THE TIVOID LANGUAGES: CLASSIFICATION AND ... - Roger Blench

THE TIVOID LANGUAGES: 

CLASSIFICATION AND 

COMPARATIVE WORDLIST 

CIRCULATION DRAFT 

Roger Blench 

Kay Williamson Educational Foundation 

8, Guest Road 

Cambridge CB1 2AL 

United Kingdom 

Voice/Ans 0044-(0)1223-560687 

Mobile worldwide (00-44)-(0)7967-696804 

E-mail rogerblench@yahoo.co.uk 

http://www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm 

Cambridge 

06 November 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1 

2. Data sources .................................................................................................................................................. 1 

3. Phonology and morphology .......................................................................................................................... 2 

4. Datasheets ..................................................................................................................................................... 3 

5. The internal classification of Tivoid ............................................................................................................. 7 

5.1 Central Tivoid .......................................................................................................................................... 7 

5.2 North Tivoid ............................................................................................................................................ 9 

5.3 Ugarə........................................................................................................................................................ 9 

5.4 Esimbi ...................................................................................................................................................... 9 

5.5 Buru ....................................................................................................................................................... 11 

6. Overall classification................................................................................................................................... 12 

7. The place of Tivoid within Bantoid ............................................................................................................ 12 

8. Speculations on the migration history of Tivoid peoples............................................................................ 13 

9. Conclusions................................................................................................................................................. 13 

References....................................................................................................................................................... 14 

TABLES 

Table 1. The Tivoid languages.......................................................................................................................... 1 

Table 2. Comparative Tivoid datasets............................................................................................................... 3 

Table 3. Common lexical items in Central Tivoid A ........................................................................................ 7 

Table 4. Items shared by Oliti and Ceve ........................................................................................................... 8 

Table 5. Evidence for subgrouping Tiv, Iyive and Otanga ............................................................................... 8 

Table 6. Isoglosses for Central Tivoid B........................................................................................................... 8 

Table 7. Evidence for subgrouping Ipulo and Olulu......................................................................................... 8 

Table 8. Evidence for North Tivoid .................................................................................................................. 9 

Table 9. Lexical items specific to Ugarə........................................................................................................... 9 

Table 10. Esimbi words not shared with other Tivoid languages ..................................................................... 9 

Table 11. Niger-Congo roots in Esimbi and other Tivoid languages.............................................................. 10 

FIGURES 

Figure 1. Internal structure of Tivoid.............................................................................................................. 12 

Figure 2. Revised subclassification of Benue-Congo and Bantoid languages ................................................ 13 

1

The Tivoid languages. Roger Blench Circulation Draft 

1. Introduction 

The Tivoid languages represent one of the least-known and most poorly characterised of the larger Bantoid 

groups. Indeed no argument for the unity of this group has ever been presented in print and for some putative 

Tivoid languages there appears to be no published information. Meek (1931) may well be the earliest author 

to record languages other than Tiv itself; he provides vocabularies of Bitare, Abɔ̃ and Batu. Greenberg 

(1963) included Tiv, Bitare and Batu, languages now considered to be Tivoid, as three of the seven coordinate 

branches of Bantu but did not argue for any special relationship between them. Williamson 

(1971:276) lists Tiv, Ceve, Balegete, Bitare, Abɔ̃ and Batu as part of the Tiv-Batu group, which she places 

within ‘non-Bantu Bantoid’ alongside Mambila-Wute [i.e. Mambiloid]. Balegete is an Upper Cross language 

very remote from Tivoid and indeed a footnote admits that no data was available. The Benue-Congo 

Comparative Wordlist material seems to derive from Meek with Tiv added. 

The recognition that there is a whole group of languages related to Tiv may first appear in Dieu & Renaud 

(1983) reprised in Watters & Leroy (1989). Piron (1997) recognises a Tivoid group although she only 

sampled a very small number of languages. Her lexicostatistic counts link it with ‘Noni’, i.e. Beboid. The 

situation is thus of the same data being recycled from one author to another with no real advances in 

analysis. It therefore seems useful to present a comparative wordlist of Tivoid, as far as this is possible, and 

to use this information to develop a preliminary classification of the family 1 . 

The first version of this paper accepted the assignation ot Tivoid of a number of languages which following 

further analysis would be better placed with West Momo, now rebaptised SW Grassfields. These languages 

are Balo, Manta and Osatu. They are therefore excluded from this second, revised version. Table 1 shows 

the Tivoid languages presently recorded, with populations taken from the Ethnologue and the sources 

available for each language. Populations are generally estimates and have different dates attached and so 

should be treated as indicative of scale only. 

Table 1. The Tivoid languages 

Name Country Population Sources 

Abɔ̃ Nigeria 1000 Koops ms., IL survey 

Ambo Nigeria 1000 ? 

Batu Nigeria 25,000 Koops ms. 

Bitare [=Njwande] Nigeria/ Cameroon 6000 Koops ms. 

Caka [=Asaka] Cameroon 5000 ALCAM 

Eman Cameroon 800 ALCAM 

Esimbi Cameroon 20,000 Koenig, Coleman & Coleman (2007) 

Evant Cameroon 1000 ALCAM 

Iceve-Maci Nigeria 5000 ALCAM 

Ipulo Cameroon 2500 ALCAM 

Iyive Nigeria/ Cameroon 2000 ALCAM 

Kamino Nigeria 1000 Koops ms. 

Ugarə (=Mesaka) Cameroon 14,000 Cassetta & Cassetta (1994a,b,c) 

Otank (=Otanga) Nigeria 3000 ALCAM 

Tiv Nigeria 2,212,000 Abraham (1940b) 

I have been unable to find any data for Ambo, so the only proof of its existence is repeated assertion. 

2. Data sources 

The great majority of lists derive from ALCAM, the Linguistic Atlas of Cameroun, hence the list of 120 

words which was used for that survey. ms. wordlists collected by Rob Koops in the 1970s. Materials on Tiv 

far exceed those for all other languages, including Malherbe (1934), Abraham (1933, 1940a,b), Terpstra 

(1968) and Arnott (1958, 1964, 1967, 1969). Gundu & Jockers (1985) provide a general bibliography of 

publications on and in the Tiv language itself. Initial studies of Esimbi are Stallcup (1980a,b,c) and the 

1 The core data in this paper comes from the ALCAM surveys undertaken in Cameroun during the 1970s and kindly 

made available by Cameron Hamm. I would also like to thank Rob Koops for making available his manuscript 

wordlists of Nigerian Tivoid languages. 

1


phonology in Fointein (1986). In a more modern style, there is a ms. dictionary by Coleman (n.d.) and a 

phonology (Koenig, Coleman & Coleman 2007). Cassetta & Cassetta (1994a,b,c) have contributed some 

initial studies of Ugare. Apart from Tiv, most of this other material is unpublished. 

The datasheets have been edited as follows; 

Tiv. Has been corrected from Abrahams (1940b). 

Afi, Kamino, Abɔ̃ and Njwande. Typed from Rob Koops’ original datasheets. Only the Afi list is filled for 

the complete Ibadan 400 list. None of these lists match the ALCAM list, so there are a number of significant 

gaps. Presumed infinitive marker na- deleted from verbs. 

Ugare. The original Ugare material appeared under ‘Mesaka’, and has been corrected from Cassetta & 

Cassetta (1994a,b,c). Uncorrected forms are not tone-marked. However, spurious /ɑ/ has been corrected to 

/a/ and the infinitive prefixes uv- on verbs have been deleted. Where the root is not the same, the original is 

maintained with (S) and the Cassetta version is marked (C). 

Esimbi. Corrected from Coleman (n.d.) 

3. Phonology and morphology 

For Tivoid languages, phonologies of any sort exist for only three languages, Tiv, Esimbi and Ugarə. Even 

the material on Tiv is not really up to modern standards. Ugarə has an eight-vowel system not atypical for 

the region; 

Front Central Back 

Close i ɨ u 

Close-Mid e o 

Open-Mid ɛ ɔ 

Open 

a 

Vowel length can be contrastive, although it is likely to arise from sequences of two similar vowels. The 

vowels of Esimbi are identical. 

The consonants too are very similar to many languages in the region. 

Bilabial Labiodental 

Alve- Alveopalatal Palatal Velar Labial- 

Glottal 

olar 

velar 

Plosive p b t d [c] j k g kp gb 

Implosive 

ɓ 

Nasal m n ɲ ŋ 

Trill 

[r] 

Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ ɣ h 

Approximant y w 

Lateral 

l 

Approximant 

Esimbi adds the bilabial approximant /β/ but is otherwise similar. 

Tiv and Ugarə are two-tone languages, with low tones causing automatic downstep. Ugarə also has upstep, 

which may well be present in related languages. Esimbi has three tones as well as rising and falling glide 

tones. 

Tiv itself has been the subject of some discussion because it is one of the small number of Niger-Congo 

languages to have both prefixes and suffixes. Similar morphology may occur in other Grassfields languages 

such as Bum and Bamunka, although these have yet to be fully described (Hamm p.c.). Otherwise these 

occur among Gur and proximate languages in the Togo-Ghana borderland (Avatime, Bassari and Bogong 

are examples). 

2


4. Datasheets 

Table 2. Comparative Tivoid datasets 

No. French English Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Njwande Esimbi Ugare Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand Caka Caka Ipulo Olulu Eman English 

[=Mesaka] 

[=Batanga] [=Asaka] 

[=Amanavil] 

1. bouche mouth tsɔ̄ gū/ só/ásó ɔdzu /a- úꜛzɔ̂ pl. íꜛzɔ̂ dzɑ udzwɑ unu uno odzɔ ɔnu uʒɔ ɑdsu uwu uwu ɔzɔ mouth 

ásɔ̄ gū 

2. œil eye nyíʃīn/ nyíʃī/áníʃī enyiʃī eʃī/aʃī kí-ʃi /ó í-ʃì /é- iʃɛ iʃi iʃi iʃi ise iʃi iyili iɛli ix ix iyili eye 

anyíʃín 

3. tête head n vw énūn/áf w ɛ́n vúnũ/àfṹ ófúnē ofū/āfú kɛ̀-rəŋgə /mɛ̀- íꜛkɔ́lɛ̀ pl. itiɔx kitok ituwu ituwu eto kɛtɔk ikɔtɔ ewutu ɛkwɑt ɛkwɔt ekɔtɔ head 

áꜛkúlù 

4. cheveux hair (on fwɛ́nō/- fúnū/- kəfu eyì pl. êyì ufwɔ icɛ iʃyɛ iŋu iɲu icyɛ ici bigɔnu eyu ikit ikit iwi hair (on 

head) 

head) 

5. dent tooth nyín̄ /ánýī nyín̄ /ánýī éɲī/ áɲī eŋgī/aŋgī ki-zini /o- íyîn pl. éꜛyîn iɲix kiɲɛk aɲɛ ɛnix inɛɣ kunuk igɛ igǝ iŋ iŋ igo tooth 

6. langue tongue númān/ nímīn/ánɛ́mē enyé ɛnim o-nə́mə /ɔ- úꜛnɛ̂ m pl. nɔmboɾ ɔnɔmbǝlǝ olǝfʌlǝ ɔlǝfǝl olɛmbǝ ivivi ibɛ ibǝ ivɛv ivɛv iwɛlɛ tongue 

ánúmā 

ɣ 

íꜛnɛ̂ m 

7. nez nose nd v ʒénūn/ jíndī/jíndīō ɛnu o-húndu /ɔ- eyu: ihiŋgɑ iŋgɑ ɛfʌŋgɑ ɛtǝŋgɑ ihiŋgɑ ɛnwɛh ɔyunu ɔunu ɛyun eyun ɑyɔmɔ nose 

āg v ɛ́l 

8. oreille ear ndún/ándó fīnyín/āfyœ̄ nyī otu/atu ó-to /ɔ́- úꜛtô pl. ɛ́ꜛtû utox kutɔk otuŋ ɔtuŋo oto kɔtɔŋkok ɔtu ɑtɔ ɔtu ɔtu ɔto ear 

9. cou neck mìnè/mínāū mīnā̀/ámínā 

kimɔŋgo o-mi /ɛ- úmɛ̀ pl. ímɛ̀ mɔn umɔn omɛnǝ ɔmɛnɛ omɛn ɔmɛn ɔmɛ ɔmɛ ɔmi ɔmi ume neck 

mīnà 

10. sein breast mbánə̄ n/ábán̄ mbánə̄ n/ābə̄ n ɛban ke-yímbi /ɛ- í↑-vyɛ́ndè pl. tumbɑx itumbɑ otimbɑ ɔtɛmbɑɣ otimbɑɣ ɑtɔmbwɑ ibɑndɑ ɛbindi ɛvɑnt evɑnt ebɑndɑ breast 

é↑-vɩńdì 

11. bras / arm / bɔ́ɔ̄ /ábóā bɔ́ɔ̄ /ábóā abú obō/abō ɔ́-bu /á- ukpɛndi ukwinde kuwɛk uvuwu uwu ovok ikivi ubɔ ɑbo ɔwɑ owɔ ɔbɔ arm / 

main hand 

hand 

12. griffe, claw nail nyásī / nyásī / 

cikwɔkwa ke-zi /ɛ- uku:lu ikuvwe kikul ɔnumɔvu ɛkwɑlǝɣɛ ikuluɣ kyɑn bɔk iɲɑfi iɲɑfǝ iwe iuwɛ iyɔbɔ claw nail 

ongle 

nyásə̄ ō- nyásə̄ ōkwārá 

kwārá fē fē 

13. jambe leg, foot mbánə̄ n/ābə́n ɛ́bâ eba/aba ūgurū/ āgurū o-gúru /ɔ- úvàlɛ́ pl. uŋguhɑɾ ɔŋgɑsǝ(f) okɑsǝ ɔkɑsɑɣ ovlo ɛwǝlɛ ɔgulu ɑgulǝ ɔwʌl owul ɔgɔlɔ leg, foot 

pied 

áv̀ĺ 

14. fesse buttock nṹ ŋ́gán̄ /āká ɔ-tə wu ɛsuŋgu ítyɔ̀lɛ́ pl. ɑtɔ ityɔ ɑtɔ ɛto icyo ɑtɑwɔlɑ ɑtutu ɑtɔt ɔtɑnut etɑnot utu buttock 

a-tə yə ~ átùlú 

15. ventre belly dúmbə̀ī / tùmún/bùtùn ebũ/abũ ēbiri/abiri ke-ciʃi /me- únà pl. iyɑv iyɑvǝ otsɔl ifli oyɑv vɔgyɑv buyɑ bɔyi wɔyɑv woyɑv bɔyɑ belly 

dúmbāu 

(v)àǹ 

16. nombril navel ʃɛ̀mbù dúmbà/dum ki-túŋgu /mi- tsɛmbe cɔmbo icɔmp etsɛmp ɑtsimp icɔmp ɛcʌmp ituŋgɔ ituŋgu ituŋg ituŋk ituŋgu navel 

17. intestins 

/boyaux 

intestines 

/ insides 

hɑhindɛyɔʒ [S] ɑ:gliunɑ iyɑm ɔdzɔliyɑ etsɔlɔ ɛcɑ:lo ovor ɛcǝl ɔsulu ɔsulu ɔswɑl ɑswɔl ɔsɔlɔ intestines 

/ insides 

18. sang blood ńvə́m éfáma ú /nvām kinɪm mɛ-yuŋgu vecin ɑwɑmbe aɔmp ɑgɔmbo ɑɣɑmbo ɑvɔmp ɑmbo ɔyuŋgɔ ɑyuŋgu ɑyiŋk iyiŋk ɑyɔŋgo blood 

19. urine urine ŋgám̀ ŋgàm mɛjindi vɑnjihi iɲɑndem miɲɑzimǝ mɛɲɑsim mɛɲɑsim mɑyɑm mɑɲɑnzim ɛzindi ɛzindɛ mɛsinz mɛsinzɛ ezinzɛ urine 

ɔ 

zim 

ɛ 

20. os bone fùfu fūgū kí-kú /mí- úkúhú/í- ukuhe kikwɛk ekifɛ ikifɛ ikuhɛɣ kegbuk iku iku iku iku iku bone 

21. peau skin sùgà kégúgí kīgū è-gùghù pl. é- ikwaɣ ikɔf kikwɔk okɔyulo ɛkɔɣ okɔkwɔ kɛkɔk ikɔ eku ɔkowu okow ɛkɔ skin 

gughù 

yolo 

22. aile wing wə́úáwó fìì/afii abōna ubatsi/abatsi ɔ-pǝɣərə /a- ú-kpḱpá /á- ɑgbil ɛbɛts ovɑlǝ ivɑlɛɣɛ ɛgbɛɣ kɔkɛɣlik owɑlɛ ɑwɑl ɔkɑbili opɑbɑli owɑlɑ wing 

23. plume feather fyīrò fìì/fīīnúnū fyīrò / afura ko-gunu /to- uŋgulu uŋguɾ uŋgul[u] oɲuŋgulu ɔnuŋgɔl ɛtɔŋ iŋgwili igunu egwini inwɔn iwunɑh iguɲu feather 

fyìronúnū 

m 

24. corne horn kwēsè/kwēso kwēsē/kwɛ́sò kwēsè/kw 

èkùru pl. ekúrú í-tsóhó /ɛ́- kolox kokolǝko okulu okwɔlo okor okwɔl ɑkɔlu ɑkɔlo ɔkul okul ɔkɔlɔ horn 

ēso 

25. queue tail vùndá/ vūndā / vùndá/uv 

ìtsùrù pl. ítsúrú ɔvindi tsɑ utsɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ ukyɛ uki ɔki oki ukyu tail 

uvunda bùvūndā unda 

(bird) 

kɛ́-tsə́lə́ / mɛ́- 

(mammal) 

26. être human nnə̀/ úfyə́u nìè/fíú nti ɔ̀-ŋgùlù / mɔ̀- nɛ̀lɛ̀ pl. oɾ nɔt onul ɔnɔlɛ or ɔnɔt ɔtu ɑtu ɔt ɔt ɔto human 

humain being 

(v)ɛ́nɛ̀lɛ́ 

being 

27. homme man nò/fyó nyīsōŋ onumbusu mòsoŋgulù pl. utɑliɛnɛl nʌm soɾ ɔnɔmbǝso onǝmbǝsǝ ɔnumbɔso nɔmbʌs ɔnɔmǝs oyumɑto ɔyumɔtu ɔmbut ɔmbut yɑmbɔto man 

(mâle) (male) 

mósoŋgulu 

(male) 

28. femme woman nyìnà/ nyìnà okasə/bikasə mɔ̀ŋgúlú pl. nálɛ́ pl. kwɑse okɑs okye okɛɣ ɔkwɑs ɔkɑs bɔtu bwɔtu ɑt ɑt yɑto woman 

nyìnò 

mɔ́ŋgúlu (v)áꜜnɛ́lɛ́ 

29. mari husband sùŋwà zumù / mɔ- unɔm nɔm onɔm ɔnum ɔnum onɔm onɔm ɔyumɔ ɔyumǝ yum yium yɔmɔ husband 

3



[=Mesaka] 


[=Amanavil] 

30. enfant child ŋwàkwā / ŋwánə́kwā ŋwā/m w u ŋwálē/bōndō wùnu pl. wúnu vàn pl. bɔ́n wɑn wɑn wɑnǝ wɑni owɑn wɑnɔ ɔnu ɑnu ɔn on ɑnɔ child 

mbómkwā 

ní bare 

M. wanolɛ 

31. nom name nyān/ nān/ānyā ētēme ēdiki/ ādiki kɛ-li /ɛ- íyɔ́lɛ́ pl. iti icɛ itɛ itɛ ityɛ ɑtɑ iti iyitɛ wukum wukum bukumu name 

ānyā 

éyúlú 

32. ciel sky ɔbhəŋgə̀ idzɑ:l kwad ɑɔndc ʃɑkiyɑŋk ɑgo ɑgo ɑsɑn ɛɲɑgɔ ɑyo ɑyuɔ eyup eyup ɑiyo sky 

33. nuit night fìgìtun nemēná M ɛfu RK orǝ pl. ɔrə iyim tux iyimǝ ife ife imyɛ ɛwɛ iyimi iyimɛ iyim iyim iyimi night 

ésí iharī 

34. lune moon áwé/wil gwé ɛsaŋge atə́ŋgǝ útǎŋ pl. ítyǎŋ uwe uwɛl ovulu ɔwǝlu uor otɑŋk uwɛlɛ owulu ɔtɑŋk ɔtɑŋk uwɔlǝ moon 

35. soleil sun wɛ́lgwān gwéwú lə̄ n utsɪre eyù pl. eyu ìyù iyaŋge iyɑŋk eyɑŋgʌ iyɑ:ŋgɛ iyɑŋ ɔwɔ ɑyu ɔŋgwɑyuo eyup eyup ɑiyo sun 

36. vent wind hōadī/ hóró/hóróú embi ìyàlɛ̀ pl. ɑhumbe kɑbebǝl ɔfɔfʌ ufɔf ɑhuŋmg owɛ kuwɛlɛwɛ kɔwǝlewo ukpɑbil upɑbɑli epɑkɑpɑ wind 

hɔřau 

(v)àỳl̀ 

be 

i 

37. nuage cloud kɛmbətə̀ ífùfúù iyibix ikuk ɑkuwu iflɛɣ ɑkuh kɛliɣik itigiti itikɛt ikilikitɔ ikilikitɔ itikɛti cloud 

38. rosée dew mobǝr [S] vuwulu ɑwule ewuli imi imi ovule owule ubɔlu obulu iyɔninɛ obulu dew 

39. pluie rain kwān̄ kwān ogwa obiri uwɔl uwulɑ uwulɑ ovǝlɑ ovlɑ ovǝle ewolɑ ɑbulu obolu ewul ewul ɑbolo rain 

40. terre ground gyə̀ú- ʒàu ɛdzughù zɔ̀hɔ̀ pl. iɲɑ iɲɑ eyɑŋu ɛɣɑŋɛ iɲɑ ɛtɔl izɔ ɛdzo ɛyɑ eyɑh eyɑ ground 

ízɔ̀hɔ́ 

41. sable sand 

gwá _ jámbyū mənɔtsətsə ɑʃiʃɑ wɑlɑwɑ wǝlɑwɑ eʃɑndɑʃɑ iʃɑndɑʃɑ owɔlɑw ɔgwɑlɑgwɑ bɛlɛli bɛlɛlɛ wɑlɑw wɑlɑwɑ ɑlili sand 

ɑ 

ɑ 

42. chemin road ʃīná/ʃínā ʃìná/ʃínā o-numu /ɔ- dzɛ gbindɑ kumun uwɑ: ɔwɑ ihɑŋk ogwɑwɑh iʒi idzi isi mbuʃi izi path 

43. eau water ḿbígə́m̄ / mbígə̄ m mɔngɔmo murù / a- mɔ̀lɛ̀ pl. ŋgɛɾɛm muŋgolǝmo edzɔl edzɑlɛ edzɔl mɑmulum omɔlǝ ɔmɔlo mɔl mɔl mɔlɔ water 

ḿgórɔ̄ 

ímɔ̀lɛ́ 

44. cours stream sɔ́ř/sɔ́r̀ ḿmārā / 

gam ɔ-tu /a- usɑ:lɛ uwɑɾ wɑnowɑŋ dzɔlibɔnɑ ɛzɔlibɔnɑ idzɔlisin yɑsɔŋɛ iʒɑlɔ ɛdzɔlo zxwɔŋk ohɔŋk ezɔlɔ stream 

d’eau (river) 

búmářa 

i 

(river) 

45. maison house kì/- kî/ākî otuta/atuta kí-túmbù /mí- iyoɣ iyox kute etimbe itimbɛ itimbyɛ igu itumbu ɔtumbo ukwɔl ukwɔl etɑ house 

ú-ꜛkpĺɛ̀ /í- 

46. feu fire kúsū/- uwúsu, owúsu uguhu usu uwuz gusu ɔkwǝsɔ odzu ozwɛlɑ ɔgulǝ ogulo uwus uwus ugulu fire 

47. bois à firewood hún/áhún hún/áhún akwæ̃ ōkūn u-vini /o- iwun ikɔŋ ukɔn ɛkwun ɔkwɔnoh ɛkɔn ekɔm uwɛni owǝni uwɛŋ uwɛn ewiŋi firewood 

brûler 

48. fumée smoke ŋgím̄ /- ńʒím/- u-yi /o- uɲuwu ɲim miɲim mɛɲimi miyimi miɲim mɔɲim uyiki oyikɑ uyik uyik eyiki smoke 

49. cendre ash mūtāmwū ndāgām matɔm métsímī mɔɔtù vɑtu (S) ituɛm mutwim mutumu mǝtɔmo mutɔm mɔtumɛlɑm ɔtumǝ ɑtumu mɔtum ɑtum ɑtɔmo ash 

mūθīm 

éꜛlíhì (C) 

50. couteau knife bāfù/m̀ bām̀ ébáù/ńbám̀ umfwan ó-yi /ɛ́- ufɑn ihɔ ihɔ esɑmɔ ɛsɑmo isɔm yɑsɑmɛkili uwɛ owul ɔpul opul uwe knife 

51. corde rope kwédī/kwérɛ̀ū kwé/àkwé o-gbǝndǝ /ɔ- ukɑl ukɔɾ okɑl okwulɔ ɔyi okwɔr oyi ɔkɑlɑ ɔkǝlǝ ɔkɑ:l okal ugbɔlɔ rope 

52. lance, spear ŋgógə̀n / àkóŋ ngógɔ̄ n/àkóŋ ɛgoŋgo ótǝ pl. ɔɔtə iyɔn iwɑŋge iwɔŋ ɛgɔŋgo ɛgǝŋgo evɔŋk yɑvyɑ iyɑŋgɔ ɛyuŋgo ɛywɔŋk ɑyɔŋk eyɔŋgɔ spear 

sagaie 

53. guerre 

(combat) 

war 

(fight) 

sɔ̄ ǹ gōm̀ egūm kí-bírí /mí- ulum (S) 

ìvìlì (C) 

ityɑv vitɑv vetɑv ɛtɑvɛ etɑv vetɑv ɑʒɔŋu ɑnzuŋɣǝ vetɑv vetɑv ɑnzɔŋɔ war 

(fight) 

54. viande meat nyàm/nyám̀ nyàm eɲam éɲám̀ ɛ̀nyìmì pl. ɲɑm iyɑm iɲɑm eɲɑm ɛɲɑm iɲɑm ɛɲam iɲɑmǝ ɛɲim ɛɲɑm ɛɲɑm ɛɲɑmɑ meat 

ɛnyɛḿí 

55. chien dog bíyā/bíyá bíā/bíá ɛbwa ɛ̀bù pl. ɛ́bu bíbî pl. íꜛbî iwɑ iwɑ ewɑ ɛwɑ iwɑ ɛgwɑ ibɔ ɛbo ɛwɔ ɛwɔ ebɔ dog 

56. éléphant elephant ŋgɔ́mbɔ́ / ŋgɔ́mbɔ́ / etimakō eʒoku/ēʒoku ké-dzə̂ /mé- únɛ̀lɛ́ pl. noɾ nol esɔ ɛsɔ unɛɣ ɔnɛl kinɛmɛ ɔnɛlǝ ɔnil ɔnɛl kinɑmɔ elephant 

úŋgɔ́mbɔ́ būŋɔ́mbɔ́ 

(v)ínɛ̀lɛ́ 

57. chèvre goat byɛ̀n/byɛ́n byɛ̄ n/byɛ́n ɛbi ibì búbù pl. íꜛbû ivo iwɔ evu evu ivo ɛgwɛ ibi: ibi ivi ivi ivi goat 

58. oiseau bird núnùfú/núnūn ēnúnú/énúnūm kəɲun enunù pl. nùnù pl. iɲɔŋ inɔnɔ enunu ɛnǝnɔ inɔn yɑnunɛ inwinɛ iɲinǝ inwɔn inwɔn iɲɛnɛ bird 

enúnu 

(v)ínùnú 

59. tortue tortoise fèŋgə́ŋ / fə̀kóŋó / maŋkaŋgə ŋgakuru kɔ-kubəbə̀ /tɔ- ukululu kulux kulun ekulufyɑ mǝbun okuluɣ mɔbun kukubɑbɑ mogwɛ ikpɑkɔ igbɔkɔ nugwɛ tortoise 

m̀ ŋgɔ́n mə̀kóŋó rə/ 

uŋkaŋgara 

60. serpent snake gyɔ̄ hɔ̄ /gyɔ́hɔ̄ ʒūò/júó eyǒ eyɔ̄ /ēyɔ́ ɛ̀-zu /ɛ́- yɔ̀ pl. íꜛyɔ̂ iyo iyɔ eyŋ ɛyɔŋ iyɔ ɛgyɔ iyɔ eiyu ɛywɔ eywɔ eiyɔ snake 

61. poisson fish sùù/súú ʃùù/ʃūū ì-su /í- úcá pl. ícá iʃu iʃu etsǝmbǝ ɛtsimbɛ isu isu ilu eulu ihu ihu ilu fish 

62. pou louse sālə̄ ū m̀ bún̄ /ābú 

ke-kə /me- gùhù pl. iuwusu iwut eguusu egusuwɑ isuwɑ izu igulu igulǝ iwis iwis ijulu louse 

sō/sóò 

ígùhú 

63. œuf egg ŋgín̄ /ákyí njísaan/ācísà eddíddǒ ēzí/azí ke-gi, ɛ́-gi /ɛ- iwu iji iji ɛdziŋ ɛdzinɛ ige ijiki igi igi eɣ eɣ igyɛ egg 

64. arbre tree ndíɛ̄ ndī / níndé/nɛ́ndéú akwæ̃ŋí kiti/biti kétə́, mɔ-tə úté pl. (v)ɛ̀tí ukɔŋ ɔkɔn ketuɣ ɛtiɣɛ itɛɣ ketɛk butɛ botɛ ɛti ɛti butɔ tree 

ńdíɛ̄ mbū 

/me- 

4



[=Mesaka] 


[=Amanavil] 

65. écorce bark kómbwē, kúgù/kúmì è-ghùghù /é- ugu ivuwux kiwuku ɑguwu ɑgu ɑkoɣ kiklut bikɔ bigo ɔkɔwu okow ekɔ bark 

kúgē 2 

66. feuille leaf fyò/fyóō fì/fíī kɛ-yə́nə /a- iyɑn ukwɑ ukɑ ekɑŋɔ ɔkɑŋg okɑ okɑx yiɑnɑ ɑyinɛ oyɑβ uwu leaf 

67. racine root nságān/àkáŋ ngáŋīn/àkáŋí ɔ-ghəŋgə /a- ugɑŋ misɛ kimiʃeki esɑlǝ ɔsɑl odɑŋ ɔnisɛ ogɑŋgɑ ɑgiŋgɛ ɔkaŋk okɑŋk ogɑŋgɑ root 

68. sel salt hə́ŋgə̄ m/- hə́ŋām ɛta manu ànû bɑɾ mɛtsim mǝkɑŋǝm mɛkɑŋǝme obɑɣ mɔcɑm ɔmɛ ɔmǝ mɔnɔ mɔnɔ mɔno salt 

ǝ 

69. graisse fat ŋgə́gà ŋgə́gā memē meme ǝŋǝ (S) ɑfum ahɔm ɑhumɑ ɑfɔm ɑfɔm ɑhɔm ɑmɔ ɑbǝlɛ ɑbǝlǝ ɑmu ɑm ɑbɑlɑ fat 

miri pl. ɛmiri 

(oil) 

70. faim hunger sɔ́ sō ɛ̀dzù pl. ɛdzú dzɑŋ ijin ijunu ejunu ejɔnu idzɔn izin iʒɔŋgɔ ɛdzuŋǝ ɛswɔŋ ɛsɔŋ ezɔŋɔ hunger 

(général) (general) 

(general) 

71. fer (le iron ( ékīrā / wùkīrā ékìrā/bù bilɛŋge kí-tu /mí- uywɔl iyɔx kiyɔk eɲo: eɲɔɣo iɲɔɣɔ kiɲɔk oyɛŋgɛ itɛnǝ ɔyiŋk oyiŋk uyɔŋgɔ iron ( 

métal) metal) 

metal) 

72. un one nífūn tífúnú imó fumo onǝ utwɑm mɔm mɔmo ɑmo: mɑmo mɔm kɑmɔk ɔnɛ kinɑ ɛmo imo iginɔ one 

73. deux two èvò bìvàū bifa M. harə RK mərakpə(ŋgərə) ulukpɑ hɑ: hiɑl ɑfɑlǝ fɑle hɑɣ viɑlɔ bɑli bɑ:li viɑl viyɑl biyɑ:li two 

bīhyāri 

74. trois three ètō bìtāū bitá atate makǝlǝ utɑ:rɛn tɑɾ tɑts ɑtɑl tɑle tɑɣ vetɛt bitɑti bɛtɑt vetɑt vetɑt bɛtɑti three 

75. quatre four ènài bìnə̀i bine M. aɲe RK monyi bi:nɛ ɲin ɲin miɲin ɲin ɲin vini binɛi binɛ veni: vɛni: binɔ: four 

bíɲe 

76. cinq five èkyùn/eʧun bicún bitṍ M. acon RK mɛtanə utɑ:nɛ tɑ:n tɑŋɑn otɑŋǝn tɑŋin tɑn vetɑŋǝn bitɑn bɛtɑn vetɑn vetɑn bɛtɑnɑ five 

bīcôn 

77. six six ètōnōmòn bìtánámùn busoru malalǝ utɑtɑ:rɛn tɑɾɑtɑɾ kǝlǝkǝtɑt otɑlutɑ tindɑl tindyɑl vɛtindɛt bɑndwɔtu bɛndǝto vetɑtu vilɑtum bɛtundɑtɔ six 

m 

78. sept seven èčūn[a]èvò bìcúnbívāu acon da halɛ matanə̀ utɑ:nɛulukpɑ otɑŋkɑɾuhaɾ kɑtǝmɔmo otɑŋǝnɔfɑ tɑŋǝnifɑlɛ tsɑlǝmɔ vɛtindɛtɔmo binɛnitɑti bɛndǝtonǝkinɑ vetɑtu vilɑtum bɛtundɑtɔginɔ seven 

mərakpə 

lǝ 

n 

mnɑmo nɑmo 

79. huit eight èčūn[a]ūtō bìcúnbítāū acon da tate minyinyi bi:nɛbi:nɛ ɑniɑni kinikin onini ɑɲɛni kiŋkini vinɛrene bini biɲiɲi venɛni vinɑni binini eight 

80. neuf nine ècūn āōnài bīcún bínə̀i acon da ɲe matanə̀ monyi utɑ:nɛbi:nɛ otɑŋkɑɾuɲin tɑnǝɲin otaŋǝnǝn tɑŋǝɲiyin tɑnɑɲin vinɛrenɛmo bitɑnbinɛ bɛtɑnǝbinɛ venɛni vinɑnin bininiginɔ nine 

uɲin 

nɑmo ɑmo 

81. dix ten gbwē hùmnífūnū ~ 

oyuate bughù pl. buɣǝ puwe pwe likwɔŋ ikwɔŋ pue ɔfwɔt bok mbɔk epot epot buku ten 

gbwé 

mobughù 

82. venir come bā bâ -bǝ̂ u:vɑ (S) ɑvɑ ovɑ mǝvɑ ɑvɑ ovɑ vɑ ɑbɛ ɑbǝ ɔvɑ ovɑ nobɑ come 

sàhà (C) 

83. envoyer send 

(s.o.) 

ndùmá nùmā (e)tīma -tumù tègh ɑtindi ɑtɔnt mǝtimɑ ɑtǝmɑ ɑtint ɑtumwɑ ɔtumo ɑtumo ɔtum otum notɔmo send 

(s.o.) 

84. marcher walk -dzərə sé ɑzindi edzint mojindi ɑzɛnde ɑdzint zint ɑliŋgɛ ɛliŋgǝ usɔt uwisɔt nulɔŋgo walk 

85. tomber fall kwà gwa -gbə̀ uvgbɛ ɑgbɑ ɑbɑ mɔgbɑ ɑgbɑ ɑgbɑ gbɑ ɔduŋgo ɑduŋgo ɔpɔnɔ opɔnɔ nodɔŋgo fall 

86. partir leave -tə̀ mǵh ɑyim eyu mumwɑ ɑmɑɣɑ ɑyo gwin ɛmɛkɛ ɑs uwɛ uwɛ nozɑ leave 

87. voler fly tìndī tɛ̄ nɛ̄ -vì pàm ɑpulu epulul meviŋgɛ ɑviŋge imu pɛpilin ɔpulɔlɔ ɑpǝlo umɔmil umɑbɑl nuwe fly 

(oiseau) 

i i 

88. verser pour sùgū [ŋgyâ] kūnyí -dzumù wulu ɑhɑ ɑkusɑ mifiyil ɑwulɑ ɑhɑ sɔwɑ ɑmɑkɛ ɑɣyoku uyit ɛɣe nusɔlɔ pour 

89. frapper beat bàmgyâ bàmnyí -gbirì tɑmbǝ (S) ɑhɔn ɑhin mǝfǝnɔ ɛvɑlǝɣɛ ɑdzɑhin gwɔh ɛwɛnɛ ɔwuno ɔpin opin huwɛnɛ strike 

gbílí (C) 

90. mordre bite gwāgē númā vimabī ēnimakī -numù nɔm ɑɲimɑ ɑɲomɑ mǝnɛmɑ ɑnimɑ ɑɲimɑ numɑ ɔnumu ɑnumo ɔnum onum nɔnɔmo bite 

91. laver wash gùná gúnā -sù sɔ aɔ: ɑwɔ mɔwo ɑdzɑwɔ ɑklio wɔ ɔlu ɑulo ɔhu: ohu nɔlɔ wash 

(transitif) (tr.) 

(tr.) 

92. fendre split 

-lì 

paɣ (S) ɑpɑv ɑpɑv mǝpɑv ɑkpɑv ɑpɑv mbu ɑyuiti ɑyitɛ ukɛŋ okɛŋ nukɛɲɛ split 

(wood) 

álé (C) 

(wood) 

93. donner give hánà hágō ha ha -nə̀, -nə̂ fá ɑnɑ ɑnɑ mǝnɑn ɑnɑ ɑnɑ nɔ ɑnǝ ɑnɛ ɔnɑ ɔnɑ nɔnɑ give 

94. voler steal grú jú -dzə̂ uyɛ ɑyi ɛyɛ miyi ɛyi ɑyi gi ɔʒi ɛdzi uʃi uʃi nuzɔ steal 

(dérober) 

95. presser squeeze kwaná kám, mɔn -kǝmə̀ uvkiɣil ɑkil ɛkilik mɛɲil ɑɲil ɑɲil ɲit okikɛli ɛnit ukiliki ukiliki nukliki squeeze 

96. cultiver cultivate -pì káhá ɑkɑhɑ ɑkɑ mɛwum okɑfɛ ɑkɑhɑ kɑ ɛwɛ ɑkǝ wɔkɑ okɑh nɔkɑ cultivate 

97. enterrer bury (t.) n̄ ŋwè ŋwè -kirì gumbu ɑi: ɛɣi mɛiyi oyi ɑyi ɣi oyi ɛyi uswɔl uswɔl nuyi bury (t.) 

(t.) 

98. brûler (t.) burn (t.) tɔ́ŋfyā ŋwə̄ n -kpirì ciɣil uhiɑ ɑsɔŋ mǝsɔŋ osɔŋ ɑsɔŋk tumbwǝn ɔyuku ɑyok ɔyɔk ɔyɔk noyɔkɔ burn (t.) 

99. manger eat [gó]gyā yá yáā yá -ri ɲí ɑyɑ ɑyɑ mɛyɑ ɑyɑ ɑyɑ gyɑ ɛli ɛli uyi uyi nulyɔ eat 

100. boire drink [go]ŋwā ŋwā -mû nú ɑmɑ ɑmɑ mɔŋwɑ ɑŋwɑ ɑmɑ mu ɛmwɛ ɔmo umu umu numwɔ drink 

101. vomir vomit haì ŋwātú -yì ɑne ɑsuwɑ ɑswɑ mɔswɑ ɑswɑ ɑswɑ swɑ eŋwinɛ ɛɲin uɲɛŋ uŋɛ nuɲɛɲɛ vomit 

2 

after peeling 

5



[=Mesaka] 


[=Amanavil] 

102. sucer suck -yəmbə̀ [suck ɑmgbe ɑɔ ɑmɑ mɛɲɑmp ɑɲɑmbɑ ɑmɑ mu ɛmwɛ ɑyimbɛ ɔyɑmb oyɑmp noyɑmbɑ suck 

breast] 

103. cracher 

(salive) 

spit 

(saliva) 

gyú tùŋgánà júnà jū cu ajwe yulu azuŋgu -tû tu ɑtɑ ɑtɑ muto ɑto ɑtɑ tu ɛtwi ɛti utwɑ utwɔ nutwɑ spit 

(saliva) 

104. souffler blow tɔ́ŋ fónà -suru [on fire] dú ɑɔ ewek meyin ɑyiŋe ɑiŋ ŋgǝ ɛɲigɛ ɛɲig wuwɛk uwɛki nuɲɛŋe blow 

(sur) (on) 

-fufu [wind] 

i 

(on) 

105. enfler swell dífūń yōfúnn -mùrù mol ɑmɔl ɑmotɑ mǝmɑlɑ ɑmolɑ ɔmɔtu ɑmɔt omut nɔmɔtɔ swell 

106. engendrer give 

birth 

bwə̄ n bwà -bî gbo ɑmɑ: ɑmɑt mǝmɑl ɑmɑl ɑmɑlɑ mɑt obi ɛbi wuvi uβi nubi give 

birth 

107. mourir die wé wènā kwé kwe(mā) ekī (? -kpǝ̂ kṕ ɑgbe ɛkpo mukwɔ ɑkwo ɑkpo gbɔ ɛkpɛ ɛbǝ wukwɔ ukwɔ nukpɔ die 

=death) 

108. tuer kill húnā gúná -zû ɛ́wú ɑwɑ ɑwɑ mɛyivɑ ɑyivɑ ɑwɑ dwɑ ɛgimɛ ɛgim wɔyi oyi nugɔmɔ kill 

109. pousser push yúnà yúnà -tùŋgù tòŋ ɑŋmgbehɑ ɑmbɔkɑ mutus ɑtuʃ ɑmbʌɣh buɛ ɑwɛkɛ eɲɛt wutindi utindigi nowɑsɑ push 

ɑ 

ki 

110. tirer pull tùmá tūmá -numbù ʃiɣi ɑwulu ɛtimbe metimbɛ ɑtimbe ɑtuŋmg gyɑm ɔgu ɑgɔ wɔlimb otul nogo pull 

be 

111. chanter sing fa ánúmbà fā mànúmā -yimbì ji ɑwɑ atɔm motumo ɑtɔmo ɑtum tumɑn ɛgiŋgɛ ɑtumu wɔlit olit nowɑlɑ sing 

112. jouer (un 

jeu) 

play 

(game) 

sundzūn bínínyoŋān -vî ɛŋgù ɲɔŋgǝlɛ ɑnɔmbe ɑnumbe mǝlɛvili olɛlɛ iyo ligɛ ɛgɛti ɛgɛt wɔvɔŋg ovɔŋk nunɔŋgɔlɔ play 

(game) 

113. avoir be afraid kágūfō kágūgāu -hindì cí ɑciɑ acyɑ mɛcɑ ɑtɛʃɛ ɑcɑ gyɔk ikɛsɛ ikɛsǝ wusɛti usɛti nusɔ be afraid 

peur 

114. vouloir want ndɔ́ɔ́ míndò ndɔ̄ -rǝ̂ solǝ ɑso ekɛt mɛli miliɣɛ ɑso tɔl olɛkɛ ɛsindǝ wuwun uwunt nusɔndɔ want 

d 

115. dire say ké ké -ŋgî tsɛ̀lɛ̀ ɑyɔso ɑkɑ mɔkɑnɔ mɛkɑɲɛ ɑlɑm lɛvlin ɔŋgulu ɑngɔlǝ wɑsuk opɔmp nuwɔwɔ say 

u 

116. voir see mɔ̄ /hīŋgā hɛ́m -di ndá ɑnige ɑsɔl mǝtyɛ ɑtiɣi ɑin cɑ ɛde ɛdǝ wusuŋk usuŋk nudɛ see 

117. montrer show nídàgɛ̀nnā cànà -cìʃì tègh ɑtese etɛs mitɛ ɑtiŋisi ɑtɛs kɑɣɑn ɛtɛŋgǝlɛ ɛtindgɑlǝ wɔliŋgi utɔŋgɑh nutɔŋgɔlɔ show 

mi u 

118. entendre hear ŋgwā ŋgwā -yughùrù álú ɑuŋgwɑ ɑwuŋgwɑ mɔŋgwa ŋgwɑ ɑtɑmbiɣ ŋmgbɑ ɔyutu ɑyutu wɔyutu ɔyutu nɔyɔtɔ hear 

119. savoir, know hɛ́mmāgō -kǝrə̀ cɛ́lɛ́ ɑfɑ ɑkɑv micil micil ɑfo kɑn ɛkǝli ɛkǝlǝ wukɔl ukɔl nukolɔ know 

connaître 

120. compter count fà fwa -tǝŋə̀ ɑlu ɑɔ ɑɔt mǝvɔl ɑvɔl ɑoy tɔ ɑtiŋgɛ ɑtinǝ wɔpɑn opɑn nopɑnɑ count 

6


5. The internal classification of Tivoid 

Tivoid is a group whose existence has always depended more on assertion than demonstration. There is no 

academic paper which demonstrates its coherence and part of the reason for this exercise is to establish 

criteria for membership. The data table shows that there are a number of lexemes that are found across the 

entire range of Tivoid. These are; neck (9.), meat (54.), dog (55.), goat (57.), bird (58.), snake (60.), fish (61.), 

hunger (70.) and bite (90.). All of these are found outside Tivoid so this is not entirely conclusive, but can 

certainly be taken as indicative. Perhaps more relevant is the fact that an internal classification of Tivoid can 

be established from the dataset. The following sections propose a set of subgroups using the numbered sets 

in Table 2. 

5.1 Central Tivoid 

The largest single group within Tivoid is here named Central Tivoid. It consists of; 

Tiv 

Iyive 

Oliti 

Baceve 

Otanga 

Evand 

Caka [=Batanga] 

Caka [=Asaka] 

Ipulo 

Olulu 

Eman [=Amanavil] 

Central Tivoid is here considered to consist of two major subgroups, A and B. Central Tivoid A is a welldefined 

set of six languages, Tiv, Iyive, Oliti, Baceve, Otanga and Evand. Evidence for their coherence as a 

group can be seen in the following items; 

Table 3. Common lexical items in Central Tivoid A 

Gloss Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand 

ash ituɛm mutwim mutumu mǝtɔmo mutɔm mɔtumɛlɑm 

fall ɑgbɑ ɑbɑ mɔgbɑ ɑgbɑ ɑgbɑ gbɑ 

firewood ikɔŋ ukɔn ɛkwun ɔkwɔnoh ɛkɔn ekɔm 

man (male) nʌm soɾ ɔnɔmbǝso onǝmbǝsǝ ɔnumbɔso nɔmbʌs ɔnɔmǝs 

navel tumbɑx itumbɑ otimbɑ ɔtɛmbɑɣ otimbɑɣ ɑtɔmbwɑ 

smoke ɲim miɲim mɛɲimi miyimi miɲim mɔɲim 

tail tsɑ utsɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ 

walk ɑzindi edzint mojindi ɑzɛnde ɑdzint zint 

war (fight) ityɑv vitɑv vetɑv ɛtɑvɛ etɑv vetɑv 

woman kwɑse okɑs okye okɛɣ ɔkwɑs ɔkɑs 

7


Within Central Tivoid A, Oliti and Ceve are closely related, as suggested by the common lexical items in 

Table 4; 

Table 4. Items shared by Oliti and Ceve 

Gloss Oliti Ceve 

arm uvuwu uwu 

bark ɑguwu ɑgu 

blood ɑgɔmbo ɑɣɑmbo 

bone ekifɛ ikifɛ 

ear otuŋ ɔtuŋo 

egg ɛdziŋ ɛdzinɛ 

fish etsǝmbǝ ɛtsimbɛ 

leaf ekɑŋɔ ɔkɑŋg 

leg okɑsǝ ɔkɑsɑɣ 

louse eguusu egusuwɑ 

root esɑlǝ ɔsɑl 

salt mǝkɑŋǝmǝ mɛkɑŋǝme 

ten likwɔŋ ikwɔŋ 

wing ovɑlǝ ivɑlɛɣɛ 

There is restricted evidence that Tiv, Iyive and Otanga may subgroup against Evand (Table 5); 

Table 5. Evidence for subgrouping Tiv, Iyive and Otanga 

Gloss Tiv Iyive Otanga 

ten puwe pwe pue 

send ɑtindi ɑtɔnt ɑtint 

count ɑɔ ɑɔt ɑoy 

ground iɲɑ iɲɑ iɲɑ 

The second group, Central Tivoid B, consists of Caka, Ipulo, Olulu and Eman. Table 6 shows isoglosses that 

suggest this subgrouping; 

Table 6. Isoglosses for Central Tivoid B 

Gloss Caka I Caka II Ipulo Olulu Eman 

head ikɔtɔ ewutu ɛkwɑt ɛkwɔt ekɔtɔ 

nose ɔyunu ɔunu ɛyun eyun ɑyɔmɔ 

ear ɔtu ɑtɔ ɔtu ɔtu ɔto 

navel ituŋgɔ ituŋgu ituŋg ituŋk ituŋgu 

blood ɔyuŋgɔ ɑyuŋgu ɑyiŋk iyiŋk ɑyɔŋgo 

urine ɛzindi ɛzindɛ mɛsinzɛ mɛsinzɛ ezinzɛ 

human being ɔtu ɑtu ɔt ɔt ɔto 

Within Central Tivoid B, Ipulo and Olulu clearly should be paired (Table 7); 

Table 7. Evidence for subgrouping Ipulo and Olulu 

Gloss Ipulo Olulu 

mouth uwu uwu 

eye ix ix 

hair ikit ikit 

tooth iŋ iŋ 

tongue ivɛv ivɛv 

buttock ɔtɑnut etɑnot 

wind ukpɑbili upɑbɑli 

8


5.2 North Tivoid 

The weak data on the three languages on the Nigerian side makes unambiguous classification impossible. 

However, there are some isoglosses that appear to relate Afi, Kamino, Abɔ̃ and Bitare. Ambo, for which 

there is no data, may be part of this group. Table 8 presents some common glosses for these four languages 

against the rest of Tivoid. 

Table 8. Evidence for North Tivoid 

Gloss Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Bitare 

give hánà hágō ha ha 

head nvwénūn/áfwɛ́n vúnũ/àfṹ ófúnē ofū/āfú 

feather fyīrò fìì/fīī fyīrò afura 

child ŋwàkwā / mbómkwā ŋwánə́kwā ŋwā/mwuní ŋwálē 

5.3 Ugarə 

Ugarə [=Mesaka] is better documented than the other Tivoid languages in this region, which may explain its 

unusual status. However, it does appear to have numerous common lexemes not shared with the rest of 

Tivoid, hence it is provisionally classified as a distinct branch. Table 9 shows a set of lexical items specific 

to Ugarə which separate it from the rest of Tivoid; 

Table 9. Lexical items specific to Ugarə 

Gloss 

Ugarə 

blood 

vecin 

intestines / insides 

aagliuna 

wing 

ú-kpḱpá /áhorn 

í-tsóhó /ɛ́tail 

ɔvindi 

woman 

nálɛ́ pl. (v)á ↓ nɛ́lɛ́ 

name 

íyɔ́lɛ́ pl. éyúlú 

sky 

idzɑ:l 

wind 

ìyàlɛ̀ pl. (v)àỳl̀ 

cloud 

ífùfúù 

5.4 Esimbi 

Whether Esimbi is Tivoid can be seriously doubted. Table 10 shows a list of Esimbi words not shared with 

the rest of Tivoid. Even those which are shared (Table 11) are often NC roots which might be due to a 

common heritage. Esimbi is the most well-known language outside Tiv which is classified as Tivoid. If so, it 

is extremely marginal as it has a large number of lexical items not shared with the rest of the group. Table 10 

shows lexical items where Esimbi is exceptional for Tivoid, i.e. where no cognate appears to occur among 

the other Tivoid languages. There are 55 out of a total list of 120 words, i.e. 46%. 

Table 10. Esimbi words not shared with other Tivoid languages 

Gloss 

Esimbi 

head 

kɛ̀-rəŋgə /mɛ̀tooth 

ki-zini /onose 

o-húndu /ɔbreast 

ke-yímbi /ɛclaw 

nail ke-zi /ɛbuttock 

ɔ-tə wu ɛsuŋgu a-tə yə ~ 

belly 

ke-ciʃi /meintestines 

/ insides hɑhindɛyɔʒ [S] 

skin 

è-gùghù pl. é-gughù 

wing 

ɔ-pǝɣərə /a- 

9


tail 

man (male) 

woman 

husband 

name 

sky 

night 

wind 

cloud 

dew 

sand 

path 

stream (river) 

firewood 

smoke 

knife 

rope 

spear 

war (fight) 

elephant 

(head) louse 

two 

three 

six 

seven 

nine 

fly 

pour 

strike 

split (wood) 

squeeze 

cultivate 

burn (t.) 

suck 

blow (on) 

die 

kill 

pull 

sing 

play (a game) 

be afraid 

want 

say 

show 

hear 

ìtsùrù pl. ítsúrú (bird) kɛ́-tsə́lə́ / mɛ́- (mammal) 

mòsoŋgulù pl. mósoŋgulu 

mɔ̀ŋgúlú pl. mɔ́ŋgúlu 

zumù / mɔkɛ-li 

/ɛɔbhəŋgə̀ 

orǝ pl. ɔrə 

embi 

kɛmbətə̀ 

mobǝr [S] 

mənɔtsətsə 

o-numu /ɔɔ-tu 

/au-vini 

/ou-yi 

/oó-yi 

/ɛ́o-gbǝndǝ 

/ɔótǝ 

pl. ɔɔtə 

kí-bírí /míké-dzə̂ 

/méke-kə 

/memərakpə(ŋgərə) 

makǝlǝ 

malalǝ 

matanə̀ mərakpə 

matanə̀ monyi 

-vì 

-dzumù 

-gbirì 

-lì 

-kǝmə̀ 

-pì 

-kpirì 

-yəmbə̀ [suck breast] 

-suru [on fire], -fufu [wind] 

-kpǝ̂ 

-zû 

-numbù 

-yimbì 

-vî ɛŋgù 

-hindì 

-rǝ̂ 

-ŋgî 

-cìʃì 

-yughùrù 

Even where Esimbi shares a common root with the other Tivoid languages, this is often either a common 

Niger-Congo root or is also shared with other languages in the Grassfields. Table 11 shows the roots 

inherited from Niger-Congo. 

Table 11. Niger-Congo roots in Esimbi and other Tivoid languages 

Gloss Esimbi Comparative evidence 

eye kí-ʃi /ó Gonja kə̀ -nìʃí, Berom yis, 

hair (on head) eyì pl. êyì Ga yì, Nupe eɲì 

tongue o-nə́mə /ɔ- Temne rǝmer, Efik édémè, Noni lēmé 

10


Table 11. Niger-Congo roots in Esimbi and other Tivoid languages 

Gloss Esimbi Comparative evidence 

ear ó-to /ɔ́- Geme tū, Ga tòí, tòé, tùé, Bangwinji tuù, 

neck o-mi /ɛ- ‘to swallow’ Mambila mèl, Ga mĩ̀, Diola mer, 

arm / hand ɔ́-bu /áleg, 

foot o-gúru /ɔnavel 

ki-túŋgu /mibone 

kí-kú /mífeather 

ko-gunu /tohorn 

èkùru pl. ekúrú 

child 

wùnu pl. wúnu 

sun 

eyù pl. eyu 

water murù / a- 

fire 

uwúsu, owúsu 

smoke 

u-yi /oash 

mɔɔtù 

meat 

ɛ̀nyìmì pl. ɛnyɛ́mí 

goat 

ibì 

bird 

enunù pl. enúnu 

fish 

ì-su /íegg 

ke-gi, ɛ́-gi /ɛtree 

kétə́, mɔ-tə /meleaf 

kɛ-yə́nə /asalt 

manu 

hunger (general) ɛ̀dzù pl. ɛdzú 

five 

mɛtanə 

eight 

minyinyi 

ten bughù pl. mobughù 

send (s.o.) -tumù 

fall 

-gbə̀ 

bite 

-numù 

wash (transitive) -sù 

give 

-nə̀, -nə̂ 

eat 

-ri 

drink 

-mû 

spit (saliva) -tû 

swell 

-mùrù 

give birth -bî 

die 

-kpǝ̂ 

push 

-tùŋgù 

know 

count 

-kǝrə̀ 

-tǝŋə̀ 

There are 43 such roots, out of a total list of 120 words, i.e. 36%. Thus a total of 98 words, i.e. 82%. cannot 

be attributed to a set of specifically Tivoid lexemes. Given the overall amount of borrowing in the 

Grassfields, this makes the membership of Esimbi within Tivoid marginal at best. 

5.5 Buru 

Piron (1998) treats Buru as Tivoid, although in many ways it is more marginal than Esimbi. It shares some 

lexical items with Northwest Tivoid, as might be expected from their proximity, but otherwise there is little 

to show it is Tivoid as opposed to Beboid or Jukunoid. It is here treated as an isolate within Bantoid. 

11


6. Overall classification 

Figure 1 presents a structure for Tivoid based on the above arguments; 

Figure 1. Internal structure of Tivoid 

Proto-Tivoid 

? 

Esimbi 

North 

Central 

Ugarə 

Ambo? 

Afi Abɔ̃ Bitare 

A 

B 

Tiv- 

Iyive 

Otanga 

Evand 

Oliti- 

Ceve 

Caka 

Olulu- 

Ipulo 

Evand 

7. The place of Tivoid within Bantoid 

Tivoid has been assigned different roles within Bantoid, going back to the observations of Johnston (1919- 

1922) and Guthrie (1969-1971). Greenberg (1977) rightly observed that the characteristic double-affixing of 

Tiv was significant for the evolution of Bantu, although in fact suffixing among Bantoid languages is more 

common than was realised at the period (e.g. Mambiloid and Dakoid Blench 1993). This could well be due 

to contact with Adamawa languages, though this is far from proven. Tivoid has much in common with 

Beboid, and probably is closer to it than to other branches of Bantoid, although some common lexical items 

will certainly reflect contact. But it seems likely that Tivoid should be kept still within South Bantoid, but 

remoter from Narrow Bantu than Grassfields and Ekoid. 

Lexically at least, Tivoid appears to resemble two other branches of Bantoid. The links with Beboid have 

been observed by various writers including Williamson (1971) and Piron (1997). However, Hamm (p.c.) 

points out that Tivoid also shares numerous items with the Momo languages, hitherto claimed as part of 

Grassfields, although without any compelling, or indeed any, actual evidence. Momo has some striking 

similarities to Tivoid and Beboid and either it is misplaced in the usual schemes or there has been intense 

contact in some previous period. Pending further comparative work, Momo is retained as Grassfields and a 

contact situation is posited. With these caveats, Figure 2 presents a revised subclassification of the Benue- 

Congo and Bantoid languages; 

12


Figure 2. Revised subclassification of Benue-Congo and Bantoid languages 

Proto-Benue-Congo 

Central Nigerian 

Kainji 

Plateau 

Jukunoid 

Ukaan ? 

Bantoid-Cross 

Northwest 

Plateau 

Beromic 

Central 

Plateau 

SE Plateau 

Tarokoid 

Upper 

Cross 

Cross River 

Lower 

Cross 

Ogoni 

Delta 

Cross 

Bantoid 

North 

Bendi ? 

South 

Tikar 

Furu cluster 

Dakoid 

Mambiloid 

Tivoid 

East Beboid 

West Beboid cluster 

Buru 

Nyang 

Ekoid 

Narrow 

Grassfields 

Ambele 

Menchum 

A group Bantu 

including Jarawan 

Southwest 

Grassfields 

‘Western 

Momo’ 

Ring 

Ndemli 

Momo 

Eastern 

Narrow Bantu 

8. Speculations on the migration history of Tivoid peoples 

Tiv itself has been the subject of much historical research (e.g. Downes 1933; Bohannan 1954; Shain 2005) 

but virtually no material exists on other Tivoid peoples in the area of oral traditions. All records seem to 

point to the expansion of Tiv itself as late, perhaps as late as the eighteenth century. 

9. Conclusions 

This paper represents a first attempt to put order into the Tivoid languages. Not further progress can be made 

until more, and higher quality, data is available. In particular, it is important to have comparable lists for the 

Nigerian and Cameroun sides of the border. To understand the complex nominal affixes, plurals would need 

to be recorded for all nouns. Given the importance of Tiv itself as a major regional language in Nigeria, it is 

regrettable that so little progress has been made in recent years. Let this preliminary outline be a stimulus to 

further research. 

13


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THE TIVOID LANGUAGES: CLASSIFICATION AND ... - Roger Blench

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