of 

rainfall, and protecting wet grassland 

in southern parts of the UK is likely 

to become increasingly difficult. Our 

reserves will therefore continue to 

play an important role in maintaining 

lapwing populations in these areas. 


Lapwing numbers on RSPB reserves have been maintained, in 

contrast to the national trend on lowland wet grassland 

Index of population 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 


Thank you to all the farmers and landowners who have been involved in improving their land to make 

it more suitable for lapwings. The achievement of individual farms is celebrated through the Lapwing 

Champion Competition sponsored by Jordans Cereals. 

23

Osprey 

The osprey is a magnificent bird of prey, with a wingspan 

of over 1.5 metres. The birds spend the winter in West Africa 

and return to the UK each spring to refurbish their large stick 

nests and breed. 


Phase of recovery 

Sustainable management 


Concern 

Peter Cairns (rspb-images.com) 

The return of the ospreys each spring still causes media excitement – even though it is more than 50 years since they first returned 

to the UK after being driven to extinction. 

Extinction in the UK 

Ospreys were persecuted into 

extinction in the UK during the 

1800s. They were shot for 

taxidermy and collectors took 

their eggs. The last recorded 

breeding took place in Scotland 

in 1916 and ospreys also 

disappeared across much of 

Europe – reaching a low 

in the 1920s and ‘30s. It was a 

combination of good luck and 

legislation to protect these birds 

that enabled the osprey 

population to recover. 

The osprey returns 

The return of the osprey is shrouded 

in some mystery but in the 1950s birds 

migrating to Scandinavia began to turn 

up in Scotland, and the first confirmed 

breeding was in 1954. The RSPB was 

involved at the outset trying to protect 

breeding birds. In 1958, the birds 

began breeding at the now famous 

Loch Garten site in Strathspey, where 

the RSPB set up Operation Osprey, 

a 24-hour protection watch. The first 

attempt failed, but ospreys have 

returned and bred successfully at this 

site nearly every year since. The RSPB 

bought the Loch Garten site specifically 

for the conservation of the ospreys and 

has since acquired the surrounding 

pinewood, of vital importance for 

capercaillie and many other UK 

Biodiversity Action Plan priority 

species. More than two million people 

have visited the reserve to see these 

magnificent birds. 

Numbers increased, albeit very slowly, 

and there are now 200 nesting pairs in 

Britain. Since the turn of this century, 

ospreys have spread south and now 

breed in England and Wales where the 

RSPB is involved in projects to protect 

the birds and enable thousands of 

visitors to see them. 

A project by Leicestershire and Rutland 

Wildlife Trust and Anglian Water to 

reintroduce ospreys at Rutland Water 

has also established breeding in 

central England. 

24 


Right: more than two million people 

have visited Loch Garten to see these 

magnificent birds. 

Below: visitors to Operation Osprey 

at the RSPB’s Abernethy reserve 

generate more than £1.5 million for the 

local economy each year. 


Partnerships and protection 

the key to success 

Landowners, volunteers and 

ornithologists from the Scottish 

Raptor Study Groups were vital in 

helping the population to increase, 

as they guarded and monitored the 

birds. Artificial nest platforms were 

built to encourage the birds to 

expand their range. 

Unfortunately, egg collectors 

continued to target ospreys, and the 

situation was particularly bad in the 

late 1980s when 10 or more clutches 

were plundered each spring. Police 

action, supported by the RSPB, 

resulted in a number of high profile 

prosecutions for osprey egg thieves, 

which acted as a deterrent. Recent 

changes to the law, following pressure 

from the RSPB, have introduced 

custodial sentences for crimes against 

wildlife. Encouragingly, egg-theft has 

been substantially reduced. 

The future for ospreys 

Habitat destruction and environmental 

pollution are the biggest threats 

that ospreys face throughout Europe. 

The future for ospreys in the UK 

looks good, however. They have 

become tourist attractions in a 

number of places and many 

thousands of people visit Loch 

Garten every summer to see them. 

Viewpoints have been set up at 

other places so that people can see 

them without disturbing them. The 

Lake District Osprey Project has 

enabled over a quarter of a million 

people to view the ospreys and is 

estimated to bring over £1 million 

into the local economy every year. 


Since recolonisation about 50 years ago, osprey numbers in the 

UK have shown a steady and satisfying increase 

Number of pairs 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 


1971 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1999 

2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

The return of the ospreys is largely thanks to landowners and managers, government and voluntary 

conservation groups, hundreds of volunteers and ornithologists from the Scottish Raptor Study Groups. 

The Lake District Osprey Project is a partnership of Forestry Commission England and the RSPB, and 

is supported by the Lake District National Park Authority. 

25

Pine hoverfly 

The RSPB is involved in the conservation of a variety of plants 

and invertebrates on our nature reserves and elsewhere 





Red data book: endangered 

Graham Rotheray 

The pine hoverfly remains very vulnerable as it is known to be present at only two sites. Pioneering management techniques show 

promise of assisting its recovery and spread. 

The problem for pine 

hoverflies 

The pine hoverfly is arguably the 

most endangered hoverfly in the 

UK. It has always had a restricted 

range, but was regularly recorded 

in Strathspey and Deeside, in 

Scotland, up to the 1940s. Since 

then, it has dramatically declined 

and in the late 1990s surveys by 

the Malloch Society (a specialist 

academic organisation that studies 

flies), funded by Scottish Natural 

Heritage (SNH), found only two 

remaining populations of this 

species, both in Strathspey. The 

pine hoverfly is also declining in 

Europe, where it is restricted 

to mountainous areas. The pine 

hoverfly needs rotten tree stumps that 

are more than 40 cm across to breed. 

The lack of these large stumps in 

pinewoods – especially stumps with 

the necessary rot conditions – has 

been the cause of the decline. 

Searching for signs of 

the hoverfly 

Pine hoverflies had last been seen 

at what is now the RSPB’s Abernethy 

reserve in the Highlands of Scotland in 

the early 1980s. A survey in the 1990s 

found none. In 2001, two breeding 

sites were found, not on an RSPB 

reserve, when six potential sites were 

surveyed. Since then, the RSPB has 

helped with experimental management 

to provide breeding habitat. 

The hoverflies need wet rot 

conditions in which to lay their eggs, 

so experiments to replicate these 

conditions were carried out by cutting 

holes in stumps and filling them with 

different materials. Within six months, 

holes filled with wood chips had been 

used for breeding and in August 2003 

empty puparia were found, which 

showed that the breeding cycle had 

been completed. These artificial sites 

were very quickly used again for 

breeding. 

26 


Right: our work gives us hope that 

the pine hoverfly will return to the 

RSPB’s Abernethy Forest reserve. 

Below: novel methods are being used 

to create suitable wet-rot conditions 

required by pine hoverfly larvae. 


As well as creating these artificial 

breeding sites, pots filled with rotten 

material were placed in suitable areas 

not currently occupied by the hoverfly, 

in an attempt to expand its distribution. 

Successful increase 

in numbers 

Providing artificial sites with suitable 

conditions for the pine hoverfly to 

breed has been successful at the first 

trial site and we believe that this work 

has added 65 hoverflies to the adult 

population. 

The hoverfly hasn’t yet occupied 

artificial breeding sites at other 

locations, including the RSPB’s 

Abernethy reserve, but these have 

only been in place for one year, so 

we are still hopeful. At a second 

site, a community woodland, we 

are monitoring natural and artificial 

breeding sites and the needs of 

the species are taken into account in 

the management plan that is being 

developed for the site. 

What next? 

We will continue to work with 

commercial foresters to promote 

the conservation of dead wood in 

Scottish woodlands, as it is essential 

that suitable stumps are kept if the 

number of hoverflies is to grow. 

The prospects for this species appear 

satisfactory on the basis of the work 

so far but it is too soon to judge the 

long-term success of the project. The 

species remains very vulnerable as 

it is present at only two sites. 

Creating dead wood and wet rot 

holes benefits other priority species 

including other flies, such as the 

scarce Calicera rufa hoverfly. 

We will provide artificial breeding sites 

and encourage natural rot conditions 

at other sites, including RSPB reserves 

and commercial forestry plantations. 

If population expansion does not 

occur naturally, we will consider 

relocating the larvae to suitable sites. 

The needs of this species are being 

incorporated into the management 

plans for existing and potential sites. 

When Forest Management Plans 

include action to suit the needs of 

the pine hoverfly, such as leaving 

large trees to create suitable stumps, 

and it is present at many more 

woodlands, its future will be secure. 

(RSPB) 


We would like to thank the Malloch Society, 

Scottish Natural Heritage and site owners 

and managers. 

27

Red kite 

Red kites were almost extinct in the UK by the early 1900s, 

reduced to very low numbers in Wales. In the last two decades, 

they have been re-introduced to England and Scotland, with 

magnificent results. 



Recovery 


Concern 


The prospects for red kites in the UK are extremely good, with increasing numbers across the UK. 

Almost lost 

Red kites were persecuted to 

extinction throughout the UK, 

with the exception of Wales, 

during the 19th century. In Wales, 

during the 20th century, the small 

population was carefully 

protected, and red kites have 

slowly increased in numbers and 

range since the Second World 

War. 

Bringing them back 

In 1989 a re-introduction 

programme was set up by the 

RSPB and the Nature Conservancy 

Council because of concerns 

about the slow rate of population 

expansion in Wales, and the 

improbability of natural re-colonisation 

of other suitable parts of the UK by 

red kites from Wales or the continent. 

In England, red kites have been 

reintroduced to four areas since 1989: 

the Chilterns, East Midlands, Yorkshire 

and north-east England. The first birds 

were brought from Spain, but as the 

Chilterns population grew quickly 

it produced enough young birds to 

donate small numbers to establish 

populations in the other areas. The 

final project, Northern Kites near 

Gateshead in north-east England, 

began in 2004. 

Red kites were brought from Sweden 

and Germany to North and Central 

Scotland, and breeding populations 

have been successfully established. 

In Dumfries & Galloway, 100 red kites 

were brought from the Chilterns and 

North Scotland, and breeding is now 

becoming regular. 

Effective partnership 

The RSPB, together with its partners, 

has worked hard to ensure local 

support for the red kite reintroduction 

projects. It has been important to 

reassure landowners and gamekeepers 

that red kites pose no risk to game 

shooting interests or livestock. Most 

have seen this for themselves, and are 

now proud to have kites nesting on 

their land, protecting them and 

28 


Right: The reintroduction of red kites 

has led the way for other birds of prey, 

particularly buzzards, to recolonise 

central and eastern England. 

Below: people like red kites. Nick Baker, 

RSPB Vice President for Youth, celebrates 

the release of Northern Kites at a school 

near Gateshead, County Durham. 


monitoring their success.Christopher 

Ussher, resident agent at the 

Harewood Estate, was quoted in 

Shooting Times and Country Magazine 

as saying: ‘Initially we received 

comments from neighbours about 

how the birds would affect the estate, 

but there is no conflict at all.’ 

Support from local residents has 

been important too and we have 

often started by visiting schools, 

inviting children to see kites being 

released and helping them with 

associated project work. The children 

find out that kites are exciting and 

spectacular birds and share their 

enthusiasm with family and friends. 

Local economies have benefited from 

‘kite country’ green tourism initiatives. 

Touring red kite trails have been set up, 

and enterprising farmers have set up 

kite-feeding stations which draw high 

numbers of visitors. 

A bright future 

The prospects for red kites in the UK 

are extremely good, with increasing 

numbers at most of the release 

locations. The population in Wales 

has increased to over 400 pairs 

and populations in most of the release 

areas in Scotland and England are 

already self-sustaining. This is 

particularly welcome as the European 

red kite population has declined 

dramatically and is now listed as 

globally-threatened by the 

IUCN/BirdLife International. 

In the UK, only in northern Scotland 

do we have serious concerns about 

the future. Numerous incidents of 

illegal poisoning appear to be 

preventing the population from 

increasing. The same number of red 

kites were released in the Chilterns 

as in North Scotland between 1989 

and 1993, but while the Chilterns 

population has grown to over 200 

pairs, the north Scottish population 

has remained at only 35 pairs. The 

population produces lots of young, 

but fewer survive and so the 

population has stopped growing. 

Here we will be moving a small 

number of birds over the next five 

years to a new area to the north-east 

to hasten recovery of red kites in that 

area. We believe persecution is the 

main limiting factor in north Scotland, 

and we are carrying out a persecution 

study, using radiotelemetry to identify 

persecution hot spots. We are working 

with Police wildlife crime officers 

to track down those responsible. 

Red kite populations are growing steadily in most parts of the UK 

Number of breeding pairs 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 

Year 

Southern England 

East Midlands 

Yorkshire 

Northern Scotland 

Central Scotland 

South west Scotland 

Total 

Neil Wasp (i2i Photography) 


The original re-introduction projects were 

developed by the RSPB, English Nature and 

Scottish Natural Heritage. 

The Gateshead release project ‘Northern Kites’ 

is run by the RSPB and English Nature. Other 

partners are Gateshead Council, Northumbrian 

Water, National Trust and Forestry Commission 

England, and we have funding support from 

the Heritage Lottery Fund and SITA 

Environmental Trust. 

In the English Midlands, a public viewing 

scheme is run at a Forestry Commission 

England visitor centre. 

In the Chilterns red kites are monitored 

by the Southern England Kite Group, who 

assist in translocation of birds for other 

reintroduction areas. 

In Yorkshire, the release project was a 

collaboration between the RSPB, EN, 

Harewood Estate and Yorkshire Water. 

In Scotland, reintroduction projects have 

been carried out in collaboration with SNH, 

Forestry Commission Scotland and the 

Scottish Raptor Study Groups. We have also 

received funding for kite work from LEADER+, 

and Making Tracks. 

In Wales, we are grateful to the Welsh Kite 

Trust who monitor many of the nesting pairs. 

29

Skylarks on arable 

The RSPB is using its arable farm in Cambridgeshire 

to trial practical ways farmers can use to manage their 

cereal crops that will help combine the needs of skylarks 

with profitable farming. 







The skylark is a medium-sized lark that is widely distributed across the UK and Europe. Its melodic song-flight has 

made it a familiar and popular symbol of the countryside. 

The skylark is found across 

many types of open habitats. 

In the UK, of these, the single 

most important is farmland, not 

because it holds particularly high 

densities, but because it covers 

such a vast area. Over two-thirds 

of skylarks are found on lowland 

farmland, with nearly 40% in 

cereal fields. Thus, any changes 

in management that affects the 

suitability of cereals for skylark 

can have a huge impact on 

their population. 

Changes in farming 

Cereal farming has changed markedly 

since the 1950s. In the early 1960s, 

around 80% of the UK’s cereals were 

sown in spring, but by the 1990s, this 

had dropped to just 20%. Autumnsown 

crops give farmers better yields 

but adversely affect skylarks. 

Since the early 1980s, the skylark 

population has dropped by over half, 

with up to a million-and-half fewer 

pairs as the birds haven’t been able 

to breed successfully. Skylarks have 

been lost mainly in areas where there 

is intensively-managed farmland. The 

birds have fared much better in coastal 

and upland habitats. Skylarks have 

also declined severely in most of 

western Europe. 


In the 1990s, RSPB research identified 

a noticeable difference in skylarks’ 

nesting activity in spring wheat 

compared to winter wheat. Skylarks 

in spring-sown crops nest for longer 

and can raise two or three broods, but 

in winter crops most stop nesting in 

late May, raising just one brood, as the 

crop becomes too tall and dense and 

stops the birds having easy access 

to the ground. 

Recognising the challenges faced by 

farmers and wildlife on arable farmland, 

30 


Right: the RSPB’s Hope Farm in 

Cambridgeshire was key to the 

development of skylark plots. These 

are a simple but effective way for 

farmers to aid the skylark’s recovery 

on arable farms. 


Below: careful studies of skylarks and 

their chicks at Hope Farm has helped 

us to understand their needs. 

in 1999 the RSPB bought Hope Farm 

in Cambridgeshire. It is an arable farm 

and has been used by the RSPB to 

carry out research into effective 

wildlife-friendly farming methods. 

The farm was used to develop skylark 

plots. These plots are unsown areas 

four metres by four metres in size 

within winter cereals. This makes 

the crop more attractive to skylarks, 

which nest on the ground. 

A simple solution 

Having provided skylark plots at Hope 

Farm, and other farms (as part of 

a wider research project – SAFFIE 

(Sustainable Arable Farming For an 

Improved Environment) – we know 

that skylarks in fields with these plots 

have a longer breeding season and 

produce more young than in typical 

winter cereal fields. Skylarks have 

better access to the ground to find 

food such as spiders and beetles, 

a benefit which other birds, such as 

yellowhammers, are also able to enjoy. 

Importantly, plots have a negligible 

impact on the farmer’s yield. 

Having scientifically proven this 

cheap and easy method of helping 

skylarks, the RSPB (and SAFFIE) 

has successfully persuaded the 

Government to reward farmers in 

England for providing these plots on 

their farms through their Entry Level 

Environmental Stewardship Scheme. 

This provides an excellent example 

of research helping to inform 

agri-environment policy. 

Hope for the future 

Skylark numbers in the UK have 

stabilised, although they continue to 

decline in some cereal growing areas 

and have yet to recover to former 

levels. Having understood what the 

skylark needs in cereal fields, the 

RSPB is working closely with farmers 

across the UK to encourage those 

growing winter cereals to use skylark 

plots. Demonstrating the benefits 

to skylarks and the ease with which 

farmers can create these habitats 

is crucial. If a significant number of 

farmers introduce these plots, the 

skylark population may once again 

reach its previous heights. 

The success of the plots has attracted 

significant attention across Europe, 

with BirdLife Partner organisations 

in European Union countries now 

pressing their own Governments 

for skylark plots to be funded in their 

agri-environment schemes. Since 

around 35 million hectares of cereals 

are grown in the European Union, 

this small change could see a dramatic 

improvement in the population 

across Europe. 


The numbers of skylark breeding territories at the RSPB’s Hope 

Farm have grown steadily since management for skylarks began 

Skylark Breeding Territories 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 


RSPB members generously donated money that enabled the RSPB to buy 

Hope Farm. Thanks also to our partners in SAFFIE www.saffie.info (a collaboration 

between conservation bodies, research organisations, Government and the 

farming industry), and all the landowners and farmers who have allowed access 

to their farms in order for us study this species in detail. 

31

Stone-curlew 

The UK BAP target of 200 pairs of stone-curlews by 2000 

was achieved ahead of target in 1997 and we are close 

to achieving the 2010 target of 300 pairs. 



Recovery 



Tony Hamblin (rspb-images.com) 

The recovery of the stone-curlew continues, thanks to species protection and advisory work, but it is still 

dependent on dedicated fieldworkers, working with farmers. 


Stone-curlews need bare open 

areas to nest where they can see 

the surrounding territory, so that 

they can watch for predators. 

Over the last hundred years, stonecurlews 

have declined because of 

the loss of suitable semi-natural 

habitat such as Breckland heath, 

acid grassland and chalk downland, 

which has resulted from agricultural 

intensification and afforestation. 

Some took advantage of bare 

patches in spring-sown cereals or 

crops, such as kale. However, in 

the last 40 years the switch to 

autumn-sown cereals, changes to 

the management of spring-sown 

crops and the specialisation of farming 

has reduced the amount of suitable 

land. As well as nest sites, stonecurlews 

also need semi-natural habitat 

(downland/heathland) or short 

pasture to feed in. 

The stone-curlew experienced 

one of the fastest rates of decline 

of any bird in the UK. The birds used 

to breed as far north as Lincolnshire 

and Yorkshire in England, but are 

now confined to East Anglia (mainly 

Breckland but also north Norfolk, east 

Suffolk) and Wessex (mainly around 

Salisbury plain but with some birds 

in Berkshire and Oxfordshire). By 1991, 

the population was estimated at only 

168 pairs. 


The RSPB has worked closely with 

farmers and landowners to carry out 

detailed research on stone-curlews. 

The research focused on the ecology 

of stone-curlews, which showed that 

they require open ground for nesting 

and grazing land for feeding. Stonecurlews 

are nocturnal but they feed by 

sight on beetles, woodlice, millipedes 

and earthworms on very short 

grassland, the edge of arable fields, 

outdoor pig farms and manure heaps. 

The research also found that farming 

operations, such as the rolling of 

cereals, weed control cultivations and 

the use of irrigation equipment pose 

a threat of direct destruction of eggs 

32 


Right: collaboration between farmers 

and project staff has been crucial to 

the recovery of the stone-curlew. 

Below: these bare plots provide 

nesting and feeding habitat for 

stone-curlews, now funded by 

agri-environment schemes. 

Phil Sheldrake (RSPB) 

or chicks. Locating nests and chicks on 

farm fields, alerting the farmer to their 

presence and, if necessary, marking 

the nest, delaying operations or lifting 

the chicks until operations had been 

completed, made a significant 

difference. This resulted in the birds 

faring 37% better per year and could 

make all the difference between 

population decline and increase. 

Reasons for success 

There have been three main reasons 

for the success of this work: 

■ it has been based on excellent, 

detailed research 

■ the commitment of farmers and 

landowners, working with dedicated 

RSPB project staff 

■ agri-environment incentives for 

appropriate, specific, targeted 

management. 

As well as providing species protection 

and monitoring, fieldworkers give 

advice on land management for stonecurlews 

and encourage suitable habitat 

to be provided for nesting and feeding 

on set-aside land or under the agrienvironment 

scheme. Two-hectare 

plots are managed during the summer 

to maintain open ground. They can be 

effective in arable fields but are even 

more valuable where arable has been 

reverted to grassland, as this provides 

the combination of nesting and feeding 

habitat in close proximity. This habitat 

also benefits lapwings and a range of 

scarce arable plants. 

The RSPB’s experience with stonecurlews 

has led to government seeking 

advice on how to accommodate the 

birds’ needs through agri-environment 

schemes. Most stone-curlews nest on 

farmland and military training land, but 

RSPB nature reserves have a role to 

play. The reversion of arable land to 

chalk grassland is taking place at 

our Normanton Down reserve near 

Stonehenge and stone-curlews nest 

there. We hope that in the future RSPB 

reserves will also provide opportunities 

for people to see these special birds. 

Aiming for sustainability 

The UK BAP target of 200 pairs of 

stone-curlews by 2000 was achieved 

early, in 1997, and we are close to 

achieving the 2010 target of 300 pairs. 

We have halted a severe decline and 

the population is increasing. However, 

this recovery still depends on the work 

of the dedicated recovery project. 

More semi-natural habitat must be 

managed appropriately for the stonecurlew 

population to be sustainable, 

such as fallow stone-curlew areas near 

grassland reversion on a sufficient 

scale that intensive species protection 

work is not required. Creating suitable 

habitat on a significant scale is needed 

for the birds to recolonise parts of 

their former range, such as south 

Cambridgeshire, the Chilterns and 

the South Downs. 

Phil Sheldrake (RSPB) 

Although still dependent on conservation management, 

stone-curlew populations are responding well 

Breeding pairs 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1992 1994 1996 1998 

2000 2002 2004 

Wessex 

Berks/Oxon 

Brecks 

N. Norfolk 

E. Suffolk 

Cambs. 

Total 


The stone-curlew projects in East Anglia, Wessex and Berkshire are part of Action for Birds in England, a conservation 

partnership between English Nature and the RSPB. 

Throughout the operation of the stone-curlew projects we have worked very closely with farmers and landowners; 

without their consent to work on their land and co-operation and interest in the conservation of this species the success 

of the projects would not have been possible. 

The RSPB has worked closely with a number of individuals and organisations to further the conservation of the stonecurlew, 

in particular Defence Estates, Defra and the Norfolk Wildlife Trust. Thames Water, the EU-Life Fund and Greene 

King provide funding towards our stone-curlew work. 

33

Tree sparrow 

The RSPB is developing a package of measures to ensure 

that tree sparrow populations are maintained within their 

current range across the UK. 







After an appalling decline in numbers in just a few decades, tree sparrow numbers are beginning to show hopeful signs 

of a turnaround. 

Tree sparrows were once 

widespread and familiar in the 

countryside, but have now vanished 

from many areas. They are quite 

similar to the closely-related house 

sparrow, but ‘neater’ in appearance 

and, in the UK, less closely 

associated with people. 

A dramatic decline 

Tree sparrows have undergone a 

dramatic decline in population and 

range in the UK with a 95% decline 

between 1970 and 1998. These birds 

are now patchily distributed, being rare 

in much of Wales, parts of the north 

west and south east England, and 

largely absent from many of the 

southern counties of England, and 

north western counties of Scotland. 

In some areas, there are still colonies 

in localised areas, but with large gaps 

elsewhere. The security of these 

colonies varies across the UK, with 

some doing well and in some case 

even increasing, whilst others are 

still in danger of being lost. 

Food supply 

The huge decline in tree sparrow 

numbers is probably the result 

of agricultural intensification and 

specialisation, particularly the 

increased use of herbicides and a 

trend towards autumn-sown crops 

(at the expense of spring-sown crops 

that produce stubble fields over 

winter). The change from mixed to 

specialised framing and the increased 

use of insecticides will have reduced 

the amount of insect food available 

for nestlings. 

Trialling solutions 

Research by the RSPB at Rutland 

Water has shown that a good 

availability of invertebrate food for 

chicks close to the breeding sites is 

crucial. The breeding season is very 

long (April to mid-August) so a diversity 

of good quality habitat is needed to 

ensure continuity of supply. At Rutland 

Water, this research by the RSPB and 

others also points to a lack of seed 

food, particularly in winter, as being 

a key factor, but this is still unclear. 

Nestboxes are readily used, and, 

together with provision of good 

34 


Right: providing tree sparrow 

colonies with nestboxes is one factor 

helping to contribute to their 

recovery. 

Below: tree sparrow chick sporting 

BTO and colour rings at the tree 

sparrow project, Rutland Water. 

Richard Brooks (rspb-images.com) 

feeding areas, may help colonies 

to survive. 

What’s next? 

It is too early to say what the future 

holds for tree sparrows as the work 

is still in its early stages. A package 

of measures to improve habitat and 

provide nest-sites is being promoted 

to farmers and landowners, and 

support for these is now available 

through a number of agri-environment 

schemes. 

The RSPB is trialling and monitoring 

the effectiveness of a number of these 

options that could help tree sparrow 

populations to recover. The RSPB is 

also involved in recovery projects at 

a number of tree sparrow ‘hotspots’ 

in parts of Wessex, north-west England 

and Lothian/Borders, with the aim 

of maintaining these important 

populations. 


The crash in tree sparrow numbers was both rapid and drastic. 

There are significant recent increases in numbers, but the population 

is still a fraction of what it once was 

Index of population 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0 

Data from The Breeding Bird 

Survey, which is jointly funded 

by the BTO, JNCC and the RSPB 

1967 

1969 

1971 

1973 

1975 

1977 

1979 

1981 

1983 

1985 

1987 

1989 

1991 

1993 

1995 

1997 

1999 

2001 

2003 

2005 

2007 

2009 


The research project at Rutland Water has been carried out with funding from English Nature and 

Anglian Water, and with the support of staff and volunteers from the Leicestershire and Rutland 

Wildlife Trust. 

35

White-tailed eagle 

The RSPB’s work has helped the white-tailed eagle, 

the UK’s largest bird of prey, to return to the stunning 

landscapes of western Scotland 



Recovery 



After being persecuted to extinction in the UK, these splendid birds are once again growing in number in Scotland. 

Lost from the UK 

White-tailed eagles became extinct 

in the UK as a result of extensive 

habitat change combined, 

particularly in the 19th century, 

with persecution. Before their 

recent reintroduction, the birds 

last bred in England and Wales in 

the 1830s, in Ireland in 1898 and 

in Scotland in 1916. The last 

UK-bred bird was shot in Shetland 

in 1918. European populations of 

this bird also suffered from heavy 

persecution, which led to 

significant declines and extinction in 

several countries. 

Reintroduction 

In 1959 small-scale attempts were 

made to introduce these birds in 

Argyll and Fair Isle. The government’s 

Nature Conservancy Council initiated 

a full-scale programme of releases, 

bringing 82 young birds from 

Norwegian nests to Rum between 

1975 and 1985. 

The RSPB became involved in the 

reintroduction of white-tailed eagles 

in the late 1970s. As birds released 

on Rum started to wander around the 

western seaboard of Scotland, the 

RSPB had responsibility for finding, 

monitoring and protecting newly 

occupied territories. 

The first reintroduced white-tailed 

eagles bred in 1983, and the first chick 

fledged in 1985. However, because 

white-tailed eagles do not start 

breeding until they are five or six years 

old, and even then a pair may only 

fledge one young every two years, the 

increase in the population was slow. 

With the numbers so low, there was 

a real risk that chance deaths could 

lead to the reintroduced population 

becoming extinct. 

To reduce the risk of the eagles 

becoming extinct once more, between 

1993 and 1998, a further 58 young 

eagles that hatched in nests in Norway 

were released by Scottish Natural 

36 


Right: local communities in western 

Scotland value and protect the whitetailed 

eagles, which attract important 

tourist revenue. 

Richard Evans (RSPB) 

Below: reintroduction is a long-term 

commitment, but the results are worth 

it when a new generation of the UK’s 

largest bird of prey fledges from the nest. 

Heritage (SNH) in Wester Ross. There 

are now 32 territorial pairs in Scotland. 

The recovery in Britain is reflected 

across many other parts of Europe, 

particularly around the Baltic. 

While the population remains small, 

the potential impacts of persecution 

and egg collecting remain high. 

At least seven white-tailed eagles have 

been killed illegally since the start of 

the project and at least four clutches of 

eggs have been stolen. Nevertheless, 

the population continues to grow and 

is calculated to be self-sustaining. 

Working together 

Increasingly close partnership 

working between the RSPB, police 

and local communities – combined 

with the introduction of custodial 

sentences for convictions of wildlife 

crime – appears to have neutralised 

the impact of egg collectors during 

a critical stage of population growth. 

There have been no nest robberies 

since 2000. 

The concerns of sheep farmers have 

been addressed by maintaining close 

liaison with farmers and crofters and 

by encouraging SNH to implement 

research and management schemes. 

Projects on Skye and Mull have raised 

the profile of white-tailed eagles by 

encouraging the public to see the 

birds safely. The high level of interest 

shown by visitors has encouraged the 

community to value white-tailed eagles 

more highly and the public sites may 

well have taken the pressure off nests 

otherwise vulnerable to disturbance. 

Where once the reintroduction of 

white-tailed eagles had to be shrouded 

in secrecy, their success can now be 

celebrated more widely, with birds 

starring in an award-winning RSPB 

film, The Eagle Odyssey, and the 

BBC’s popular Springwatch series 

in 2005. Thousands more people visit 

the Hebrides to see the birds over 

the sea or at their nests on CCTV. 

Continuing efforts 

The re-established population on 

the west coast of Scotland is growing 

at up to 12% per year. There is plenty 

of apparently suitable habitat still 

unoccupied by white-tailed eagles, 

giving considerable scope for 

continued population growth. Much 

potentially suitable habitat exists 

beyond the west of Scotland and 

further reintroduction is one way 

that the potential of white-tailed 

eagles in the UK could be reached 

more quickly. 

RSPB 

The population of white-tailed eagles in the UK remains small, 

with a slow but steady rate of increase 

40 

Number of pairs/young 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

T = territorial pairs 

Fledged young 

0 

1982 

1984 

1986 

1988 

1990 

1992 

1994 

1996 

1998 

2000 

2002 

2004 


The re-introduction of white-tailed eagles to Scotland was pioneered by Roy Dennis and is now overseen by the Sea 

Eagle Project Team, jointly chaired by the RSPB and Scottish Natural Heritage, also benefiting from expertise from the 

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, the Joint Nature Conservation Committee and the National Trust for Scotland. 

The project could not have succeeded without support in Norway from Harald Misund, the Directorate for Nature 

Management, the County Governor, Department of the Environment in Salten District and the Havern Club, Bode. 

The Royal Air Force and the Royal Norwegian Air Force transported the young eagles between Norway and Scotland. 

In Scotland, we gratefully acknowledge support over the years of, among others, Forestry Commission Scotland, 

Strathclyde Police and Northern Constabulary, as well as landowners, crofters, farmers, fishermen, wildlife tour 

operators, volunteers and others in rural communities in the west of Scotland. 

37

The future 

Imagine our countryside, coasts 

and seas in the future, rich in 

wildlife. Places where wise 

government policy, effective 

planning and targeted funding 

combine with well-researched 

land and marine management 

practices to provide for both people 

and wildlife, and intervention of the 

kind described in this review is not 

necessary. The RSPB shares this 

vision with many others. 

Experience urges caution, but in 

a world where decline, loss and 

extinction are all too frequent, the 

stories featured here provide much 

hope. One by one, the barriers to 

recovery are being broken. Some 

species featured here are at an 

early stage in their recovery; 

unfortunately yet more red-listed 

species are in the queue and their 

needs demand attention 

A generation ago, peregrines, 

avocets and ospreys were among 

the foci of the RSPB’s efforts. All 

have now increased or recovered 

from earlier losses, colonising new 

areas and often acting as vanguard 

for other important species – such 

as the benefit that management 

for corncrakes on the Western Isles of 

Scotland has given to the priority BAP 

species, the great yellow bumblebee. 

These flagship species can be 

economically important too. A single 

pair of ospreys at Loch Garten attracts 

over 40,000 visitors and pumps over 

£1.5m into the Badenoch and 

Strathspey economy every year. A pair 

of choughs in Cornwall generated 

£180,000 and enchanted thousands 

of holidaymakers in 2004, and 

doubtless more in 2005. 

Conservation action and sensitive 

land management does make a real 

difference, but sadly, recovery rarely 

happens spontaneously. In most of 

the cases reported here, success has 

resulted from the practical application 

of sound science, often developed 

and trialled on RSPB nature reserves. 

Not every species in trouble needs 

a species recovery project. Other 

approaches may work, such as 

lobbying for changes to farming 

policies, or providing habitat 

management advice gained from our 

experience of managing nature 

reserves. The long-term aim is to 

achieve ‘sustainable management’, 

with the species catered for within 

wider land-use or large-scale 

conservation management, effective 

planning and wise government policy. 

Until that day comes, conservationists 

will often need to use dedicated species 

recovery to make a difference. 

Predicting where such intensive 

assistance will be needed is not 

straightforward. Our climate is changing. 

We are already seeing the early signs 

of species ‘on the move’, trying to find 

what they need in new areas as their 

habitats and land-use change. The 

network of protected areas and nature 

reserves will be increasingly important 

if our wildlife is to adapt to a changing 

climate. And we will have to continue 

to watch and act, to assist species 

with creative solutions and recovery 

programmes where necessary. 

The target-led approach does work. 

Large-scale habitat creation and 

restoration may be a pre-requisite, but 

it will often need fine-tuning in order 

to optimise its special species. If the 

commitment to halt the loss of 

biodiversity by 2010 is to be realised, 

it is vital that government and other 

organisations continue to provide 

a lifeline for species in their times 

of greatest need. 


38 


Neil Wasp (i2i Photography) 

The RSPB’s work is driven by a 

passionate belief that birds and other 

wildlife enrich peoples’ lives and that 

bird populations reflect the health 

of the planet, on which our future 

depends. 

Despite our conservation successes, 

many of the UK’s birds are still at risk. 

As Professor Newton says in his 

foreword, people are an essential 

ingredient in the RSPB’s species 

recovery work, and it is support from 

people like you that has made all this 

possible – we just couldn’t do it 

without you. 

There are many ways you can help. 

You could make a donation or help us 

as a volunteer. If you’re not a member 

already, why not join us? However you 

choose to help, you know you’ll be 

making a real difference. 

So please join more than a million 

people in supporting the RSPB and 

making the world a better place 

for birds and people – forever. 

Thank you. 

For more information about our 

work, or how you can help, please 

visit www.rspb.org.uk 

or contact the RSPB’s headquarters, 

details on the back page. 

Left: Isle of Coll, Hebrides, Scotland 

39

Lifeline to recovery 

– the RSPB’s species recovery success in the UK 

The RSPB 

UK Headquarters 

The Lodge 

Sandy 

Bedfordshire 

SG19 2DL 

Tel: 01767 680551 

Fax: 01767 683211 

Scotland Headquarters 

Dunedin House 

25 Ravelston Terrace 

Edinburgh 

EH4 3TP 

Tel: 0131 311 6500 

Wales Headquarters 

Sutherland House 

Castlebridge 

Cowbridge Road East 

Cardiff CF11 9AB 

Tel: 029 2035 3000 

Northern Ireland 

Headquarters 

Belvoir Park Forest 

Belfast 

BT8 7QT 

Tel: 028 9049 1547 

www.rspb.org.uk/species 

The RSPB is the UK charity working to secure a healthy 

environment for birds and wildlife, helping to create a 

better world for us all. We belong to BirdLife International, 

the global partnership of bird conservation organisations. 

Front cover photo: corncrake by Nigel Blake (rspb-images.com) 

Registered charity no 207076 230-2020-04-05 £7.50 where sold

Lifeline to recovery - RSPB

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