THE TIVOID LANGUAGES: CLASSIFICATION AND ... - Roger Blench
THE TIVOID LANGUAGES: CLASSIFICATION AND ... - Roger Blench
THE TIVOID LANGUAGES: CLASSIFICATION AND ... - Roger Blench
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<strong>THE</strong> <strong>TIVOID</strong> <strong>LANGUAGES</strong>:<br />
<strong>CLASSIFICATION</strong> <strong>AND</strong><br />
COMPARATIVE WORDLIST<br />
CIRCULATION DRAFT<br />
<strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong><br />
Kay Williamson Educational Foundation<br />
8, Guest Road<br />
Cambridge CB1 2AL<br />
United Kingdom<br />
Voice/Ans 0044-(0)1223-560687<br />
Mobile worldwide (00-44)-(0)7967-696804<br />
E-mail rogerblench@yahoo.co.uk<br />
http://www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm<br />
Cambridge<br />
06 November 2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1<br />
2. Data sources .................................................................................................................................................. 1<br />
3. Phonology and morphology .......................................................................................................................... 2<br />
4. Datasheets ..................................................................................................................................................... 3<br />
5. The internal classification of Tivoid ............................................................................................................. 7<br />
5.1 Central Tivoid .......................................................................................................................................... 7<br />
5.2 North Tivoid ............................................................................................................................................ 9<br />
5.3 Ugarə........................................................................................................................................................ 9<br />
5.4 Esimbi ...................................................................................................................................................... 9<br />
5.5 Buru ....................................................................................................................................................... 11<br />
6. Overall classification................................................................................................................................... 12<br />
7. The place of Tivoid within Bantoid ............................................................................................................ 12<br />
8. Speculations on the migration history of Tivoid peoples............................................................................ 13<br />
9. Conclusions................................................................................................................................................. 13<br />
References....................................................................................................................................................... 14<br />
TABLES<br />
Table 1. The Tivoid languages.......................................................................................................................... 1<br />
Table 2. Comparative Tivoid datasets............................................................................................................... 3<br />
Table 3. Common lexical items in Central Tivoid A ........................................................................................ 7<br />
Table 4. Items shared by Oliti and Ceve ........................................................................................................... 8<br />
Table 5. Evidence for subgrouping Tiv, Iyive and Otanga ............................................................................... 8<br />
Table 6. Isoglosses for Central Tivoid B........................................................................................................... 8<br />
Table 7. Evidence for subgrouping Ipulo and Olulu......................................................................................... 8<br />
Table 8. Evidence for North Tivoid .................................................................................................................. 9<br />
Table 9. Lexical items specific to Ugarə........................................................................................................... 9<br />
Table 10. Esimbi words not shared with other Tivoid languages ..................................................................... 9<br />
Table 11. Niger-Congo roots in Esimbi and other Tivoid languages.............................................................. 10<br />
FIGURES<br />
Figure 1. Internal structure of Tivoid.............................................................................................................. 12<br />
Figure 2. Revised subclassification of Benue-Congo and Bantoid languages ................................................ 13<br />
1
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The Tivoid languages represent one of the least-known and most poorly characterised of the larger Bantoid<br />
groups. Indeed no argument for the unity of this group has ever been presented in print and for some putative<br />
Tivoid languages there appears to be no published information. Meek (1931) may well be the earliest author<br />
to record languages other than Tiv itself; he provides vocabularies of Bitare, Abɔ̃ and Batu. Greenberg<br />
(1963) included Tiv, Bitare and Batu, languages now considered to be Tivoid, as three of the seven coordinate<br />
branches of Bantu but did not argue for any special relationship between them. Williamson<br />
(1971:276) lists Tiv, Ceve, Balegete, Bitare, Abɔ̃ and Batu as part of the Tiv-Batu group, which she places<br />
within ‘non-Bantu Bantoid’ alongside Mambila-Wute [i.e. Mambiloid]. Balegete is an Upper Cross language<br />
very remote from Tivoid and indeed a footnote admits that no data was available. The Benue-Congo<br />
Comparative Wordlist material seems to derive from Meek with Tiv added.<br />
The recognition that there is a whole group of languages related to Tiv may first appear in Dieu & Renaud<br />
(1983) reprised in Watters & Leroy (1989). Piron (1997) recognises a Tivoid group although she only<br />
sampled a very small number of languages. Her lexicostatistic counts link it with ‘Noni’, i.e. Beboid. The<br />
situation is thus of the same data being recycled from one author to another with no real advances in<br />
analysis. It therefore seems useful to present a comparative wordlist of Tivoid, as far as this is possible, and<br />
to use this information to develop a preliminary classification of the family 1 .<br />
The first version of this paper accepted the assignation ot Tivoid of a number of languages which following<br />
further analysis would be better placed with West Momo, now rebaptised SW Grassfields. These languages<br />
are Balo, Manta and Osatu. They are therefore excluded from this second, revised version. Table 1 shows<br />
the Tivoid languages presently recorded, with populations taken from the Ethnologue and the sources<br />
available for each language. Populations are generally estimates and have different dates attached and so<br />
should be treated as indicative of scale only.<br />
Table 1. The Tivoid languages<br />
Name Country Population Sources<br />
Abɔ̃ Nigeria 1000 Koops ms., IL survey<br />
Ambo Nigeria 1000 ?<br />
Batu Nigeria 25,000 Koops ms.<br />
Bitare [=Njwande] Nigeria/ Cameroon 6000 Koops ms.<br />
Caka [=Asaka] Cameroon 5000 ALCAM<br />
Eman Cameroon 800 ALCAM<br />
Esimbi Cameroon 20,000 Koenig, Coleman & Coleman (2007)<br />
Evant Cameroon 1000 ALCAM<br />
Iceve-Maci Nigeria 5000 ALCAM<br />
Ipulo Cameroon 2500 ALCAM<br />
Iyive Nigeria/ Cameroon 2000 ALCAM<br />
Kamino Nigeria 1000 Koops ms.<br />
Ugarə (=Mesaka) Cameroon 14,000 Cassetta & Cassetta (1994a,b,c)<br />
Otank (=Otanga) Nigeria 3000 ALCAM<br />
Tiv Nigeria 2,212,000 Abraham (1940b)<br />
I have been unable to find any data for Ambo, so the only proof of its existence is repeated assertion.<br />
2. Data sources<br />
The great majority of lists derive from ALCAM, the Linguistic Atlas of Cameroun, hence the list of 120<br />
words which was used for that survey. ms. wordlists collected by Rob Koops in the 1970s. Materials on Tiv<br />
far exceed those for all other languages, including Malherbe (1934), Abraham (1933, 1940a,b), Terpstra<br />
(1968) and Arnott (1958, 1964, 1967, 1969). Gundu & Jockers (1985) provide a general bibliography of<br />
publications on and in the Tiv language itself. Initial studies of Esimbi are Stallcup (1980a,b,c) and the<br />
1 The core data in this paper comes from the ALCAM surveys undertaken in Cameroun during the 1970s and kindly<br />
made available by Cameron Hamm. I would also like to thank Rob Koops for making available his manuscript<br />
wordlists of Nigerian Tivoid languages.<br />
1
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
phonology in Fointein (1986). In a more modern style, there is a ms. dictionary by Coleman (n.d.) and a<br />
phonology (Koenig, Coleman & Coleman 2007). Cassetta & Cassetta (1994a,b,c) have contributed some<br />
initial studies of Ugare. Apart from Tiv, most of this other material is unpublished.<br />
The datasheets have been edited as follows;<br />
Tiv. Has been corrected from Abrahams (1940b).<br />
Afi, Kamino, Abɔ̃ and Njwande. Typed from Rob Koops’ original datasheets. Only the Afi list is filled for<br />
the complete Ibadan 400 list. None of these lists match the ALCAM list, so there are a number of significant<br />
gaps. Presumed infinitive marker na- deleted from verbs.<br />
Ugare. The original Ugare material appeared under ‘Mesaka’, and has been corrected from Cassetta &<br />
Cassetta (1994a,b,c). Uncorrected forms are not tone-marked. However, spurious /ɑ/ has been corrected to<br />
/a/ and the infinitive prefixes uv- on verbs have been deleted. Where the root is not the same, the original is<br />
maintained with (S) and the Cassetta version is marked (C).<br />
Esimbi. Corrected from Coleman (n.d.)<br />
3. Phonology and morphology<br />
For Tivoid languages, phonologies of any sort exist for only three languages, Tiv, Esimbi and Ugarə. Even<br />
the material on Tiv is not really up to modern standards. Ugarə has an eight-vowel system not atypical for<br />
the region;<br />
Front Central Back<br />
Close i ɨ u<br />
Close-Mid e o<br />
Open-Mid ɛ ɔ<br />
Open<br />
a<br />
Vowel length can be contrastive, although it is likely to arise from sequences of two similar vowels. The<br />
vowels of Esimbi are identical.<br />
The consonants too are very similar to many languages in the region.<br />
Bilabial Labiodental<br />
Alve- Alveopalatal Palatal Velar Labial-<br />
Glottal<br />
olar<br />
velar<br />
Plosive p b t d [c] j k g kp gb<br />
Implosive<br />
ɓ<br />
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ<br />
Trill<br />
[r]<br />
Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ ɣ h<br />
Approximant y w<br />
Lateral<br />
l<br />
Approximant<br />
Esimbi adds the bilabial approximant /β/ but is otherwise similar.<br />
Tiv and Ugarə are two-tone languages, with low tones causing automatic downstep. Ugarə also has upstep,<br />
which may well be present in related languages. Esimbi has three tones as well as rising and falling glide<br />
tones.<br />
Tiv itself has been the subject of some discussion because it is one of the small number of Niger-Congo<br />
languages to have both prefixes and suffixes. Similar morphology may occur in other Grassfields languages<br />
such as Bum and Bamunka, although these have yet to be fully described (Hamm p.c.). Otherwise these<br />
occur among Gur and proximate languages in the Togo-Ghana borderland (Avatime, Bassari and Bogong<br />
are examples).<br />
2
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
4. Datasheets<br />
Table 2. Comparative Tivoid datasets<br />
No. French English Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Njwande Esimbi Ugare Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand Caka Caka Ipulo Olulu Eman English<br />
[=Mesaka]<br />
[=Batanga] [=Asaka]<br />
[=Amanavil]<br />
1. bouche mouth tsɔ̄ gū/ só/ásó ɔdzu /a- úꜛzɔ̂ pl. íꜛzɔ̂ dzɑ udzwɑ unu uno odzɔ ɔnu uʒɔ ɑdsu uwu uwu ɔzɔ mouth<br />
ásɔ̄ gū<br />
2. œil eye nyíʃīn/ nyíʃī/áníʃī enyiʃī eʃī/aʃī kí-ʃi /ó í-ʃì /é- iʃɛ iʃi iʃi iʃi ise iʃi iyili iɛli ix ix iyili eye<br />
anyíʃín<br />
3. tête head n vw énūn/áf w ɛ́n vúnũ/àfṹ ófúnē ofū/āfú kɛ̀-rəŋgə /mɛ̀- íꜛkɔ́lɛ̀ pl. itiɔx kitok ituwu ituwu eto kɛtɔk ikɔtɔ ewutu ɛkwɑt ɛkwɔt ekɔtɔ head<br />
áꜛkúlù<br />
4. cheveux hair (on fwɛ́nō/- fúnū/- kəfu eyì pl. êyì ufwɔ icɛ iʃyɛ iŋu iɲu icyɛ ici bigɔnu eyu ikit ikit iwi hair (on<br />
head)<br />
head)<br />
5. dent tooth nyín̄ /ánýī nyín̄ /ánýī éɲī/ áɲī eŋgī/aŋgī ki-zini /o- íyîn pl. éꜛyîn iɲix kiɲɛk aɲɛ ɛnix inɛɣ kunuk igɛ igǝ iŋ iŋ igo tooth<br />
6. langue tongue númān/ nímīn/ánɛ́mē enyé ɛnim o-nə́mə /ɔ- úꜛnɛ̂ m pl. nɔmboɾ ɔnɔmbǝlǝ olǝfʌlǝ ɔlǝfǝl olɛmbǝ ivivi ibɛ ibǝ ivɛv ivɛv iwɛlɛ tongue<br />
ánúmā<br />
ɣ<br />
íꜛnɛ̂ m<br />
7. nez nose nd v ʒénūn/ jíndī/jíndīō ɛnu o-húndu /ɔ- eyu: ihiŋgɑ iŋgɑ ɛfʌŋgɑ ɛtǝŋgɑ ihiŋgɑ ɛnwɛh ɔyunu ɔunu ɛyun eyun ɑyɔmɔ nose<br />
āg v ɛ́l<br />
8. oreille ear ndún/ándó fīnyín/āfyœ̄ nyī otu/atu ó-to /ɔ́- úꜛtô pl. ɛ́ꜛtû utox kutɔk otuŋ ɔtuŋo oto kɔtɔŋkok ɔtu ɑtɔ ɔtu ɔtu ɔto ear<br />
9. cou neck mìnè/mínāū mīnā̀/ámínā<br />
kimɔŋgo o-mi /ɛ- úmɛ̀ pl. ímɛ̀ mɔn umɔn omɛnǝ ɔmɛnɛ omɛn ɔmɛn ɔmɛ ɔmɛ ɔmi ɔmi ume neck<br />
mīnà<br />
10. sein breast mbánə̄ n/ábán̄ mbánə̄ n/ābə̄ n ɛban ke-yímbi /ɛ- í↑-vyɛ́ndè pl. tumbɑx itumbɑ otimbɑ ɔtɛmbɑɣ otimbɑɣ ɑtɔmbwɑ ibɑndɑ ɛbindi ɛvɑnt evɑnt ebɑndɑ breast<br />
é↑-vɩńdì<br />
11. bras / arm / bɔ́ɔ̄ /ábóā bɔ́ɔ̄ /ábóā abú obō/abō ɔ́-bu /á- ukpɛndi ukwinde kuwɛk uvuwu uwu ovok ikivi ubɔ ɑbo ɔwɑ owɔ ɔbɔ arm /<br />
main hand<br />
hand<br />
12. griffe, claw nail nyásī / nyásī /<br />
cikwɔkwa ke-zi /ɛ- uku:lu ikuvwe kikul ɔnumɔvu ɛkwɑlǝɣɛ ikuluɣ kyɑn bɔk iɲɑfi iɲɑfǝ iwe iuwɛ iyɔbɔ claw nail<br />
ongle<br />
nyásə̄ ō- nyásə̄ ōkwārá<br />
kwārá fē fē<br />
13. jambe leg, foot mbánə̄ n/ābə́n ɛ́bâ eba/aba ūgurū/ āgurū o-gúru /ɔ- úvàlɛ́ pl. uŋguhɑɾ ɔŋgɑsǝ(f) okɑsǝ ɔkɑsɑɣ ovlo ɛwǝlɛ ɔgulu ɑgulǝ ɔwʌl owul ɔgɔlɔ leg, foot<br />
pied<br />
áv̀ĺ<br />
14. fesse buttock nṹ ŋ́gán̄ /āká ɔ-tə wu ɛsuŋgu ítyɔ̀lɛ́ pl. ɑtɔ ityɔ ɑtɔ ɛto icyo ɑtɑwɔlɑ ɑtutu ɑtɔt ɔtɑnut etɑnot utu buttock<br />
a-tə yə ~ átùlú<br />
15. ventre belly dúmbə̀ī / tùmún/bùtùn ebũ/abũ ēbiri/abiri ke-ciʃi /me- únà pl. iyɑv iyɑvǝ otsɔl ifli oyɑv vɔgyɑv buyɑ bɔyi wɔyɑv woyɑv bɔyɑ belly<br />
dúmbāu<br />
(v)àǹ<br />
16. nombril navel ʃɛ̀mbù dúmbà/dum ki-túŋgu /mi- tsɛmbe cɔmbo icɔmp etsɛmp ɑtsimp icɔmp ɛcʌmp ituŋgɔ ituŋgu ituŋg ituŋk ituŋgu navel<br />
17. intestins<br />
/boyaux<br />
intestines<br />
/ insides<br />
hɑhindɛyɔʒ [S] ɑ:gliunɑ iyɑm ɔdzɔliyɑ etsɔlɔ ɛcɑ:lo ovor ɛcǝl ɔsulu ɔsulu ɔswɑl ɑswɔl ɔsɔlɔ intestines<br />
/ insides<br />
18. sang blood ńvə́m éfáma ú /nvām kinɪm mɛ-yuŋgu vecin ɑwɑmbe aɔmp ɑgɔmbo ɑɣɑmbo ɑvɔmp ɑmbo ɔyuŋgɔ ɑyuŋgu ɑyiŋk iyiŋk ɑyɔŋgo blood<br />
19. urine urine ŋgám̀ ŋgàm mɛjindi vɑnjihi iɲɑndem miɲɑzimǝ mɛɲɑsim mɛɲɑsim mɑyɑm mɑɲɑnzim ɛzindi ɛzindɛ mɛsinz mɛsinzɛ ezinzɛ urine<br />
ɔ<br />
zim<br />
ɛ<br />
20. os bone fùfu fūgū kí-kú /mí- úkúhú/í- ukuhe kikwɛk ekifɛ ikifɛ ikuhɛɣ kegbuk iku iku iku iku iku bone<br />
21. peau skin sùgà kégúgí kīgū è-gùghù pl. é- ikwaɣ ikɔf kikwɔk okɔyulo ɛkɔɣ okɔkwɔ kɛkɔk ikɔ eku ɔkowu okow ɛkɔ skin<br />
gughù<br />
yolo<br />
22. aile wing wə́úáwó fìì/afii abōna ubatsi/abatsi ɔ-pǝɣərə /a- ú-kpḱpá /á- ɑgbil ɛbɛts ovɑlǝ ivɑlɛɣɛ ɛgbɛɣ kɔkɛɣlik owɑlɛ ɑwɑl ɔkɑbili opɑbɑli owɑlɑ wing<br />
23. plume feather fyīrò fìì/fīīnúnū fyīrò / afura ko-gunu /to- uŋgulu uŋguɾ uŋgul[u] oɲuŋgulu ɔnuŋgɔl ɛtɔŋ iŋgwili igunu egwini inwɔn iwunɑh iguɲu feather<br />
fyìronúnū<br />
m<br />
24. corne horn kwēsè/kwēso kwēsē/kwɛ́sò kwēsè/kw<br />
èkùru pl. ekúrú í-tsóhó /ɛ́- kolox kokolǝko okulu okwɔlo okor okwɔl ɑkɔlu ɑkɔlo ɔkul okul ɔkɔlɔ horn<br />
ēso<br />
25. queue tail vùndá/ vūndā / vùndá/uv<br />
ìtsùrù pl. ítsúrú ɔvindi tsɑ utsɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ ukyɛ uki ɔki oki ukyu tail<br />
uvunda bùvūndā unda<br />
(bird)<br />
kɛ́-tsə́lə́ / mɛ́-<br />
(mammal)<br />
26. être human nnə̀/ úfyə́u nìè/fíú nti ɔ̀-ŋgùlù / mɔ̀- nɛ̀lɛ̀ pl. oɾ nɔt onul ɔnɔlɛ or ɔnɔt ɔtu ɑtu ɔt ɔt ɔto human<br />
humain being<br />
(v)ɛ́nɛ̀lɛ́<br />
being<br />
27. homme man nò/fyó nyīsōŋ onumbusu mòsoŋgulù pl. utɑliɛnɛl nʌm soɾ ɔnɔmbǝso onǝmbǝsǝ ɔnumbɔso nɔmbʌs ɔnɔmǝs oyumɑto ɔyumɔtu ɔmbut ɔmbut yɑmbɔto man<br />
(mâle) (male)<br />
mósoŋgulu<br />
(male)<br />
28. femme woman nyìnà/ nyìnà okasə/bikasə mɔ̀ŋgúlú pl. nálɛ́ pl. kwɑse okɑs okye okɛɣ ɔkwɑs ɔkɑs bɔtu bwɔtu ɑt ɑt yɑto woman<br />
nyìnò<br />
mɔ́ŋgúlu (v)áꜜnɛ́lɛ́<br />
29. mari husband sùŋwà zumù / mɔ- unɔm nɔm onɔm ɔnum ɔnum onɔm onɔm ɔyumɔ ɔyumǝ yum yium yɔmɔ husband<br />
3
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
No. French English Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Njwande Esimbi Ugare Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand Caka Caka Ipulo Olulu Eman English<br />
[=Mesaka]<br />
[=Batanga] [=Asaka]<br />
[=Amanavil]<br />
30. enfant child ŋwàkwā / ŋwánə́kwā ŋwā/m w u ŋwálē/bōndō wùnu pl. wúnu vàn pl. bɔ́n wɑn wɑn wɑnǝ wɑni owɑn wɑnɔ ɔnu ɑnu ɔn on ɑnɔ child<br />
mbómkwā<br />
ní bare<br />
M. wanolɛ<br />
31. nom name nyān/ nān/ānyā ētēme ēdiki/ ādiki kɛ-li /ɛ- íyɔ́lɛ́ pl. iti icɛ itɛ itɛ ityɛ ɑtɑ iti iyitɛ wukum wukum bukumu name<br />
ānyā<br />
éyúlú<br />
32. ciel sky ɔbhəŋgə̀ idzɑ:l kwad ɑɔndc ʃɑkiyɑŋk ɑgo ɑgo ɑsɑn ɛɲɑgɔ ɑyo ɑyuɔ eyup eyup ɑiyo sky<br />
33. nuit night fìgìtun nemēná M ɛfu RK orǝ pl. ɔrə iyim tux iyimǝ ife ife imyɛ ɛwɛ iyimi iyimɛ iyim iyim iyimi night<br />
ésí iharī<br />
34. lune moon áwé/wil gwé ɛsaŋge atə́ŋgǝ útǎŋ pl. ítyǎŋ uwe uwɛl ovulu ɔwǝlu uor otɑŋk uwɛlɛ owulu ɔtɑŋk ɔtɑŋk uwɔlǝ moon<br />
35. soleil sun wɛ́lgwān gwéwú lə̄ n utsɪre eyù pl. eyu ìyù iyaŋge iyɑŋk eyɑŋgʌ iyɑ:ŋgɛ iyɑŋ ɔwɔ ɑyu ɔŋgwɑyuo eyup eyup ɑiyo sun<br />
36. vent wind hōadī/ hóró/hóróú embi ìyàlɛ̀ pl. ɑhumbe kɑbebǝl ɔfɔfʌ ufɔf ɑhuŋmg owɛ kuwɛlɛwɛ kɔwǝlewo ukpɑbil upɑbɑli epɑkɑpɑ wind<br />
hɔřau<br />
(v)àỳl̀<br />
be<br />
i<br />
37. nuage cloud kɛmbətə̀ ífùfúù iyibix ikuk ɑkuwu iflɛɣ ɑkuh kɛliɣik itigiti itikɛt ikilikitɔ ikilikitɔ itikɛti cloud<br />
38. rosée dew mobǝr [S] vuwulu ɑwule ewuli imi imi ovule owule ubɔlu obulu iyɔninɛ obulu dew<br />
39. pluie rain kwān̄ kwān ogwa obiri uwɔl uwulɑ uwulɑ ovǝlɑ ovlɑ ovǝle ewolɑ ɑbulu obolu ewul ewul ɑbolo rain<br />
40. terre ground gyə̀ú- ʒàu ɛdzughù zɔ̀hɔ̀ pl. iɲɑ iɲɑ eyɑŋu ɛɣɑŋɛ iɲɑ ɛtɔl izɔ ɛdzo ɛyɑ eyɑh eyɑ ground<br />
ízɔ̀hɔ́<br />
41. sable sand<br />
gwá _ jámbyū mənɔtsətsə ɑʃiʃɑ wɑlɑwɑ wǝlɑwɑ eʃɑndɑʃɑ iʃɑndɑʃɑ owɔlɑw ɔgwɑlɑgwɑ bɛlɛli bɛlɛlɛ wɑlɑw wɑlɑwɑ ɑlili sand<br />
ɑ<br />
ɑ<br />
42. chemin road ʃīná/ʃínā ʃìná/ʃínā o-numu /ɔ- dzɛ gbindɑ kumun uwɑ: ɔwɑ ihɑŋk ogwɑwɑh iʒi idzi isi mbuʃi izi path<br />
43. eau water ḿbígə́m̄ / mbígə̄ m mɔngɔmo murù / a- mɔ̀lɛ̀ pl. ŋgɛɾɛm muŋgolǝmo edzɔl edzɑlɛ edzɔl mɑmulum omɔlǝ ɔmɔlo mɔl mɔl mɔlɔ water<br />
ḿgórɔ̄<br />
ímɔ̀lɛ́<br />
44. cours stream sɔ́ř/sɔ́r̀ ḿmārā /<br />
gam ɔ-tu /a- usɑ:lɛ uwɑɾ wɑnowɑŋ dzɔlibɔnɑ ɛzɔlibɔnɑ idzɔlisin yɑsɔŋɛ iʒɑlɔ ɛdzɔlo zxwɔŋk ohɔŋk ezɔlɔ stream<br />
d’eau (river)<br />
búmářa<br />
i<br />
(river)<br />
45. maison house kì/- kî/ākî otuta/atuta kí-túmbù /mí- iyoɣ iyox kute etimbe itimbɛ itimbyɛ igu itumbu ɔtumbo ukwɔl ukwɔl etɑ house<br />
ú-ꜛkpĺɛ̀ /í-<br />
46. feu fire kúsū/- uwúsu, owúsu uguhu usu uwuz gusu ɔkwǝsɔ odzu ozwɛlɑ ɔgulǝ ogulo uwus uwus ugulu fire<br />
47. bois à firewood hún/áhún hún/áhún akwæ̃ ōkūn u-vini /o- iwun ikɔŋ ukɔn ɛkwun ɔkwɔnoh ɛkɔn ekɔm uwɛni owǝni uwɛŋ uwɛn ewiŋi firewood<br />
brûler<br />
48. fumée smoke ŋgím̄ /- ńʒím/- u-yi /o- uɲuwu ɲim miɲim mɛɲimi miyimi miɲim mɔɲim uyiki oyikɑ uyik uyik eyiki smoke<br />
49. cendre ash mūtāmwū ndāgām matɔm métsímī mɔɔtù vɑtu (S) ituɛm mutwim mutumu mǝtɔmo mutɔm mɔtumɛlɑm ɔtumǝ ɑtumu mɔtum ɑtum ɑtɔmo ash<br />
mūθīm<br />
éꜛlíhì (C)<br />
50. couteau knife bāfù/m̀ bām̀ ébáù/ńbám̀ umfwan ó-yi /ɛ́- ufɑn ihɔ ihɔ esɑmɔ ɛsɑmo isɔm yɑsɑmɛkili uwɛ owul ɔpul opul uwe knife<br />
51. corde rope kwédī/kwérɛ̀ū kwé/àkwé o-gbǝndǝ /ɔ- ukɑl ukɔɾ okɑl okwulɔ ɔyi okwɔr oyi ɔkɑlɑ ɔkǝlǝ ɔkɑ:l okal ugbɔlɔ rope<br />
52. lance, spear ŋgógə̀n / àkóŋ ngógɔ̄ n/àkóŋ ɛgoŋgo ótǝ pl. ɔɔtə iyɔn iwɑŋge iwɔŋ ɛgɔŋgo ɛgǝŋgo evɔŋk yɑvyɑ iyɑŋgɔ ɛyuŋgo ɛywɔŋk ɑyɔŋk eyɔŋgɔ spear<br />
sagaie<br />
53. guerre<br />
(combat)<br />
war<br />
(fight)<br />
sɔ̄ ǹ gōm̀ egūm kí-bírí /mí- ulum (S)<br />
ìvìlì (C)<br />
ityɑv vitɑv vetɑv ɛtɑvɛ etɑv vetɑv ɑʒɔŋu ɑnzuŋɣǝ vetɑv vetɑv ɑnzɔŋɔ war<br />
(fight)<br />
54. viande meat nyàm/nyám̀ nyàm eɲam éɲám̀ ɛ̀nyìmì pl. ɲɑm iyɑm iɲɑm eɲɑm ɛɲɑm iɲɑm ɛɲam iɲɑmǝ ɛɲim ɛɲɑm ɛɲɑm ɛɲɑmɑ meat<br />
ɛnyɛḿí<br />
55. chien dog bíyā/bíyá bíā/bíá ɛbwa ɛ̀bù pl. ɛ́bu bíbî pl. íꜛbî iwɑ iwɑ ewɑ ɛwɑ iwɑ ɛgwɑ ibɔ ɛbo ɛwɔ ɛwɔ ebɔ dog<br />
56. éléphant elephant ŋgɔ́mbɔ́ / ŋgɔ́mbɔ́ / etimakō eʒoku/ēʒoku ké-dzə̂ /mé- únɛ̀lɛ́ pl. noɾ nol esɔ ɛsɔ unɛɣ ɔnɛl kinɛmɛ ɔnɛlǝ ɔnil ɔnɛl kinɑmɔ elephant<br />
úŋgɔ́mbɔ́ būŋɔ́mbɔ́<br />
(v)ínɛ̀lɛ́<br />
57. chèvre goat byɛ̀n/byɛ́n byɛ̄ n/byɛ́n ɛbi ibì búbù pl. íꜛbû ivo iwɔ evu evu ivo ɛgwɛ ibi: ibi ivi ivi ivi goat<br />
58. oiseau bird núnùfú/núnūn ēnúnú/énúnūm kəɲun enunù pl. nùnù pl. iɲɔŋ inɔnɔ enunu ɛnǝnɔ inɔn yɑnunɛ inwinɛ iɲinǝ inwɔn inwɔn iɲɛnɛ bird<br />
enúnu<br />
(v)ínùnú<br />
59. tortue tortoise fèŋgə́ŋ / fə̀kóŋó / maŋkaŋgə ŋgakuru kɔ-kubəbə̀ /tɔ- ukululu kulux kulun ekulufyɑ mǝbun okuluɣ mɔbun kukubɑbɑ mogwɛ ikpɑkɔ igbɔkɔ nugwɛ tortoise<br />
m̀ ŋgɔ́n mə̀kóŋó rə/<br />
uŋkaŋgara<br />
60. serpent snake gyɔ̄ hɔ̄ /gyɔ́hɔ̄ ʒūò/júó eyǒ eyɔ̄ /ēyɔ́ ɛ̀-zu /ɛ́- yɔ̀ pl. íꜛyɔ̂ iyo iyɔ eyŋ ɛyɔŋ iyɔ ɛgyɔ iyɔ eiyu ɛywɔ eywɔ eiyɔ snake<br />
61. poisson fish sùù/súú ʃùù/ʃūū ì-su /í- úcá pl. ícá iʃu iʃu etsǝmbǝ ɛtsimbɛ isu isu ilu eulu ihu ihu ilu fish<br />
62. pou louse sālə̄ ū m̀ bún̄ /ābú<br />
ke-kə /me- gùhù pl. iuwusu iwut eguusu egusuwɑ isuwɑ izu igulu igulǝ iwis iwis ijulu louse<br />
sō/sóò<br />
ígùhú<br />
63. œuf egg ŋgín̄ /ákyí njísaan/ācísà eddíddǒ ēzí/azí ke-gi, ɛ́-gi /ɛ- iwu iji iji ɛdziŋ ɛdzinɛ ige ijiki igi igi eɣ eɣ igyɛ egg<br />
64. arbre tree ndíɛ̄ ndī / níndé/nɛ́ndéú akwæ̃ŋí kiti/biti kétə́, mɔ-tə úté pl. (v)ɛ̀tí ukɔŋ ɔkɔn ketuɣ ɛtiɣɛ itɛɣ ketɛk butɛ botɛ ɛti ɛti butɔ tree<br />
ńdíɛ̄ mbū<br />
/me-<br />
4
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
No. French English Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Njwande Esimbi Ugare Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand Caka Caka Ipulo Olulu Eman English<br />
[=Mesaka]<br />
[=Batanga] [=Asaka]<br />
[=Amanavil]<br />
65. écorce bark kómbwē, kúgù/kúmì è-ghùghù /é- ugu ivuwux kiwuku ɑguwu ɑgu ɑkoɣ kiklut bikɔ bigo ɔkɔwu okow ekɔ bark<br />
kúgē 2<br />
66. feuille leaf fyò/fyóō fì/fíī kɛ-yə́nə /a- iyɑn ukwɑ ukɑ ekɑŋɔ ɔkɑŋg okɑ okɑx yiɑnɑ ɑyinɛ oyɑβ uwu leaf<br />
67. racine root nságān/àkáŋ ngáŋīn/àkáŋí ɔ-ghəŋgə /a- ugɑŋ misɛ kimiʃeki esɑlǝ ɔsɑl odɑŋ ɔnisɛ ogɑŋgɑ ɑgiŋgɛ ɔkaŋk okɑŋk ogɑŋgɑ root<br />
68. sel salt hə́ŋgə̄ m/- hə́ŋām ɛta manu ànû bɑɾ mɛtsim mǝkɑŋǝm mɛkɑŋǝme obɑɣ mɔcɑm ɔmɛ ɔmǝ mɔnɔ mɔnɔ mɔno salt<br />
ǝ<br />
69. graisse fat ŋgə́gà ŋgə́gā memē meme ǝŋǝ (S) ɑfum ahɔm ɑhumɑ ɑfɔm ɑfɔm ɑhɔm ɑmɔ ɑbǝlɛ ɑbǝlǝ ɑmu ɑm ɑbɑlɑ fat<br />
miri pl. ɛmiri<br />
(oil)<br />
70. faim hunger sɔ́ sō ɛ̀dzù pl. ɛdzú dzɑŋ ijin ijunu ejunu ejɔnu idzɔn izin iʒɔŋgɔ ɛdzuŋǝ ɛswɔŋ ɛsɔŋ ezɔŋɔ hunger<br />
(général) (general)<br />
(general)<br />
71. fer (le iron ( ékīrā / wùkīrā ékìrā/bù bilɛŋge kí-tu /mí- uywɔl iyɔx kiyɔk eɲo: eɲɔɣo iɲɔɣɔ kiɲɔk oyɛŋgɛ itɛnǝ ɔyiŋk oyiŋk uyɔŋgɔ iron (<br />
métal) metal)<br />
metal)<br />
72. un one nífūn tífúnú imó fumo onǝ utwɑm mɔm mɔmo ɑmo: mɑmo mɔm kɑmɔk ɔnɛ kinɑ ɛmo imo iginɔ one<br />
73. deux two èvò bìvàū bifa M. harə RK mərakpə(ŋgərə) ulukpɑ hɑ: hiɑl ɑfɑlǝ fɑle hɑɣ viɑlɔ bɑli bɑ:li viɑl viyɑl biyɑ:li two<br />
bīhyāri<br />
74. trois three ètō bìtāū bitá atate makǝlǝ utɑ:rɛn tɑɾ tɑts ɑtɑl tɑle tɑɣ vetɛt bitɑti bɛtɑt vetɑt vetɑt bɛtɑti three<br />
75. quatre four ènài bìnə̀i bine M. aɲe RK monyi bi:nɛ ɲin ɲin miɲin ɲin ɲin vini binɛi binɛ veni: vɛni: binɔ: four<br />
bíɲe<br />
76. cinq five èkyùn/eʧun bicún bitṍ M. acon RK mɛtanə utɑ:nɛ tɑ:n tɑŋɑn otɑŋǝn tɑŋin tɑn vetɑŋǝn bitɑn bɛtɑn vetɑn vetɑn bɛtɑnɑ five<br />
bīcôn<br />
77. six six ètōnōmòn bìtánámùn busoru malalǝ utɑtɑ:rɛn tɑɾɑtɑɾ kǝlǝkǝtɑt otɑlutɑ tindɑl tindyɑl vɛtindɛt bɑndwɔtu bɛndǝto vetɑtu vilɑtum bɛtundɑtɔ six<br />
m<br />
78. sept seven èčūn[a]èvò bìcúnbívāu acon da halɛ matanə̀ utɑ:nɛulukpɑ otɑŋkɑɾuhaɾ kɑtǝmɔmo otɑŋǝnɔfɑ tɑŋǝnifɑlɛ tsɑlǝmɔ vɛtindɛtɔmo binɛnitɑti bɛndǝtonǝkinɑ vetɑtu vilɑtum bɛtundɑtɔginɔ seven<br />
mərakpə<br />
lǝ<br />
n<br />
mnɑmo nɑmo<br />
79. huit eight èčūn[a]ūtō bìcúnbítāū acon da tate minyinyi bi:nɛbi:nɛ ɑniɑni kinikin onini ɑɲɛni kiŋkini vinɛrene bini biɲiɲi venɛni vinɑni binini eight<br />
80. neuf nine ècūn āōnài bīcún bínə̀i acon da ɲe matanə̀ monyi utɑ:nɛbi:nɛ otɑŋkɑɾuɲin tɑnǝɲin otaŋǝnǝn tɑŋǝɲiyin tɑnɑɲin vinɛrenɛmo bitɑnbinɛ bɛtɑnǝbinɛ venɛni vinɑnin bininiginɔ nine<br />
uɲin<br />
nɑmo ɑmo<br />
81. dix ten gbwē hùmnífūnū ~<br />
oyuate bughù pl. buɣǝ puwe pwe likwɔŋ ikwɔŋ pue ɔfwɔt bok mbɔk epot epot buku ten<br />
gbwé<br />
mobughù<br />
82. venir come bā bâ -bǝ̂ u:vɑ (S) ɑvɑ ovɑ mǝvɑ ɑvɑ ovɑ vɑ ɑbɛ ɑbǝ ɔvɑ ovɑ nobɑ come<br />
sàhà (C)<br />
83. envoyer send<br />
(s.o.)<br />
ndùmá nùmā (e)tīma -tumù tègh ɑtindi ɑtɔnt mǝtimɑ ɑtǝmɑ ɑtint ɑtumwɑ ɔtumo ɑtumo ɔtum otum notɔmo send<br />
(s.o.)<br />
84. marcher walk -dzərə sé ɑzindi edzint mojindi ɑzɛnde ɑdzint zint ɑliŋgɛ ɛliŋgǝ usɔt uwisɔt nulɔŋgo walk<br />
85. tomber fall kwà gwa -gbə̀ uvgbɛ ɑgbɑ ɑbɑ mɔgbɑ ɑgbɑ ɑgbɑ gbɑ ɔduŋgo ɑduŋgo ɔpɔnɔ opɔnɔ nodɔŋgo fall<br />
86. partir leave -tə̀ mǵh ɑyim eyu mumwɑ ɑmɑɣɑ ɑyo gwin ɛmɛkɛ ɑs uwɛ uwɛ nozɑ leave<br />
87. voler fly tìndī tɛ̄ nɛ̄ -vì pàm ɑpulu epulul meviŋgɛ ɑviŋge imu pɛpilin ɔpulɔlɔ ɑpǝlo umɔmil umɑbɑl nuwe fly<br />
(oiseau)<br />
i i<br />
88. verser pour sùgū [ŋgyâ] kūnyí -dzumù wulu ɑhɑ ɑkusɑ mifiyil ɑwulɑ ɑhɑ sɔwɑ ɑmɑkɛ ɑɣyoku uyit ɛɣe nusɔlɔ pour<br />
89. frapper beat bàmgyâ bàmnyí -gbirì tɑmbǝ (S) ɑhɔn ɑhin mǝfǝnɔ ɛvɑlǝɣɛ ɑdzɑhin gwɔh ɛwɛnɛ ɔwuno ɔpin opin huwɛnɛ strike<br />
gbílí (C)<br />
90. mordre bite gwāgē númā vimabī ēnimakī -numù nɔm ɑɲimɑ ɑɲomɑ mǝnɛmɑ ɑnimɑ ɑɲimɑ numɑ ɔnumu ɑnumo ɔnum onum nɔnɔmo bite<br />
91. laver wash gùná gúnā -sù sɔ aɔ: ɑwɔ mɔwo ɑdzɑwɔ ɑklio wɔ ɔlu ɑulo ɔhu: ohu nɔlɔ wash<br />
(transitif) (tr.)<br />
(tr.)<br />
92. fendre split<br />
-lì<br />
paɣ (S) ɑpɑv ɑpɑv mǝpɑv ɑkpɑv ɑpɑv mbu ɑyuiti ɑyitɛ ukɛŋ okɛŋ nukɛɲɛ split<br />
(wood)<br />
álé (C)<br />
(wood)<br />
93. donner give hánà hágō ha ha -nə̀, -nə̂ fá ɑnɑ ɑnɑ mǝnɑn ɑnɑ ɑnɑ nɔ ɑnǝ ɑnɛ ɔnɑ ɔnɑ nɔnɑ give<br />
94. voler steal grú jú -dzə̂ uyɛ ɑyi ɛyɛ miyi ɛyi ɑyi gi ɔʒi ɛdzi uʃi uʃi nuzɔ steal<br />
(dérober)<br />
95. presser squeeze kwaná kám, mɔn -kǝmə̀ uvkiɣil ɑkil ɛkilik mɛɲil ɑɲil ɑɲil ɲit okikɛli ɛnit ukiliki ukiliki nukliki squeeze<br />
96. cultiver cultivate -pì káhá ɑkɑhɑ ɑkɑ mɛwum okɑfɛ ɑkɑhɑ kɑ ɛwɛ ɑkǝ wɔkɑ okɑh nɔkɑ cultivate<br />
97. enterrer bury (t.) n̄ ŋwè ŋwè -kirì gumbu ɑi: ɛɣi mɛiyi oyi ɑyi ɣi oyi ɛyi uswɔl uswɔl nuyi bury (t.)<br />
(t.)<br />
98. brûler (t.) burn (t.) tɔ́ŋfyā ŋwə̄ n -kpirì ciɣil uhiɑ ɑsɔŋ mǝsɔŋ osɔŋ ɑsɔŋk tumbwǝn ɔyuku ɑyok ɔyɔk ɔyɔk noyɔkɔ burn (t.)<br />
99. manger eat [gó]gyā yá yáā yá -ri ɲí ɑyɑ ɑyɑ mɛyɑ ɑyɑ ɑyɑ gyɑ ɛli ɛli uyi uyi nulyɔ eat<br />
100. boire drink [go]ŋwā ŋwā -mû nú ɑmɑ ɑmɑ mɔŋwɑ ɑŋwɑ ɑmɑ mu ɛmwɛ ɔmo umu umu numwɔ drink<br />
101. vomir vomit haì ŋwātú -yì ɑne ɑsuwɑ ɑswɑ mɔswɑ ɑswɑ ɑswɑ swɑ eŋwinɛ ɛɲin uɲɛŋ uŋɛ nuɲɛɲɛ vomit<br />
2<br />
after peeling<br />
5
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
No. French English Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Njwande Esimbi Ugare Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand Caka Caka Ipulo Olulu Eman English<br />
[=Mesaka]<br />
[=Batanga] [=Asaka]<br />
[=Amanavil]<br />
102. sucer suck -yəmbə̀ [suck ɑmgbe ɑɔ ɑmɑ mɛɲɑmp ɑɲɑmbɑ ɑmɑ mu ɛmwɛ ɑyimbɛ ɔyɑmb oyɑmp noyɑmbɑ suck<br />
breast]<br />
103. cracher<br />
(salive)<br />
spit<br />
(saliva)<br />
gyú tùŋgánà júnà jū cu ajwe yulu azuŋgu -tû tu ɑtɑ ɑtɑ muto ɑto ɑtɑ tu ɛtwi ɛti utwɑ utwɔ nutwɑ spit<br />
(saliva)<br />
104. souffler blow tɔ́ŋ fónà -suru [on fire] dú ɑɔ ewek meyin ɑyiŋe ɑiŋ ŋgǝ ɛɲigɛ ɛɲig wuwɛk uwɛki nuɲɛŋe blow<br />
(sur) (on)<br />
-fufu [wind]<br />
i<br />
(on)<br />
105. enfler swell dífūń yōfúnn -mùrù mol ɑmɔl ɑmotɑ mǝmɑlɑ ɑmolɑ ɔmɔtu ɑmɔt omut nɔmɔtɔ swell<br />
106. engendrer give<br />
birth<br />
bwə̄ n bwà -bî gbo ɑmɑ: ɑmɑt mǝmɑl ɑmɑl ɑmɑlɑ mɑt obi ɛbi wuvi uβi nubi give<br />
birth<br />
107. mourir die wé wènā kwé kwe(mā) ekī (? -kpǝ̂ kṕ ɑgbe ɛkpo mukwɔ ɑkwo ɑkpo gbɔ ɛkpɛ ɛbǝ wukwɔ ukwɔ nukpɔ die<br />
=death)<br />
108. tuer kill húnā gúná -zû ɛ́wú ɑwɑ ɑwɑ mɛyivɑ ɑyivɑ ɑwɑ dwɑ ɛgimɛ ɛgim wɔyi oyi nugɔmɔ kill<br />
109. pousser push yúnà yúnà -tùŋgù tòŋ ɑŋmgbehɑ ɑmbɔkɑ mutus ɑtuʃ ɑmbʌɣh buɛ ɑwɛkɛ eɲɛt wutindi utindigi nowɑsɑ push<br />
ɑ<br />
ki<br />
110. tirer pull tùmá tūmá -numbù ʃiɣi ɑwulu ɛtimbe metimbɛ ɑtimbe ɑtuŋmg gyɑm ɔgu ɑgɔ wɔlimb otul nogo pull<br />
be<br />
111. chanter sing fa ánúmbà fā mànúmā -yimbì ji ɑwɑ atɔm motumo ɑtɔmo ɑtum tumɑn ɛgiŋgɛ ɑtumu wɔlit olit nowɑlɑ sing<br />
112. jouer (un<br />
jeu)<br />
play<br />
(game)<br />
sundzūn bínínyoŋān -vî ɛŋgù ɲɔŋgǝlɛ ɑnɔmbe ɑnumbe mǝlɛvili olɛlɛ iyo ligɛ ɛgɛti ɛgɛt wɔvɔŋg ovɔŋk nunɔŋgɔlɔ play<br />
(game)<br />
113. avoir be afraid kágūfō kágūgāu -hindì cí ɑciɑ acyɑ mɛcɑ ɑtɛʃɛ ɑcɑ gyɔk ikɛsɛ ikɛsǝ wusɛti usɛti nusɔ be afraid<br />
peur<br />
114. vouloir want ndɔ́ɔ́ míndò ndɔ̄ -rǝ̂ solǝ ɑso ekɛt mɛli miliɣɛ ɑso tɔl olɛkɛ ɛsindǝ wuwun uwunt nusɔndɔ want<br />
d<br />
115. dire say ké ké -ŋgî tsɛ̀lɛ̀ ɑyɔso ɑkɑ mɔkɑnɔ mɛkɑɲɛ ɑlɑm lɛvlin ɔŋgulu ɑngɔlǝ wɑsuk opɔmp nuwɔwɔ say<br />
u<br />
116. voir see mɔ̄ /hīŋgā hɛ́m -di ndá ɑnige ɑsɔl mǝtyɛ ɑtiɣi ɑin cɑ ɛde ɛdǝ wusuŋk usuŋk nudɛ see<br />
117. montrer show nídàgɛ̀nnā cànà -cìʃì tègh ɑtese etɛs mitɛ ɑtiŋisi ɑtɛs kɑɣɑn ɛtɛŋgǝlɛ ɛtindgɑlǝ wɔliŋgi utɔŋgɑh nutɔŋgɔlɔ show<br />
mi u<br />
118. entendre hear ŋgwā ŋgwā -yughùrù álú ɑuŋgwɑ ɑwuŋgwɑ mɔŋgwa ŋgwɑ ɑtɑmbiɣ ŋmgbɑ ɔyutu ɑyutu wɔyutu ɔyutu nɔyɔtɔ hear<br />
119. savoir, know hɛ́mmāgō -kǝrə̀ cɛ́lɛ́ ɑfɑ ɑkɑv micil micil ɑfo kɑn ɛkǝli ɛkǝlǝ wukɔl ukɔl nukolɔ know<br />
connaître<br />
120. compter count fà fwa -tǝŋə̀ ɑlu ɑɔ ɑɔt mǝvɔl ɑvɔl ɑoy tɔ ɑtiŋgɛ ɑtinǝ wɔpɑn opɑn nopɑnɑ count<br />
6
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
5. The internal classification of Tivoid<br />
Tivoid is a group whose existence has always depended more on assertion than demonstration. There is no<br />
academic paper which demonstrates its coherence and part of the reason for this exercise is to establish<br />
criteria for membership. The data table shows that there are a number of lexemes that are found across the<br />
entire range of Tivoid. These are; neck (9.), meat (54.), dog (55.), goat (57.), bird (58.), snake (60.), fish (61.),<br />
hunger (70.) and bite (90.). All of these are found outside Tivoid so this is not entirely conclusive, but can<br />
certainly be taken as indicative. Perhaps more relevant is the fact that an internal classification of Tivoid can<br />
be established from the dataset. The following sections propose a set of subgroups using the numbered sets<br />
in Table 2.<br />
5.1 Central Tivoid<br />
The largest single group within Tivoid is here named Central Tivoid. It consists of;<br />
Tiv<br />
Iyive<br />
Oliti<br />
Baceve<br />
Otanga<br />
Evand<br />
Caka [=Batanga]<br />
Caka [=Asaka]<br />
Ipulo<br />
Olulu<br />
Eman [=Amanavil]<br />
Central Tivoid is here considered to consist of two major subgroups, A and B. Central Tivoid A is a welldefined<br />
set of six languages, Tiv, Iyive, Oliti, Baceve, Otanga and Evand. Evidence for their coherence as a<br />
group can be seen in the following items;<br />
Table 3. Common lexical items in Central Tivoid A<br />
Gloss Tiv Iyive Oliti Baceve Otanga Evand<br />
ash ituɛm mutwim mutumu mǝtɔmo mutɔm mɔtumɛlɑm<br />
fall ɑgbɑ ɑbɑ mɔgbɑ ɑgbɑ ɑgbɑ gbɑ<br />
firewood ikɔŋ ukɔn ɛkwun ɔkwɔnoh ɛkɔn ekɔm<br />
man (male) nʌm soɾ ɔnɔmbǝso onǝmbǝsǝ ɔnumbɔso nɔmbʌs ɔnɔmǝs<br />
navel tumbɑx itumbɑ otimbɑ ɔtɛmbɑɣ otimbɑɣ ɑtɔmbwɑ<br />
smoke ɲim miɲim mɛɲimi miyimi miɲim mɔɲim<br />
tail tsɑ utsɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ ocɑ ɔcɑ<br />
walk ɑzindi edzint mojindi ɑzɛnde ɑdzint zint<br />
war (fight) ityɑv vitɑv vetɑv ɛtɑvɛ etɑv vetɑv<br />
woman kwɑse okɑs okye okɛɣ ɔkwɑs ɔkɑs<br />
7
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
Within Central Tivoid A, Oliti and Ceve are closely related, as suggested by the common lexical items in<br />
Table 4;<br />
Table 4. Items shared by Oliti and Ceve<br />
Gloss Oliti Ceve<br />
arm uvuwu uwu<br />
bark ɑguwu ɑgu<br />
blood ɑgɔmbo ɑɣɑmbo<br />
bone ekifɛ ikifɛ<br />
ear otuŋ ɔtuŋo<br />
egg ɛdziŋ ɛdzinɛ<br />
fish etsǝmbǝ ɛtsimbɛ<br />
leaf ekɑŋɔ ɔkɑŋg<br />
leg okɑsǝ ɔkɑsɑɣ<br />
louse eguusu egusuwɑ<br />
root esɑlǝ ɔsɑl<br />
salt mǝkɑŋǝmǝ mɛkɑŋǝme<br />
ten likwɔŋ ikwɔŋ<br />
wing ovɑlǝ ivɑlɛɣɛ<br />
There is restricted evidence that Tiv, Iyive and Otanga may subgroup against Evand (Table 5);<br />
Table 5. Evidence for subgrouping Tiv, Iyive and Otanga<br />
Gloss Tiv Iyive Otanga<br />
ten puwe pwe pue<br />
send ɑtindi ɑtɔnt ɑtint<br />
count ɑɔ ɑɔt ɑoy<br />
ground iɲɑ iɲɑ iɲɑ<br />
The second group, Central Tivoid B, consists of Caka, Ipulo, Olulu and Eman. Table 6 shows isoglosses that<br />
suggest this subgrouping;<br />
Table 6. Isoglosses for Central Tivoid B<br />
Gloss Caka I Caka II Ipulo Olulu Eman<br />
head ikɔtɔ ewutu ɛkwɑt ɛkwɔt ekɔtɔ<br />
nose ɔyunu ɔunu ɛyun eyun ɑyɔmɔ<br />
ear ɔtu ɑtɔ ɔtu ɔtu ɔto<br />
navel ituŋgɔ ituŋgu ituŋg ituŋk ituŋgu<br />
blood ɔyuŋgɔ ɑyuŋgu ɑyiŋk iyiŋk ɑyɔŋgo<br />
urine ɛzindi ɛzindɛ mɛsinzɛ mɛsinzɛ ezinzɛ<br />
human being ɔtu ɑtu ɔt ɔt ɔto<br />
Within Central Tivoid B, Ipulo and Olulu clearly should be paired (Table 7);<br />
Table 7. Evidence for subgrouping Ipulo and Olulu<br />
Gloss Ipulo Olulu<br />
mouth uwu uwu<br />
eye ix ix<br />
hair ikit ikit<br />
tooth iŋ iŋ<br />
tongue ivɛv ivɛv<br />
buttock ɔtɑnut etɑnot<br />
wind ukpɑbili upɑbɑli<br />
8
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
5.2 North Tivoid<br />
The weak data on the three languages on the Nigerian side makes unambiguous classification impossible.<br />
However, there are some isoglosses that appear to relate Afi, Kamino, Abɔ̃ and Bitare. Ambo, for which<br />
there is no data, may be part of this group. Table 8 presents some common glosses for these four languages<br />
against the rest of Tivoid.<br />
Table 8. Evidence for North Tivoid<br />
Gloss Afi Kamino Abɔ̃ Bitare<br />
give hánà hágō ha ha<br />
head nvwénūn/áfwɛ́n vúnũ/àfṹ ófúnē ofū/āfú<br />
feather fyīrò fìì/fīī fyīrò afura<br />
child ŋwàkwā / mbómkwā ŋwánə́kwā ŋwā/mwuní ŋwálē<br />
5.3 Ugarə<br />
Ugarə [=Mesaka] is better documented than the other Tivoid languages in this region, which may explain its<br />
unusual status. However, it does appear to have numerous common lexemes not shared with the rest of<br />
Tivoid, hence it is provisionally classified as a distinct branch. Table 9 shows a set of lexical items specific<br />
to Ugarə which separate it from the rest of Tivoid;<br />
Table 9. Lexical items specific to Ugarə<br />
Gloss<br />
Ugarə<br />
blood<br />
vecin<br />
intestines / insides<br />
aagliuna<br />
wing<br />
ú-kpḱpá /áhorn<br />
í-tsóhó /ɛ́tail<br />
ɔvindi<br />
woman<br />
nálɛ́ pl. (v)á ↓ nɛ́lɛ́<br />
name<br />
íyɔ́lɛ́ pl. éyúlú<br />
sky<br />
idzɑ:l<br />
wind<br />
ìyàlɛ̀ pl. (v)àỳl̀<br />
cloud<br />
ífùfúù<br />
5.4 Esimbi<br />
Whether Esimbi is Tivoid can be seriously doubted. Table 10 shows a list of Esimbi words not shared with<br />
the rest of Tivoid. Even those which are shared (Table 11) are often NC roots which might be due to a<br />
common heritage. Esimbi is the most well-known language outside Tiv which is classified as Tivoid. If so, it<br />
is extremely marginal as it has a large number of lexical items not shared with the rest of the group. Table 10<br />
shows lexical items where Esimbi is exceptional for Tivoid, i.e. where no cognate appears to occur among<br />
the other Tivoid languages. There are 55 out of a total list of 120 words, i.e. 46%.<br />
Table 10. Esimbi words not shared with other Tivoid languages<br />
Gloss<br />
Esimbi<br />
head<br />
kɛ̀-rəŋgə /mɛ̀tooth<br />
ki-zini /onose<br />
o-húndu /ɔbreast<br />
ke-yímbi /ɛclaw<br />
nail ke-zi /ɛbuttock<br />
ɔ-tə wu ɛsuŋgu a-tə yə ~<br />
belly<br />
ke-ciʃi /meintestines<br />
/ insides hɑhindɛyɔʒ [S]<br />
skin<br />
è-gùghù pl. é-gughù<br />
wing<br />
ɔ-pǝɣərə /a-<br />
9
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
tail<br />
man (male)<br />
woman<br />
husband<br />
name<br />
sky<br />
night<br />
wind<br />
cloud<br />
dew<br />
sand<br />
path<br />
stream (river)<br />
firewood<br />
smoke<br />
knife<br />
rope<br />
spear<br />
war (fight)<br />
elephant<br />
(head) louse<br />
two<br />
three<br />
six<br />
seven<br />
nine<br />
fly<br />
pour<br />
strike<br />
split (wood)<br />
squeeze<br />
cultivate<br />
burn (t.)<br />
suck<br />
blow (on)<br />
die<br />
kill<br />
pull<br />
sing<br />
play (a game)<br />
be afraid<br />
want<br />
say<br />
show<br />
hear<br />
ìtsùrù pl. ítsúrú (bird) kɛ́-tsə́lə́ / mɛ́- (mammal)<br />
mòsoŋgulù pl. mósoŋgulu<br />
mɔ̀ŋgúlú pl. mɔ́ŋgúlu<br />
zumù / mɔkɛ-li<br />
/ɛɔbhəŋgə̀<br />
orǝ pl. ɔrə<br />
embi<br />
kɛmbətə̀<br />
mobǝr [S]<br />
mənɔtsətsə<br />
o-numu /ɔɔ-tu<br />
/au-vini<br />
/ou-yi<br />
/oó-yi<br />
/ɛ́o-gbǝndǝ<br />
/ɔótǝ<br />
pl. ɔɔtə<br />
kí-bírí /míké-dzə̂<br />
/méke-kə<br />
/memərakpə(ŋgərə)<br />
makǝlǝ<br />
malalǝ<br />
matanə̀ mərakpə<br />
matanə̀ monyi<br />
-vì<br />
-dzumù<br />
-gbirì<br />
-lì<br />
-kǝmə̀<br />
-pì<br />
-kpirì<br />
-yəmbə̀ [suck breast]<br />
-suru [on fire], -fufu [wind]<br />
-kpǝ̂<br />
-zû<br />
-numbù<br />
-yimbì<br />
-vî ɛŋgù<br />
-hindì<br />
-rǝ̂<br />
-ŋgî<br />
-cìʃì<br />
-yughùrù<br />
Even where Esimbi shares a common root with the other Tivoid languages, this is often either a common<br />
Niger-Congo root or is also shared with other languages in the Grassfields. Table 11 shows the roots<br />
inherited from Niger-Congo.<br />
Table 11. Niger-Congo roots in Esimbi and other Tivoid languages<br />
Gloss Esimbi Comparative evidence<br />
eye kí-ʃi /ó Gonja kə̀ -nìʃí, Berom yis,<br />
hair (on head) eyì pl. êyì Ga yì, Nupe eɲì<br />
tongue o-nə́mə /ɔ- Temne rǝmer, Efik édémè, Noni lēmé<br />
10
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
Table 11. Niger-Congo roots in Esimbi and other Tivoid languages<br />
Gloss Esimbi Comparative evidence<br />
ear ó-to /ɔ́- Geme tū, Ga tòí, tòé, tùé, Bangwinji tuù,<br />
neck o-mi /ɛ- ‘to swallow’ Mambila mèl, Ga mĩ̀, Diola mer,<br />
arm / hand ɔ́-bu /áleg,<br />
foot o-gúru /ɔnavel<br />
ki-túŋgu /mibone<br />
kí-kú /mífeather<br />
ko-gunu /tohorn<br />
èkùru pl. ekúrú<br />
child<br />
wùnu pl. wúnu<br />
sun<br />
eyù pl. eyu<br />
water murù / a-<br />
fire<br />
uwúsu, owúsu<br />
smoke<br />
u-yi /oash<br />
mɔɔtù<br />
meat<br />
ɛ̀nyìmì pl. ɛnyɛ́mí<br />
goat<br />
ibì<br />
bird<br />
enunù pl. enúnu<br />
fish<br />
ì-su /íegg<br />
ke-gi, ɛ́-gi /ɛtree<br />
kétə́, mɔ-tə /meleaf<br />
kɛ-yə́nə /asalt<br />
manu<br />
hunger (general) ɛ̀dzù pl. ɛdzú<br />
five<br />
mɛtanə<br />
eight<br />
minyinyi<br />
ten bughù pl. mobughù<br />
send (s.o.) -tumù<br />
fall<br />
-gbə̀<br />
bite<br />
-numù<br />
wash (transitive) -sù<br />
give<br />
-nə̀, -nə̂<br />
eat<br />
-ri<br />
drink<br />
-mû<br />
spit (saliva) -tû<br />
swell<br />
-mùrù<br />
give birth -bî<br />
die<br />
-kpǝ̂<br />
push<br />
-tùŋgù<br />
know<br />
count<br />
-kǝrə̀<br />
-tǝŋə̀<br />
There are 43 such roots, out of a total list of 120 words, i.e. 36%. Thus a total of 98 words, i.e. 82%. cannot<br />
be attributed to a set of specifically Tivoid lexemes. Given the overall amount of borrowing in the<br />
Grassfields, this makes the membership of Esimbi within Tivoid marginal at best.<br />
5.5 Buru<br />
Piron (1998) treats Buru as Tivoid, although in many ways it is more marginal than Esimbi. It shares some<br />
lexical items with Northwest Tivoid, as might be expected from their proximity, but otherwise there is little<br />
to show it is Tivoid as opposed to Beboid or Jukunoid. It is here treated as an isolate within Bantoid.<br />
11
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
6. Overall classification<br />
Figure 1 presents a structure for Tivoid based on the above arguments;<br />
Figure 1. Internal structure of Tivoid<br />
Proto-Tivoid<br />
?<br />
Esimbi<br />
North<br />
Central<br />
Ugarə<br />
Ambo?<br />
Afi Abɔ̃ Bitare<br />
A<br />
B<br />
Tiv-<br />
Iyive<br />
Otanga<br />
Evand<br />
Oliti-<br />
Ceve<br />
Caka<br />
Olulu-<br />
Ipulo<br />
Evand<br />
7. The place of Tivoid within Bantoid<br />
Tivoid has been assigned different roles within Bantoid, going back to the observations of Johnston (1919-<br />
1922) and Guthrie (1969-1971). Greenberg (1977) rightly observed that the characteristic double-affixing of<br />
Tiv was significant for the evolution of Bantu, although in fact suffixing among Bantoid languages is more<br />
common than was realised at the period (e.g. Mambiloid and Dakoid <strong>Blench</strong> 1993). This could well be due<br />
to contact with Adamawa languages, though this is far from proven. Tivoid has much in common with<br />
Beboid, and probably is closer to it than to other branches of Bantoid, although some common lexical items<br />
will certainly reflect contact. But it seems likely that Tivoid should be kept still within South Bantoid, but<br />
remoter from Narrow Bantu than Grassfields and Ekoid.<br />
Lexically at least, Tivoid appears to resemble two other branches of Bantoid. The links with Beboid have<br />
been observed by various writers including Williamson (1971) and Piron (1997). However, Hamm (p.c.)<br />
points out that Tivoid also shares numerous items with the Momo languages, hitherto claimed as part of<br />
Grassfields, although without any compelling, or indeed any, actual evidence. Momo has some striking<br />
similarities to Tivoid and Beboid and either it is misplaced in the usual schemes or there has been intense<br />
contact in some previous period. Pending further comparative work, Momo is retained as Grassfields and a<br />
contact situation is posited. With these caveats, Figure 2 presents a revised subclassification of the Benue-<br />
Congo and Bantoid languages;<br />
12
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
Figure 2. Revised subclassification of Benue-Congo and Bantoid languages<br />
Proto-Benue-Congo<br />
Central Nigerian<br />
Kainji<br />
Plateau<br />
Jukunoid<br />
Ukaan ?<br />
Bantoid-Cross<br />
Northwest<br />
Plateau<br />
Beromic<br />
Central<br />
Plateau<br />
SE Plateau<br />
Tarokoid<br />
Upper<br />
Cross<br />
Cross River<br />
Lower<br />
Cross<br />
Ogoni<br />
Delta<br />
Cross<br />
Bantoid<br />
North<br />
Bendi ?<br />
South<br />
Tikar<br />
Furu cluster<br />
Dakoid<br />
Mambiloid<br />
Tivoid<br />
East Beboid<br />
West Beboid cluster<br />
Buru<br />
Nyang<br />
Ekoid<br />
Narrow<br />
Grassfields<br />
Ambele<br />
Menchum<br />
A group Bantu<br />
including Jarawan<br />
Southwest<br />
Grassfields<br />
‘Western<br />
Momo’<br />
Ring<br />
Ndemli<br />
Momo<br />
Eastern<br />
Narrow Bantu<br />
8. Speculations on the migration history of Tivoid peoples<br />
Tiv itself has been the subject of much historical research (e.g. Downes 1933; Bohannan 1954; Shain 2005)<br />
but virtually no material exists on other Tivoid peoples in the area of oral traditions. All records seem to<br />
point to the expansion of Tiv itself as late, perhaps as late as the eighteenth century.<br />
9. Conclusions<br />
This paper represents a first attempt to put order into the Tivoid languages. Not further progress can be made<br />
until more, and higher quality, data is available. In particular, it is important to have comparable lists for the<br />
Nigerian and Cameroun sides of the border. To understand the complex nominal affixes, plurals would need<br />
to be recorded for all nouns. Given the importance of Tiv itself as a major regional language in Nigeria, it is<br />
regrettable that so little progress has been made in recent years. Let this preliminary outline be a stimulus to<br />
further research.<br />
13
The Tivoid languages. <strong>Roger</strong> <strong>Blench</strong> Circulation Draft<br />
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Abraham, R.C. 1940b. A dictionary of the Tiv language. London: Crown Agents.<br />
Abraham, R.C. 1940c. The Bantu features of Tiv. Published by the author.<br />
Arnott, D.W. 1958. The classification of verbs in Tiv. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African<br />
Studies, 21(1):111-133.<br />
Arnott, D.W. 1964. Downstep in the Tiv verbal system. African Language Studies V: 34-51.<br />
Arnott, D.W. 1969. Tiv. In: Twelve Nigerian languages. ed. E. Dunstan. 143-151. London: Longmans.<br />
Ayotte, Michael and Charlene 2002. Rapid Appraisal and Lexicostatistical Analysis Survey of Manta. ms.<br />
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<strong>Blench</strong>, R.M. 1993. An Introduction to the classification of Mambiloid languages. Journal of West African<br />
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Dieu, Michel, Patrick Renaud (eds.) 1983. Atlas Linguistique du Cameroun. Yaoundé: ACCT-<br />
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Downes, R.M. 1933. The Tiv Tribe. Lagos: Printed by the government printer.<br />
Fointein, J.N. 1986. Phonology of Esimbi. University of Yaoundé, Maitrise in Linguistics.<br />
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. The Languages of Africa, The Hague: Mouton.<br />
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1977. Niger-Congo noun-class markers: prefixes, suffixes, both or neither. Studies in<br />
African Linguistics, Suppl. 7:97-104.<br />
Gundu, G.A. & H. Jockers 1985. Tiv bibliography. Makurdi: Government Printer.<br />
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