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Framing Frames are defined as interpretive packages for content that supplies a context and suggests the importance of an issue through selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration (Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). Gamson and Lasch (1983) defined framing as “the central organizing idea for understanding events related to the issue in question” (p. 398). Frames organize information in order to perpetuate understanding through the use of narratives and may be identified through the headline, lead, quotes, and paragraph within the body of a news story (Entman, 2007; Gamson, & Modigliani, 1989). Through framing, the media influence how individuals think about an issue by highlighting certain issue aspects over other aspects (Ghanem, 1997; Kim et al., 2002; McCombs, 2004; McCombs & Ghanem, 2003; Scheufele, 2004). The type of frame used in conjunction with the issue is a main factor in generating framing effect outcomes. Major frame types include equivalency framing, emphasis framing, advocacy framing, and responsibility framing. Equivalency framing effects focus on either gains or losses with equal outcomes (Kahnemann & Tversky, 1984). Loss frames produce greater effects when individual issue involvement is high, and gain frames can be more effective when individual issue involvement is low. However, counter-effects result when the level of source credibility is too high. Messages with low efficacy cause the individual to process the message more so than messages with high efficacy since the higher the efficacy the less the individual questions the information within the message. Individuals are greatly influenced by perceptions of risk, even when the outcomes of either risk aversion or risk-seeking frames are identical. Frames that provide certainty and mitigate risk are favored over risk-seeking frames. In the absence of certainty, individuals favor frames with positive outcomes over negative outcomes as exhibited in Tversky and Kahneman’s (1981, 1987) studies in which groups chose the riskaversion scenario over the risk-seeking one, even though the potential outcomes were equivalent. Emphasis framing effects alter individual consideration by directing focus to specific issue attributes, such as framing low-income housing as assistance to the economically disadvantaged instead of higher taxes (Druckman 2001b). Stories favoring individual values cue conservative preferences; conversely, egalitarian frames cue liberal preferences (Kellstedt, 2000). Emphasis framing effects lack consistency because individuals may agree with the principle, but later oppose policies to implement the principle, as experienced with equal employment opportunity (Fine, 1992). Direct framing effects are moderated through the perceived level of credibility attributed to the media source, such as the Wall Street Journal or People Magazine (Druckman, 2001b). Indirectly, individuals seek credible sources to guide their opinions. Other frame types include substantive and procedural frames, and conflict-reinforcing and conflict-displacing frames (Entman, 1993, 2004, 2007; Dardis et al., 2008). Substantive frames define effects or conditions, identify causes, convey a moral judgment, and endorse remedies or improvements (Entman, 2004). Procedural frames, also referred to as the horseracing frame, focus on evaluation of political actors (Entman, 2004). In later research, Entman (2007) distinguished three types of bias within frames: distortion bias – falsifying reality; content bias – lack of equal treatment to both sides of the argument; and decision-making bias – motivations of the media. Conflict-reinforcing frames bolster the status quo by presenting the same opposing considerations that have occurred over time (Dardis et al., 2008). In fact, conflict-reinforcing frames may be also thought of as the common frame amplified over time. Conflict-displacing 44
frames present new considerations without the intent of challenging the common frame (Dardis et al., 2008). Successful frames are described as having salience, resonance, and persistence. Salience refers to the frequency of use of the frame, resonance corresponds to the number of individual arguments represented, and persistence is the endurance or amplification of the frame throughout media outlets (Entman, 1993; Baumgartner, De Boef, Boydstun, 2008). Frames define the problem and suggest a remedy. Individuals then construct their own counter-frames even when elites impose their influence over media outlets. Effects are often confounded by frame parity, which occurs when a counter-frame with a complete alternative narrative receives equal play in the media (Entman, 2004). Framing effects are dependent upon the reach of the medium delivering the frame (Fan et al., 2002). Journalists incorporate frames into accounts for efficiency of comprehension (Luther & Miller, 2005). Eventually dominant frames push weaker frames aside, indirectly promoting content bias (Entman, 2007). Frame strength is a result of how frequently a frame is used within the media and the level of source credibility (Cappella & Jamieson, 1997; Chong, 1996; Chong, 2000; Domke, Shah, & Wackman, 1998; Druckman, 2001A; Edy & Meirick, 2007; Iyengar, 1991). Amplified frames, frames that survive the test of time, become part of the public vernacular once shared by political elites and journalists (Shah, Watts, Domke, & Fan, 2002). Using four major U.S. newspapers, the New York Times, USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post, this study seek to find: RQ1: How does the framing of nuclear energy differ in the news coverage of nuclear energy from 1991 to 2008 in use of story elements and dominant frame packages? RQ2: What is the dominant frame package over time? Methods Content Analysis Quantitative content analysis provides a formal system for examination of content through the use of systematic, replicable, and reductionistic procedures (Riffe, Lacy & Fico, 2005). Content analysis not only allows for inferences to be made about relationships between important variables within this study, but also for the identification of primary dimensions of the nuclear energy debate. Sampling USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times were selected for this study based upon their daily circulation. Using the search engine ProQuest, a search for news articles containing content on either nuclear energy or nuclear power was conducted separately for each newspaper beginning with 1991 through 2008. The search resulted in a total of 4095 news articles with news articles peaking in 1991, and then again in 2006. When examining the trend of nuclear energy news articles among the four newspapers, the New York Times leads with the most news articles with the exception of 1996, 1997 and 2005 (Figure 1). 45
Page 1 and 2: 2 0 1 0 P R O C E E D I N G S W A S
Page 3 and 4: TABLE OF CONTENTS Research Papers _
Page 5 and 6: Public Relations Leadership through
Page 7 and 8: Millennial Students Relationship wi
Page 9 and 10: elationship approach to PR provides
Page 11 and 12: social media marketing is effective
Page 13 and 14: students who noted they were 17 or
Page 15 and 16: discussed previously, Millennial st
Page 17 and 18: strongly committed to maintaining a
Page 19 and 20: gender (male/female) and each of th
Page 21 and 22: social media. One focus of the arti
Page 23 and 24: Shah, A. (2007, June 18). Social me
Page 25 and 26: Appendix B Table 2 Differences Betw
Page 27 and 28: Appendix D Table 4 Differences Betw
Page 29 and 30: Appendix F Table 6 Pearson Correlat
Page 31 and 32: Mentoring 2.0: How PR Educators Use
Page 33 and 34: Despite this, however, studies have
Page 35 and 36: Sometimes using Facebook to IM is a
Page 37 and 38: Investing time. As with any relatio
Page 39 and 40: pursuing chosen fields. For public
Page 41 and 42: Tam, S. Y., Dozier, D. M., Lauzen,
Page 43: While favor towards nuclear energy
Page 47 and 48: Procedural -Licensing and applicati
Page 49 and 50: “Shoreham Board Begins a Hunt for
Page 51 and 52: While the story element “positive
Page 53 and 54: Gamson, W. & Lasch, K. (1983). The
Page 55 and 56: Reputation Matters: Impact of Organ
Page 57 and 58: leadership had at hand a number of
Page 59 and 60: and 65+ (15.4%). More than half wer
Page 61 and 62: evealed significant differences for
Page 63 and 64: will be rewarded in the marketplace
Page 65 and 66: Investigating Multiplier Effects of
Page 67 and 68: RQ1: Do PR practitioners and busine
Page 69 and 70: accepting information they receive
Page 71 and 72: still smacks of news. News coverage
Page 73 and 74: Even when testimonials do not withs
Page 75 and 76: viewed to some degree as a valuable
Page 77 and 78: Perceptions of Product Blogs in Tai
Page 79 and 80: Uses and gratifications theory has
Page 81 and 82: Thus the degree to which blog reade
Page 83 and 84: hours). Blog reading was dwarfed by
Page 85 and 86: Effects of Language on Responses Ba
Page 87 and 88: esponse (M = 4.13). For online acti
Page 89 and 90: 5-item Index 4.41(1.030) 3.80(1.033
Page 91 and 92: ecommendations were more objective
Page 93 and 94: Choney, B. (2009, September 29). Mi
Page 95 and 96:
Lenhart, A., Purecell, K., Smith, A
Page 97 and 98:
elational trust. Journal of Public
Page 99 and 100:
challenge will be to persuade survi
Page 101 and 102:
of Avian Flu. It is important to no
Page 103 and 104:
with an arousing stimulus or messag
Page 105 and 106:
Chen, N. (2009). Institutionalizing
Page 107 and 108:
Excellence in an Activist Organizat
Page 109 and 110:
public relations functions or tacti
Page 111 and 112:
Data Collection Documents. In an ef
Page 113 and 114:
Research. A key area of CTFK’s we
Page 115 and 116:
Engaging individuals. Many times ac
Page 117 and 118:
Washington, DC, and Puerto Rico; ge
Page 119 and 120:
Murphy, P. & Dee, J. (1996) Reconci
Page 121 and 122:
of Educational Progress (NAEP), 80%
Page 123 and 124:
school assessment, and that the pro
Page 125 and 126:
Both the paper and Web-based survey
Page 127 and 128:
student was admitted to their acade
Page 129 and 130:
Problems with the measures: Here, s
Page 131 and 132:
Patterns in the open-ended response
Page 133 and 134:
Trends evident in K-12 education, t
Page 135 and 136:
Another 15% of respondents (n = 8)
Page 137 and 138:
Table 1 Respondents’ Perceptions
Page 139 and 140:
Table 4 Frequencies of Listed Writi
Page 141 and 142:
Hansen, R.S. (1993). Clear, concise
Page 143 and 144:
so, this study follows up on recent
Page 145 and 146:
2009). In BMCC context, in addition
Page 147 and 148:
--------------------------------- I
Page 149 and 150:
social media is not crisis communic
Page 151 and 152:
and uses and gratifications theorie
Page 153 and 154:
Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K. P.,
Page 155 and 156:
Table 1 BMCC Model Propositions (__
Page 157 and 158:
FIGURE 1 BMM Model (_____ & _____,
Page 159 and 160:
practitioners and scholars argue fo
Page 161 and 162:
Several studies, however, suggest t
Page 163 and 164:
factors that impact the development
Page 165 and 166:
perceptions of administrative suppo
Page 167 and 168:
(2009) reminds us that the limitati
Page 169 and 170:
412-414. Gonzalez-Herrero, A., & Ru
Page 171 and 172:
Intersections and Overlaps: Buildin
Page 173 and 174:
elations excellence, relationship-b
Page 175 and 176:
2002), all of which encourage emplo
Page 177 and 178:
Conley and Wagner-Marsh (1998) prop
Page 179 and 180:
passion, caring for people.” Note
Page 181 and 182:
done.” Accommodations such as fle
Page 183 and 184:
organizational commitment and loyal
Page 185 and 186:
Founder/Leader Faith & Vision Authe
Page 187 and 188:
Practical implications This study a
Page 189 and 190:
public relations (pp. 3-22). Mahwah
Page 191 and 192:
Grunig, L. A. (1992). Power in the
Page 193 and 194:
presented to the annual conference
Page 195 and 196:
Prioritizing Stakeholders for Publi
Page 197 and 198:
developed by Grunig and Hunt (1984)
Page 199 and 200:
expectant stakeholders possess two
Page 201 and 202:
each other” (p. 125). Examples of
Page 203 and 204:
Priority publics are those whose pa
Page 205 and 206:
Collection of data triangulated (Yi
Page 207 and 208:
Diffused Linkage. A diffused stakeh
Page 209 and 210:
Envirocare take it. They are also m
Page 211 and 212:
Dunham, L., Freeman, R. E., & Liedt
Page 213 and 214:
PEDAGOGICAL POSTERS 213
Page 215 and 216:
seem to be context-dependent (Lauri
Page 217 and 218:
Shapiro, A. (2003). Case Studies in
Page 219 and 220:
Argument #2: stories are for childr
Page 221 and 222:
Physiology “…your mind was evol
Page 223 and 224:
Conclusion In the movie, Indiana Jo
Page 225 and 226:
Pitching on your Feet: Using a Mock
Page 227 and 228:
speaker(s) are available after the
Page 229 and 230:
college’s connection to the commu
Page 231 and 232:
“I felt the class built upon our
Page 233 and 234:
community. Many participants have c
Page 235 and 236:
posting content to the Internet, bu
Page 237 and 238:
What’s All The Hype About Skype?
Page 239 and 240:
In between the times the class meet
Page 241 and 242:
Best Practices in Public Relations:
Page 243 and 244:
Assignment Structure Client Selecti
Page 245 and 246:
Conclusion Integrating real-world c
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equires true fluency in the host co
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living in London. Because visa and
Page 251 and 252:
Using the Case Study approach to an
Page 253 and 254:
tier responders hadn’t participat
Page 255 and 256:
Harnessing the Web for Teaching Wri
Page 257 and 258:
these tools and platforms. With wri
Page 259 and 260:
article 2. 259
Page 261 and 262:
Experimental methods may be better
Page 263 and 264:
The third hypothesis asked whether
Page 265 and 266:
Crisis in the Classroom: A cross-de
Page 267 and 268:
prepare and do the research. I prov
Page 269 and 270:
• September 2009 - More students
Page 271 and 272:
Public Relations Leadership Through
Page 273 and 274:
from using it multiple times a day
Page 275 and 276:
Kent, M. (2010). Directions in soci
Page 277 and 278:
Professor Clare Morgan at Oxford no
Page 279 and 280:
evenings at home working on his poe
Page 281 and 282:
Another strategy for the students w
Page 283 and 284:
Media list and crisis media list So
Page 285 and 286:
understand that knowledge of the cl
Page 287 and 288:
If creating separate teams for one
Page 289 and 290:
Integrating ethics into the undergr
Page 291 and 292:
Three-step approach The present aut
Page 293:
Putting Theory, Research and Strate
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2010 - Public Relations Society of America

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