72 size of rain garden through the use of grass swales will be variable. In well-drained areas, the cost of a rain garden is low. The additional grass swales in scenario 2 will cost more than the savings created by reducing the size of rain garden in scenario 1. Therefore, in well-drained areas, scenario 1 will be more cost-efficient. However, in areas with compacted, poorly drained subsoil with low infiltration rates, it will be more cost-effective to apply scenario 2, incorporating grass swales to reduce the size of the rain garden. According to measurements, 21% (116ha) [1] of downtown Vancouver (579ha) is covered by streets. If the size of rain gardens required to absorb the runoff generated by these streets is 7.6% (38 m2 /500 m2 =3.6%) of the street area in scenario 1 and 3.6% (18 m2 /500 m2 =3.6%) for scenario 2, a total of 40,000m2 to 88,000m2 of rain gardens will be necessary in downtown Vancouver. This will cost between one million and thirty-five million dollars, assuming a square metre cost for rain gardens of between $30 and $400. Therefore, substantial cost savings can be achieved if rain gardens are designed efficiently, incorporating grass swales where conditions are appropriate. In the West End District, which has a large area of existing pervious surfaces, there is much potential for grass swales to be incorporated into rain gardens, decreasing total size and reducing costs. Endnotes [1] Measurements are based on four selected sites (10ha to 20ha each) in Downtown Vancouver. [2] Ponded level. Ponded depth is the depth of surface water above the ground surface. References City of Chicago. (2009): Bioinfiltration: Rain Gardens. http://www. cityofchicago.org/ [accessed March, 2009] City of Vancouver. (2008a): Downtown Census Data <strong>–</strong> 2006. http:// vancouver.ca/commsvcs/planning/census/2006/localareas/downtown.pdf [accessed December 28, 2008] City of Vancouver. (2008b): West End Census Data <strong>–</strong> 2006. http:// vancouver.ca/commsvcs/planning/census/2006/localareas/westend.pdf [accessed December 28, 2008] Connelly, M. (2006): British Columbia Institute of Technology, Centre for the Advancement of Green Roof Technology, Report to Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). http://commons.bcit.ca/greenroof/publications/CMHC%20ERP%20Final%20 060910.pdf [accessed December 24, 2008] Elsayed, A.E., Grünwald, A. and Dvořák, D. (2001): Pollutant Removal from Highway Runoff Using Retention/Detention Units. Acta Polytechnica Journal of Advanced Engineering 41 (2): 68-72. http://ctn.cvut.cz/ap/index.php?year=2001&idissue=37 [accessed December 24, 2008] Environment Canada. (2008): Climate Data Online, Vancouver INTL’ A 1980-2007. http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca [accessed December 24, 2008] Field, R. (2007): Urban Runoff: Pollution Sources, Control, and Treatment. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 21 (2): 197-206. <strong>Great</strong>er Vancouver Regional District. (2005): Stormwater Source Control Design Guidelines 2005. http://www.metrovancouver.org/ services/wastewater/sources/Pages/StormwaterManagement.aspx [accessed December 25, 2008] Gromaire-Mertz, M.C.,Garnaud, S., Gonzalez, A.and Chebbo G. (1999): Characterisation of Urban Runoff Pollution in Paris. Water Science and Technology 39 (2): 1-8. Hall, K.J., McCallum, D.W., Lee, K. and Macdonald, R. (1998): Characterization and aquatic impacts of combined sewer overflows in greater vancouver British Columbia. Water Science and Technology 38 (10): 9<strong>–</strong>14. Kurtz, T. (2008): Managing Street Runoff with Green Streets. Proceedings of the 2008 International Low Impact Development Conference, Seattle, 16-19 November 2008. ed. She, N. and Clar, M. Reston: American Society of Civil Engineers. Mentens, J., Raes, D. and Hermy, M. (2006): Green roofs as a tool for solving the rainwater runoff problem in the urbanized 21st century? <strong>Landscape</strong> and Urban Planning 77: 217<strong>–</strong>226. Roehr, D., Kong, Y. and Laurenz, J. (2008): A Comparison of Stormwater Runoff Reduction by Green Roofs between Kelowna and Vancouver. Proceedings of One Watershed- One Water Conference, Kelowna, 21-23 October 2008. ed. Bauer, B. Ottawa: Canadian Water Resources Association, 178<strong>–</strong>186. Stone Jr., B. (2004): Paving Over Paradise: How Land Use Regulations Promote Residential Imperviousness. <strong>Landscape</strong> and Urban Planning 69: 101<strong>–</strong>113. The U.S. <strong>Department</strong> of Agriculture (USDA). (1986): Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds (TR-55 Revised). Washington, D.C.: United States <strong>Department</strong> of Agriculture. USEPA. (2006): National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)- Grassed Swales. http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index. cfm?action=factsheet_results&view=specific&bmp=75 [accessed March, 2009] Van Metre, P.C. and Mahler, B.J. (2003): The Contribution of Particles Washed from Rooftops to Contaminant Loading to Urban Streams. Chemosphere 52:1727<strong>–</strong>1741. Water Balance Model (2008): Describe the Soil Conditions. http:// www.waterbalance.ca [accessed December 29, 2008] White, Rodney R. (2002): Building the Ecological City. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA.
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