2010 - Public Relations Society of America

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P R O C E E D I N G S
W A S H I N G T O N , D . C .
O C T O B E R 2 0 1 0
E D I T E D B Y :
T I N A M C C O R K I N D A L E
A P P A L A C H I A N S TA T E U N I V E R S I T Y
M C C O R K I N D A L E T M @ A P P S TA T E . E D U

Introduction
On Saturday, October 15, 2010, academics and practitioners attended the pedagogical poster
sessions and research roundtable presentations at the Public Relations Society of America
Educators Academy Research Session. During the two-hour event, 20 scholars displayed and
discussed their tips for successful public relations teaching in a poster session while 13 educators
presented competitive research presentations in a roundtable format. Marcia Watson DiStaso of
The Pennsylvania State University and Tina McCorkindale of Appalachian State University
served as moderators for the session.
The top faculty paper was “Intersections and Overlaps: Building Leader-Employee Relationships
through Internal Public Relations, Leadership Style, and Workplace Spirituality” by Nance
McCown of Messiah College. The Betsy Plank Research Competition Student Award Winner
was Rowena Briones of the University of Maryland, who presented “Mentoring 2.0: How PR
Educators Use Social Media to Create and Maintain Relationships with Students.”
In all, 21 peer-reviewed papers were submitted, and 13 were accepted for a 62% acceptance rate.
All poster abstracts submitted were accepted.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Research Papers ___________________________________________________ 5
Millennial Students Relationship with 2008 Top 10 Social Media Brands via Social Media Tools
Alisa Lynn Agozzino, Ohio Northern University ___________________________________ 7
Mentoring 2.0: How PR Educators Use Social Media to Create and Maintain Relationships with
Students*
* Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Student Award Winner
Rowena Briones, University of Maryland _______________________________________ 31
Toward the Greening of Nuclear Energy: A Content Analysis of Nuclear Energy Frames from 1991 to
2008
Sonya DiPalma, The Pennsylvania State University _____________________________ 42
Reputation Matters: Impact of Organizational Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions
Alan R. Freitag, University of North Carolina at Charlotte __________________________ 55
Investigating Multiplier Effects of Implied Third-Party Endorsements in Independent Media: A
Qualitative Study
Pauline A. Howes, Kennesaw State University, and Lynne M. Sallot, University of
Georgia __________________________________________________________________ 65
Perceptions of Product Blogs in Taiwan: The Impact of User Motivation, Blogger Affiliation and
Language Valence
Chen-Yi (Joyce) Huang and Kirk Hallahan, Colorado State University _______________ 77
Shifting Gears and Changing Paradigms: Shifting Crisis Research To Focus on Controlling Fear and
Preventing Panic
Dean C. Kazoleas, California State University Fullerton ____________________________ 98
Excellence in an Activist Organization: A Case Study of Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids
Beth Kuch, University of Maryland ___________________________________________ 107
Analyzing Student Writing Proficiency and Assessment Measures in Programs of Mass Communication
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania ____________________________ 120
How Publics Use Social Media to Communicate During Crises: Proposing the Social-Mediated Crisis
Communication Model
Brooke Liu and Lucinda Austin, University of Maryland College Park and Yan Jin, Virginia
Commonwealth University __________________________________________________ 142
Practitioner Perceptions of Organizational Factors Impacting Web-based Public Relations Strategies
Sheila M. McAllister-Spooner, Monmouth University ____________________________ 158
Intersections and Overlaps: Building Leader-Employee Relationships through Internal Public Relations,
Leadership Style, and Workplace Spirituality*
* PRSA Top Faculty Paper Award
Nance McCown, Messiah College ____________________________________________ 171
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Prioritizing Stakeholders for Public Relations: A Case Study of Envirocare
Kenneth D. Plowman and Brad L. Rawlins, Brigham Young University _____________ 195
,
Pedagogical Posters _____________________________________________ 213
Information Gathering as a Form of Experiential Learning for Corporate Communications
Suzanne Berman, Hofstra University __________________________________________ 214
Story: A Powerful Tool of Influence for PR
Patrick Bishop, Ferris State University ________________________________________ 218
Pitching on Your Feet: Using the Mock Press Conference as a Teaching Tool
Denise Marcella Casey, Appalachian State University ____________________________ 225
Connecting the Public Relations Writing Course with the Community through AmeriCorps*VISTA
Jane Dailey, Marietta College ________________________________________________ 228
Take it to the Extreme: Using Immersive Service-Learning to Build Students’ Multimedia Skills and
Cross-Discipline Understanding
Kelly B. Everling and Lori Blachford, Drake University __________________________ 232
What’s All the Hype about Skype? Re-Invigorating the Introductory Public Relations Course through the
Implementation of Global Speaker Series
Kelly B. Everling and Ronda Menke, Drake University __________________________ 237
Using a Gaming Scenario in Reputation Management
Gregg Feistman, Temple University __________________________________________ 238
Best Practices in Public Relations: A Practical Analysis of Training Students to Prepare and Present
Proposals for Real-World Clients
Arhlene Flowers, Ithaca College _____________________________________________ 241
The Facilitation and Evaluation of Meaningful International Internships
James M. Haney, University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point ________________________ 246
Using the Case Study Approach to Analyze Crisis Communication Practices by Emergency
Management Association Volunteers in a Small Community: An Engaged Learning Experience
Ann D. Jabro, Robert Morris University _______________________________________ 251
Harnessing the Web for Teaching Writing for the Web: A New Media Makeover of the Public Relations
Writing Course Pedagogy
Beth A. Kuch and Abbey Blake Levenshus, University of Maryland ________________ 255
The Causal Relationship between Math Apprehension and Curricular Choices among Public Relations
Students: An Experiment
Alexander Laskin and Hilary Fussell-Sisco, Quinnipiac University _________________ 260
Crisis in the Classroom: A Cross-Departmental Approach Prepares PR Students as Spokespeople
Colleen Pope Lemza, State University of New York at Plattsburgh __________________ 265
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Public Relations Leadership through Social Networking: An Analysis of Undergraduate Use and
Attitudes
Bonita Dostal Neff and Jennifer Halbert, Valparaiso University ____________________ 271
Poetry: A Surprisingly Powerful Teaching Tool for Public Relations
Robert J. Petrausch, Iona College ___________________________________________ 276
Hope for Uganda: How a PR Portfolio Honors Class Gave “Hope” to Children in Rural Uganda—
Thirteen Students Work to Bring Education and Sustainability to a Small Village
Gemma Puglisi, American University _________________________________________ 280
Best Practices in Teaching Client-Based Courses
Donna Simmons and Jean Jaymes West, California State University, Bakersfield ______ 284
Integrating Ethics into the Undergraduate Public Relations Curriculum
Jonathan R. Slater, SUNY College at Plattsburgh, and Deborah Silverman, Buffalo State
College __________________________________________________________________ 289
PR Pedagogy to Practice: Preparing Future Practitioners Through Knowledge-Centered, Skills-Driven
Pedagogy
Natalie T. J. Tindall, Georgia State University, and Trayce Leak, Clark Atlanta
University ________________________________________________________________ 292
Putting Theory, Research and Strategic Thinking to Practice in Writing Courses
Tia C. M. Tyree, Howard University __________________________________________ 293
5

RESEARCH
PAPERS
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Millennial Students Relationship with 2008 Top 10 Social Media Brands
via Social Media Tools
Alisa Lynn Agozzino, Ph.D.
Ohio Northern University
a-agozzino@onu.edu,
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine links between organization-public relationships and
Millennial students’ active social media behavior. The Millennial Generation is a key target
audience who many public relations practitioners are certainly trying to reach. Social media
tools are emerging as technology medium must-haves for public relations practitioners. This
study looked at the collision of the new social media tools and the Millennial audience within the
four models of public relations (Grunig and Hunt, 1984) through the relationship management
framework lens. Four research questions and hypotheses were posed. Millennial students from
two Midwestern universities were randomly selected to complete a survey on their relationship
with the top 10 most social companies/brands as named by Ad Age, as well as the engagement
with social media tools in general and specifically with those top 10 companies/brands. A total
of 1,062 participants completed the survey. The breakdown of gender for the sample was
consistent with the demographic makeup of both campuses as a whole with 43.6% male (n= 463)
and 56.4% female (n= 599) completing the survey. Findings highlighted that Millennials engage
with e-mail and social networking (e.g., MySpace/Facebook) more than other social media tools.
For all companies/brands except CNN and Dell, as participants’ general use of social media
tools increased, their wanting to continue a relationship with the company/brand also increased.
However, when Millennials were exposed to a variety of social media tools by each
company/brand, no significant correlations were found for wanting their relationship to continue
with that particular company/brand. No significant differences were found between gender and
interaction with social media tools.
The Internet has become a major player in the public relations field within the last
decade. The World Wide Web has served as a key contributor in how organizations and their
publics develop mutually beneficial relationships, an important characteristic for public relations.
With emerging social media tools such as Web 2.0, blogs, podcasts, wikis, and RSS technologies
becoming more highly discussed topics within the field, the Internet itself has become a public
relations toolbox that holds all the newest social media tools for every public relations
practitioner. Celsi (2008) encouraged public relations (PR) professionals to begin thinking of
ways to lead their agencies and organizations toward the future. Celsi pointed out that “the tools
in the social media arsenal can promote our companies and employees as experts” (p. 12).
Furthermore, social media tools could make or break hiring of public relations firms in the
future. For example, Hitachi Data System’s (HDS) recent hiring of the PR firm Ogilvy rather
than Hill & Knowlton was based on social media. According to Shah’s (2007) cover story in
PRWeek, HDS spokesperson Steve Zivanic was adamant about public relations agencies
adopting more social media practices, an opinion which led to his decision in choosing Ogilvy
over its competitor.
Public relations practitioners are not the only people who need an understanding of social
media within the field. PR educators in the United States are being advised by public relations
practitioners to consider adopting social media into the curriculum. Public relations students
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around the country are seeking guidance on understanding this new media behavior and its
application to the wider public relations world. Hood (2007) commented on the increasing need
for a more consistent social media presence in academia. In her article in PRWeek, Hood
explained that educators need to begin making changes to the traditional programs in order to
accommodate the growing trend of social media within the PR field. Hood challenges those
teaching in the public relations field. “We all need to be much more active about making sure
that it [better understanding for students of new social media] happens, so that the industry
continues to attract the best, and they [students] are equipped with the tools they need to do the
job as it continually changes” (Hood, 2007, p. 11).
Social media are changing public relations careers, whether the field is ready or not. Scott
(2007) pointed out how social media have changed the look of public relations, beginning with
the rise of the Web:
PR is no longer just an esoteric discipline where great efforts are spent by companies to
communicate exclusively to a handful of reporters who then tell the company’s story,
generating a clip for the PR people to show their bosses. Now, great PR includes
programs to reach buyers directly. The Web allows direct access to information about
your products, and smart companies understand and use this phenomenal resource to
great advantage. (p. 11)
Literature on how practitioners are using social media is scarce at this point, primarily
because social media is in its infancy. It is helpful to further analyze the existing public relations
literature to support the thought structure concerning how these emerging communication
technologies fit alongside and/or within existing traditional communication tools. For decades,
professionals and scholars alike in the field of public relations have turned to the foundational
block of relationship building in order to establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships
between the public and the organization. Hallahan (2008) asserted that one way to demonstrate a
company/brand commitment to key publics was to make technology-based access available. In
an effort to expand the knowledge in building key relationships, the current study looks at a
particular technology-based medium, namely social media, to understand better what effect these
social media tools have in establishing relationships. Because of its extensive use of technology,
the Millennial Generation was chosen as the target public. Although others have looked at key
publics through the relationship management lens (Yang, 2005; Banning & Schoen 2007; Brønn,
2008; O’Neil, 2007; Ristino, 2007; Hong, 2008; Vorvoreanu, 2008), none have looked
specifically within a generational demographic. Hence, the current study contributes to a
theoretical body of knowledge in the public relations field by providing acute in-depth
understanding into the personal commitment relationship dimension, specifically with a younger
demographic, the Millennial Generation.
Social media tools have provided new ways for key publics to build and maintain
relationships with companies/brands. Much work remains to be done in the academic realm to
further examine the variety of relationship dimensions that may be able to work to the
organizations’ advantage in building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with key
publics. However, the current study hopes to uncover how public relations practitioners are using
social media tools to effectively reach the Millennial audiences.
Relationship and Public Relations
The study of the relationship between the organization and its public within the public
relations field is a growing area of research (Yang, 2005; Banning & Schoen 2007; Brønn, 2008;
O’Neil, 2007; Ristino, 2007; Hong, 2008; Vorvoreanu, 2008). The organization-public
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elationship approach to PR provides fruitful insights concerning the concept of building and
maintaining organization-public relationships. The linkage of the organization-public
relationship approach to public relations is natural as most scholars agree that in the definition of
public relations, relationship is key. Broom (2009) defines public relations as “the management
function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization
and the publics on whom its success or failure depends” (p. 3). Ristino (2007), in his article
pertaining to public relations within the health services, speaks of the importance of managing
and enhancing relationships with those they serve. “The communication activities are based on a
two-way symmetrical communication process that ensures that publics served and the
organizations serving them build long lasting, mutually beneficial relationships” (p. 79).
Beneficial relationships with the public are important for the survival of an organization.
Public relations practitioners must build and maintain strong relationships between the
organization and its public to lead to a desired behavior by the public for the organization and
vice-versa. In O’Neil’s (2007) study examining the association between relationship factors and
strength and duration of donor support for a local food bank, she found that although strong
public relationships were not associated with the amount donated, they were associated with
years of support, happiness to continue donating, and willingness to recommend others to donate.
O’Neil (2007) stated, “The findings of this study are useful in that they demonstrate that longterm,
successful public relationships impact behavior” (p. 102).
Whether internal or external, relationships are needed in order to get key audiences to act
in a desirable way. In order to communicate successfully with target publics, public relations
practitioners must revert to communication basics. According to Newsom and Haynes (2008) the
basics include “message, public, and medium” (p. 109). Of particular interest to this study is the
medium. Whether traditional or social, the medium a public relations practitioner uses is key to
effectively building and maintaining public-organization relationships. One study that has been
conducted is Vorvoreanu’s (2008) Web site experience analysis. In her analysis of nine corporate
Web sites, she examined student-public relationship beyond usability, but actual experiences as
interpreted by the key public. In other words, was the relationship, in the way the student-public
viewed it, how the organization intended to be perceived? Vorvoreanu’s study offered readers
suggestions on how to improve the public’s Web site experience. This study is one that aims to
confirm that the student-public and organizational relationship is the same and not one that is
misconstrued through the medium.
Throughout studies that focus on public-organization relationships, all contain
multidimensional factors that contribute to the understanding of those relationships. Of particular
interest to this study is personal commitment. In one study conducted by Banning and Schoen
(2007) on a museum’s relationship with its key publics, the researchers found that the
relationships could help determine both those who were likely to continue membership with the
museum, as well as those who would not. “The information gained in the use of the three
relationship sub-scales can help practitioners reinforce successful programs or change ineffective
public relations initiatives, rather than simply measure the amount of communication produced
in a newspaper or magazine” (p. 439). Personal commitment to the museum was a vital part of
this study to discover those who would continue their relationship with the museum.
Social Media Tools Defined
Eyrich, Padman, and Sweetser (2008) gathered information from practicing public
relations practitioners and discovered that “overall, practitioners have adopted nearly six
different social media tools professionally” (p. 413). These six tools included e-mail, intranet,
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logs, videoconferencing, podcasts, video sharing, and personal digital assistants (PDA’s).
McLaughlin (2009) argued that Facebook and Twitter needed to be added to the social media
must-have list. As mentioned in McLaughlin’s article, Telindus, an IT services firm, suggested
that denying access to Facebook and Twitter could be the deal breaker for 18 to 24 year olds
seeking employment. Both Facebook and Twitter are also important to an organization trying to
reach its niche public. In an article on why to use these powerful social media tools, Williams
(2009) stated, “Remember, social media outlets like Facebook and Twitter are all about building
relationships. The key to your success is creating value-added content that will connect you more
deeply to your existing customers and create new relationships as well” (p. 25).
Gender Differences within Technology/Social Media
With most new technology, a period of adaptation and apprehension exists initially as it
takes flight. Considerable attention has been given to the influence of gender with new
technology adoption. Studies have shown that females have lagged behind in many aspects of
new technology from their use to their confidence or ability to use the technology (Dempsey,
2009; Spotts, Bowman, & Mertz, 1997; Wood & Li, 2005). Yet recently, scholars in a variety of
fields have gathered evidence to show how that gap is narrowing, or in some cases, disappearing
altogether (Dresang, Gross, & Holt, 2007; Li, Glass, & Records, 2008; Rainer, Laosethakul, &
Astone, 2003).
Looking specifically at the Millennial market for gender differences is especially relevant
within the current study. Dresang, Gross and Holt (2007) found in their study of computers and
what they called net-generation children very few differences among gender. Although their
study points at a closing gap for gender differences within computer use, the scholars do not
provide concrete reasons for this closing. They suggest further studies are needed in order to
offer more conclusive direction.
Social Media Shaping Public Relations Field
At the annual International Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) conference in
October of 2008, it was apparent that the public relations field is evolving and social media is at
the heart of the movement. In an interview conducted with Bill Balderaz (personal
communication, June 24, 2008), President of Webbed Marketing, he shared some very important
qualities that are currently beginning to shape the field of public relations. First he shared how
difficult it is becoming to reach consumers through the traditional media channels of newspapers,
television, and telemarketing. Social media is the way of the future, he claimed, and predicted
that by 2012 more money will be allocated to online budgeting items (social media tools) than
more traditional (television, newspaper, radio, etc.) PR mediums. He commented on the ease of
using social networking sites and starting a blog, but noted that if not properly maintained that
the media site can quickly lose credibility, a point that is supported in the literature (e.g.,
Breakenridge, 2008; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Scott, 2007).
Brian Solis, Principal of Future Works PR, was quoted in Breakenridge (2008) giving
hope and encouragement for utilizing the social media tools in the PR industry.
Social media is an opportunity to break the stereotype, to become experts, and create
conversations directly and indirectly. This is our chance to evolve public relations into a
more valuable branch of marketing, making everyone smarter and hopefully more
passionate in the process. (p. 266)
Solis is not alone with this thinking. MarketingSherpa (2009) surveyed social media marketers
and public relations professionals about their opinions of their social media effectiveness. Their
research concluded that over half of the professionals who completed the survey believed that
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social media marketing is effective at influencing brand reputation, increasing awareness,
improving search rankings, and increasing Web site traffic. These components are all valuable
assets to any public relations practice. Vocus (2009) reiterates some of MarketingSherpa’s points
in its whitepaper highlighting the impact of social media. Vocus’s study provides indicators of
impact, sharing points of influence between social media and public relations. Highlighted points
include: reaching further with a message, generating sale leads, gauging customer satisfaction
and increasing brand recognition. Vocus (2009) stressed, “Social media has removed the filters
between your company and the public” (p. 1).
It is doubtful that public relations will completely step back into its traditional roots, but
instead will look forward to moving ahead with the new social media tools. Gillin (2007) points
out that “mainstream media has become so dependent on social media, in fact, that is hard to
imagine that professional news organizations would let this channel go away” (p. 198). Social
media is going to be here for the long run, so public relations practitioners are charged to
capitalize on this emerging and growing trend of reaching target audiences.
Tying Social Media and Public Relations to Millennials
One of the key components to this study is tying public relations social media tools to
youth, or more specifically, the Millennial Generation or Generation Y. In order to gain a deeper
understanding of the literature that has been produced on the subject, the following section
provides some facts from the most comprehensive study of the Millennial Generation and social
media.
Pew Internet & American Life Project team of Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, and Smith
(2007), released a comprehensive study of teens and social media. The 36-page document is full
of statistical support for why this younger audience is grabbing hold and increasingly utilizing
social media tools. In a previous study the researchers noted that they sensed a trend emerging.
Teens were leading the way into the Web 2.0 era. “Online teens have access to tools that can
gain them widespread attention and notoriety in ways that simply were not possible under the
traditional mass media model” (Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, & Smith, 2007, p. 1). In January of
2009, Jones and Fox extended the Pew study by looking specifically at the generations that are
online. Although Jones and Fox’s definition of Gen Y or the Millennial Generation is broader
than many others’ definition (born between 1977 to 1990, ages 18 to 32 in 2009), the study
provided an array of salient information.
First and foremost, Jones and Fox (2009) provided statistics which confirmed that 87% of
the Millennial Generation is indeed online. Furthermore, not only is this demographic on the
Internet, they are creating content and participating with the social media tools in place. Social
networking within this demographic is phenomenal when taking into consideration the
Millennial Generation as compared to all online adult users. Jones and Fox (2009) found that
over half (67%) of Millennial users had a profile on a social network, a striking increase over
what the overall adult users (35%) report.
Although blogging can be a significant part of social networking, it is not always
synonymous with it. Jones and Fox (2009) found that 20% of Millennials blog separately from
social networking. This percentage is double their Gen X (ages 33 to 44) counterparts, 10% of
whom report ever having created a blog. Creating a blog is one thing, but reading is another.
Forty-three percent of all Millennials have read others’ online blogs. Again this is a 9% jump
from Generation X, who has reported only 34% reading of others’ blogs.
Videos are popular for this demographic as well. Although only 52% of online adults
reported having watched a video online, Jones and Fox (2009) reported that 72% of online
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Millennials say they have done so. Statistics in this study provide a glimpse of the opportunities
that exist for public relations professionals to target this engaged audience.
Current Investigation
When research came to a point of engagement with studying different practices of public
relations, Grunig and Hunt’s four models of public relations were developed to help practitioners
become better equipped with the when and how to use their communications skills to solve
public relations problems. The current study is being presented within Grunig and Hunt’s (1984)
four models of public relations through the relationship management framework lens. The
question of how public relations practitioners are using social media tools to effectively reach
Millennial audiences will be addressed through these guiding foundational blocks.
The following research questions and hypotheses are advanced:
RQ 1 : Do Millennial students interact with one particular social media tool over another?
H 1 :
Millennial students who indicate they interact with company/brand e-mail will generate
the most committed relationship over all other company/brand social media tools.
RQ 2 : What is the relationship between a Millennial student’s commitment to maintaining a
relationship with one of the top 10 most social company/brand and the interaction of the
Millennial student with a social media tool of that company/brand?
H 2 :
Those Millennial students who have had a relationship with the top 10 social brands via
social media tools will be more likely to have a favorable perception of that
company/brand.
RQ 3 : To what extent is a Millennial students’ favorable perception of the organization
positively associated with his or her active social media behavior?
H 3 : Millennial students’ satisfaction with the relationship they have with one of the top 10
social brands will be positively associated with the company/brand through a social
media outlet.
RQ 4 : To what extent, if any, is there a difference between gender and each social media tool?
H 4 :
Millennial males will be more likely to interact with social media tools than Millennial
females.
Methodology
In selecting companies or brands to be investigated in targeting Millennials from a public
relations perspective in this study, no list with this exact criteria emerged. However, one list
dubbed by Advertising Age as the “Most Social Brands of 2008,” rose to the top. This list is
intriguing and relevant because it outlines the brand or branded company product that is
mentioned most often in social media. Brands were chosen based on the conversation volume on
a variety of social networking, blogging and microblogging sites according to Klaasen’s (2009)
article. “This survey stuck to a pretty rudimentary metric—it measures mentions, not the
sentiment of those mentions or the word parings” (Klaasen, 2009, p. 1). Sheer volume of
conversations on social media tools is what caused each of these top 10 companies/brands rise to
the top of the list. The top 10 list includes: iPhone, CNN, Apple, Disney, Xbox, Starbucks, iPod,
MTV, Sony, and Dell.
Participants
Students from two Midwestern universities were selected to complete the survey.
Location, proximity of universities, and similar demographics of the student body at both
universities provided an opportunity for a larger number of Millennial students to be surveyed.
The population of this study consisted of Millennial students from both Midwest
universities. Participants were selected because most fit the Millennial demographic. Those
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students who noted they were 17 or younger (n=1) or 25 or over (n=3) in the demographic
section of the survey were eliminated from study. A total of 1,062 participants completed the
survey. The breakdown of gender for the sample was consistent with the demographic makeup of
both campuses as a whole with 43.6% male (n= 463) and 56.4% female (n= 599) completing the
survey. At both universities, participation was elicited through a cluster sample of classes that
had enrollments greater than 25 students. Because of the large number of participants needed to
have strong sample size, only classes with enrollments greater than 25 were used to draw from
for the cluster sample. A self-administered paper survey was utilized. For this particular study,
Bruning and Galloway’s organization-public relationship scale was selected. Bruning and
Galloway’s (2003) 24-question scale aims to measure the respondent’s relationship with a
particular organization, in this case the relationship between the Millennial college student
demographic with the top 10 social media brand organizations. The scale is composed of five
dimensions. Although all dimensions provide useful information, the personal commitment
dimension was the focus for this particular study. Respondents were asked to specify their level
of agreement with each of the 24 questions on the scale by indicating their preferences on a 7-
point Likert scale anchored from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Bruning and
Galloway’s (2003) scale was selected because of its ability to measure the relationship between
an organization and each organization’s public or target audience. In addition to Bruning’s 24
questions, six additional questions were asked to help address the research questions and
hypotheses. Two questions were asked in order to gain insight from students regarding their
familiarity with social media tools in general and the top 10 organizations in general. One
question was asked to discover student familiarity with one or more of the top 10 organizations’
interactions with themselves as Millennial students via social media tools. The final three
questions were asked in order to collect demographic information about the Millennial students
who completed the survey. Questions about sex, age, and race were asked in an effort to provide
the study with demographic statistics.
Findings and Discussion
Research Question #1. The first research question posed aimed to answer with what, if
any, social media tools Millennial students interact. The responses to this close-ended question
were categorized and the frequencies of the responses were aggregated. The percentages for each
of the categories were calculated relative to the total set of responses generated. As indicated in
Table 1 (Appendix A), the most popular response was e-mail (97.2%), followed closely by social
networking sites (94.1%). Other social media tools which participants reported for interacting
included personal digital assistants (79.1%), video sharing (69.0%), blogs (21.1%), micro blogs
(15.4%), and podcasts (11.2%). Only 0.5% of participants reported never using any of the social
media tools listed. A list emerged by asking Millennial students to select all social media tools
with which he or she would interact. Because students were allowed to select more than one type
of social media, the question did not force participants to select one tool over another, allowing
for multiple social media tools to emerge as highly interacted with by Millennial students.
Relatively consistent with Lenhart and Fox’s (2009) study for the Pew Internet data, which
reported that 94% of those from age 18 to 32 use e-mail, this social media tool was also selected
as the most highly interacted social media tool by participants at 97.2%. Closely following at
94.1%, social networking as a social media tool was also reported as highly interacted with by
Millennial students. The popularity of the social networking social media tool did not come as a
surprise, especially after recent research on social networking sites such as Facebook has
proclaimed its rising popularity (Outlaw, 2009; Vasquez, 2008). Knowing that Millennials are
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using social networking tools is encouraging to those public relations practitioners who are
considering or are beginning to reach out to this key audience through this social media tool.
Most interesting, inconsistent with what others have found, is the interaction Millennials
reported with both blogs and podcasts. Jones and Fox (2009) report that 43% of this generation
engage with blogs. In this study, only 21.1% of Millennial students reported interacting with
blogs. Because this percentage is rather low, the finding raises several questions. One significant
question is whether blogs are becoming less popular within this Millennial Generation. This
finding suggests that blogs are not as popular as others have reported. Another question is what
characteristics make blogs more or less engaging? Possibly because of the recent growth of blogs
as reported by Technorati (2009), information is becoming not only overwhelming but also
difficult to trust. Although some research has found that Millennials are suited for blogging
because of its unique capability of allowing for content contribution, being leery of where their
information is being posted and who is accessing that information is becoming more of an issue
(McConnell & Hubba, 2007).
Another noteworthy finding that emerged in the study is the 11.2% of Millennial students
who reported interacting with podcasts. Recent studies suggest that the audio podcast is one of
the rising social media tools that is expected to have exponential growth in upcoming years.
Indeed research says that 25% of Millennials are already using podcast, which contradicts the
finding of this study. (EMarketer, 2008; Jones & Fox, 2009). Similar to blogs, questions arise
about this significant decline of Millennials who report interacting with podcast. Findings
suggest that podcasts as a social tool are not the best way to target this generation. Besides the
0.5% of participants who reported not interacting with any social media tool, podcasts were
reported as the least interacted with social media tool.
One note of interest pertaining to the first research question regards those participants
who selected interacting with no social media tool. Only five of 1093 students who participated
in the study reported that they did not engage with any social media tool. This finding supports
the idea that Millennial students are indeed interacting with a variety of social media tools.
Public relations practitioners should find this result encouraging while thinking strategically for
ways to reach this target audience through these different social media tools. Although all social
media tools did not register with above-average percentages of interaction, most Millennials
reported interacting with a variety of tools.
Hypothesis #1. The first hypothesis states, “Millennial students who indicate they
interact with company/brand e-mail will generate the most committed relationship over all other
company/brand social media tools.” First, an independent samples t-test was run for each social
media tool with a usage response over 50% of the sample who had been engaging with social
media tools (yes/no) and wanting their relationship to continue with each company/brand (1 =
strongly wanting the relationship to continue, 7 = strongly not wanting the relationship to
continue). Results in Table 2 (Appendix B) indicated that hypothesis one is partially supported.
Secondly, in order to determine if having contact via social networking tools had varying effects
on wanting the relationship with each company to continue, a series of factorial analyses of
variance (factorial ANOVA) were run. As indicated in Table 3 (Appendix C), all other top 10
social media companies/brands (Xbox, Starbucks, MTV, Sony and Dell) resulted in no
significant interaction effect for any of the comparisons between the social media tools and
strongly wanting the relationship with the company to continue.
Millennials are using social media tools, some more than others as supported by research
question and hypothesis one, to receive messages from companies and organizations. As
14

discussed previously, Millennial students are bombarded with millions of messages. Targeting
those messages through the appropriate tool is essential to the success of a positive relationship.
Windahl, Signitzer and Olson (2009) stated, “When a sub-audience is defined as a segment, the
communication planner must find channels and messages that fit it. But not all segments can be
reached through matching channels, that is, through channels whose audience equals the
planner’s target group” (p. 231). In order to investigate further if Millennials were gravitating
more to e-mail than other social media tools of the particular company/brand while also staying
strongly committed to a particular company/brand, hypothesis one was advanced. To find a
thorough answer, both t-tests and a factorial ANOVA were run. T-tests were run to find if there
were significant differences between each of the top social media tools as discovered in research
question one. The four social media tools (e-mail, video, PDA, social networking) that were
investigated all had over 50% of participants report that they had interacted with the social media
tool. Apple, Disney, and Xbox reported significant differences for all four social media tools
between those Millennials who had interacted with the company/brand’s social media tool and
wanted their relationship to continue and those who had not interacted. CNN reported
significance for all but PDA. Sony and Starbucks reported significance for only e-mail. MTV
and Dell reported no significant difference between any of the four social media tools.
Only guesses can be made at this time as to why some companies/brands reported
significant differences between those Millennials who had wanted their relationship to continue
and those who had not. One guess could be that perhaps some may do better than others at being
authentic. Authenticity is crucial within social media. Another guess, the issue of transparency
and authenticity continues to be a relevant issue in social media. As Scott (2007) discussed
previously in the literature review, some companies attempt to pull off corporate generated
material as consumer generated material. Millennials can detect this issue of authenticity and
often feel betrayed and belittled when companies or brands try to blur the social media
authenticity lines. Before the emergence of social media tools, the brand had to build itself. Yet
another guess as to why some companies/brands reported significant differences between those
Millennials who had wanted their relationship to continue and those who had not could revolve
around the issue of the differences between traditional and social media tools. Millennials may
prefer to see more traditional communication (television or radio) instead of social media
communication from particular companies/brands. MTV was one of the companies in which no
significant difference between any of the social media tools was found and Millennials wanting
to continue their relationship with MTV for a long time. This could be due to the fact that MTV,
as it states in its name, is known for its more traditional form of communication—television.
Millennials may prefer building their relationship with MTV through more traditional means
rather than social means. This is not to say that Millennials are not interacting with the social
media tools, but rather that their preference for this particular company may still lie in more
traditional tools.
Although a variety of the social media tools reported main effects between tools (the
significant t-test results), a factorial ANOVA was run in the current study to explore those tools
that were considered highly engaged in by Millennials (e-mail, video, PDA, social networking)
and their wanting the relationship to continue with each of the top 10 most social
companies/brands. In looking at each social media tool individually compared to the
combination of two of the top four social media tools, results indicated that only in the case of
Apple, CNN, and Disney did the combination of multiple tools have significant interaction
effects between e-mail and social networking, social media tools, and wanting their relationship
15

to continue with Apple, CNN, and Disney. After examining the data, the researcher went back to
the t-test means to compare each individual tool mean with the combined mean to determine
which was the lowest. This helped determine which tool, or combination of the tools, provided
the strongest relationship. Interestingly, Apple, CNN and Disney all reported different results for
the strongest relationship. Yet, because e-mail (97.2%) was advanced as the social media tool to
generate the most committed relationship between the company/brand and the Millennial
student, hypothesis one is partially supported. Even though the Apple, CNN, and Disney results
of the current study all reported different preference of company/brand social media tool(s) for
Millennials, of the tools that were significant, e-mail was part of those that Millennials responded
to as interacting with the most while remaining the most committed to the company/brand.
Furthermore, the t-test serves as a guide for both the companies/brands and public relations
practitioners who question using social media tools to attract Millennial students. E-mail showed
a significant difference between Millennials who had received an e-mail and those who had not
and wanting their relationship to continue with each company/brand in six out of the eight
companies/brands. PDA showed the least promise to commitment to the company/brand of the
four social media tools looked at in this hypothesis, having only three of eight companies/brands
show significance between those who had interacted with PDA and those who had not.
Research Question #2. Research question two asked, “What is the relationship between
a Millennial student’s commitment to maintaining a relationship with one of the top 10 most
social company/brand and the interaction of the Millennial student with a social media tool of
that company/brand?” A chi-square test was run for exposure to company/brand social media
outlet (yes/no) and commitment to that social media company/brand. Results indicated out of the
eight social media companies/brands, six had significant differences between the participants
who had and those who had not been exposed to the company/brand social media outlet and his
or her level of commitment to that particular social media company/brand.
The current study reports Apple, Disney, Xbox, Starbucks, MTV, and Sony all having
significant difference in the commitment level between those who had been exposed to
company/brand social media tool and those who had not. Results support the argument that those
Millennial students who had indicated that they had personally interacted with a company/brand
via a social media tool(s) were more committed to maintaining a relationship with that particular
company/brand than those Millennials who reported never having interacted with the
company/brand via social media. Those Millennials who had actually interacted with the
company/brand by using the social media tools most likely had some type of vested interest with
the company/brand, thereby already establishing some type of relationship with the
company/brand. It would suggest that if Millennials are interacting with companies, these users
desire some type of relationship, usually positive, with that particular company/brand.
Interestingly, this study found that for CNN and Dell the reverse proved to be true in
exploring the relationship between a Millennial student’s commitment to maintaining a
relationship with one of the top 10 most social company/brands and the interaction of the
Millennial student with a social media tool of that company/brand. Commitment to maintaining a
relationship with CNN and Dell was not different for those participants who had been exposed to
social media and those who had not. The researcher can only speculate why this finding emerges.
CNN is a company that supplies news to millions worldwide. Millennials may interact with
CNN’s social media tools, but not be committed to maintaining a relationship with the company
because of the nature of news and how it can be communicated in a variety of ways. For
example, although the researcher in this study follows CNN on Twitter, the researcher is not
16

strongly committed to maintaining a relationship with CNN because of the preference to get
news through the local television news channel for a local angle or national news from the NPR
podcast so one can run while listening (multi-tasking Millennial).
The results of this study raise additional questions about why Dell and CNN have
different experiences with Millennials than other top companies/brands. This is very interesting
data for public relations practitioners who work for both CNN and Dell, two widely respected
companies. These top companies are reaching this Millennial market via social media tools, but
questions addressing why there is no commitment to some companies with whom Millennials are
engaged via social media tools needs to be further examined.
Hypothesis #2. The second hypothesis in the current study states, “Those Millennial
students who have had a relationship with the top 10 social brands via social media tools will be
more likely to have a favorable perception of that company/brand.” An independent samples t-
test was run for interaction with a brand/company through social media tools (yes/no) and
wanting a relationship with the brand/company to continue for a long time. Results indicated that
there were significant differences for six of the eight media brands/companies for exposure to the
brand/company social media tool and wanting the relationship to continue with the company
(Table 4, Appendix D). For all companies/brands except CNN and Dell, results indicated that as
participants’ usage of social media tools increased, their wanting to continue a relationship with
the company/brand also increased. Millennials indicating that they somewhat agreed to strongly
agreed that they wanted to continue their relationship with the company/brand for a long time
was used to determine if they had a favorable perception of the company/brand. Apparently,
according to the data, those students who have had a relationship with CNN and Dell via that
particular company’s/brand’s social media tools do not have a favorable perception of CNN or
Dell. Even after interacting with CNN and Dell via social media tools, it is surprising that those
Millennials did not have a favorable perception. Reasons for this disconnect are unknown;
however, the data clearly indicate a lack of relationship with Millennials for these two
companies. What makes CNN and Dell the anomaly to the list of top 10 most social brands is
unknown and intriguing. The support for hypothesis one is especially positive news for public
relations practitioners who aim to engage this niche market of Millennials via social media tools.
If, for the most part, Millennials have favorable perceptions of those companies/brands with
which they interact via social media tools, public relations practitioners need to look at ways to
interact with the Millennial target audience in order to build stronger, more favorable
relationships.
Research Question #3. The third research question asked is, “To what extent is a
Millennial student’s favorable perception of the organization positively associated with his or her
active social media behavior?” Pearson’s product-moment correlations were used to analyze this
research question. Pearson’s product-moment correlations are used in situations were the
independent and dependent variables are interval or ratio level measures (Reinard, 2008). In this
study a correlation was run for active social media behavior (number of tools used: no tools = 0
to all tools listed selected = 7) and wanting a relationship with a brand/company to continue for a
long time (strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 7). Results indicate that there are significant
correlations for all eight media brands/companies between active social media behavior and
wanting the relationship to continue with the company/brand. Table 5 (Appendix E) presents the
correlations between active social media behavior and Millennial students wanting their
relationships with each company/brand to continue for a long time. Correlations were significant
at the .001 level.
17

This question did not look at the social media usage from each particular brand as in
research question two, but instead Millennials’ social media usage in general. The significant
correlations support the idea that the more these technological Millennials interact with social
media, the more they tend to favor the top 10 social companies/brands. Based on the results from
research question two, this positive correlation was somewhat expected. The companies/brands
that were selected as the top 10 most social brands were selected because of their innate use of
engaging audiences with social media. Those Millennials who use social media should
seemingly positively correlate with these brands based on the simple fact that they are engaging
with tools that have made these companies/brands rise to the top of the list. The more tools with
which Millennials engage, the more opportunity they have to exposure to one or more of these
companies. Furthermore, the more social media tools that Millennials use, the more comfortable
they likely are with interacting with each company/brand because of the company’s/brand’s
extensive use of the social media.
Hypothesis #3. The third hypothesis in the current study states, “Millennial students’
satisfaction with the relationship they have with one of the top 10 social brands will be positively
associated with the company/brand through a social media outlet.” A correlation analysis was
run for the number of social media tools (e.g., 0 = no tools, 1 = 1 social media tool contact, etc.)
to which participants were exposed by each company/brand and wanting their relationship to
continue for a long time (1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree) with each respective
company/brand. Results indicated no significant correlations for the number of social media
tools that participants were exposed to by each company/brand and wanting their relationship to
continue with that company/brand for a long time. As indicated from the results in Table 6
(Appendix F), the number of social media tools Millennials were exposed to by each of these
companies did not relate to those same Millennials wanting to maintain a relationship with the
company/brand for a long time.
Although the results for Sony reached significance, none of the other companies/brands
indicated a significant correlation between the number of social media tools that participants
were exposed to by each company/brand and a desire for their relationship to continue with that
company/brand for a long time. This finding supports the literature (Flanagin and Metzger, 2008:
Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, & Smith, 2007; Mazzarella, 2006) on the Millennials in regard to
finding the fine line between engaging and tuning out completely. Attracting and maintaining
their attention continues to be a challenge for public relations practitioners who are desperately
trying to reach this key market. While Millennial students have a more favorable perception of
most of the top 10 social companies/brands if they have had relationship with them through a
social media tool, as borne out by hypothesis two, as those social media tool interactions
increase, it does not necessarily increase their satisfaction with that particular company/brand.
Data from the current study support the idea that more types of social media usage does not
increase user satisfaction with the relationship with a company/brand. These results are
consistent with existing research that encourages public relations practitioners to engage in only
those social media tools that they are willing to devote the time, resources and effort into making
succeed (Gillin, 2007; Li and Bernoff, 2008; Scott, 2007). This study further supports the
recommendation of engaging in only those social media for which public relations practitioners
are ready because engaging in multiple social media tools does not seem to increase the chances
of successfully establishing a mutually beneficial relationship with the Millennial Generation.
Research Question #4. Research question number four asked, “To what extent, if any, is
there a difference between gender and each social media tool?” A chi-square test was run for
18

gender (male/female) and each of the seven media tools. As shown in Table 7 (Appendix G),
results indicated that out of the seven social media tools, none had significant differences
between the gender and each particular social media tool that was explored in the study.
This supports other scholars (Dresang, Gross, & Holt, 2007; Li, Glass, & Records, 2008;
Rainer, Laosethakul, & Astone, 2003) who argue that this gap has drastically narrowed over time
and is in some cases non-existent. This is good news for public relations practitioners who are
trying to target the Millennial market with social media tools and have concerns about gender
differences. Each of the seven social media tools was examined for gender differences, and all
data gathered indicate no difference between gender for any of the seven social media tools.
Hypothesis #4. In looking at communication technologies, specifically social media,
very few studies have been conducted for each tool individually in regards to gender preference.
Many studies have shown that females have lagged behind in many aspects of new technology
from their use to their confidence or ability to use the technology (Dempsey, 2009; Spotts,
Bowman, & Mertz, 1997; Wood & Li, 2005). Based on previous research, hypothesis four was
advanced, “Millennial males will be more likely to interact with social media tools than
Millennial females.” Results found that Millennial males were not necessarily more likely to
interact with any of the seven social media tools set forth by the study than Millennial females.
Although this finding is surprising, it should be also promising to public relations practitioners
that are trying to reach the Millennial demographic. Constructing key messages to send through
the best social media channels can be difficult enough, let alone trying to utilize different
channels to reach different genders. Results from the current study support others (Dresang,
Gross, & Holt, 2007; Li, Glass, & Records, 2008; Rainer, Laosethakul, & Astone, 2003) who
argue that the gender/technology gap is narrowing, or in some cases, disappearing. Millennials
are known for their tech savvy ways, and these findings assert that gender does not make a
difference on which social media tools Millennials will use and not use.
Future Research Directions
Although the current findings respond to a need to conduct original research in the area
of public relations, this study only begins to address the void in the communication and
marketing literature. At the annual International Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
conference in October of 2008, it was apparent that the public relations field is evolving and that
social media is at the heart of the movement. In an attempt to assist public relations practitioners,
specifically those who are or thinking of using social media tools, this study intended to both add
to the communication and marketing literature as well as assist current practitioners in the field.
The current investigation looked at only one dimension—personal commitment—of
Bruning and Galloway’s (2003) public-organization relationship scale. However, as previously
mentioned, the scale is composed of five dimensions: anthropomorphic, personal commitment,
professional benefit/expectation, community improvement, and comparison of alternatives that
could be further examined. Solid findings from the current study offer a more complete
understanding into an individual’s personal commitment with a company/brand, yet much more
information can be gleaned from looking at each of the different dimensions individually and
collaboratively.
In addition to Millennials, several other generations exist. A follow-up study examining
the personal commitment of each of the other generations could offer public relations
practitioners insight into building relationships with not only the Millennial Generation, but also
how those relationships with Millennials differ from the other generations via use of social media
19

tools. By comparing and contrasting the behaviors of all generations, future studies could help
answer this compelling question.
This particular study looked intently on channel usage related to indentifying social
media use and the way that this relates to brand loyalty and continued interest in continuing
relationships. What it doesn’t look at is message content that is disseminated through those
channels. Additional research should be conducted in order to analyze messages that are sent
through these social media channels and how those messages relate to Millennials wanting to
continue their relationship with the organization.
Finally, while this study allowed the researcher to investigate Millennials’ interaction
with social media tools of specific companies, research is also needed to investigate what makes
Millennials engage with one particular social media tool over another. The current study found
that Millennials heavily engage with social networking sites (e.g., MySpace and Facebook).
What makes Millennials engage with social networking sites more than other social media tools
such as blogs, micro-blogs, or podcasts? To extend the current study, a future qualitative study
could divulge a better understanding through open-ended questions as to why Millennials prefer
social networking sites and e-mail to microblogging and podcasts. Likewise, researchers might
also examine the various social media tools that Millennial engage with the most and how those
tools change over time.
Conclusion
Beneficial relationships with the public are important for the survival of an organization.
Public relations practitioners must build and maintain strong relationships between the
organization and its public to lead to a desired behavior of the public for the organization and
vice-versa. Rather than focusing on all dimensions of the organization-public relationship
(anthropomorphic, personal commitment, professional benefit/expectation, community
improvement, and comparison of alternatives), this study specifically concentrated on the
personal commitment relationship to the company/brand. Hence, the current study contributes to
a theoretical body of knowledge in the public relations field by providing acute in-depth
understanding into the personal commitment relationship dimension, specifically with a younger
demographic, the Millennial Generation.
In addition, this study is important to the field of public relations because of its
contribution to the body of literature focusing on social media tools and contribution to the
knowledge of public relations practitioners. The literature review for this study sufficiently
exemplifies the growth of social media within the field. The current study enhances that body of
literature by supporting other’s testimonies (Gillin, 2007; Hallahan, 2008; Li and Bernoff, 2008;
Scott, 2007) of the importance of a social media presence for organizations to build relationships
with key publics. Currently, the literature supports organizations being familiar with and using
many social media tools, but current findings indicate that organizations that utilize one tool well
is more essential than using several social media tools. As this study showed, Millennial
satisfaction does not increase with the variety of tools, yet for most companies/brands a social
media presence did matter with Millennials’ favorable perceptions of that particular
company/brand.
Public relations practitioners are yearning for in-depth knowledge of social media tools
and how they can best play into their relationship building with key markets. In October, the
cover of PRWeek, a monthly magazine targeted to practitioners, read Social Media Survey 2009.
The seven-page article by Maul (2009) outlined important issues in social media such as what
was being used most frequently industry-wide (social networking) to ethical issues of using
20

social media. One focus of the article discussed the importance of being able to accurately
measure how social media impacts an organization. This study helps practitioners fulfill some of
this need, particularly within the Millennial market. Findings from this study can help public
relations practitioners allocate resources to social media tools that are most frequently being
interacted with by Millennials. For the companies/brands that were emphasized in the study,
further knowledge can be gleaned from public relations practitioners from those particular
organizations in regard to social media tool usage and their company/brand. Lessons in which
social media tools are being used and even which combination of tools is strongest for each
company/brand can be gathered and used for future allocation of time and resources.
Communication scholars of the early 1900s remember the days of media effects with
terms as “magic bullet theory” or the “hypodermic needle theory” to describe the times when
mass communication was assumed to have great effects on the public through one message
through one medium to the entire public (Windahl, Signitzer & Olson, 2009). Findings in this
study suggest that Millennials demand specific mediums to have their messages arrive to them.
When public relations practitioners do not take into consideration targeting their messages, those
messages fall upon the mass society as a blanket with only hopes of the targeting audience being
able to pick up the message. Millennials are unlike any other generation in the way they that they
have surrounded themselves with new ways to build relationships: through a communications
medium (Tapscott, 1996). Social media tools have provided new ways for key publics to build
and maintain relationships with companies/brands. Much work remains to be done in the
academic realm to further examine the variety of relationship dimensions that can all work to the
organizations’ advantage in building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with key
publics. However, the current study helps shed some light on how public relations practitioners
are using social media tools to effectively reach the Millennial audiences.
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Appendix A
Table 1
Response Frequency of Millennial Interaction with Social Media Tools
Social Media Tool f % of Total
E-mail 1063 97.2
Social Networking Site (e.g., MySpace/Facebook) 1030 94.1
Personal Digital Assistants (e.g., mobile phone) 865 79.1
Video Sharing (e.g., YouTube) 755 69.0
Blogs 231 21.1
Micro Blog (e.g., Twitter) 169 15.4
Podcasts 122 11.2
None 5 0.5
Note. Participants were asked to select all social media tools with which they interact. Several
could have been selected by one participant. n=1094
24

Appendix B
Table 2
Differences Between Millennial Interaction With and Without a Social Media Tool and Wanting
Relationship With Brand/Company to Continue for a Long Time
Brand Social Media Tools Used No Social Media Tool Used
Social Media tool n M SD n M SD t
Apple
E-mail 416 2.30 1.28 660 3.18 1.48 -10.058***
Video 231 2.41 1.38 846 2.96 1.48 -5.123***
PDA 230 2.47 1.42 847 2.94 1.47 .477***
Social Networking 282 2.35 1.29 795 3.02 1.50 -6.692***
CNN
E-mail 62 3.39 1.42 1015 4.01 1.46 -3.292**
Video 129 3.60 1.54 948 4.03 1.44 -3.164*
PDA 27 3.74 1.61 1050 3.98 1.46 .561
Social Networking 48 3.33 1.59 1029 4.01 1.45 .033*
Disney
E-mail 77 1.18 2.30 1000 1.39 3.33 -6.346***
Video 169 2.67 1.34 908 3.37 1.39 -6.052***
PDA 20 2.55 1.76 1057 3.27 1.39 -2.285***
Social Networking 82 2.46 1.29 995 3.32 1.39 -5.411*
Xbox
E-mail 150 2.47 1.37 927 3.76 1.33 -10.987***
Video 121 2.44 1.28 956 3.73 1.36 -9.869***
PDA 43 2.28 1.24 1034 3.64 1.39 -6.282***
Social Networking 84 2.31 1.24 993 3.69 1.37 -8.905***
Starbucks
E-mail 87 2.84 1.45 990 3.59 1.44 -4.651***
Video 19 3.11 1.63 1058 3.58 1.45 -1.276
PDA 14 2.86 1.29 1063 3.53 1.45 .-1.738
Social Networking 86 3.66 1.47 991 3.51 1.45 .915
MTV
E-mail 55 4.16 1.62 1022 3.97 1.49 .955
Video 161 3.91 1.51 916 3.99 1.50 -.577
PDA 30 4.03 1.77 1047 3.97 1.49 .213
Social Networking 101 4.01 1.76 976 3.97 1.47 .240
Sony
E-mail 151 3.18 1.20 926 3.47 1.32 -2.533*
Video 98 3.21 1.39 979 3.45 1.29 -1.698
PDA 63 3.33 1.27 1014 3.43 1.31 -.589
Social Networking 69 3.33 1.46 1008 3.43 1.29 -.618
Dell
E-mail 378 3.60 1.61 699 3.55 1.50 .496
Video 156 3.63 1.57 921 3.55 1.54 .623
PDA 80 3.55 1.58 977 3.56 1.54 -.082
Social Networking 202 3.70 1.62 875 3.53 1.52 1.428
Note. Lower numbers in mean category indicate wanting the relationship to continue more. ***p < .000 **p < .01 *p < .05
25

Appendix C
Table 3
Factor Loadings for Millennial Interaction with E-mail, Video, PDA, and Social Networking for
Wanting Relationship With Company/Brand to Continue for a Long Time
Brand
Factor Loadings
Social Media tool E-mail Video PDA Social Networking
Apple
E-mail .074 .612 .029*
Video .074 .575 .140
PDA .612 .575 .282
Social Networking .029* .140 .282
CNN
E-mail .168 .656 .017*
Video .168 .133 .140
PDA .656 .133 .808
Social Networking .017* .140 .808
Disney
E-mail .553 .501 .011*
Video .553 .901 .222
PDA .501 .901 .124
Social Networking .011* .222 .124
Xbox
E-mail .054 .359 .132
Video .054 .398 .720
PDA .359 .398 .356
Social Networking .132 .720 .356
Starbucks
E-mail .504 .766 .365
Video .504 n/a .627
PDA .766 n/a .880
Social Networking .365 .627 .880
MTV
E-mail .109 .401 .334
Video .109 .202 .919
PDA .401 .202 .063
Social Networking .334 .919 .063
Sony
E-mail .924 .368 .541
Video .924 .207 .934
PDA .368 .207 .738
Social Networking .541 .934 .738
Dell
E-mail .245 .481 .365
Video .245 .227 .644
PDA .481 .227 .919
Social Networking .365 .644 .919
Note. n/a = SPSS not having enough participants to run test *p < .05
26

Appendix D
Table 4
Differences Between Interaction With Brand/Company Through Social Media Tool(s) and
Wanting Relationship With Brand/Company to Continue for a Long Time
Brand
Social Media Tools Used No Social Media Tool Used
M SD M SD t
Apple 2.40 1.394 3.42 1.453 11.479**
CNN 4.00 1.633 3.89 1.494 1.96
Disney 2.46 1.389 3.46 1.377 10.483**
Xbox 2.46 1.469 3.87 1.300 14.831**
Starbucks 2.55 1.567 3.66 1.419 9.473**
MTV 3.74 1.634 3.98 1.533 2.178*
Sony 3.18 1.384 3.44 1.346 2.832**
Dell 3.49 1.676 3.53 1.517 .449
Note. n = 1091 **p < .01 *p < .05
27

Appendix E
Table 5
Pearson Correlation Matrix for Millennials Favorable Perception and Active Social Media
Behavior
(r)
Apple .032
CNN .036
Disney .009
Xbox .063*
Starbucks .019
MTV .074*
Sony .061*
Dell .057*
Note. n = 1094 *p ≥ .05 (one-tailed)
28

Appendix F
Table 6
Pearson Correlation Matrix for Personal Interaction with Social Media Tools of
Company/Brand and Millennial Students’ Desire to Continue a Relationship with Each
Company/Brand
Social Media Tools Interaction
Brand r p
Apple .524 ns
CNN .125 ns
Disney .077 ns
Xbox .541 ns
Starbucks .911 ns
MTV .125 ns
Sony .055 reached significance
Dell .464 ns
Note. n = 1091
29

Appendix G
Table 7
Differences Between Engagement of Social Media Tools Among Male and Female Millennial
Students
Social Media Tool χ 2 p
Blogs 1.002 ns
E-mail 1.120 ns
Micro Blog (e.g., Twitter) 1.431 ns
Podcasts .000 ns
Personal Digital Assistants (e.g., mobile phone) .838 ns
Social Networking Site (e.g., MySapce/Facebook) .312 ns
Video Sharing (e.g., YouTube) .483 ns
Note. Female: n = 598, Male: n = 463
30

Mentoring 2.0: How PR Educators Use Social Media to Create and Maintain Relationships
with Students
Rowena Briones
University of Maryland
rbriones@umd.edu
*Recipient of Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Student Award
Abstract
This qualitative study consists of a series of in-depth interviews with public relations educators
to explore their perceptions of mentoring and how they use social media channels to build
relationships with students. Findings revealed that educators believed that social media help
enhance their mentorships with students, allowing for deeper, more informal relationships that
makes keeping in touch, charting progress, and sharing resources easier and more efficient.
Practical suggestions for utilizing social media channels in mentoring relationships is discussed,
along with theoretical propositions that can help move public relations scholarship towards
theories in mentoring and new technology.
As a vehicle for personal and professional development, advice, and guidance, mentoring
can be seen as crucial to the practice of public relations, helping affect career development and
advancement opportunities for young practitioners. Many PR agencies are beginning to utilize
mentorship programs, as Janice Rotchstein, chief knowledge officer at Edelman Public Relations
Worldwide argues, “Mentoring says, ‘we’re with you for your career’” (Applebaum, 2000). The
value of these programs has begun to become realized among public relations agencies and
multinational organizations as a way to promote individual growth and personalized attention.
However, these mentoring relationships do not necessarily need to start in the workplace – they
start in the PR classroom. As students go through their collegiate careers, many PR students
develop mentoring relationships with their professors in order to learn more about the public
relations industry and to be provided with guidance and connections that can help them when
they graduate.
However, with the rise of new technologies and social media quickly changing the public
relations landscape, so too has the concept of relationships between educators and students,
leading to the development of electronic mentoring. Though there have been a number of studies
on e-mentorships, the majority of extant research has focused on specific programs that have
used an electronic component to link students and teachers with experts or databases (e.g.,
Harris, O’Bryan, & Rotenberg, 1996; O’Neill, Wagner, & Gomez, 1996) and not on the actual
mentoring relationships built in higher education through social media channels. In addition, few
studies have been conducted on mentorship in public relations (e.g., Tam et al., 1995; Pompper
& Adams 2006) but have mainly focused on gender differences between the mentor and the
mentee. Thus, the purpose of this study is to determine how social media and e-mentoring plays
a role in mentoring relationships between PR faculty and students.
Literature Review
Mentoring and Public Relations
Based on extant research, mentoring is crucial for the practice of public relations and
could ultimately affect career development and advancement opportunities for practitioners.
According to the Excellence Study, “mentoring plays a critical role in the advancement of
women and individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds,” as mentors help women and
31

minorities break the glass ceiling into upper management positions (Dozier, L. Grunig, & J.
Grunig, 1995, p. 150). Grunig, Toth and Hon (2001) found that mentoring also helps women rise
on the organizational ladder, as it provides a confidence in their personal power and legitimacy
within the public relations profession.
However, little research has been done on mentoring relationships in the field of public
relations. A study by Tam et al. (1995) examined the gender difference in public relations by
analyzing superior-subordinate gender pairings through role enactment, career advancement, and
salary differences (p. 263). Their findings showed that same-sex relationships have a more
intense and active mentorship; particularly female practitioners offered the most support for
female protégés. However, the findings also showed that since the majority of managers are men,
women are less likely to offer career advancement to protégés.
Pompper and Adams (2006) extended Tam et al.’s study by exploring how mentoring
reflects and perpetuates the social construction of gender in public relations mentorships. Their
findings suggest the public relations mentors help protégés in five important ways:
(1) Mentors supplement protégés’ college classroom training by offering
contextual skill-enhancement opportunities; (2) mentors validate and empower protégés
as they grow into counselors charged to lead others and to fulfill public relations’
management function; (3) mentors point out protégés’ image and behavior detractors that
could stunt assimilation or status growth; (4) mentors open their networks to protégés;
and (5) protégés experience substantial benefits from mentoring and later reciprocate by
mentoring others (Pompper & Adams, 2006, p. 314).
The authors also call for practitioners (both male and female) to offer career and
psychosocial support to all protégés, and to offer more formal mentoring guidelines that will
enhance the quality of the relationships. Somerick (2007) also offers suggestions to practitioners
considering mentorship. Some of her main points include (1) offer participation to professionals
with both academic and professional know-how; (2) match mentors to mentees with similar
career aspirations; (3) the mentorship should supplement, not replace classroom learning; and (4)
practitioners should insist on honest, legal and ethical interaction with their protégés. Somerick
posited that “as in any real-world endeavor, a mentoring program that is well thought out should
have more of an opportunity to be socially responsible and effective than one that is informal and
unplanned” (p. 21).
E-mentoring
Though research on mentoring relationships has been conducted for over 40 years, there
is little known about computer-mediated mentorship, otherwise known as electronic mentoring,
telementoring, online mentoring, or e-mentoring. According to Single and Muller (2001), e-
mentoring can be defined as:
A relationship that is established between a more senior individual (mentor) and a lesser
skilled or experienced individual (protégé), primarily using electronic communications,
that is intended to develop and grow the skills, knowledge, confidence, and cultural
understanding of the protégé to help him or her succeed, while also assisting in the
development of the mentor. (p. 108)
There have been a few studies conducted on e-mentoring, but overall little research has
been done to prove the value of this type of mentoring relationship. As was previously
mentioned, the majority of these studies simply describe programs where students or teachers are
linked to some sort of expert or database via a computer-mediated channel (Bierema & Merriam,
2002).
32

Despite this, however, studies have found a number of benefits for both the mentor and
the mentee in terms of e-mentoring. Because the power differential is not as easily visible in an
online mentorship, mentees may not feel as intimidated or uncomfortable because they are able
to interact with their mentor on the same level (Harasim et al., 1998; Palloff & Pratt, 1999). Past
research has shown that in these types of relationships, the status or position of the mentor and
mentee is not as salient as would be in a face-to-face interaction (Ensher et al., 2002), allowing
for the relationship to consist of a professional and a student, a group of students, or even a
student and a student. In addition, because the interaction is not necessarily immediate, both
parties can have time to think of appropriate responses, allowing both the mentor and mentee to
be more reflective in the relationship (Ravet & Latte, 1997). E-mentoring also allows for
extended geographical and temporal boundaries, allowing for more flexibility by reaching those
who have otherwise would not have been able to be mentored (Hamilton & Scandura, 2003;
Shrestha et al., 2009).
Though e-mentoring has many positive outcomes and effects, Bierema and Merriam
(2002) pose some challenges to the e-mentoring relationship as well. The digital divide may
cause some individuals to not have easy access to a computer, and even so, they might not
possess the online literacy to conduct a fulfilling online relationship. In addition, mentors and
mentees may find it difficult to gain trust and intimacy through the Internet, especially if the
parties have never formally met in person. The nature of the online relationship can also cause
individuals to flake out on the relationship and easily end their commitment to making progress.
And lastly, miscommunication can occur much more easily in an online mentorship, as
electronic communication can easily be misunderstood and misconstrued, as opposed to reading
body language and tone in a face-to-face interaction.
Lastly, though social media can be used to facilitate an e-mentoring relationship, to this
date there have been no studies conducted to explore this particular phenomenon. Therefore, as
previously mentioned, the facilitation of e-mentoring relationships through the use of social
media channels will be the focus of this study.
Research Questions
Based on the literature on mentoring in public relations and e-mentoring, the following
research questions were asked in this study:
RQ1: How do PR educators use social media in their mentoring relationships?
RQ2: Why do PR educators use social media to enhance their mentoring relationships?
RQ3: What challenges do PR educators face in using social media for their mentoring
relationships?
Method
This study consisted of a series of in-depth interviews with PR educators across the
United States. The qualitative method was the best approach for this study, as it allows me to
explore mentoring relationships and social media from my participants’ various perspectives
(Berg, 2009) and lets them guide the results. Additionally, a smaller sample size was used in
order to fully delve into the participants’ experiences within a limited time frame.
Data Collection Methods
I used a purposive sample for this study, recruiting participants through contacts made on
various social media channels, including Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn. I then used a
snowball sampling method by asking participants to recommend others to interview. I conducted
10 in-depth interviews, mostly over the phone but some over Skype, which lasted an average of
30 to 45 minutes. Every participant has given consent to be audio recorded. Five of the
33

participants taught in universities on the East coast, two educators were from the Midwest, and
the remaining two were from universities in the Western region of the US. The educators ranged
in how long they have been mentoring students, from one year to 25 years. Number of mentees
over the course of the educators’ lifetimes ranged from 10 protégés to over 1,000.
An interview guide was crafted to help guide the discussion and to answer the research
questions. Each interview began with a discussion about mentoring relationships in general, with
a transition into how mentoring is unique in the field of public relations through the use of social
media. Although these topics were the main foci of the interviews, there existed some flexibility
in which I allowed participants to discuss any additional issues or topics that seemed relevant.
Data Analysis
Audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed to fully capture the speech style of
the participants. After completing the transcripts, I analyzed them using Pardun and Krugman’s
(1994) procedure and the grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Open-coding
procedures were first used to examine the transcripts line-by-line to locate emerging themes and
potential categories. Axial coding was then used to find how the data identified in the first step
fit into discrete categorical themes, along with whether it described any of the concepts found in
the literature review. According to Lindlof and Taylor (2002), axial coding is a part of the
integration process of the grounded theory approach that narrows down the number of categories
by finding similarities across data in order to make the data clearer and more understandable.
However, though single statements were combined to create various concepts, stand-alone
statements that were unique or exceptional were also coded, in an effort to avoid too much
coherency in the data (van Zoonen, 1994).
Results
RQ1: How Do PR Educators Use Social Media in their Mentoring Relationships?
Knowing the purpose. With a large variety of different social media channels, the
educators believed that it was important to know the purpose of each medium in order to make
their mentoring relationships more effective. As one professor from an Eastern US university
stated:
That’s what you have to remember about social media. It’s not about the technology, it’s
about what it does. The pedagogy behind it. What are you using it for, what are you going
to do, how will it enhance teaching and learning – that’s really the important thing. The
venue itself? You can learn about what is in fashion, but you need to learn how to use it
for what it’s worth.
Another professor mentioned the importance of “knowing which channel you’re going to use –
who are your audiences you’re trying to reach, what is your message, and what are you
ultimately trying to gain.”
Maintaining a conversation. Educators also used social media in order to maintain a
conversation with their students. As one professor from an Eastern US university put it: “More
people are reaching through social media to continue the conversation. That’s what it is. They
are able to asynchronously continue the conversation,” while another professor from the
Midwest US stated that “mentoring is more of a conversation” which can be enhanced through
the use of social media.
Doing what’s comfortable. One professor from the Eastern region of the US discussed
the importance of choosing the best social media channel that is the most comfortable for both
the mentor and the mentee:
34

Sometimes using Facebook to IM is a good platform for a particular student. You can
share an article, gain advice from it, and instantaneously give feedback. Real-life, realtime.
Same thing with Twitter. They like it, they like to follow and have discussions. It
depends on the audience and what’s comfortable for the mentor and mentee.
Charting progress. A professor from an Eastern US university mentioned how using
social media can be helpful in charting the progress and growth of a mentoring relationship:
It allows you to go back and see the growth…charting your progress by seeing maybe a
reflections blog, or a Ning discussion, or just a Facebook – saving the information and
reflecting on it, I think it helps you reflect on your growth. Your practice essentially –
where was I, where am I going, and how do I get there. I think it saves that so you can go
back and review, some of the commentary that went back and forth without it going out
into space. It allows you to remember and recall instances of discussion that you
wouldn’t have remembered otherwise. Creates a transcript of your mentorship and your
discussions.
Checking in. Some educators liked social media because it allowed them to check-in
with mentees that they have not spoken to in a while. As one professor from a Western US
university described: “I might see a tweet from a former student that I haven’t talked to in a
while or I wonder if they found a job and need help so I will send them a direct message.
Sometimes I’ll send a message to ask them how they are doing. Just periodic check-ins.”
Another professor from the Western region of the US felt that social media has “helped a lot with
keeping up, it really has. A quick message on Twitter, or watching people’s updates on LinkedIn,
stuff like that has really helped a lot with being able to keep with people. It’s no longer a year
after your out and we lose touch, I’m in touch with students who graduated five years ago.”
Supplementing face-to-face interactions. Many of the educators felt that a mentoring
relationship should not exist solely on social media, as it is “there to augment the relationship,
it’s not there to replace it,” as one professor stated. One professor from an Eastern US university
decided that she “would not want my mentoring relationships to exist solely on social media. I
desire that face-to-face interaction with my students. Though you could still connect through
social media, you still need that face-to-face time to see how things are going.” Another
professor from the Western US agreed, stating that “Social media is good at keeping those ties
and connections current, but when it’s really something that someone needs advice about, we
need to meet and see each other face-to-face and do something – you can’t answer and really be
helpful when it comes to serious questions on Twitter.”
RQ2: Why Do PR Educators Use Social Media to Enhance Their Mentoring Relationships?
Instantaneous communication. As one professor mentioned, social media is helpful for
mentoring relationships because you can “instantaneously give feedback. Real-life, real-time.”
Another professor from an Eastern US university agreed, stating that “Social media helps
establish that sense of sharedness, that connection that it’s genuine. And because of that presence
that social media affords, that two-way connection. It’s not just a stale e-mail, or they have to
call my office phone, or have to check my office hours, it’s kind of instantaneous, it’s
shared…that’s been helpful.” She also mentioned that through social media she gains an “entry
point into the community.”
Connecting more informally. One professor from the Western region of the US
described how social media allows for a more casual, informal relationship with students,
offering a chance for them to be open with each other:
35

It gives me a window into their world. It’s a much less formal kind of relationship with
social media. I get to listen in, and if I hear or see something, or if somebody asks me a
specific question I can answer. It’s much more passive and more personal. I’m pretty
much an open book – on Twitter and on Facebook. And so students are that way with me.
And I sort of role modeled that – to use social media in that way – and so they’re
comfortable with being open appropriately so – being able to share their life and who
they are. And that gives me a window into their world and being there without having to
set up a coffee date or meet on a regular basis. It can be a quick thing.
Offering resources. Educators felt positively about using social media in their
mentorships because it also allowed them to share resources easily with students. As one
professor from the Midwest US mentioned:
I’m finding it to be really helpful because a part of mentoring is to help students find jobs
and on Twitter there are all these accounts for PR jobs. It’s definitely useful for
mentoring because these are great resources that I can easily direct them to. That’s one of
the greatest things about social media, and online media – I can read up on it and study it
and share that with my students.
Another professor from the Eastern region of the US enjoyed using Twitter in particular
because it allows her to “learn some new strategies or events in my community that I can share
with my network of people.”
Allowing students to choose their own mentors. One professor brought up the very
salient point that social media allows students to dive into the field and choose their own mentors
if they so desire:
There are so much more mentoring opportunities because of social media and there is a
variety of mentoring opportunities. Because from the academic standpoint, students are
not just limited to their teachers. They can cultivate relationships and choose mentors by
really developing relationships with them through social media. It’s changed mentoring –
in the sense that if you follow certain blogs and you comment on those blogs, you can
choose mentors and build relationships with them. By commenting on their blogs,
retweeting tweets, you can build and nurture relationships with leaders in public relations.
And that ability to broadly choose mentors is greatly influenced by social media. You
don’t need to be at a cocktail hour to meet someone. It’s really opened doors and that’s
exciting.
Showing the value of social media. Lastly, educators use social media in the hopes that
it can show students its intrinsic value. One professor felt her efforts have been successful, as she
stated that “implementing Twitter in the classroom, that’s when I felt the shared mentoring
developed. When they’re seeking out assistance, or career advice or just somebody to listen to.”
Another professor in the Midwest US felt that she is still working on this issue, but making
progress:
I’m hoping that in following my lists they see the value of Twitter and to me that is
something as a mentor I can do because I can’t force my students to open an account. But
if I can at least encourage them to check out what’s available and see how others are
using it then I’m hoping that will help them when they get their first job that they can
speak intelligently about Twitter.
RQ3: What Challenges Do PR Educators Face in Using Social Media for Their Mentoring
Relationships?
36

Investing time. As with any relationship, one of the biggest challenges facing educators
is the amount of time needed to invest into a mentorship. As one professor from an Eastern US
university described:
It really takes a lot of time to be able to work with someone and you have to commit to
working with that person, and it’s hard when you have several mentees that you are
working with. The constraints of a job, what you have to get done. You can’t lose
yourself in the mentorship, to a point where you would regret giving so much into the
relationship.
Another professor felt the same way, stating that “there’s definitely different layers or
mentoring, but the ones that I see as a two-way process who we’re both engaged, you want more
time to be able to develop that, but there’s just not enough of it.” One professor in particular felt
that there was only one downside to mentoring: “I get 100-200 e-mails a day from students and
former students, and there is just not enough hours in the day. So it’s really all about balance.”
However, almost all of the educators interviewed felt that despite taking up a lot of time, it is
definitely worth it.
Resistance. Another challenge facing educators is having resistance from mentees who
are opposed to conducting the mentoring relationship over social media channels. As one
professor from the Midwest US described: “I was surprised at the resistance students were
having to creating a Twitter account.” Another professor discussed the digital divide, stating that
having differences in comfort regarding technology can “inhibit the relationship.” She went on
stating that “for those who embrace it, it can be exciting, but for those who are afraid of it, it can
become overwhelming, and would not allow them to accept the mentorship.”
Blending the personal with the professional. Finally, educators discussed the challenge
of posting personal information on the Internet through social media for both mentors and
mentees. As one professor from an Eastern US university described: “Some students (and
faculty) that are using Twitter can over share. Sometimes the filter hasn’t developed. It can
hinder their networking if they over share or share inappropriately and haven’t learned the social
media etiquette.” Another professor from the Western region of the US stated that “I’m really
careful with my content. Nothing is private really – I don’t treat any social media as private and
it’s not because I mentor, but that is one of the components. Which is why I won’t share private
information on my social networks.” And lastly, one professor from the Midwest US said that
“privacy is an issue. Not only for myself but for my students. You have to think about what
you’re putting out there that people can see.”
Discussion and Conclusion
As a result of the interviews conducted with PR educators, the findings of this study offer
both practical implications to public relations educators as well as propose new theoretical areas
in terms of public relations education and e-mentoring.
Practical Applications
As social media channels are increasingly becoming another venue in which educators
can communicate with their students, it is growing evident that measures should be taken to
increase online literacy and train educators on how to use various tools such as Twitter,
Facebook, LinkedIn, and YouTube. Though most of the educators interviewed were either very
active on social media channels or are starting to becoming more engaged, the educators also
discussed some of the resistance that has occurred from other educators, administrators, and even
students. With social networking sites growing even larger by the minute (Facebook currently
has an excess of 350 million active users on a global basis [Hird, 2010]), universities should
37

consider offering training seminars or workshops in which educators can learn the basics of these
networking tools. These training events, over time, can then develop into open forums where
educators can share tips and advice with each other on how they manage their online
relationships with students and alumni.
Furthermore, an opportunity that social media offers are the vast amount of resources that
is basically available at the professor’s fingertips. Educators can easily access and share articles,
video clips, reports, and blog posts with their students that are both timely and relevant to the
current state of the public relations field. In addition, one of the educators mentioned having
students choose their own mentors through social media channels. Public relations professors
should strongly encourage their students to communicate with leading public relations
professionals and social media experts, opening more doors to students in terms of professional
development and exposure to the online arena. However, not only should students engage in
these online relationships, but educators should as well, taking advantage of social media
channels to communicate with public relations leaders to maintain a pulse on the industry and to
keep PR issues fresh for students.
Finally, one of the biggest challenges educators face in maintaining their mentoring
relationships is having enough time to do so. Though social media channels help in this regard
by being succinct, concise, and to the point (and in some instances, only 140 characters, as with
Twitter), educators find it difficult to keep up with the numerous social media networks currently
available, all the while juggling teaching, research, and personal responsibilities. One suggestion
that was offered by the educators is to focus only on the channels that are comfortable for the
mentor and mentee, and in doing so, learn to utilize the one channel to the best of their ability.
Moreover, another practical suggestion to help with time management is to meet with groups of
students over the online space. Educators can create a Facebook event to discuss progress with
current mentees, or host a university-sponsored Tweetup to reunite with alumni.
Theoretical Implications
This study contributes to the scholarship of public relations by exploring mentoring
relationships in two aspects never previously studied: (a) in an educator-student context, as past
studies have focused on the public relations professional in a mentor-mentee relationship; and (b)
in an online context, as past studies have focused on face-to-face interaction in the workplace.
As compared to Pompper and Adam’s (2006) study on mentoring and public relations,
this study supports many of the claims made about mentorships between a senior public relations
executive and a junior employee, including having compatible interests as the mentee, feeling a
sense of validation and empowerment as a result of the mentoring, and opening networking
opportunities for the protégé (p. 312). However, this particular study adds to the potential
outcomes of the mentor-mentee relationship by offering the educators’ perspective. Additional
benefits of a mentoring relationship for an educator as compared to a PR professional include
moving past the student-teacher roles, helping deserving students, offering advice about the job
market and the work place, and being able to keep track of a student’s needs on a consistent and
ongoing basis.
Additionally, this study is one of the first in exploring public relations mentorship
through social media and the online space. Ensher, Heun, and Blanchard’s (2002) review of the
mentorship literature in the context of computer-mediated communication (CMC) offered a
series of research propositions to further research in this particular context. Several of these
suggestions would equally apply to the public relations educator-student mentorship. First of all,
Ensher et al. (2002) proposed that online mentoring programs help increase self-confidence in
38

pursuing chosen fields. For public relations in particular, conducting a mentorship via social
media not only helps students feel more confident about applying for certain jobs, but it also
increases their skill set with new technology, an growing qualification in the public relations
field. Secondly, another research proposition was that online mentoring helps increase a
protégé’s network of contacts – a finding that could not be more evident with the relationship
building aspect of both social media and public relations. And finally, Ensher et al. (2002) state
that online mentorships make it easier to maintain records of the relationship, a finding that was
supported by this particular study in that social media can help chart a student’s progress.
Several additional research propositions could be added to develop a theoretical
framework for online public relations mentorships. These propositions include (a) online
mentoring relationships allow students to gain industry experience from leading public relations
professionals in an easy and efficient manner; (b) online mentoring relationships allow educators
to disseminate resources to students quickly and more easily; (c) online mentoring relationships
blur the lines between what is personal and what is professional; and (d) online mentoring
relationships allows educators to have deeper, more informal relationships with their students.
Future research could test these propositions to explore whether they hold true in e-mentoring
relationships between educators and students.
Limitations and Future Research
There are a number of limitations that should be considered in the undertaking of this
study. First of all, because only 10 in-depth interviews were conducted, these findings would not
be generalizable to the entire population of public relations educators; however, they do offer
incredible insight into how these particular individuals perceive their mentoring relationships
with their students. Secondly, because participants were recruited primarily via social media
channels, the educators interviewed were fairly involved with social media, resulting in a
response bias towards e-mentoring. Future research could interview other public relations
educators who are not as adept on social media to gain their perspectives of these channels and
their reasons for not using it.
As a next step, I will be conducting interviews with public relations students to gain
insight into the mentee’s point of view of mentorships, a perspective not readily as studied, as
well as to get a sense of their social media usage in developing relationships with their mentors.
As this age group is more involved with new technology and computer mediated communication,
it will be interesting to learn their perspective on how they feel social media channels should be
used in building relationships. With the increasing rise of social media usage, both in the
classroom and in the workplace, more research needs to be conducted to explore this
phenomenon, and more attention should be given to the quickly evolving online space, which is
rapidly changing not only the field of public relations – but also changing lives.
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41

Toward the Greening of Nuclear Energy: A Content Analysis
of Nuclear Energy Frames from 1991 to 2008
Sonya R. Miller DiPalma
The Pennsylvania State University
srm287@psu.edu
Abstract
Framing theory has emerged as one of the predominant theories employed in mass
communications research in the 21 st century. While framing effects studies appear plentiful,
longitudinal studies assessing trends in dominant framing packages and story elements for an
issue appear to be less understood. Through content analysis, this study examined dominant
frame packages and story elements for nuclear energy from 1991-2008 in the New York Times,
USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post. Findings revealed a commonality
among newspapers in the types of dominant frames packages employed. Significant dominant
frame packages include human/health, proliferation, procedural, and marketplace. While the
procedural frame package was more likely to appear prior to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the
proliferation frame packaged was more likely to appear after the Kyoto Protol. Over time, the
sustainable frame package demonstrated increased significance. This study is part of the
growing literature regarding the function of frames over time.
Introduction
Planetary stewardship invites us to envision our collective human footprint on the earth –
globally, nationally, and locally. Environmental sustainability, the United States’ increasing
dependence on foreign oil, and the effects of global warming have aroused renewed interest in
nuclear energy as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels (Nuclear Power, 2007). Alternative
energy sources are defined as emissions-free energy sources that do not emit sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxide, and mercury (Nuclear Energy Institute, 2008). As policies are enacted to lower
greenhouse gas emissions associated with global warming, media coverage on nuclear energy
can be expected to increase since nuclear energy represents 73 percent of all U.S. emissions-free
generation (Nuclear Energy Institute, 2008). With future generation energy demands projected to
increase from 40 to 45 percent by 2030, nuclear energy is the single most effective strategy for
meeting those demands while decreasing greenhouse gas emissions (Nuclear Energy, 2007).
Public discussions on nuclear energy in the United States decreased in the 1990s as funding
disappeared. However, restored interest in nuclear energy in the United States became evident
with passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the first energy policy to collectively recognize
nuclear energy’s contribution to electricity generation, the nation’s energy security, and zero
contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2008, 46.59 percent of the public was more likely to
vote for a political candidate who supported building more nuclear power plants while 40.9
percent were not (Gallup, 2009).
Historically, the public has been divided on whether the benefits of nuclear energy
exceed possible risks. Some people have cited insurmountable health risks from a terroristsinduced
nuclear meltdown, or long-term nuclear waste disposal. Others have cited the costeffectiveness
and zero greenhouse gas emissions, particularly as demand for electricity
generation increases and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions also increases. Such a
dichotomy presents competing framing packages for nuclear energy that are either anti-nuclear
or pro-nuclear.
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While favor towards nuclear energy may be increasing in the United States, support for
nuclear plants within individual communities remains significantly lower than in other countries.
For instance, a 2007 Gallup poll found 62.59 percent of Americans do not want a nuclear energy
plant constructed within 20 miles of their home. However, a 2007 UPI international poll found
63.1 percent would support the construction of a nuclear plant in their community (Lando, 2007).
Using Gallup public opinion polls as a baseline, favorable opinion regarding the
proximity of nuclear plants to a residence has only increased 7.29 percent since 1986. Public
trust for nuclear energy as a viable solution to the United States’ energy demands has been
affected by both TMI and Chernobyl (Wahlstrom, 2005). Unlike the Chernobyl disaster in the
Ukraine, many in the United States do not realize that throughout the TMI crisis no lives were
lost, no physical injuries occurred, and radiation exposure was about one millirem, or 1/6 of the
radiation a person receives from a full set of chest x-rays (Walker, 2000). TMI media coverage
focused more on what could have happened, or the worst case scenario, instead of on the facts of
the crisis (Walker, 2000). Because of the way the media highlighted – or framed – nuclear
energy throughout the TMI incident, many sensational and incorrect attributes were transferred
from the media agenda to the public agenda. Some of the negative attributes transferred include
nuclear energy’s harm to the environment, human safety, vulnerability to terrorists’ attack, waste
problems, expensive construction, and stagnant technology (Herbst & Hopley, 2007).
The last and perhaps the only longitudinal study on nuclear energy and public opinion
appeared in 1994. Rosa and Dunlap’s (1994) Nuclear Power: Three Decades of Public Opinion,
an analysis of polling trends from 1975-1990, demonstrated declining public support for nuclear
power with increasing opposition. The most recent Gallup opinion poll found 59 percent in
favor of using nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide electricity in the United States, a 3.1
percent increase from 2006 (Gallup, 2009). In the last decade, pro-nuclear energy editorials have
appeared in the Baltimore Sun, the Chicago Sun-Times, the Boston Globe, the New York Times,
the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post (NEI, 2005).
This study is significant given that the last analyses of nuclear energy frames occurred
with Gamson and Modigliani’s (1989) study, which focused on the culture of nuclear power
across mediums – television, news magazines, editorial cartoons, and syndicated opinion
columns.
Literature Review
Agenda Setting
McCombs and Shaw (1972) defined agenda setting as the transfer of salience from the
media agenda to the public agenda. Salience is the relevance given to an issue through repeated
media coverage, thereby influencing the perceived importance of the issue by the public as the
information is readily accessible (Dearing & Rogers, 1996; Funkhouser, 1973; Iyengar &
Kinder, 1987; McLeod, Kosicki, & McLeod, 2002; Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002).
Public information officers and public relations practitioners often fill the role of first
source for media accounts and therefore help to shape the media’s agenda setting process.
Intermediate agenda setting occurs when media outlets influence one another. National news
agencies, particularly the wire services, influence one another to the point of standardizing how
an issue is reported (Roberts, 1997).
Individual interest and regular exposure to media coverage facilitate the agenda setting
process (Schoenbach, 1982). The stronger the individual preference for the issue, the more the
message reinforces individual intent in regard to the issue. On the other hand, the weaker or more
uncertain the individual is about the issue, the stronger the effect of the media’s role.
43

Framing
Frames are defined as interpretive packages for content that supplies a context and
suggests the importance of an issue through selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration
(Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). Gamson and Lasch (1983) defined framing as “the central
organizing idea for understanding events related to the issue in question” (p. 398). Frames
organize information in order to perpetuate understanding through the use of narratives and may
be identified through the headline, lead, quotes, and paragraph within the body of a news story
(Entman, 2007; Gamson, & Modigliani, 1989). Through framing, the media influence how
individuals think about an issue by highlighting certain issue aspects over other aspects
(Ghanem, 1997; Kim et al., 2002; McCombs, 2004; McCombs & Ghanem, 2003; Scheufele,
2004).
The type of frame used in conjunction with the issue is a main factor in generating
framing effect outcomes. Major frame types include equivalency framing, emphasis framing,
advocacy framing, and responsibility framing. Equivalency framing effects focus on either gains
or losses with equal outcomes (Kahnemann & Tversky, 1984). Loss frames produce greater
effects when individual issue involvement is high, and gain frames can be more effective when
individual issue involvement is low. However, counter-effects result when the level of source
credibility is too high. Messages with low efficacy cause the individual to process the message
more so than messages with high efficacy since the higher the efficacy the less the individual
questions the information within the message. Individuals are greatly influenced by perceptions
of risk, even when the outcomes of either risk aversion or risk-seeking frames are identical.
Frames that provide certainty and mitigate risk are favored over risk-seeking frames. In the
absence of certainty, individuals favor frames with positive outcomes over negative outcomes as
exhibited in Tversky and Kahneman’s (1981, 1987) studies in which groups chose the riskaversion
scenario over the risk-seeking one, even though the potential outcomes were equivalent.
Emphasis framing effects alter individual consideration by directing focus to specific
issue attributes, such as framing low-income housing as assistance to the economically
disadvantaged instead of higher taxes (Druckman 2001b). Stories favoring individual values cue
conservative preferences; conversely, egalitarian frames cue liberal preferences (Kellstedt,
2000). Emphasis framing effects lack consistency because individuals may agree with the
principle, but later oppose policies to implement the principle, as experienced with equal
employment opportunity (Fine, 1992). Direct framing effects are moderated through the
perceived level of credibility attributed to the media source, such as the Wall Street Journal or
People Magazine (Druckman, 2001b). Indirectly, individuals seek credible sources to guide
their opinions.
Other frame types include substantive and procedural frames, and conflict-reinforcing
and conflict-displacing frames (Entman, 1993, 2004, 2007; Dardis et al., 2008). Substantive
frames define effects or conditions, identify causes, convey a moral judgment, and endorse
remedies or improvements (Entman, 2004). Procedural frames, also referred to as the horseracing
frame, focus on evaluation of political actors (Entman, 2004). In later research, Entman
(2007) distinguished three types of bias within frames: distortion bias – falsifying reality; content
bias – lack of equal treatment to both sides of the argument; and decision-making bias –
motivations of the media.
Conflict-reinforcing frames bolster the status quo by presenting the same opposing
considerations that have occurred over time (Dardis et al., 2008). In fact, conflict-reinforcing
frames may be also thought of as the common frame amplified over time. Conflict-displacing
44

frames present new considerations without the intent of challenging the common frame (Dardis
et al., 2008).
Successful frames are described as having salience, resonance, and persistence. Salience
refers to the frequency of use of the frame, resonance corresponds to the number of individual
arguments represented, and persistence is the endurance or amplification of the frame throughout
media outlets (Entman, 1993; Baumgartner, De Boef, Boydstun, 2008).
Frames define the problem and suggest a remedy. Individuals then construct their own
counter-frames even when elites impose their influence over media outlets. Effects are often
confounded by frame parity, which occurs when a counter-frame with a complete alternative
narrative receives equal play in the media (Entman, 2004). Framing effects are dependent upon
the reach of the medium delivering the frame (Fan et al., 2002).
Journalists incorporate frames into accounts for efficiency of comprehension (Luther &
Miller, 2005). Eventually dominant frames push weaker frames aside, indirectly promoting
content bias (Entman, 2007). Frame strength is a result of how frequently a frame is used within
the media and the level of source credibility (Cappella & Jamieson, 1997; Chong, 1996; Chong,
2000; Domke, Shah, & Wackman, 1998; Druckman, 2001A; Edy & Meirick, 2007; Iyengar,
1991). Amplified frames, frames that survive the test of time, become part of the public
vernacular once shared by political elites and journalists (Shah, Watts, Domke, & Fan, 2002).
Using four major U.S. newspapers, the New York Times, USA Today, the Wall Street
Journal, and the Washington Post, this study seek to find:
RQ1: How does the framing of nuclear energy differ in the news coverage of nuclear
energy from 1991 to 2008 in use of story elements and dominant frame packages?
RQ2: What is the dominant frame package over time?
Methods
Content Analysis
Quantitative content analysis provides a formal system for examination of content
through the use of systematic, replicable, and reductionistic procedures (Riffe, Lacy & Fico,
2005). Content analysis not only allows for inferences to be made about relationships between
important variables within this study, but also for the identification of primary dimensions of the
nuclear energy debate.
Sampling
USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times were selected for this study
based upon their daily circulation.
Using the search engine ProQuest, a search for news articles containing content on either
nuclear energy or nuclear power was conducted separately for each newspaper beginning with
1991 through 2008. The search resulted in a total of 4095 news articles with news articles
peaking in 1991, and then again in 2006. When examining the trend of nuclear energy news
articles among the four newspapers, the New York Times leads with the most news articles with
the exception of 1996, 1997 and 2005 (Figure 1).
45

120
100
80
WS J
60
NY T
40
WP
US A
20
0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Figure 1: The Population of Nuclear Energy Articles by Newspaper Per Year
The better a sample represents the population of units studied, the higher the validity of
the study (Long, Slater, Bolarsky, Stapel & Keefe, 2005). This study randomly analyzed 599
news articles exceeding the recommended random sample size of 351 from a finite population of
4095 (Isaac & Michael, 1997). The news article, including the headline, served as the unit of
analysis.
Three undergraduate students from a northeastern university were trained to code the
sample of 599 news articles for story elements, story elements defined and dominant frame
package. Story elements included: Chernobyl, The China Syndrome, the movie, global warming,
the Marshall Plan, nuclear weapons, the Price Anderson Act, the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA), Three Mile Island (TMI),Yucca mountain, The Energy Policy Act of 2005, Nuclear
Waste Policy Act. Story elements defined included: Energy or less dependent upon oil and/or
natural gas, perceived health risks, catastrophic incident, plant financing, licensing process,
safety/security, negative economic consequence, positive economic consequence, global
comparison between the United States use of nuclear energy with other countries, inspection or
investigation of a nuclear plant, nuclear waste, parts, and delaying nuclear plant expansion within
the United States.
Dominant framing packages were defined as follows:
Technology –Research or technology such as improved safety, efficiency,
improved design, and/or international comparison
Human/Health – Negative consequences to life or health from a meltdown due to
human error, terrorist attack, technical malfunction, leaks, exposure to radiation,
waste disposal or reluctance to have a nuclear plant in the area.
Sustainable – Lowering carbon emissions, alternative energy sources, carbon
footprint, cleaner air, the environment, pollution control, or pollution reduction.
46

Procedural –Licensing and application process for nuclear energy plants,
construction time, anticipated start date for a plant, or delay (moratorium) in
operating a plant.
Necessity – Nuclear energy as a necessity for energy independence, energy
sustainability or meeting energy demands.
Marketplace –Nuclear energy as a cost effective, viable investment, and/or f
inancial struggles of the industry or a nuclear plant.
Choice – Nuclear energy as a negotiation between the positive and negative
attributes of this energy source.
Proliferation – The expansion of nuclear energy technology leading to an
increase/enhancement in nuclear weapons, and/or enrichment of plutonium for
nuclear weapons
Intercoder Reliability
This study utilized proportional reduction of loss (PRL) to assess intercoder reliability for
the common sample of 99 randomly chosen articles. (Cooil & Rust, 1995). Proportional
reduction of loss calculates for chance agreement within multiple choice categories by “assuming
that the ratio of chance agreements to the total number of judgments will be proportionate to the
ratio of possible ways in which they could agree to the possible number of combinations”
(Taylor and Watkinson, p. 60, 2007). The critical value average for story elements was .99;
defined story elements .90, and dominant frame packages .80.
Results
Cross tabulations were run between the appropriate categorical variables. The strength of
the relationship between the categorical variables was statistically analyzed using Pearson’s Chisquare
and Cramer’s V. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to assess changes
among category variables over time. To identify changes within the categories over time, three
databases were created using year as a variable. For one database the years of the study years
were organized as two variables, Before the Kyoto Protocol (1991-1997) and After the Kyoto
Protocol (1998-2008); for the next database trends among categories were compared between the
separate years of 1991 and 2008; and for the final database, year was organized as one variable
with the proportion of a particular category identified for each year as the second variable.
Research Question 1
Story elements. Before the Kyoto Protocol, two story elements, global warming (r(599)
= .146, p < .001; x 2 (2) = 12.76, p < .001) and nuclear weapons (r(599) = .128, p = .002; x 2 (2) =
9.75, p = .002) were more prevalent than after the Kyoto Protocol. A positive correlation was
found between year and global warming (r(18) = .638, p = .004).
Story elements defined. After the Kyoto Protocol, negative economic impact (r(599) = .165, p <
.001; x 2 (2) = 16.25, p < .001) and parts (r(599) = .097, p = .018; x 2 (2) = 5.58, p = .018) were
more prevalent in news articles than before the Kyoto Protocol. None of the defined story
elements was more prevalent in the years before the Kyoto Protocol. For 2008 references to
safety and security were more prevalent than in 1991 (r(87) = .243, p = .023; x 2 (2) = 5.15, p =
.023). Correlating the variable of year, 1991-2008, with each defined story element revealed a
47

positive correlation between year and energy (r(18) = .527, p = .025). A negative correlation was
revealed for negative economic impact, r(18) = -.499, p = .035, and parts, r(18) = -.618, p = .006
(Figure 6).
Dominant frame package. The procedural frame package was more likely than expected
to be present before the Kyoto Protocol, and the sustainable or proliferation frame package was
more likely than expected to be present after the Kyoto Protocol. In 1991 the procedural frame
package was more likely than expected to be the dominant frame package, and in 2008
sustainable and proliferation frames were more likely than expected to be the dominant frame
package.
Pearson correlations between year and the proportion of news stories with each particular
dominant frame package revealed significant changes over time in the proportion of certain
frames. Sustainable frames increased over time (r(18) = .59, p = .01) as did proliferation frames
(r(18) = .46, p = .055). Procedural frames decreased over time (r(18) = -.728, p = .001). No
significant relationships were found for any other dominant frame packages. Headlines from
stories with the sustainable dominant frame package include: “U.S. News: Carbon Caps May
Give Nuclear Power a Lift,” “Working to Reactivate Indian Point 2,” and “In S.C., Rethinking an
Atomic Waste Welcome Mat: Task Force Plan Worries a Town.”
Comparing frame packages with the four newspapers revealed four significant frame
packages: human/health, r(561) = .154, p = .004; x 2 (2) = 13.299, p = .004; procedural, r(561) =
.119, p = .046; x 2 (2) = 7.988, p = .046; marketplace, r(561) = .330, p < .001; x 2 (2) = 61.211, p <
.001; and proliferation, r(561) = .249, p < .001; x 2 (2) = 34.686, p < .001.
Figure 2: Comparison of Significant Dominant Frame Packages from 1991-2008
Examples of stories identified as exhibiting attributes from one of the four significant
dominant frame packages provide additional insight. For instance, a story from USA Today
coded as a human/health frame package had the following quote “. . .(anti-radiation pill)
distribution could undermine public confidence in the safety of the nation’s nuclear plants.”
Stories coded as procedural and marketplace frame packages included the New York Times’
48

“Shoreham Board Begins a Hunt for Alternatives” and the Wall Street Journal’s “GE Sees $100
Billion in 1998 Revenue Due to Quality Control, Asia investment.” Lastly, a Wall Street Journal
story coded as a proliferation frame package relates to more recent political activity – “Leading
the news: Bush spells out reasons Iraq is still a threat . . .has yet proven it has given up its quest
for nuclear power”.
Discussion
The thrust of this study focuses on whether or not the newspapers in question employ
some dominant frame packages over other dominant frame packages when reporting on nuclear
energy. Although differing in frequency of utilization, the newspapers represented in this study
possess a commonality in the types of dominant frames packages employed. Significant
dominant frame packages among the four newspapers include human/health, proliferation,
procedural, and marketplace. While the procedural frame package was more likely to appear
prior to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the proliferation frame packaged was more likely to appear
after the Kyoto Protol. Over time, the sustainable frame package demonstrated increased
significance.
Stories identified as having either the human/health or proliferation frame packages were
more likely to have an anti-nuclear tone. Stories identified as having either the sustainable or
marketplace frame packages were more likely than expected to be pro-nuclear in tone.
This study found only 6.8% of the news articles referenced alternative energy sources
when reporting on nuclear energy. A significant relationship was not found in reporting nuclear
energy in conjunction with alternative energy sources, which most often are referred to as
“green” energy sources. However, significance was demonstrated for the sustainable frame
package overtime as well as the story element global energy.
While the use of framing as a news reporting tool is acknowledged, the amplification of
frames and subsequent creation of dominant frames packages within the news over time is
perhaps less understood. This study empirically demonstrates the amplification of frames and
subsequent creation of dominant frame packages over time. The findings show that newspapers
employ the same types of frames packages, but to varying degrees. This illustrates the
pervasiveness of framing packages within the news and strengthens the argument for framing
effects. Furthermore, framing packages for an issue appear to co-exists, creating a rank order of
important frames, instead of only one dominant framing package. The significant dominant
frame packages revealed in this study reflect objective analysis of news reporting techniques.
Theoretical implications
Successful frames are defined by salience, resonance, and persistence. The dominant
frame packages revealed within this study – proliferation, health, procedural, and marketplace –
may be deemed successful because of the salience, and endurance or amplification of these
frames over 18 years within four media outlets. The theoretical underpinnings of framing are
reinforced through the identification of dominant frame packages which occurred independently
yet simultaneously among the four newspapers. The majority of news articles originated with
the respective reporter’s newspaper. Had the majority of news articles been identified as
Associated Press wire stories, then presumably it could be argued that the wire service had
standardized reporting for nuclear energy. However, given that the four newspapers in this study
employ the same dominant frame packages does substantiate the function of intermediate agenda
setting, where media outlets influence one another (Roberts, 1997).
The results indicate that any framing effects stemming from the four dominant frame
packages may be confounded by frame parity (Entman, 2004). As the sustainable frame package
49

(lower carbon emissions and concern for the environment) increased, so did the proliferation
frame package (nuclear energy technology leading to nuclear weapons). The increase in the
proliferation frame package appears as a counter-frame or alternative narrative to the sustainable
frame package (Entman, 2004).
As Fan (2002) posited, framing effects are dependent upon the reach of the medium
delivering the frame. With a combined circulation of more than 5.9 million, the New York Times,
USA Today, the Wall Street Journal and the Washington Post are at a minimum directing public
attention to proliferation, health, procedural and marketplace aspects of nuclear energy over
other issue aspects and thereby increasing the perceived importance of these issue aspects.
In this respect, the dominant frame packages may be thought of as emphasis frames;
directing attention to specific issue attributes (Fine, 1992; Druckman, 2001b). However,
emphasis frames do not equate to direct framing effects. As demonstrated through numerous
Gallup polls, individuals may agree with the benefits of nuclear energy, but later oppose efforts
to construct a nuclear energy plant within their community.
With amplification of the proliferation, health, procedural, and marketplace frames, other
issue aspects that may be arguably more positive and depict current trends within the nuclear
industry are not explored. In this respect, these dominant frame packages function as conflictreinforcing
frames (Dardis et al., 2008). Technology, sustainability, necessity, and nuclear
energy as an energy choice receive dramatically less attention within news articles. The
sustainable frame package exhibits the most potential for serving as a conflict-displacing frame
because this frame package increased over time and was positive in story tone.
Practical implications
The findings of this study parallel nuclear energy trends. The procedural frame package,
which focuses on the licensing, application and construction process for nuclear energy plants,
decreased over time as the construction of nuclear energy plants declined. The use of defined
story elements such as negative economic consequence and parts also declined; perhaps because
the decline in construction lessened the focus on the need for plant financing, and therefore the
demand for parts. Interestingly, references to two widely known nuclear energy incidents,
Chernobyl and TMI, were not found to be prevalent. This should be interpreted as good news for
the nuclear energy industry as well as to quell speculation that the media unduly focus on these
incidents. Internationally, the Kyoto Protocol seems to have brought the environmental benefits
of nuclear energy in vogue.
The proliferation dominant frame package lends credence to the argument that media do
not distinguish the nuclear energy process from nuclear proliferation or uranium enrichment for
nuclear weapons. Therefore the fear factor associated with anything nuclear may possibly be
perpetuated by this dominant frame package.
Keeping in mind that advocacy within any industry should be conducted in an ethical
manner and through open communication, the findings of this study suggest the nuclear energy
industry should consider a strategic public relations campaign incorporating the sustainable
energy attributes of nuclear energy. The increase in the use of the sustainable dominant frame
package demonstrates that stories focusing on nuclear energy in regards to lower carbon
emissions, alternative energy source, carbon footprint, and the environment are generating
greater interest among reporters. Furthermore, a positive correlation between year and the story
element energy, defined as the United States becoming less dependent upon oil and/or natural
gas and future energy needs, suggests increasing attention to the role of nuclear energy for
meeting future electric generation needs.
50

While the story element “positive economic consequences” of nuclear energy was not
significant over time, the story element “negative economic consequences” declined over time.
Therefore, it is advisable for the nuclear energy industry to focus on the positive economic
consequences in conjunction with nuclear energy as a sustainable energy. Upgrading and
expanding the United States nuclear energy infrastructure has been delayed by the current
recession, specifically by limitations in the credit and equity markets. Present economic
conditions may indicate an opportunity for advocating the positive economic consequences of
nuclear energy, namely increased employment and additional tax revenue.
Weaver (1977) noted that the media have a stronger influence upon individuals who lack
information on an issue or on those who remain uncertain about an issue. Undoubtedly, Gallup
polls demonstrate both a lack of public information on nuclear energy safety and uncertainty
about the safety of nuclear energy facilities within close proximity of an individual’s residence.
The significant dominant frame packages identified within this study appear to coincide with
public opinion. The sustainable frame package supports expansion of nuclear energy, but is less
prevalent than either the human/health or proliferation frame packages, which align with the
expressed reluctance to having a nuclear facility within close proximity.
The influence these dominant frame packages have on public opinion, and subsequently
public policy regarding nuclear energy, cannot be determined from this study. Based upon the
research of Dearings and Rogers (1996) and Takeshita (2006), we realize the existence of
symbiotic interrelationships between policymakers and the media. Therefore, given the
prevalence of the dominant frame packages among the four newspapers, it might be prudent to
acknowledge that these frames have become to some extent embedded within the public policy
discourse for nuclear energy.
Finally, the credibility of the news reporting within the four newspapers cited within this
study should not be overlooked. Kahnemann and Tversky (1984) posited that messages with high
efficacy are less likely to be questioned. Nelson (1997) and Druckman (2001c) demonstrated that
source credibility influences framing effects directly and indirectly. Given these findings, we
can reasonably wonder how many readers dare to question the efficacy of nuclear energy
reporting within the highest circulating newspapers in the United States – the New York Times,
USA Today, and the Wall Street Journal – as well as the newspaper of our nation’s capital, the
Washington Post.
Limitations. When conducting framing studies the recommended size of the sample of
news articles can be challenging. Lacking any empirically proven method for sampling news
articles for a framing study, this study erred on the side of caution by over-sampling. While a
larger sample size may enhance the credibility of a framing study, it also increases the common
sample required for assessment of intercoder reliability and increase coder fatigue.
Directions for Future Research. To extend framing research within the area of nuclear
energy, future studies may assess the degree of individual knowledge on nuclear energy and how
the level of individual knowledge translates into the interpretation of nuclear energy frames.
Lastly, a framing effects study incorporating the use of equivalency frames for global warming
and the sustainable frame packages would provide identify how individuals attribute gains and
losses to these variables.
51

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54

Reputation Matters:
Impact of Organizational Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions
Alan R. Freitag
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
arfreita@email.uncc.edu
Abstract
The researcher placed two questions in an omnibus telephone survey of 850 respondents in a
major U.S. metropolitan area. The questions sought respondents’ expression of intention to
purchase goods and services or invest in the stock of a company based upon that company’s
reputation for socially responsible behavior. Reponses were analyzed based on demographic
categories including income level, education level, age, ethnic identity and gender. Results
indicate that consumers and investors do clearly factor organizational reputation into their
purchase and investment decisions, with no consequential variations across demographic strata.
The data suggest linkages between corporate reputation and profitability, bolstering the
economic value of public relations counsel in matters of corporate policy vis-à-vis responsible
business practices.
Introducing the topic of corporate social responsibility to a professional or academic
conversation is certain to generate lively, even animated discussion and debate among
interlocutors and certainly among scholars, business leaders and activists. Questions these
discussions might center on include: whether CSR is an appropriate role for profit-focused
businesses at all; if it is, whether justification for CSR efforts stems from economic or altruistic
motivations; what sorts of activities constitute CSR; whether a company’s promotion of its CSR
activities constitutes “greenwashing;” and who within the organization should exercise authority
over and administer CSR efforts. There are certainly additional central questions, and several
recent books have tried to address these broad issues in depth (Werther & Chandler, 2006; Kotler
& Lee, 2005). In addition, a growing literature is rapidly emerging, and this paper adds to that
literature with a small project aimed at benchmarking one aspect of the CSR issue: whether
consumers and investors are consciously making purchase and investment decisions based at
least in part on a company’s reputation for responsible behavior.
This paper is submitted in a public relations context; consequently, readers may argue
that public relations scholars should not be making a business case for CSR, but should rather
stress the ethical imperative of responsible community engagement on the part of corporations as
a reasonable exchange for implicit permission from the community to function profitably. That’s
a fair point, and, in fact, this author has argued that it is disturbing to find that the preponderance
of CSR literature is found in business-oriented texts and journals and that the public relations
community of scholars has a conspicuously limited profile in this arena (reference withheld to
protect anonymity during review). Realistically, however, we in public relations should
recognize the value in triangulating the argument – addressing both the rational/business and the
moral/ideological aspects favoring CSR-driven practices. The bridging premise of this project is
that corporations should consider the business/rational merits of CSR because consumers and
investors are including moral/ideological factors in their purchase and investment calculations.
That the question of the appropriateness and wisdom of CSR activities needs to be
increasingly and continually addressed is made clear by current events and circumstances. On
one hand, we have a string of episodes of corporate corruption and exploitation, especially over
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the past decade. Despite the preponderance of companies conducting business ethically and
responsibly, these episodes contribute to growing public distrust. On the other hand, the current
economic conditions create a conundrum: businesses struggling to survive may not see
themselves as capable, in these circumstances, to contribute financially or even in kind to the
community welfare, though many in those communities stand in greater need than ever.
The current economic situation notwithstanding, the challenge remains of defining the
proper relationship between an organization, particularly a profit-making organization, and the
society within which it operates. To varying degrees depending on the role of the free market,
businesses play an essential role in societal functions: creating jobs; generating revenue; etc.; and
those businesses depend upon society, largely through government structures, for services and
infrastructure such as a skilled and educated workforce, transportation conduits, utilities, and so
forth. Yet the struggle to strike and maintain the right balance, including between self-regulation
and imposed regulation, is an ongoing one.
Questions pertaining to CSR are daunting and expanding. No single study or even a
stream of studies can hope to exhaust or settle the issues. This paper describes the result of a
focused project aimed at revealing, within one geographic sector, the extent to which CSR
matters in a measurable way, and suggests this rational measure is a reasonable gauge of moral
impact.
Literature Review
We could begin this section with a lengthy discussion of how CSR should be defined, but
the space would be better used to frame this project more narrowly. This author agrees with
Werther and Chandler’s (2006) observation: “Businesses operate against an ever changing
background of what is considered socially responsible. CSR is not a stagnant concept. It
continues to evolve as cultural expectations change, both here (in the U.S.) and abroad” (p.12).
Consequently, it is wise to describe CSR in more general, elastic terms than to define it
succinctly so as to prevent the concept from responding to changing circumstances, expectations
and opportunities. For the purpose of this study, it will do to acknowledge, as does Joseph
(2001), that CSR embraces areas such as treatment of the workforce, impact on the marketplace,
impact on the environment, support for the community and commitment to human rights. Smith
(2003) offers an equally broad approach, maintaining, “CSR refers to the obligations of the firm
to society or, more specifically, the firm’s stakeholders – those affected by corporate policies and
practices” (p.53). He uses the term “paternalistic capitalism” to convey the sentiment.
As CSR issues continue to generate academic and professional discussion, most
representatives of both those sectors are familiar with the central arguments of whether CSR is
an appropriate concern of business and, if it is, whether the motivation for it is to be found in
profits or moral imperative. Berkhout (2005) summarizes the face-off well, citing Milton
Friedman’s familiar claim that the only responsibility of business is to make profits while acting
within regulatory constraints. Berkhout says the contrasting position is that CSR actually
reinforces rather than undermines profit-making potential. Still, he concludes that, “Both sides
agree that a company should only adopt practices that are deemed profitable” (p.16).
Significantly though, Smith (2003) notes that the call for socially responsible behavior by
business is becoming more urgent, driven, he says, by globalization and the expanding power
businesses exert. He points out that demands for responsibility are coming from “mainstream
quarters of society” (p.55) as well as activists. Handy (2002), even well before the recent
economic downturn, passionately but reasonably noted and lamented the prevailing business
measure of merit – shareholder value as gauged by share price. He acknowledged that corporate
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leadership had at hand a number of approaches to increasing share price but asserted that most
were short-term, even immediate. None was as important as trust in the long term, he said, and
“[C]ompanies are mortgaging their futures in return for a higher stock price in the present…”
(p.50). It seems remarkably prescient that in the Harvard Business Review, Handy said, “More
corporate democracy and better corporate behavior will go a long way to improve the current
business culture in the eyes of the public” (p.54).
So the argument appears to be tipping away from Friedman’s position. Windsor (2001),
for example, cites the emergence of responsible and “green” investment funds – still a small
sector, but their existence suggests growing sentiment favoring CSR, though clearly within a
profit orientation. Palacios (2004) agrees that expectations of responsible corporate citizenship
are accelerating and posits a “caring capitalism doctrine” (p.391) that compels CSR activities
beyond regulatory requirements in order to be profitable. Again, though, the argument is rooted
in profitability. Hatcher (2002) similarly stresses the profit motive for CSR but even more
emphatically, observing that global public sentiment is demanding greater corporate
transparency, stating boldly, “In the new global economy, ethical behavior that consists of doing
well (financially) by doing good (socially) is not only compatible with modern capitalism (as
evidenced by the success of ethical funds), it represents a competitive advantage by meeting
market demands” p.34.
In contrast to the profit motivation for CSR, the moral argument is a faintly expressed
one, though occasionally a forceful voice is heard. Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001), for example,
emphatically state, “…true social responsibility is taking actions and instituting policies that are
morally right for that reason alone, without an ulterior self-interested motive” p.198. Clark
(2000) argued that this dimension of public relations – its role in ethical reputation management
for its own sake – secures public relations managers’ leadership role in CSR activities. CSR and
public relations, she says, share similar objectives: “[B]oth disciplines are seeking to enhance the
quality of the relationship of an organization among key stakeholder groups” p.376. Measuring
that quality in the context of CSR is the challenge. Grossman (2005) tackles the concept of
shareholder primacy theory – the Friedman position -- calling it outdated as it fails to recognize
the business case for socially responsible corporate behavior. He cautions that the focus on
shareholder returns alone, rooted in a legal, fiduciary-only paradigm, is no longer viable as the
court of public opinion increasingly plays a role in organizational success. “The rise of the
culture of profit at any cost,” Grossman notes, “Has been significant in shaping public opinion
against big business” (p.577).
So long as the debate continues between advocates of the moral/ideological motive for
CSR and those who stress the profit motive, it seems public relations managers will likely need
to resign themselves to accepting organizational leadership commitment to CSR primarily
insofar as the case can be made that there is a correlation between responsible behavior and
reputation and, in turn, between reputation and profit. There is some literature to build that case.
Paek and Nelson (2009) found strong support for the hypothesis that consumers with a tendency
toward altruism consider companies’ reputation for social responsibility when making purchases.
Importantly, the researchers found this to be especially true for opinion leaders. In an ongoing,
exploratory research effort, Villamizar, Restrepo and Alfaro (2010) have achieved preliminary
results indicating that engaging in CSR efforts positively affects an organization’s reputation in
the factors of credibility, trust and a factor they call “closeness,” or the level of communication
sustained after a particular CSR effort has ended. Moreover, Gilfeather and Carroll (2005)
conducted research that clearly established a link between approving attitudes among consumers
57

toward companies (based on those companies’ reputations for giving to the community, being
honest and open, offering quality products and services, and caring about their employees) and
those consumers’ behavioral intentions regarding recommending those products and services as
well as recommending investment in those companies. Further, in a news release issued by
Burson-Marsteller in March 2010, the PR firm reports their recent survey finds that “more than
75 percent of consumers say that it is important for companies in each of the industries tested to
be socially responsible” (Burson-Marsteller, 2010). The survey also revealed that 75% of
respondents who read on a company’s Web site about the company’s CSR activities are more
likely to purchase that company’s products.
Realistically, without profit the company will soon cease to exist, so perhaps the
argument over the proper motivation for CSR policies and practices is an intriguing academic
exercise but one that doesn’t lend itself easily to empirical research or resolution. Nevertheless,
intuitively and with the aid of recent studies we are beginning to articulate more clearly and
provide data that describe the relationship among CSR efforts, organizational reputation and
profitability. This study continues that trajectory by asking the following questions:
RQ1: Do consumers report considering a company’s reputation for responsible behavior
before purchasing that company’s goods or services?
RQ2: Do investors report considering a company’s reputation for responsible behavior
before investing in that company’s stock?
RQ3: Do demographic factors such as income, age, education, ethnic identify or gender
appear to affect responses to RQ1 and RQ2?
Method
For nearly 30 years, the Urban Institute of our university has conducted an annual survey
to gauge community needs. Clients may share the cost of administering this omnibus survey by
placing questions on the survey instrument. This report reflects the placement of two questions
on a recent version of that survey during which 850 residents of this southeastern United States
metropolitan area were questioned. Responses to those two questions were then analyzed in the
context of demographic data also generated by the survey. The methodological description that
follows reflects language contained in the Technical Report of that survey.
Sampling
To ensure each household in the county had an equal chance of being contacted, a
random digit dial sample of residential telephone numbers was called. A random selection
procedure, a modified Troldahl-Carter method (Lavrakas, 1993), then identified one adult in
each household reached, ensuring that age and gender groups would be appropriately
represented; if the target respondent was not available, a callback was arranged. Interviews
averaged 17.01 minutes. Discounting non-residential phone numbers reached, 19% of those
contacted completed the survey.
Among survey respondents, 24.5% identified themselves as African-American, 66.7%
Caucasian, and 2.8% Latino/Hispanic (total = 94%). For analysis purposes, ethnic identity is
collapsed to African-American, Caucasian, and Other. It’s important to note that African-
Americans and Latinos are somewhat underrepresented according to 2000 Census data for this
county; those data report a population that is 27.9% African-American and 6.5% Latino.
Language issues may have played a role in the underrepresentation of the Latino population
(bilingual capability was not a requirement for students administering the survey).
By gender, 48% of respondents were male and 52% female. Age stratification was
representative of the population: 18-34 (16.4%); 35-44 (25.9%); 45-54 (23.2%); 55-64 (18.2%);
58

and 65+ (15.4%). More than half were married (54%), and 45% were separated, no longer
married or never married (1% refused). All but 1.9% had earned at least a high school diploma,
with 27.9% having some college, 33.4% a bachelor’s degree, and 24.9% having completed some
schooling beyond a bachelor’s degree. Household income of respondents covered a wide
spectrum – not surprising in an urban county with a strong presence of banking and other
financial institutions. Among respondents, 12.2% earned $20,000-$39,999 annually; 15.4%
earned $40,000-$59,999; 12.4% earned $60,000-$79,000; 10.6% earned $80,000-$99,999;
16.2% earned $100,000-$149,000; and 10.6% earned $150,000+ (18% refused). Length of
county residency also covered a wide spectrum: five years or less (25.3%); 6-20 years (35.3%);
20+ years (39.3%). Respondents were preponderantly homeowners (80.7%) as opposed to
renters (17.4%) or other/refused (1.9%).
Interviewing and Data Processing
Undergraduate students employed by the Urban Institute conducted interviews following
specialized training by Institute staff. Interviews were conducted via a Computer Aided
Telephone Interviewing (CATI) system from the Institute’s own campus facility. Surveys were
completed from 5-9 p.m., Monday through Thursday, and 4-7 p.m. on Fridays over the course of
roughly six weeks. Data were imported from the CATI system into the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS) for cleaning and analysis.
The following two questions were placed in the survey instrument and constitute the
basis of results and discussion to follow:
1. Before I would purchase a product or service from a company, I would consider that
company’s reputation in terms of responsible business practices and the company’s
contributions to community improvement.
Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never
2. Before I would invest in a company’s stock, I would consider that company’s
reputation in terms of responsible business practices and the company’s contributions to
community improvement.
Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never
Sampling Error
The full sample size of 850 yields a potential sampling error of ±4.14% at the 95%
confidence level. Usable surveys for the analysis related to this report were sometimes as low as
821, which would indicate a slightly but not consequentially lower confidence level.
Additionally, the assumption was made that roughly 95% of county households have telephones,
with the 5% of households lacking phones likely found among lower economic strata.
Results
The tables that follow depict results to the two survey questions regarding respondents’
purchase and investment decisions. In each case, responses were recorded using a 5-point
Likert-type scale with 1 indicating “always,” 2 indicating “frequently,” 3 indicating
“occasionally,” 4 indicating “rarely,” and 5 indicating “never.” Table 1 shows a mean between
“frequently” and “occasionally” for both decision categories, with little variation among income
levels. Overall means were 2.61 for purchase decisions (sd = 1.22) and 2.57 for investment
decisions (sd = 1.71). Responses by income level were compared using a one-way ANOVA. No
significant difference was found for intent to purchase (F(6, 684) = 1.065, p = .382) or for intent
to invest (F(6, 682) = 1.232, p = .288). Tukey’s HSD was used to draw multiple post-hoc
comparisons among income levels, and once again, no significant differences emerged.
59

Table 1
Impact of Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Income
Response mean for income levels
Survey
question < $20k
$20k-
$39,000
$40k-
$59,999
$60k-
$79,999
$80k-
$99,999
$100k-
149,999 $150k+
Decision to
purchase
2.24 2.47 2.73 2.63 2.63 2.68 2.61
Decision to
invest
3.00 2.77 2.65 2.43 2.56 2.34 2.56
Note. N=691 for purchase question, 689 for investment question.
As with income level, age category does not appear to reveal significant variation. Table
2 depicts responses segmented by age. Mean responses for each age category rest between
“occasionally” and “frequently,” as they did by income level. Cumulative means for all age
categories were 2.61 for purchase decisions (sd = 1.24) and 2.59 for investment decisions (sd =
1.74). Again responses by age were compared using a one-way ANOVA. No significant
difference was found for intent to purchase (F(4, 828) = 1.369, p = .243) or for intent to invest
(F(4, 827) = 1.232, p = .169). Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test revealed no significant differences
across the entire range of comparisons by age segment.
Table 2
Impact of Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Age
Response mean for age segments
Survey
question 18-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+
Decision to
purchase
2.65 2.60 2.65 2.72 2.39
Decision to
invest
2.42 2.44 2.79 2.61 2.72
Note. N=833 for purchase question, 832 for investment question.
Continuing the pattern of examining demographically segmented respondent groups,
level of education also fails to produce significant differences for purchase decisions, but
education level does appear to matter in regard to investment decisions. Table 3 shows that
regardless of education level, mean response levels again fall between “occasionally” and
“frequently” for goods and services purchase decisions. For investment decisions, though,
respondents with only a high school diploma or less education appear to be affected less by a
company’s reputation, reporting means between “occasionally” and “rarely” to describe
reputation’s impact on their investment calculations. Cumulative means for all education levels
were 2.60 for purchase decisions (sd = 1.24) and 2.59 for investment decisions (sd = 1.74).
When responses by education level were compared using a one-way ANOVA, no significant
difference was found for intent to purchase (F(4, 832) = 1.861, p = .115), and Tukey’s HSD
post-hoc test confirms that this is true for all cross-comparisons among education levels.
Differences are significant, however, for intent to invest (F(4, 831) = 5.381, p = .000). To
determine specific comparisons among education level segments, Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test
60

evealed significant differences for respondents with only a high school diploma when compared
to respondents with some college (p = .003), with a college degree (p = .004), and with education
beyond a bachelor’s degree (p = .006). No other comparisons resulted in significance, indicating
that level of education is positively correlated to the impact of company reputation on consumer
decisions to invest. The number of respondents not having earned a high school diploma was
extremely small (15), rendering statistical analysis of that cell inappropriate.
Table 3
Impact of Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Education Level
Response means for level of education
Survey
question 0-11 years
High school
graduate Some college
College
graduate
Decision to
purchase
2.92 2.88 2.51 2.63 2.54
Decision to
invest
3.67 3.22 2.46 2.50 2.49
Note. N=837 for purchase question, 836 for investment question.
Beyond
college degree
Table 4 reveals a similar pattern for ethnic identity: results suggest a significant
difference among categories for investment decisions, but not for purchase of goods and
services. For goods and services purchase decisions, all groups within this variable reflect mean
responses between “occasionally” and “frequently” when asked whether company reputation
impacts those decisions. The same is true for investment decisions with one exception:
respondents in the “other” category (dominated by Latinos) reflect a mean between “always” and
“frequently,” pointing to an even more pronounced reputation impact for this segment of the
sample. When responses by ethnic identity were compared using a one-way ANOVA, no
significant difference was found for intent to purchase (F(2, 819) = 1.166, p = .312), and Tukey’s
HSD post-hoc test confirms that this is true for all cross-comparisons among ethnic identity
groups. Differences within this variable are significant, though, for intent to invest (F(2, 818) =
5.070, p = .006). To identify specific differences between groups, a Tukey HSD post hoc test
showed significant differences when Latino respondents were compared both to African
American respondents (p = .014) and to Caucasian respondents (p = .004).
Table 4
Impact of Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Ethnic Identify
Response means for level of education
Survey question African American Caucasian Other
Decision to
purchase
2.63 2.36 2.61
Decision to
invest
2.61 2.65 1.87
Note. N=822 for purchase question, 821 for investment question.
The final demographic comparison reported is gender. Means for goods and services
purchase decisions for both male and female respondents fell between “occasionally” and
“frequently,” with females (m = 2.71, sd = 1.26) reporting a less pronounced reputation impact
61

than males (m = 2.51, sd = 1.23). Statistical significance emerging from an independent-samples
t test (t(839) = 2.355, p = .019) highlights the difference between genders. However, to gauge
the relative importance of the difference, a Cohen’s d calculation was conducted that revealed an
effect size of 0.16; this result can be categorized as a “very small effect,” suggesting that the
difference between genders for this question, while statistically significant, is not a strong one.
The pattern is repeated for investment decisions, with males (m = 2.54, sd = 1.61) reporting
slightly greater consideration for reputation than females (m = 2.63, sd = 1.85). This time,
though, an independent-samples t test reveals no significance between genders (t(838) = -.793, p
= .428).
Discussion
In 1993, following PepsiCo’s successful navigation of the familiar case that began with a
syringe reportedly found in one of its soda cans, the company placed advertisements with the
following headline in many newspapers: “Pepsi is pleased to announce……nothing” (Hendrix,
2001, p.441). That could, in a sense, describe the result of this research: there was a pronounced
lack of statistical significance between and among the various demographic groups surveyed.
However, those results are quite significant for public relations managers and leaders because
they suggest that concern for responsible corporate behavior is firmly established and spans all
categories of consumers and investors.
Income level, education level, age, gender and ethnic identity all revealed pronounced
indications of a link between organizational reputation and both consumers’ intent to purchase
and investors’ intent to invest. An exception occurs when comparing investment intentions by
education level; those with the least education appear to be least affected by organizational
reputation when making investment decisions. Realistically, though, respondents with only a
high school diploma or less are among the least likely to be investing in the stock market, so the
finding may not be so consequential.
Two other significant findings occur when comparing investment intentions. First, the
group comprising mainly Latino respondents appears to consider particularly strongly a
company’s reputation for responsible behavior when making investment decisions. It would be
useful to explore the cultural dimension of this response. Likewise, males report a somewhat
sharper consideration for reputation when making investment decisions than do females, but the
difference is weak enough to warrant further research before drawing conclusive inferences.
Both males and females clearly reported factoring reputation in their decisions.
The most useful application of these data is as a benchmark for future iterations of this
project. Embedding these same questions in versions of this omnibus survey every 2-3 years
would provide a useful barometer by which to gauge public sentiment as regards socially
responsible behavior on the part of companies. For example, it would be useful to know whether
gradual changes in investment patterns in recent years affect the degree to which investors
consider corporate reputation for CSR in their investment calculus; the average length of time
individual stocks are held has fallen sharply from years to months as investors might now be
subdivided into two groups: true shareholders and speculators.
As additional research explores linkages between reputation for responsible corporate
behavior vis-à-vis purchase and investment behavior, tracking the level of consumer and investor
intent may well enable public relations managers to strengthen their argument in support of CSR
policies and programs. Of course, relying on the profit motive for CSR may rankle some
scholars and practitioners who hope to retain the primacy of the altruistic/moral argument. This
author would suggest the two arguments are inseparable – that socially responsible performance
62

will be rewarded in the marketplace. Additionally, such behavior will likely have favorable
results beyond consumers and investors: Quality employees will be more easily recruited,
retained and motivated, therefore productive; regulatory agencies and legislative bodies may well
be more favorably disposed; and media coverage is more likely to be balanced, even favorable.
An important question is whether public relations managers should take a leading role in
guiding an organization’s CSR activities. This project says they should because investors and
consumers are taking into account their perceptions of companies’ responsible behavior, which is
a measure of trust, and trust is the purview of public relations advice and counsel. Public
relations managers, for example, can use research to demonstrate to organizational leaders the
impact of CSR activities on investment and consumer purchase decisions and then help the
organizations develop policies that reflect high ethical standards and contribute to community
wellbeing. Cafasso (2010) agrees. Reporting the results of interviews with top PR executives,
he says, “Each [executive] lauded the unequaled value of public relations as the best vehicle to
build, maintain and advance the credibility and trust that organizations need to succeed” (p.14).
He particularly notes comments by Jim Tsokanos of MS&L who observes, “The cunsumer is
now in charge” (p.15), and consumers are taking advantage of interpersonal and on-line social
networks to “share information, make recommendations and ultimately purchase products”
(p.15).
Public relations managers can further argue, as does Joseph (2002), that self regulation in
the area of CSR is preferable to imposed regulation because it will be viewed more favorably by
stakeholders. “Companies take voluntary action when market forces reward them for doing so,”
(p.96), she says, adding that less trust is to be gained by merely complying with legal
frameworks. Public relations managers, in their capacity as “horizon scanners,” must constantly
monitor emerging developments of this nature and gauge public sentiment, advising
organizational leadership on courses of action, including communication efforts that anticipate
and benefit from developing trends.
This study is limited, of course, in its geographic scope, having included respondents in
just one metropolitan area, though the primary city in that area is among the 20 most populous
cities in the U.S. and includes a population fairly representative of the greater national population
in the demographic categories employed. The project is also limited in having placed just two
questions on an omnibus survey, comparing responses using demographically delineated data
also included in the survey. As is always the case with surveys, data are self-reported and suffer
the potential bias of socially desirable responses; anonymity mitigates that to some extent but not
entirely.
References
Berkhout, T. (2005). Corporate gains. Alternatives Journal, 31(1), 15-18.
Burson-Marsteller (2010). Consumers continue to prioritize social responsibility across
business sectors, despite recession (news release, March 29). Retrieved from
http://www.burson-marsteller.com/Newsroom/Lists/PressReleases.
Cafasso, E. (2010). Measurable impact: Agency leaders on why PR matters. The Public
Relations Strategist, 15(4), 14-18.
Clark, C.E. (2000). Differences between public relations and corporate social responsibility: An
analysis. Public Relations Review, 26(3), 363-380.
Fitzpatrick, K., & Gauthier, C. (2001). Toward a professional responsibility theory of public
relations ethics. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16(2&3), 193-212.
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Gilfeather, J., & Carroll, T. (2005). “Understanding is the beginning of approving:” Vapid
platitude or cornerstone of public relations? Paper presented at the 8 th International
Public Relations Research Conference, Miami, FL. Retrieved from
http://www.instituteforpr.org/files/ uploads/Understanding_05IPRRC.pdf.
Grossman, A.H. (2005). Refining the role of the corporation: The impact of corporate social
responsibility on shareholder primacy theory. Deakin Law Review, 10(2), 572-596.
Handy, C. (2002, December). What’s a business for? Harvard Business Review, 80(12), 49-55.
Hatcher, M. (2002). New corporate agendas. Journal of Public Affairs, 3(1), 32-38.
Hendrix, J.A. (2001). Public Relations Cases (5 th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadwworth.
Joseph, E. (2001). Corporate social responsibility: delivering the new agenda. New Economy,
8(2), 121-123.
Joseph, E. (2002). Promoting corporate social responsibility: Is market-based regulation
sufficient? New Economy, 8(2), 121-123.
Kotler, P., & Lee, N. (2005). Corporate social responsibility: Doing the most good for your
company and your cause. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lavrakas, P. J. (1993). Telephone survey methods: Sampling, selection, and supervision (2 nd
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Paek, H-J, & Nelson, M.R. (2009). To buy or not to buy: Determinants of socially responsible
consumer behavior and consumer reactions to cause-related and boycotting ads. Journal
of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 31(2), 75-90.
Palacios, J.J. (2004). Corporate citizenship and social responsibility in a globalized world.
Citizenship Studies, 8(4), 383-402.
Smith, N.C. (2003). Corporate social responsibility: whether or how? California Management
Review, 45(4), 52-76.
Villamizar, C., Restrepo, M., & Alfaro, A. (2010). Formulation of a measurement scale from the
perceptions a community has of a corporate brand based on the implementation of a
corporate social responsibility program. Institute for Public Relations. Retrieved from
http://www.instituteforpr.org/files/uploads/MeasureScaleCSR_IPRRC.pdf.
Werther, Jr., W.B., & Chandler, D. (2006). Strategic corporate social responsibility:
Stakeholders in a global environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Windsor, D. (2001). The future of corporate social responsibility. The International Journal of
Organizational Analysis, 9(3), 225-256.
64

Investigating Multiplier Effects of Implied Third-Party Endorsements
in Independent Media: A Qualitative Study
Pauline A. Howes
Kennesaw State University
Lynne M. Sallot, Ph.D., APR, Fellow PRSA
University of Georgia
sallot@uga.edu
Abstract
Measuring and validating the communications value of public relations activities over
advertising or other controlled communications is an ongoing challenge for public relations
practitioners and scholars. This qualitative study investigated one commonly assumed advantage
of public relations – the implied third-party endorsement or multiplier effect of PR-generated
news coverage in independent media. Interviews were conducted with 10 public relations
practitioners and 10 business people about their beliefs and attitudes toward implied third-party
endorsement effects of independent media stemming from perceived increased credibility of
independent media compared to controlled media, including advertising. The existence of such
implied third-party endorsement or multiplier effects was supported overall to some degree.
Each group also projected some acceptance of the effect by the other, and both groups indicated
they believe that the public is even more accepting of the effect. Both groups expressed some
confidence in the use of quotations by corporate spokespersons and customer testimonials to
enhance the multiplier effect, and reported believing the public is even more accepting of these
strategies. PR practitioners also said their clients and bosses are susceptible to implied thirdparty
endorsements of news media coverage.
An ongoing challenge facing public relations practitioners and scholars is measuring and
validating the communications value of public relations activities (Cameron, Wilcox, Reber, &
Shin, 2008). Beyond statistical tabulations, a potentially more powerful – yet more difficult to
quantify – value of public relations is the assumed enhanced credibility of a message delivered
through independent traditional news media compared with organization-sponsored controlled
communications, including paid advertising (Harris, 1998).
While a number of studies have used experiment and survey methodologies to test for
multiplier effects, often using student-subject pools, no studies to date are believed to have used
qualitative methods to gauge effects among public relations or business professionals, as this
study does.
Literature Review
Belief in this implied third-party endorsement effect of news media coverage has its roots
in early theoretical studies that examined the impact and role of media on society (Hallahan,
1999a, 1999b). The perceived power of news media to set agendas and influence opinion led to
comparisons of credibility between news content and advertising, although later studies based on
limited-effects theories have raised doubts about the influential impact of the media on the
actions of individuals (Baran & Davis, 2006).
Michelson and Stacks (2007) contended “it has long been held by public relations
practitioners that public relations media placements have a relative value advantage over
advertising when the message is employed by both or similar" (p. 3) in a multiplier effect. This
multiplier or implied third-party endorsement effect is considered advantageous because
65

information conveyed through the media filter is thought to be perceived by consumers as more
fact-based and credible and less-biased than information provided in a paid advertisement or
other information that is prepared, funded and distributed by a self-interested party (Grunig &
Grunig, 2000; Guth & Marsh, 2007; Hallahan, 1999a, 1999b; Harris, 1998; Smith, 2009.)
The term derives from applying a “multiplier” to public relations-generated media
coverage compared with advertising to reflect an added value. However, there are different
views on exactly what the multiplier, or added value, is. Some calculate the multiplier effect by
multiplying the advertising value (dollar cost of placing an ad of identical size or length) by a
factor of 3, 5 or 7 (Grunig & Grunig, 2000). A “multiplier” factor also may be applied to actual
circulation figures to estimate a total number of media impressions, taking into account passalong
readers. Estimates of these multipliers vary, but their use results in a higher measurement
of total reach (Weiner & Bartholomew, 2006).
Value enhancements also are often attributed to an audience’s perception of greater
credibility because gatekeeper (reporter or editor) of the information provider (the news media)
is not directly beholden to the originating source. In contrast, the originating source of
information in paid advertising or other “controlled” media (such as newsletters produced by
organizations) is seen to have a vested interest in the effects on an audience; the information is
thought to reflect bias and carry diminished credibility (Grunig & Grunig, 2000; Guth & Marsh,
2007; Hallahan, 1999b).
The implied third-party endorsement effect of published or broadcast information has
been studied from multiple perspectives, often focusing on comparing perceptions of credibility
and impact of information conveyed through mock “published” editorial news stories versus
mock paid advertisements (Cameron, 1994; Hallahan, 1999a; Hallahan, 1999b; Jo, 2004;
Michaelson & Stacks, 2007; Stacks & Michaelson, 2009). These studies’ results provide little-tono
support for the conventional wisdom among public relations professionals that media
coverage has enhanced value to organizations (Cameron, 1994; Hallahan, 1999a,1999b).
Hallahan (1999b) even titled one article, “No Virginia, It’s Not True What They Say About
Publicity’s ‘Implied Third-Party Endorsement’ Effect,” a review and analysis of 11 studies
comparing the effects of news and advertising which yielded only mild overall support for the
concept of third-party added value for news articles.
Typically these studies have used between-subjects or within subjects experimental or
survey methodology; limitations have often included small sample sizes and reliance on collegestudent
participants, absence of reliability and validity measurements, lack of theoretical
grounding and insufficient differentiation among the various test materials (Stacks &
Michaelson, 2009). Additionally, surveys showing declining trust and confidence in the news
media by the public (Geary, 2005; Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, 2009),
further call into question implied third-party endorsement effects.
Yet anecdotal evidence suggests the widely held belief persists in PR practice that
information published or broadcast in news media takes on added value or “multiplier” effect
because it has been approved by an independent third-party gatekeeper and conveyed by an
independent, supposedly unbiased news medium.
Up to now, no qualitative studies are believed to have probed the multiplier effect nor
compared perceptions and attitudes of editorial endorsement values held by PR practitioners and
business people; this study was conducted to address these gaps in the literature.
Research Questions
The following research questions were explored:
66

RQ1: Do PR practitioners and business people differ in their assessments of the presence
and value of implied third-party endorsement effects of independent news media (such as
newspapers) versus controlled media (such as advertisements)?
RQ2: How do PR practitioners and business people assess each others’ perceptions of the
presence and value of implied third-party endorsement effects of independent news
media (such as newspapers) versus controlled media (such as advertisements)?
RQ3: How do PR practitioners and business people assess the publics’ perceptions of the
presence and value of implied third-party endorsement effects of independent news
media (such as newspapers) versus controlled media (such as advertisements)?
Method
Interviews consisting of guided, open-ended questions were conducted with 10 public
relations professionals and 10 business people by the first author between March 1 and May 1,
2009. A purposive selection process was used to secure input representative of a variety of types
of public relations practices, organization sizes and industries. Fourteen public relations
practitioners and 15 business people were invited, with 10 of each group agreeing to participate.
Seventeen interviews were conducted by telephone and three in person. The interviews were
recorded and transcribed. Participants were assured confidentiality under guidelines of the
Institutional Review Board of (name of university).
Four of the public relations practitioners worked for corporations, three for PR agencies
(including a large firm with diversified clientele, a mid-sized regional firm and a small boutique
agency), two worked for nonprofit organizations, and one was a sole practitioner. Their roles
included media relations, marketing communications, internal communications, strategic
communication and planning for commercial banking, consumer products, financial management
and telecommunications, a major national nonprofit organization and a small educational
foundation. Organization size varied from fewer than 50 employees to more than 20,000
employees. Experience ranged from less than a year to more than 16 years; five were male and
five were female; seven held bachelor’s degrees and three received master’s degrees in
communications-related studies.
Business people interviewed represented industrial machinery manufacturing,
entertainment, consumer services, metals manufacturing, business consulting, electric power
utilities, consumer products, construction engineering, chemical manufacturing, and advertising.
Eight of the companies were public and two were privately held; they ranged from fewer than
500 employees to more than 20,000 employees. Participants were mid-level to senior
management (member of board of directors, vice president and director) with 11-25+ years of
experience. Five participants were male and five were female; five had bachelor's degrees, two
had MBA degrees, one had a master’s degree in human resources; two had J.D. degrees.
The analysis entailed listening to the audio recordings of all interviews twice.
Transcriptions and notes taken during the interviews were read a minimum of two times and
cross-checked for accuracy against the actual recordings. Following qualitative data analysis
protocol suggested by Bogdan and Biklin (1998), transcripts were organized by specific question
responses grouped by the two respondent groups. In initial coding, responses were categorized
and labeled line-by-line. Focused coding then eliminated, combined or further refined categories
to identify repeating concepts and broader themes. Guidelines detailed by Berkowitz (1997)
identified common themes and presence or absence of patterns and repetition in the answers, any
deviations from identified patterns and possible explanatory factors, considered the influence of
participants’ background and experience on their responses, sought illuminating stories and
67

examples to add depth and understanding, and compared responses to expectations based on
other studies. Pseudonyms were assigned to all participants quoted in the study.
Results
Credibility of Independent Media vs. Controlled Media
The existence of implied third-party endorsement effects of independent media stemming
from perceived credibility of independent media compared to controlled media was supported
overall by the interviews conducted with both public relations practitioners and business people.
Nine of the 10 public relations practitioners interviewed said they definitely perceive
independent media to be more credible than controlled media, and one person found independent
media somewhat more credible than controlled media. Seven said that they thought business
people definitely perceive independent media as more credible than controlled media, and three
said that business people view independent media somewhat more credible than controlled
media. PR practitioners said the general public does not feel as strongly about the credibility of
independent media compare to controlled media. Four said that the public definitely views
independent media as more credible than controlled media; four said the public sees independent
media somewhat more credible than controlled media; and two said the public does not
distinguish any difference in credibility of independent media and controlled media.
Eight of the 10 business people interviewed said they definitely perceive independent
media as more credible than controlled media, while two found independent media somewhat
more credible than controlled media. Six of the business people said that other business people
definitely perceive independent media as more credible than controlled media, three said that
business people view independent media somewhat more credible than controlled media, and
one said that business people do not distinguish any difference in credibility of independent
media and controlled media. Seven of the business people said the general public definitely or
somewhat views independent media as more credible than controlled media, and three said that
the public perceives independent media and controlled media as having the same level of
credibility.
Public Relations Practitioners’ Views on Credibility of Independent and Controlled Media
Interestingly, some PR professionals perceived greater credibility of independent sources
because they recognized the advocacy role they play in their own work. Independent PR
practitioner Barbara said,
Part of my job is to put people in the best possible light. Not being dishonest, but just
playing up their strengths. Ideally a good newspaper or radio, television and other media
outlets are digging to get at the actual facts of the situation. So that gives more credibility.
An assumption that editors and reporters are unbiased whereas companies are biased was another
explanation for perceiving higher credibility of media. Marketing communications professional
Jill observed that reporters are considered to have no bias, while a company that puts out an
advertisement obviously has a self-interested perspective it wishes to advance. Because the
controlled message is "scripted and approved," it lacks the credibility conveyed by a message
communicated through an independent third-party channel, said strategic communications
consultant Greg.
A number of public relations professionals noted a cynicism toward and resistance to
messages designed to “sell” or “persuade.” Wayne, a corporate communications executive,
observed, “It makes sense that when people see advertising over the course of their lives, they
become more cynical about it… and they think about the fact that they are being sold to.” He
added that people consume news media and advertising differently and are less cynical about
68

accepting information they receive through the news media. "They have a fundamental belief
that the news media is more objective, generally, and certainly more objective than advertising."
Having an educational and/or professional background in journalism was a factor for
some public relations professionals’ views that independent media channels are more credible
than controlled channels. One corporate media relations expert with a journalism education
background, Perry, said that “being trained that way, you want to believe that what you read and
see in the news media is relatively unbiased and well-researched."
Several public relations practitioners, while acknowledging the greater perceived
credibility of the news media, still expressed some skepticism. A PR professional with extensive
corporate and nonprofit experience, Ellen, said that coverage by independent media has greater
credibility because “there is the possibility that it has been vetted and screened, and the fact that
it is not paid for allows for some balance and for other voices in the story.” Nevertheless, she
said she had worked with reporters who “never let the facts get in the way of the story,”
selectively including or excluding information or failing to check facts.
While agreeing that independent sources, such as the news media, are more credible than
controlled sources, such as advertising, public relations professional Tim emphasized that
independent sources did not guarantee credibility. Information that is conveyed through
independent sources is not inherently credible, he said, but it is perceived as more credible than
information coming from a controlled source, giving an example: “If company X puts out a press
release, I am going to be more skeptical about that release versus a story about company X that
was published in the New York Times.” Despite this view, Tim raised a concern shared by
several practitioners about the declining credibility of the news media. “These days I’m going to
be much more suspicious about that newspaper article in the Times than I might have been 10 or
20 years ago," he said.
High-profile situations that call into question the veracity of certain mainstream media
also have influenced practitioners’ perceptions of credibility, such as circumstances of plagiarism
and inaccurate reporting, and retractions from lack of fact checking, have diminished the
perceived believability of media in general. "That said," agency practitioner Tim commented, "I
still think people will say, if you read it in the newspaper, there is some degree of credibility to it
versus the company or the organization saying it.”
PR Practitioners’ Views on Business People’s Perceptions of Credibility of Independent
and Controlled Media
Business people may have a slightly different perspective in viewing the credibility of
media versus companies as a source of information, observed several public relations
professionals. Agency practitioner Tim called it a "peer-to-peer type thing." He explained,
There might be a certain level of camaraderie in business, where everyone knows that the
media is going to interpret the way they want to interpret something. So it is sort of an
‘us’ and ‘them’ type of thing. If company A were to put out a press release, company B
would probably think that basically everything that company A has said is more likely on
the up-and-up only because they have been through that process themselves. Unless it is
just someone notorious such as the Enron situation, which is totally tainted, I think that
businesses are probably less suspect of each other because they know that the media can
take things and twist and turn it to get the story that they want.
"I think that business people would have a degree of cynicism about advertising or at
least understand that they are being marketed to,” observed Kirk, a public relations executive.
“Ironically, in my experience some of the most gullible tend to be marketers themselves because
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when they see advertising they view it through the eyes of the advertiser because they create
advertising themselves.” He said some business people are more cynical about coverage of their
own business, but consider news coverage of other businesses as objective and believable, Kirk
said.
Working for a nonprofit group, public relations practitioner Ellen echoed that sentiment
of value when talking about the impact of newspaper articles on business people who serve on
her organization’s board of directors:
We have put out messages that are paid versus editorial. When some of the businessfocused
members of our board see a story, editorially, in the newspaper or hear
something on NPR about us or on CNN, it completely boosts the credibility of what they
think about us versus what we tell them about us.”
In a contrasting view, this sense of insider knowledge or understanding may add to
business people's cynicism about information disseminated by other companies. Public relations
professional Ellen summed it up:
It’s kind of like people who are sausage makers, looking at other people’s sausage
thinking, yeah, but what is really in it? I think that business people know how earnings
statements and stories are crafted and presented and positioned. At least the people that I
know in business are pretty cynical or skeptical about formal quotes and pronouncements
and statements of other companies.
Public Relations Practitioners’ Views on Public Perception of Credibility of Independent
and Controlled Media
The general public is likely to be less critical and more accepting of news media content,
the public relations practitioners said. People "read the headlines and the first three paragraphs,
and basically, given human nature, believe what was said,” commented PR agency practitioner
Tim. “There is probably a certain trust the public feels that companies are going to put out
correct things, but then I also think that people are just as gullible as the next person. In a lot of
cases, perceptions of credibility probably depend on the media that is delivering the news.”
Another corporate public relations practitioner, Kirk, expressed it this way:
As a general statement, I think that John Q. Public is still very trusting of media and
editorial content and much more cynical about advertising. Which is not to say that
advertising does not work; it just means that advertising has to overcome a higher hurdle
to resonate with consumers than news editorial messages. I just think that, intuitively, if
it looks, smells or in any way resembles advertising John Q. Public is going to be more
cynical than if it looks and smells and appears to be editorial content.
Public relations practitioner Barbara expressed concern about young people taking
information from Internet sources that are not peer reviewed. "I think it may be generational.
The generation coming up now is so accustomed to getting and believing things off of the
Internet that they do not discriminate between sources the way others might,” she said.
In contrast, however, some PR practitioners agreed with their colleagues who noted that
the public has “cynicism about anything they read anymore." For example, public relations
practitioner Ellen said,
I think people know when they are being sold something when they hear it in a paid or
controlled context. People have been sold such a bill of goods over the past 20 years.
There has been a big shift in the level of trust that is placed in pronouncements by
commercial or nonprofit voices, whether it is the Red Cross or Enron. I think the first
question people ask of paid advertising is ‘is it true, is it trusted’ versus something that
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still smacks of news. News coverage still carries the perception of being more likely to
report facts.
Business Peoples’ Views on Credibility of Independent and Controlled Media
Business people interviewed agreed with public relations professionals that independent
news sources are viewed as more credible and accurate than controlled sources, such as paid
advertisements. For many of the business people, advertisements or controlled sources represent
a selling tactic designed to influence individuals to purchase something or think a certain way.
In contrast, an independent source has no vested interest in influencing people one way or the
other, they commented. Rather, its intent is simply to report or record news and information from
an unbiased perspective.
An attorney, Karen, experienced in working with consumer products companies, said, "If
it is a paid advertisement, you generally think that advertisers are slanting or interpreting the
facts to suit their desires to show their product or services in a more favorable light."
Advertising executive Rick, who also acknowledged the perceived bias, said, "In an
advertisement, obviously, the message is slanted – not so much slanted, but the message is more
controlled as opposed to something that comes from new source that is from an independent
thinker, or somebody who offers an opinion. So I think that, you know, a newspaper article, even
though it usually comes from only one person, has less bias."
One business executive who holds an MBA degree took an economic perspective in
saying that he generally accepts data that appears in the news item, compared to information
coming from a controlled source. "If you called me up and asked me the best way to make your
building more efficient, I am more likely to give you our press release or, typically, say what we
do is the best way to accomplish that,” Wayne said. In materials they control, businesses “would
tend to stress those things that support their case versus an independent news item," he added.
Reflecting some skepticism about the media, however, Wayne suggested that news sources and
their content may be impacted by their advertisers.
The perception of third-party objectivity of independent media was cited by several of the
business people interviewed. A human resource manager Kelly explained, "At least in theory
you think the third-party media is trying to be objective and is not trying to position a product or
situation or spin it in a certain way, versus a company. I think companies do a lot of spin." She
extended the concept of spin to companies that use product placement in television shows. "If I
read about a product in a newspaper article, I would hope the media would be concerned about
other things such as objectivity versus the sole focus being on the product.”
Business Peoples’ Views on How Other Business People and Public Perceive Credibility of
Independent and Controlled Media
The business people interviewed generally believed that other business people considered
independent media sources as more credible than controlled sources. At least one person Greg,
however, thought that others may be less critical of controlled source information than he
himself was. “Well, my experience is, I am a little more jaded than most people,” he said.
Business people, overall, gave less credit to the general public than themselves or other
business people as being discerning consumers of information. Business people suggest the
average person doesn't perceive a difference between information presented by an independent
source or a controlled source.
Credibility of Quotations and Customer Testimonials
As a further measure of perceptions of credibility in news media, interviewees were
asked about attitudes towards quotations and customer testimonials used in media coverage.
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Both the public relations and business interview subjects perceived quotations in
newspaper or magazine articles as having limited credibility, and thought the other group would
agree. However, both public relations practitioners and business people said that the public, in
general, considers quotations in articles as having credibility.
The knowledge of how quotations are crafted by public relations people made many
practitioners skeptical of quotes they read in articles. “First, you can always tell if it was written
for someone. That is pretty easy to sniff out simply because a lot of them are just very canned,”
said public relations agency practitioner Tim. “The quotes that are more believable are the ones
that are fresher and more real, and it’s nice to see one of those. The more realistic it is, the more
credible it is to me.”
“Right now I think corporate America is at an all-time low for credibility,” said sole
public relations practitioner Barbara.
On the flip side, public relations agency practitioner Tim said, “I think the public
probably take quotes at face value because they don’t understand in most cases what goes on to
create those quotes.” Expressing a similar view, corporate communications professional Christa
commented, “The public would view quotes as real.”
Michelle, a human resources executive at a large manufacturer, said, “I think quotes are
relatively credible, but I think that anybody who works for a company knows that those
company’s spokespeople are well-versed and know exactly what to say.”
Overall, both the public relations and business interview subjects perceived customer
testimonials as at least somewhat credible. Similarly, public relations practitioners believed that
business people view customer testimonials as being at least somewhat credible. Both public
relations practitioners and business people said that the public, in general, considers customer
testimonials to be credible.
Public relations practitioners are utilizing customer testimonials as part of their
communications outreach, based on the feedback from several of those interviewed. The context
of the testimonial may affect its believability. “I guess it depends on how testimonials are
presented. If it is part of an info commercial and people are doing testimonials, then I am like,
‘nah, I don’t believe those,’” said communications professional Christa. Yet she does find herself
using testimonials when making personal purchase decisions. Christa said she likes “to hear
some of the feedback of customers about their experiences with a product” she is considering to
purchase. While she may not “totally believe” a testimonial is on a company-sponsored Web site,
Christa said it would give her “a good sense of what the product is about.”
“I think business people would take a look at testimonials with a grain of salt,” said
corporate public relations practitioner John.
“Business people, I think, see customer testimonials as a tool to spark interest,” said
marketing communications professional Jill. “All in all, I think business people like testimonials
and believe in them for the most part.”
Most of the public relations practitioners interviewed felt that the general public found
customer testimonials more credible than they or business people did because “the idea that
hearing from a ‘real’ person carries more credibility,” said Ellen, public relations practitioner for
a nonprofit organization.
Having some prior knowledge of the individual making the testimonial plays a major role
in determining its credibility, said some business people interviewed. "I tend to give more
credibility if I know the person or if I have spoken to the person versus seeing the words on a
page,” said Michael, a corporate manufacturing executive.
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Even when testimonials do not withstand scrutiny, business executive Wayne found that
his colleagues paid close attention to what others said about various products. He commented,
I hear some of my coworkers saying “Well, look here this client likes that competitive
product” and then I'll say let's just call them and see. And once I asked them what they
really think, sometimes people will say “yeah, that was a long time ago and I got
something free to put my name on the document.” But generally, I know my coworkers
place tremendous value on seeing a name like Microsoft or another major company in a
testimonial about a specific product. They think, “Gee, that product must be good.”
Members of the general public are inclined to be easily swayed by consumer-targeted
testimonials, most business people said. Corporate executive Michael explained,
You have a lot of people who are very gullible, whether they're elderly or maybe not the
sharpest tack in the box. I think that people will sometimes buy into, for example,
infomercials. If infomercials weren't successful, you wouldn't see them on TV. I think the
more education a person has, the less effective some of those claims would be in
persuading them.
Client-Perceived Value in Independent Media Coverage
When asked about how their clients or bosses perceive the value in PR-driven
independent media coverage, all PR practitioners interviewed said that their clients/bosses
believe it exceeds the value of paid placements, such as advertisements. The perception of media
credibility was a key factor in that value assessment. “I think there is the perception that media
coverage is just more credible. You know, clients feel ‘they have made the news,’” said public
relations agency executive Tim. Using information attributable to independent media sources
strengthens the impact of client strategy sessions, which to Tim, is somewhat surprising:
The funny thing about it is that, in those presentations, the media quotations are viewed
as a very credible source. I do a lot of strategy sessions, a lot of facilitating, a lot of brainstorming
sessions around positioning and marketing. As part of those presentations that
we customize for each client there is a section that we call “the industry overview” and
there is one that we call a “competitive landscape,” so I will study news stories to find out
what are the latest trends, what is the environment that we are living in at the moment.
You assess the company, what does its world look like, and what does the competition
say, and just not with their ads, but what are they saying out there in the media about
themselves and about others.
In general, clients see value in independent media coverage, but how they view a
particular media outlet affects the degree of value they see in coverage, said corporate public
relations professional Kirk. He explained,
Even more valuable in their minds is a third-party media outlet that they personally
respect. So in other words, it’s that you can generate all kinds of really good quality
third-party publicity in small-town newspapers around America that speak daily to
consumers and present that stack of press clippings that represent real value-adding
publicity to brand managers and they will go, “that’s good.” But if you happen to get the
same story on slate.com, which is sort of a political intelligentsia, white-collar, highly
educated demographic Web site, they will think it is absolutely wonderful, even if only
10 consumers ever see it.
The comparatively lower cost of public relations versus advertising also was mentioned
as a reason for clients seeing value in independent media coverage. The dollar-factor can
especially come into play when the client’s funds are tight, said sole practitioner Barbara. “It’s
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cheaper for them to pay a PR person, not just because that it’s cheap, but because the costs of
advertising are very high,” she said. She recalled a sleep-disorder doctor who sought public
awareness of his work but had a very limited budget. “We got him some TV coverage and he
was pleased with that,” she said.
Discussion
The primary purpose of this qualitative research was to determine the implied third-party
endorsement or multiplier effect was perceived by public relations practitioners and business
people and what levels of acceptance each group projected of the other and of the public. Indeed,
the idea that information conveyed through independent news media channels was perceived as
somewhat more credible than information conveyed through controlled channels was supported
by both public relations and business professionals. That said, individuals in both groups
observed that the credibility of the news media, in general, is declining and this moderated their
belief in the strength of the third-party endorsement effect.
At the same time, public relations and business professionals are skeptical of quotations
attributed to company officials that appear in press releases and published articles. The inside
knowledge that press releases, including quotes, are typically written by public relations
practitioners and extensively reviewed and edited prior to distribution raised doubts about
credibility. Despite their personal views, most public relations practitioners and business people
felt that the public viewed such quotations in a more positive, believable light. This view might
be based partly on the belief that the general public is less knowledgeable and discerning about
the news media and also due to the desire to validate their own ability to present believable
statements through company-prepared materials.
In considering the credibility of customer testimonials, another type of third-party
endorsement, most public relations practitioners and business people felt they were somewhat
credible. Both groups generally believed, however, that the public finds customer testimonials
quite credible and valuable as a communication strategy. Several of the public relations and
business professionals noted they use customer testimonials in their own communications with
target audiences, clients and customers.
All of the public relations practitioners interviewed said they believed their clients
generally saw value in media coverage in independent media channels. However, this belief was
not consistent across the board. For example, one corporate public relations practitioner noted
that while his company’s new chief executive officer recognized value in media coverage, not all
of the company managers in the organization shared that view. Consequently, the public
relations practitioner spent a good amount of time attempting to educate company managers
about and demonstrate to them the potential value of media coverage, including the multiplier
effect. For some practitioners, the reality of their jobs remains all about getting their stories
placed in the independent news media. As one practitioner noted, “I think that you can consider
any good hit a victory. At the end of the day, you take what you can get.”
Limitations of This Study
As with all qualitative research, the findings from this study are not generalizable to
populations of public relations practitioners and business people.
Conclusions and Implications for Public Relations Practitioners
The implied third-party endorsement effect remains a somewhat elusive “holy grail” of
public relations practitioners and scholars. Yet communicating messages via independent news
media that go through an editorial process of review and selection of content continues to be
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viewed to some degree as a valuable public relations practice by practitioners and business
people because of perceived multiplier effects.
The commonly held belief in implied third-party endorsement effect of news media may
well be merited despite mixed results of academic experiments and surveys. Perhaps the
definition of “media” needs to be reconsidered beyond “news media” when analyzing
endorsement effects. In today’s communication landscape, more media formats and forums exist
– many of them online – and many may offer an implied an endorsement effect to different
audiences. The “a-ha” realization may be that the endorsement effect actually comes from
multiple media types, not just the news media. Consequently, a multifaceted approach to
communication may, ultimately, produce the most successful and effective results for public
relations professionals and their clients. Rather than limiting or diminishing the role and value of
public relations, this expanded idea of third-party endorsement may require practitioners to
develop new, more sophisticated communication strategies using a variety of media channels.
Certainly these notions warrant future research.
In conclusion, the long-time role of public relations to pitch and secure story placements
in independent media channels such as newspapers, magazines and trade journals, is likely to
continue based on the perceived value of these stories by PR practitioners, their clients and
business people.
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76

Perceptions of Product Blogs in Taiwan: The Impact of User Motivation, Blogger
Affiliation and Language Valence
Chen-Yi (Joyce) Huang and Kirk Hallahan
Colorado State University
kirk.hallahan@colostate.edu
Abstract
A survey among college students in Taiwan (n=314) found that readers of product blogs were
primarily motivated by knowledge/information seeking rather than social utility/entertainment.
Attitudinal assessments of credibility and value were positively related to bloggers being
independent and using balanced (versus all-positive) language. However, no statistically
significant main effects were discerned based on these variables for purchase intent or for the
likelihood of sharing information with others. Notably, respondents were more likely to respond
offline than online, and females were more likely than males to engage in information sharing.
Participants also assess product blogs are more credible than reading product information in
the form of ads or news.
Introduction
Blogs (also known as web logs) are personal diaries or journals that enable blog
producers (bloggers) to comment on a wide range of topics (Kaye, 2005; Yang & Lim, 2009).
Although the popularity of consumer blogs has waned somewhat in the United States since 2004-
2005, blogs remain viable marketing public relations tool despite the inroads of social
networking sites such as Facebook in the West and in Asia (CheckFacebook.com; Lenhart,
Purcell, Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010.
This is especially true in Taiwan where blogging is particularly popular and one-quarter
of Internet users maintain their own blogs, compared to 4% of Internet users in the United States
(Institute for Information Industry, 2008; Lenhart & Fox 2006). Although blogging initially was
most popular among young adults, the average age of bloggers in Taiwan has steadily increased.
Today the age distribution of bloggers in the country roughly corresponds to that of the
population as a whole (Zhang, 2007).
Major marketers in Taiwan, such as McDonald’s, routinely invite bloggers to write
reviews about new products. Numerous bloggers in Taiwan recommend electronic devices,
travel tours, cosmetics, foods and other products or services on their blogs—anything that people
can imagine. Several famous bloggers even assemble their blog articles into books (Queen,
2009; Wan-Wan, 2005). Most bloggers are conspicuously positive in terms of their
recommendations, but others are not (Christabelle, 2008).
In Taiwan, the ethics of blog marketing are not clearly delineated (Huang, Guo & He,
2008), and bloggers are not required to disclosure how they obtain the products that they review
or whether they receive any form of compensation for writing reviews. In Taiwan’s
blogosphere, there are many “professional bloggers” who write about new products on their
blogs, such as 艾 瑪 隨 處 走 走 , I am Queen, and 美 食 摩 人 , and it is not easy for blog readers to
differentiate whether these blogs are merely advertisements or authentic descriptions of a real
user’s experience (“News finds,” 2009). Yet, most major marketers views bloggers as valuable
sources of third-party endorsements.
Cheng, a leading marketing practitioner, describes two types of marketing blogs (cited in
He, 2007). One type includes company-sponsored blogs that promote product visibility and
reader engagement. The second, more common type involves seeking exposure on independently
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produced blogs of famous bloggers who write commentaries about products. Cheng explains
that marketers often target the top one or two most popular Taiwan bloggers because they want
to see instant effects. These “A-list” bloggers are perceived by blog readers as ordinary
consumers and more trustworthy than product marketers, media or celebrity endorsers (Shi,
2008). Moreover, product recommendations by A-list bloggers are interesting to read and do
not look or read like an advertisement.
As in the United States, blog marketing has become a controversial marketing practice
that has prompted extensive arguments in Taiwan’s blogosphere. Some bloggers and blog users
believe that bloggers need to disclose possible conflicts of interest (Huang et al., 2008; Kates,
2008; PipperL, 2008; Rickyli, 2005). Others argue that a blog is the blogger’s private space, not
commercial speech, and that bloggers can and should write anything they wish. Defenders argue
that blog readers do not pay for the information they obtain free from bloggers, and can choose
which blogs to read and believe (DearJohn, 2008; Huang et al., 2008).
In United States, the Federal Trade Commission now requires bloggers to disclose
freebies (free merchandise provided for evaluation, which the blogger can keep or sell) as well as
payments (cash compensation from a company) received in exchange for writing a product
recommendation) (FTC News, 2009). FTC commissioners think transparent and conspicuous
disclosure is good and necessary (Yao, 2009). Mass media in the U.S. have followed similar
procedures for decades—and affirmatively guard against possible conflicts of interest related to
cross-industry ownership of media and the industrial firms they cover (Choney, 2009). Freebies
are discouraged in the code of ethics promulgated by organizations such as the Society of
Professional Journalists (1996) and the Public Relations Society of America (2009). However,
such protections are virtually non-existent in Taiwan (Qiu, 2009).
Theoretical Foundations
Again this backdrop, this study sought to examine perceptions of product blogs as an
influential source of product information for consumers in Taiwan. In particular, this study drew
upon three key concepts as its theoretical foundation: uses and gratifications theory as a basis for
understanding the motivation of blog readers, the affiliation or independence of the bloggers as a
means for assessing the credibility of blogs, and language expectancy theory as a way to
understand the content blog readers expect to find. The study then measured the effect of these
independent or predictor variables on four key criterion or dependent measures: readership of
blogs, attitudes, behavioral (purchase) intent and the likelihood readers will share information
with others.
Motivations for Blog Use
Uses and gratifications theory (U&G) posits that people purposefully choose appropriate
media to satisfy their needs and goals (Li, 2007). Prior research suggests that blog readers are
quite intentional (Kaye, 2007; Li, 2007; Meadows, 2008; Swanson, 1979), and the interactive
nature of blogs demands that users engage in selecting, responding to, forwarding and actively
processing blog messages using a computer keyboard or the touchpad on a wireless device
(Cowels, 1989).
In general, uses and gratifications theory identifies four broad motivations for media use.
These involve the satisfaction of cognitive needs (surveillance of the environment, need for
cognition, problem solving), the development of self-identity, social utility (advantageous use of
information for social purposes), and diversion/entertainment (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973;
Rubin, 1984, 1994; 2002).
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Uses and gratifications theory has provided a well-grounded perspective for studying
motivations of blog readers (Kaye, 2005; Nardi, Schiano, Gumbrecht, & Swartz, 2004;
Papacharissi, 2004; Trammell, Tarkowski, Hofmokl, & Sapp, 2006). Kaye (2005), for example,
identifies as motivations for blog use as: entertainment, communicating with friends who have
blogs, knowledge seeking and serving as an information maven.
This study elected to focus on three possible explanations for reading product blogs.
Knowledge seeking involves users looking to blogs for specific information that might facilitate a
purchase decision, reduce risk (Schiffman & Kanuk, cited in Henning-Thurau & Walsh, 2004),
and/or provide information that is more up to date than information available in traditional media
(Hamilton, 2003; Hastings, 2003; Kaye, 2005; Levy, 2002b; Ryan, 2003). Social utility refers to
the idea that blog readers seek some sort of social advantage from the information obtained,
based on the desire to be influential, to be affiliated with others, or to help others, to be socially
accepted or to be recognized as an expert. This idea is consistent with the argument that
maintaining personal relationships are primary factors why people want to use media (McQuail,
Blumler & Brown, 1972). Diversion and entertainment refers to reading a blog simply for fun,
relaxation, and enjoyment. Like other forms of Internet communication, such as e-mail or
surfing the Web, reading blogs offers an escape from boredom and work (Kaye, 2007).
Affiliation/Independence of the Blogger
The effectiveness of product messages in blogs were posited to be moderated by readers’
perceptions about whether the blog author was a paid agent or employee of a product producer
who received payments, gifts (including valuable product samples or freebies), or a salary from a
marketer. These non-independent bloggers can be differentiated from independent bloggers,
who are unaffiliated with product producers in any way and thus have nothing to gain or lose
from making either positive or negative comments.
Independence is an important dimension of source credibility, which has been shown in
more than six decades of research to bias processing of persuasive messages. The greater the
perceived source independence and credibility, the more likely the information will be accepted
as accurate, believable, reliable and trustworthy (Hovland &Weiss, 1951; Ibelema & Powell,
2001; Fogg & Tseng, 1999; Stanford, Tauber, Fogg & Marable, 2002). Similarly, greater source
independence creates greater positive attitude change and behavioral intention (Hass, 1981;
Milburn, 1991).
Assessments about the credibility of blogs and bloggers vary widely, from general
negative perceptions (Princeton Survey Research Associates International, 2005) to quite
positive assessments among actual blog users (Banning, Bradley & Trammell, 2006; Johnson &
Kaye, 2004). Research suggests that consumers look at a variety of cues when determining the
quality of the online information, including disclosures about how information was obtained
(Greer, 2003; Hong Nana, 2009; Lee & Youn, 2009).
Positive v. Balanced Language Valence
Finally, this study examined the consequences of language use, particularly in the
inclusion of only positive comments about products (such as might be expected from a
nonindependent blogger) versus more varied language where a combination of positive, neutral
and negative comments might be included (such as might be expected from an independent
blogger).
Language expectancy theory (LET) assumes that people have specific expectations about
the language and message strategies used by mass media and in other persuasive contexts
(Burgoon, 1995; Burgoon et al., 2002). When words or the valence of ideas fall outside the
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ounds of expectations, cognitive conflicts results and message recipients scrutinize the message
more critically and might either accept or reject the message. Positive violations occur when 1)
the enacted behavior is preferred over what was expected, or (2) when a communicator is
initially negatively evaluated by the receiver but the source then conforms to the expected
behavior.
Although the expectations of blog readers are not fully understood, if a blogger is
presumed to be independent (similar to a journalist), the expectation of readers would be for the
blogger to comment on products in a balanced manner. For a marketer, a blog post that is
predominantly positive assessment should be sufficient, and the inclusion of incidental or
nonmaterial negative comments might actually enhance the message’s credibility (Heath &
Waymer, 2009). Importantly, most product blog commentaries in Taiwan are overwhelming
positive, especially in situations where a blogger accepts a gift, because it would be considered
culturally impolite to talk negatively about a gift.
To explain the effects of motivation, affiliation and language expectations, this study
focused on four dependent or criterion variables:
Readership
Perhaps the most fundamental measure is simply the extent to which people actually use
blogs, specifically online web logs that address product information. Little research about actual
readership among Taiwan blog users was conducted previously, but readership can be measured
by observing blog use, tracking patterns on the computer, asking people to report the number of
blogs they view, measuring time spent with blogs, and/or asking people to assess their reliance
on blogs (Eveland & Dylko, 2007; Kaye, 2007; Lenhart & Fox, 2006; Li, 2007; Sweetser et al,
2008).
Attitudes
The impact of blogs can also be measured by focusing on people’s attitudes toward them.
Fishbein and Ajzen (2010) defined attitude as a “latent disposition or tendency to respond with
some degree of favorableness or unfavorableness to a psychological object” (p. 76 & p. 125).
People are thus posited to demonstrate different predispositions toward product blogs based on
their motivations, expectancies, and social norms about product blogs and its bloggers. Johnson
and Kaye (2004, p. 63) found that higher use, in fact, results in higher assessments of credibility.
Behavioral (Purchase) Intent
Purchase intent is a form of behavioral intent dealing with the probability that a person
would actually take an action (such as purchase a product or service) after being exposed to a
persuasive message. According to Fishbein & Azjen (2010, p. 48) asking people about their
intention to take a particular action is a reasonably reliable method to predict an individual’s
plans to act, presuming that they are not impaired from taking the focal action and their personal
goals or needs do not change. Purchase intent is thus a higher-order measure of potential effects
than merely attitudes and is the self-reported probability that the stated action will be undertaken
(Hallahan, 1999).
Information Sharing
Blogs are fundamentally a form of information sharing that take places at two levels.
First the blogger shares information with blog readers. In turn, readers then are encouraged to
share what they read with friends and family through word-of-mouth (Arndt, 1967). Information
sharers have alternatively been termed opinion leaders (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955), market
mavens (Feick & Price, 1987; Goody & East, 2008), and product advocates/evangelists or citizen
marketers (Kawasaki, 2004; McConnel & Huba, 2007a, b; Thorn, 2008).
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Thus the degree to which blog readers might share information is a potential outcome
important to marketers. Importantly, information sharing is the opposite of information seeking
and predominantly involves offline activities (Brown, Broderick & Lee, 2007; Keller & Berry,
2006). However, the importance of online activities or electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) has
been the focus of marketers in recent years (Dellarocas, 2003; Goldsmith & Horowitz, 2006; Lee
& Youn, 2009; Sen & Lerman, 2007; WOMMA 2009). Such activities are especially important
for Asians, who trust information heard via word-of-mouth to a far greater extent than their
American or European counterparts (Lee & Youn, 2009; Nielsen, 2007).
Hypotheses and Method
Hypotheses
Based on the literature review, this study investigated five hypotheses:
H1. Blog readers motivated by the information seeking are more likely to a) read product
blogs, b) think that independence of the blogger is important and c) favor a combination
of positive and negative comments (balanced language in a blog).
H2. Blogs written by bloggers that readers believe are independent, i.e., not affiliated
with a marketer a) are perceived by readers as more credible, b) are perceived by readers
as most valuable, and c) lead to higher purchase intent.
H3. Blogs that present a combination of balanced comments (positive and negative
versus all-positive) are a) perceived by readers as more credible, b) perceived by readers
as more valuable, and c) lead to higher purchase intent.
H4. Blog readers motivated by social utility are more likely to share product information
or engage in word-of-mouth than those motivated by knowledge/information seeking.
H5. People with positive attitudes toward blogs a) pay more attention to product blogs
than advertisements, b) believe that blog endorsements are more trustworthy than
advertisements, and c) believe that blog endorsements are more trustworthy than reading
about products in news.
Participants and Procedure
To investigate these issues a survey was conducted in December 2009 among a
convenient sample of college students at the National Changhua University of Education in
Taiwan (n=314). The upper-classmen were mostly between the ages of 20 and 23, participated in
the study was part of a class, and were eligible to participate in a prize raffle in exchange for
their participation.
Participants completed a four-page paper-and-pencil questionnaire in Chinese. The first
part of the questionnaire collected information about participants’ blog and Internet experience,
demographic information and motivations to read blogs. The second and third sections asked
about participants’ attitudes and opinions regarding bloggers’ endorsements, which included
bloggers’ affiliation with companies, and perceptions about the positive and negative valences of
blog messages. The final section of the questionnaire examined participants’ purchase intention
after reading product blogs and how readers compared blogs to advertising and news as sources
of product information.
Operationalizations
Motivation to use blogs was addressed using 15 items that focused on three types of
needs addressed in users and gratifications theory: knowledge seeking, social utility and
diversion/entertainment. Participants were be asked about the reasons they read blogs using an
8-point Likert scale where 0 = never and 7 = a lot.
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Affiliation/independence of bloggers was examined by asking participants to assume
three different situations and then express their opinions about the blogs they might read in each
situation. The situations assumed the blogger is (1) an employee of a company selling the
product, i.e. he/she works for the company; (2) an independent blogger, i.e. does not work for a
company and does not accept compensation from a company; and (3) an independent blogger
who was paid for writing about marketers’ products. Participants responded on a 10-item, 7-
point semantic differential scale that used randomly reversed scale items previously used by
Hallahan (1999), Beltramini (1988) and Meyer (1988). Separately, the importance of
independence was corroborated by asking participants to respond to 7 statements designed to
provide insights.
Positive v. balanced language was measured by presenting participants with two
hypothetical situations where the comments in the blog were described as being either all
positive or a balanced combination of both positive and negative comments were then asked their
probable assessments of the blog postings using the same 10-item, 7-point semantic differential
randomly reversed scale items used to assess the independence of the bloggers (see above).
Blog readership was assessed using a single 8-point Likert scale in which participants
indicate the extent to which they read blogs, were 0=never, 1=very little and 7=a lot. This
measure was validated by comparing responses to participants’ estimation of the amount of time
they spending reading blogs.
Attitudes toward blogs were measured using a 4-item 7-point semantic differential scale
using the antonymal pairs not appealing/appealing, dislike/like, good/bad and positive/negative.
Purchase intention was analyzed using a 4-item, 7-point Likert scale. Participants were
asked the degree to which they were likely to, were willing to, would plan to, or definitely would
purchase a product they read about in a blog.
Information sharing was measured by with a list of 9 possible behaviors and asking
participants on a 7-point Likert scale how likely they were to engage in each activity.
Comparative assessments: To assess respondents’ opinions about blogs compared to
advertising or news, participants were be asked 5 questions to which they responded using a 7-
point Likert scale, where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree.
Other confounds or explanatory variables were measured. Participants were asked to
indicate their sex and age using check-off boxes. Participants were asked to estimate in hours
and/or minutes their time spent on 7 Internet-related activities in a typical day. Experience
reading, writing and commenting on blogs was measured using an 8-point Likert scale where
0=no experience at all, 1=a little and 7=a lot. The three items included: reading blogs, writing
your own blog(s), and posting comments on blogs.
Statistical Analysis
Potential scale items were factor analyzed and tested for reliability using the Cronbach
(1951) alpha statistic. All proved sufficiently reliable (alpha >.70), except as noted, and
descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were compiled for each index. Findings
for statistical tests were deemed significant at the p≤.05 level.
Findings
Participants and Their Blog/Internet Use
Among the 314 participants, 104 (33.3%) were males and 208 (66.6%) were females,
with two participants not reporting their sex. Most participants (n=283, 91.3%) were 23 and
under. Participants reported spending an average of about 45 minutes a day reading blogs
(M=.74; SD=.85 hours) and about 20 minutes a day reading product blogs (M=.36; SD=.59
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hours). Blog reading was dwarfed by looking at websites (M=1.58, SD=1.54 hours) and instant
messaging/texting (M=3.52, SD=4.41 hours) and fell just short of engagement in social
networking (M=.88; SD=1.29 hours). Blog reading exceeded reading e-mail (M=.46, SD=.73
hours) and posting messages on their own Web site (M=.48, SD=.82). Overall, using a 7-point
scale (7=strongly agree. 1=strongly disagree), participants reported having a lot of experience in
reading blogs (M=4.46, SD=1.75), but less experience writing their own blog (M=3.68,
SD=1.96) and posting comments on blogs (M=3.31, SD=1.69).
Descriptions of Scales
Motivation indexes. Table 1 summarizes results for the 13 items used to measure
motivations to read blogs. When items were factory analyzed, two factors emerged (instead of
the original three) and were used in the analysis. Together, these factors accounted for 71.9% of
the variance among the items. One factor was labeled knowledge-seeking motivation and
included the six items related to seeking information, chatting with others about products,
reducing risk, saving time, becoming knowledgeable and obtaining expert opinions. The second
factor combined the seven remaining items related to the social utility/entertainment value of the
information. Items in the second factor included connecting with friends, passing time, sharing
information, helping friends solve problems, having fun, being influential and relaxation. Table
1 suggests that both knowledge seeking and social utility/entertainment were relatively
comparable in terms of their importance (M=3.79 v. M=3.62), but that seeking information is the
single most popular motivation that explained why people read product blogs (M = 4.42).
Table 1
Motivations to Read Product Blogs
People are motivated to read blogs that talk about products for various reasons. To what degree
do you use blogs for each of the following purposes?
7 = frequently, 0 = never use.
M
SD
Knowledge-seeking factor (α=.92) 3.79 1.648
Seek information 4.42 1.939
Being able to chat with others about products 3.05 1.856
Reduce risk of making a bad purchasing decision 3.66 2.054
Save time gathering information 3.94 1.935
Make me knowledgeable 3.99 1.864
Obtain experts’ opinions about products 3.78 1.947
Eigenvalue=8.23 (62% of variance)
Social utility/ Entertainment factor (α=.92) 3.62 1.561
Connect with friends 3.50 2.024
Pass time 3.69 1.878
Share information with others 3.88 1.866
Help friends solve problems 3.41 1.757
Have fun 3.97 1.882
Want to be influential 2.94 1.812
For relaxation 4.05 1.932
Eigenvalue=1.11 (8.52% of the variance)
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Assessments of Bloggers Independence. Table 2 shows participants’ assessments of
blogger credibility to the three categories of bloggers in the study: independent bloggers,
employee bloggers, and paid bloggers. Three separate factor analyses based on blogger
affiliation, and these accounted for 71.5%, 68.2% and 73.9% of the variance. Although the 10-
item index showed high levels of reliability, the a 5-item shortened scale that emerged from the
first factor (incorporating convincing, valuable, trustworthy and accurate) proved to a shorter,
more efficient and accounted for half of the total variance. Thus the items in the weaker factor
(composed of believable, reputable, persuasive, useful and truthful) were dropped from the
analysis. Regardless of which measure is considered, Table 2 suggests that participants view
independent bloggers more favorably than either employee bloggers or paid bloggers.
Table 2
Effects of Perceived Affiliations between Marketers and Bloggers
Independent Employee Paid a fee
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Credibility Index 4.40 (1.030) 3.80 (1.033) 3.23 (1.109)
Credible 4.53 (1.276) 3.57 (1.305) 3.02 (1.286)
Convincing 4.39 (1.218) 3.71 (1.193) 3.18 (1.324)
Valuable 4.52 (1.265) 4.07 (1.276) 3.45 (1.366)
Trustworthy 4.29 (1.161) 3.75 (1.184) 3.15 (1.214)
Accurate 4.32 (1.115) 3.95 (1.173) 3.40 (1.250)
Eigenvalues 5.09 4.89 5.75
Variance explained 50.2% 48.9% 57.%
α= .906 .896 .912
Other Items Excluded from Analysis
Believable 4.21 (1.223) 3.91 (1.159) 3.54 (1.402)
Reputable 4.09 (1.181) 3.97 (1.208) 3.51 (1.408)
Persuasive 4.18 (1.315) 3.84 (1.261) 3.50 (1.386)
Useful 4.34 (1.235) 3.95 (1.176) 3.67 (1.345)
Truthful 4.31 (1.289) 3.87 (1.315) 3.46 (1.489)
All-Positive v. Balanced Language. Table 3 summarizes participants’ assessments of
blogs based on the use of all-positive versus balanced language using the same 10-item scale.
Similar to the analysis for blogger affiliation, factor analysis revealed two parallel dimensions,
which together accounted for 78.1% and 77.6% of the variance, respectively. Again, the first
factor (credible, convincing, valuable, trustworthy and accurate) again accounted for an
overwhelming proportion of the total variance and the other items were dropped for analysis
purposes.
Table 3
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Effects of Language on Responses
Balanced
Language
M (SD)
Positive
Language
M (SD)
Credibility Index 4.82 (1.084) 3.99 (1.206)
Credible 4.92 (1.226) 3.91 (1.459)
Convincing 4.83 (1.267) 3.93 (1.383)
Valuable 4.96 (1.245) 4.07 (1.381)
Trustworthy 4.77 (1.225) 3.99 (1.301)
Accurate 4.69 (1.176) 4.02 (1.257)
Eigenvalues 6.46 6.29
Percent Variance 64.6% 62.9%
α= .932 .935
Other Items Omitted from Index
Believable 4.77 (1.309) 4.01 (1.378)
Reputable 4.61 (1.299) 4.01 (1.375)
Persuasive 4.68 (1.338) 4.00 (1.411)
Useful 4.74 (1.302) 4.07 (1.361)
Truthful 4.76 (1.334) 3.89 (1.432)
Participants’ Opinions About Bloggers' Relationships to Sources. Table 4
summarizes findings from the series of statements to which respondents were asked to respond
regarding their perceptions about bloggers and the relationship between bloggers and sources.
The data suggest that the biggest concern for participants was that the blogger does not receive
money from the marketer or the company (M = 4.94). The second most important issue is that
the blogger states clearly if he/she receives free samples (M = 4.72). The third most important
issue is that the blogger does not receive free samples (M = 4.69). Interestingly, participants
appeared to be considerably less wary about bloggers who might be an employee of a company.
Presumably this is acceptable as long as the relationship is disclosed.
Table 4
Participants Opinions About Bloggers Relationships to Sources
In reading product blogs, how important would each of the following be to you in making your
purchasing decision?
7 = important to me, 1 = not important
M (SD)
The blogger does not receive money from the marketer or the company 4.94 (1.625)
the marketer or the company.
The blogger states clearly that he/she receives free samples, e.g. a cell 4.72 (1.505)
85

phone, from the marketer or the company.
The blogger does not receive free samples, e.g. a cell phone from the 4.69 (1.613)
e.g., a cell phone, from the marketer or the company.
The blogger states clearly that he/she receives money from the marketer. 4.64 (1.614)
receives money from the marketer or the company
Blogger is independent. 4.48 (1.549)
Blogger is an employee of the company 4.08 (1.635)
Attitudes and Purchase Intent. Table 5a reveals that participants’ are moderately
favorable in their attitudes (M=3.96) but their attitudes toward blogs vary widely (SD=1.52)
based on the 4-item index used to measure general predispositions toward blogs. As expected
and shown in Table 5b, the scores for purchase intent were lower than for the attitudes index
because of the commitment implied (M=3.58; SD=1.252).
Table 5
Attitudes Toward Blogs and Purchase Intent
a) Attitudes Toward Blogs
Which of the following best describes how you feel about with blogs that discuss products and
services.
7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree
M SD
Attitudes Index 3.96 1.521
Appealing 3.84 1.703
Like 3.95 1.534
Good (reversed item) 4.06 1.429
Positive 4.00 1.402
b) Purchase Intent
Now take a moment to think about how likely are you to actually purchase a product after
reading it in a blog. For each statement, indicate the degree you disagree to agree.
7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree
M (SD)
Purchase Intent Index (α = .850) 3.58 (1.252)
I am likely to purchase a product I read about 4.15 (1.562)
I would be willing to purchase a product I read about 4.05 (1.497)
I would plan to purchase a product I read about 3.46 (1.532)
I definitely would purchase a product I read about 2.69 (1.435)
Information Sharing. Table 6 summarizes participants’ reported communication
behaviors after reading blogs that discuss products or services. Factor analysis suggested that the
9 activities neatly grouped into factors representing offline and online activities—and the model
accounted for 74% of the variance. Participants said they were more likely to engage in offline
activities (M = 3.93) than online activities (M = 2.81; paired t-test: t = 15.946, df = 300, p <
.000). For offline activities, sharing the information with others offline is the most likely
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esponse (M = 4.13). For online activities, participants were most likely to forward the blog to
friends (M = 3.32).
Table 6
Participants’ Information Activities
After reading a blog that talks about products, how likely would you engage in each of the
following activities?
7 = very likely, 1 = not likely
M (SD)
Index – Offline Activities (α = .907) 3.93 (1.397)
Share the information with others offline 4.13 (1.604)
Tell friends 4.05 (1.549)
Share the product information with families or friends 3.88 (1.576)
Talk to families or friends about the information I learned 3.65 (1.600)
Eigenvalue = 5.26 (58.5% of variance)
Index—Online Activities (α = .884) 2.81 (1.283)
Forward the blog to friends 3.32 (1.620)
Leave a comment and post on the blog 2.92 (1.621)
Post comments or add links on your social networking site(s), 2.74 (1.563)
such as Facebook
Post a comment or trackback on your own blog 2.66 (1.500)
Text messages or email to friends or families 2.56 (1.517)
Eigenvalue = 1.44 (16.0% of variance)
Participants’ Assessments of Blogs. Table 7 summarizes participants’ responses to the 5
questions intended to probe their perceptions of blogs. A blogger’s reputation is a criterion, and
participants believe a blogger with a bad reputation attracts fewer readers (M = 4.39). Meanwhile
a blogger with a large following is more believable. Although participants opined that product
blogs are more trustworthy than product information appearing in either advertising (M = 4.36)
or news (M = 4.23), participants reported they were not more likely to pay attention to a blogger
than an advertisement by a marketer (M = 3.96).
Table 7
Participants Preferences
Finally, please respond to the follow statements.
7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree
M (SD)
A blogger with a bad reputation attracts fewer readers 4.39 (1.712)
A blogger who has a large of followers is more believable to me 4.39 (1.516)
Bloggers’ endorsements are more trustworthy than 4.36 (1.433)
marketers’ advertisements
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Bloggers’ endorsements are more trustworthy than reading 4.23 (1.355)
about the same product at the news
For new products, I would pay more attention on looking at 3.96 (1.467)
bloggers’ blogs than advertisements
Hypothesis Tests
H1 – Effects of Motivation. Hypothesis1 predicted that blog readers motivated by the
knowledge seeking (versus social or entertainment value) are more likely to a) read product
blogs frequently, b) think that the independence of the blogger is important, and c) favor
balanced language (a combination of positive and negative comments) in a blog.
H1a was supported, suggesting that knowledge seeking and frequency of blog use are
positively related (R 2 = .569, F(2, 286) = 188.40, p < .000). Knowledge seeking was significant
(β = .777, p < .000), while social and entertainment value was not (β = -.030, p

5-item Index 4.41(1.030) 3.80(1.033) 3.23(1.109) .61 2.85*** .57 8.47***
Differences are means between two of the assessments based on affiliation. Credible and
valuable are separate items within the 5-item index that also included convincing, trustworthy and
accurate. ***p=.000 (dfs=302-310).
By contrast, H2c predicted that purchase intent and identification of the blogger as
dependent were positively related. This was not supported. Regression analysis showed no
difference when scores for the 5-item Index for the three categories were regressed onto each
participants’ purchase intent score (R 2 = .140, F (3,297) = 16.114, p ≤ .000). Regression results
showed positive effects for independent bloggers (β = .281, p ≤ .000), employee bloggers (β =
.117, p ≤ .047), and paid bloggers (β = .122, p ≤ .040).
H3 – Effects of Language. Hypothesis 3 predicted that blogs that present balanced
comments (a combination of positive and negative assessments versus all-positive comments)
are a) perceived by readers as more credible, b) perceived by readers as more valuable, and c) are
more likely to increase purchase intent. Similar to Hypothesis 2 regarding the effects of blogger
affiliation, H3a and H3b were supported based on the single-item measures for “credible” and
“valuable” as well as the 5-item Index measuring participants’ assessments. Table 9 shows that
blogs that presented balanced language were perceived more favorably than those that used allpositive
language. Also similar to H2, no differences were found in purchase intent based on
language use (R 2 = .093, F(2,299) = 15.30, p ≤ .000; Positive language β = .163, p ≤ .004;
Balanced language β = .236, p ≤ .000).
Table 9
Paired t-test Comparison of Assessments Based on Language Use
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations (7 = positive, 1 = negative)
Balanced Language All-positive Difference
M (SD) M (SD) M t
Credible 4.92(1.226) 3.91(1.460) 1.016 10.06***
Valuable 4.96(1.245) 4.06(1.379) .899 9.02***
5-item index 4.82(1.083) 3.98(1.210) -.835 9.62***
Credible and valuable are separate items within the 5-item index score, which also included
convincing, trustworthy and accurate. ***p=.000 (dfs=301-310).
H4 – Information Sharing/Word of Mouth. Hypothesis 4 predicted blog readers
motivated by social utility and entertainment value are more likely to share product information
or engage in word-of-mouth (WOM) compared to those motivated by the knowledge-seeking.
H4 was partially supported, but only in the case of engaging in online information sharing
(eWOM). Table 6 reported that offline information sharing (M = 3.92) was more frequent than
online activities (M = 2.81). A further analysis revealed a sex effect where females indicated a
higher likelihood of engaging in offline WOM than males (Females M = 4.06, SD = 1.418; Males
M = 3.66, SD = 1.327, t = 2.362, df = 302, p ≤ .019). Notably, gender-based differences were not
significant in the case of online responses, although males appeared to be more likely to respond
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online WOM (Males M = 2.99, SD = 1.232; Females M = 2.725, SD = 1.308, t = 1.685, df = 299,
p ≤ .093)
In the case of online WOM, regression analysis showed that social utility/entertainment
was positively related to sharing information with others (R 2 = .199, F(2,290) = 35.942, p ≤
.000). The effect for social utility/entertainment was not significant (β = .398, p = .000) while
the effect for knowledge seeking was not significant (β = .059, p ≤ .491). This suggests that
when the motivation is social or entertainment, participants are willing to share information
online. Stated another way, their motivation and actions are compatible, both involving social
activity.
In the case of offline WOM, a regression analysis took into account the possible effects
of sex as well as both knowledge seeking and social utility/entertainment motivations (R 2 = .308,
F(3,289) = 42.82, p = .000). The effect of sex was non-significant (β = .049, p ≤ .325), while the
effects of both forms of motivation were significant (Knowledge Seeking β = .403, p = .000;
Social Utility/Entertainment β = .167, p ≤ .037).
H5 – Effects of Blog Attitudes. Hypothesis 5 predicted people with positive attitudes
toward blogs a) pay more attention to product blogs than advertisements, b) believe that blog
endorsements are more trustworthy than advertisements, and c) believe that blog endorsements
are more trustworthy than reading product information in the news. H5a-H5c were all supported,
based on positive correlations with attention paid to blogs compared to advertisements (r = .334,
p = .000), assessments of the trustworthiness of blogs versus ads (r = .294, p = .000), and
assessments of the trustworthiness of blogs versus news (r = .278, p = .000). Although the
finding was not hypothesized, the study also found a positive relationship between attitudes
toward blogs and whether the participant felt a larger following of blog readers made bloggers
more believable (r = .332, p = .000) and whether the participant believed a bad reputation led to
fewer readers (r = .179, p ≤ .001).
Discussion
This study points to the need to better understand the impact of blogs and other online
promotional tools in the context of marketing public relations. The findings suggest that even
students are largely attracted to blogs when seeking knowledge/information about products,
although blogs might also provide social utility/entertainment gratifications. This finding is
consistent with research that suggests people like the anonymity associated with searching for
product information online vis-à-vis dealing with a salesperson (Thorne, 2008).
The importance of motivation was corroborated in supplementary hierarchical regression
where a series of variables positively related to attitudes were analyzed together by entering them
to the equation in four steps. In the first two steps of the model, both sex and independent
affiliation proved to be statistically significant, while the addition of balanced language in the
third step was not statistically significant and added little understanding. However, the effects of
sex and affiliation became nonsignificant when knowledge seeking was added in the fourth step.
This suggests that being motivated to seek knowledge is the best (only significant) predictor of
positive attitudes toward blogs (R 2= . 44, R 2 change = .294, p = .000; β = .578, p = .000). Similar
results were obtained for purchase intent, using a somewhat different combination of positively
correlated variables. Knowledge/information seeking proved to be the only significant predictor
of purchase intent (R 2 = .362, β = .355, p = .000).
The findings also demonstrate that all blogs are not the same. The young Taiwan adults
in this study reacted more positively when they perceived the blogger was independent (versus
being an employee or receiving compensation from a marketer) and when they perceived that
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ecommendations were more objective (based on the use of balanced versus all-positive
language). In this vein, it was noteworthy had the young adults in the study considered blogs
more trustworthy than either advertisements or news – a finding that might be explained by the
fact that many people considered bloggers to similar to themselves vis-à-vis staff journalists
(Mackay & Lowrey, 2007). Participants seemed to indicate that while independent bloggers
were a preferred source, it is acceptable for employee bloggers to write about their company’s
products as long as they disclose their employee relationship. Deception occurs when bloggers
are paid but the relationship is not disclosed.
This study has several limitations. Most notably, findings are based on a survey involving
a convenient sample of college students in a particular Asian country and thus might not be
generalizable to all blog users globally. Different results might have been obtained in a critical
experiment that focused on particular products and controlled for both product knowledge and
involvement among participants and thus might producer clearer results related to purchase
intent.
Nonetheless, the evidence supports previous findings about the importance of source
credibility in an online environment (Fogg & Tseng, 1999; Johnson & Kaye, 2004; Kaye, 2007;
Stanford, Tauber, Fogg & Marable, 2002) and suggests that marketers and PR practitioners
consider carefully the value of balanced product reviews that incorporate neutral or even
negative comments sufficient in enhance the credibility of a blog (and other) commentators in
what might still be an overall positive commentary.
Interestingly, these findings contradict expectations that might otherwise be expected in a
collectivist culture that emphasizes saving face (Ito, 1992, p. Hsu, 2006); respect for gift givers,
and maintaining reciprocal relationships (guanxi) in society (Hsu, 2006; Luo, 2007). However,
writing only positive comments is a practice not limited to Taiwan. One famous American
“mommy blogger” observes that if she does not like a product, she simply doesn’t write anything
about it (Colleen Padilla, cited in Joshi, 2009).
For public relations professionals and marketers interested in the deployment of blogs
and related online tools, perhaps the most interesting findings relate to how participants respond
by sharing the product information they read with others.
In terms of responding online, hierarchical regression analyses suggested that sharing
information online was related to being male, greater self-reported experience reading blogs,
greater use of e-mail, greater frequency of using blogs, motivation for social/entertainment
purposes, and the nonindependence of the blogger (being en employee or receiving a fee). The
final step in the analysis (R 2 = .312) suggested that sharing information was unrelated to reading
blogs or frequency of use, but was related to being male (β = -.170, p < .002), e-mail use in hours
(β = .112, p < .035), motivation based on social utility/entertainment purposes (β = .358, p =
.000), and affiliation of the bloggers as an employee (β = .149, p < .014) or affiliation of the
blogger as a paid agent (β = .172, p < .002). Although a definitive explanation is difficult, one
explanation would be that males who are more frequent online users and who said they read
blogs for social or entertainment purposes are more likely than females to respond online—
particularly to counterargue about postings from employee or paid bloggers that they questioned.
Thus, electronic word-of-mouth can be negative, not necessarily positive (Sen & Lerman, 2007).
However, such a conclusion would need to be tested in subsequent research.
By contrast, quite different results were obtained in parallel hierarchical regression
analysis that focusing on sharing information offline. Preliminary findings showed that
responding offline was positively related to being female, greater reading of blogs, greater
91

frequency of blog uses, both forms of motivation, the nonindependence of bloggers, and the use
of balanced language. The hierarchical regressions shows that although females ostensibly were
more likely to share information offline, the effect of sex was negated by time spent reading
blogs, which in turn was negated by frequency of blog use. In the final step, blogger affiliation
also had no effect, while the best (only significant) predictors of offline information sharing (R 2=
.388) appeared to be the two forms of user motivation (knowledge seeking: β = .415, p = .000;
social/entertainment: β = .169, p < .040). Thus, users might be motivated to share information
for different reasons.
In conclusion, this study suggests that blogs can be powerful communications tools that
help organizations advance their causes by providing valuable third-party endorsements
(Hallahan, 1999a, b) of products and service, both by bloggers and by the individuals who share
the information they read with others. Yet, blogs are not advertising, and it appears blogs have
the potential be most effective when they appear to be an independent, authoritative source of
information and that perception is confirmed by the use of balanced language that enhances the
credibility of the source and makes product announcements and reviews more authentic.
When incorporating third-party blog endorsements in a PR program, practitioners must
keep bear in mind that blog reading is a user-driven activity, and that readers are eager to derive
either knowledge- or social/entertainment-based gratifications. Readers also care about the
affiliation of bloggers and scrutinize the information that bloggers disclose about themselves.
Finally, they use cues such as the use of balanced versus all-positive language to distinguish
between ingenuine advertisements versus authentic recommendations.
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Shifting Gears and Changing Paradigms: Shifting Crisis Research To Focus on Controlling
Fear and Preventing Panic
Dean C. Kazoleas, Ph.D., APR
California State University Fullerton
dkazoleas@fullerton.edu
Abstract
This research paper forwards a call for a shift in the focus of current crisis research from
focusing on protecting and repairing organizational image to one that protects the
public/stakeholders by controlling fear, preventing panic, and communicating effective adaptive
responses. Research is presented which demonstrates that much of today’s crisis oriented
research focuses on case studies detailing organizational actions that are often designed to
restore organizational image and reputation, or forwards models and strategy to rebuild
organizational image and reputation in the aftermath of a crisis. In sum, past research heavily
focuses on protecting the reputation of the organization, but not necessarily on the safety of the
public or the stakeholder. In contrast, this paper forwards the suggestion that public relations
scholarship in the area of crisis communication and crisis management shift gears and focus on
controlling stakeholder fear and preventing panic in the face of persistent disasters such as
terrorist attacks using chemical/nuclear weapons, or large-scale epidemics. Second this paper
offers a theoretical approach built on empirical research in the areas of health and risk
communication namely Witte’s Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) to build better
response strategy and adaptive messages, which in turn can act to reduce fear and promote more
adaptive protective behaviors. Finally, this paper also suggests that public relations scholars
can significantly add to the conceptual understanding of fear, fear control, and danger control
processes, and that public relations research can assist to create and empirically test crisis
response strategies that are built on Witte’s Extended Parallel Process Model.
The purpose of this paper is two fold. First, the goal of this research is to forward a call
for public relations scholars to shift a portion of crisis related research from a focus on protecting
organizational image to a focus on identifying mechanisms to protect the public by controlling
fear and panic in the face of large scale persistent disasters such as a terrorist attack using
radiological/nuclear weapons or a large scale pandemic. Second, this paper also suggests the use
of theoretical framework developed in the health and risk communication arenas to help control
those fears and prevent panic, as well as to help create messages that better communicate
effective adaptive responses to such crises.
A Need for Research On Fear, Panic, and Risk Communication
At the conclusion of the recent 2010 United States Presidential Nuclear Summit President
Barack Obama delivered a stern and important warning to citizens of the United States. The
warning was produced out of a series of reports, which suggested that a terrorist or criminal
nuclear incident in the continental United States is almost inevitable. More troubling was the
statement which suggested that local, state, and regional authorities need to be prepared to handle
an initial response on their own because it would take approximately 72 hours for federal
resources to mobilize and to begin an effective response (Stern 2010, USA Today). Along with
these comments came a discussion of a suggested response, which involved calming public fears,
preventing panic and the urge to take flight, which in the end would expose potentially millions
to dangerous radiation. In the USA Today article Stern notes that President Obama stated “one
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challenge will be to persuade survivors to stay indoors, shielded from dangerous radiation until
they're given the all-clear or told to evacuate.” President Obama added, "In all likelihood,
families will be separated," and also concluded this topic by noting that "It's going to be scary to
sit tight, though it's the right thing to do."
In sum, given the attacks of 911, the recent attempt to bomb Times Square in New York,
and the recent government reports regarding the likelihood of a terrorist attack using chemical,
biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) weapons there is a clear need for increased research
in the public relations and communications disciplines on how to calm fears, prevent panic,
effectively communicate risk to a frightened and nervous public, and to communicate
information that conveys effective adaptive response mechanisms.
While the need to prevent fear and panic may appear to be an obvious and necessary goal
in the face of crises some researchers argue that panic in the face of crises, and even terroristic
attacks does not occur (Auf der Heide, 2004: Guilleman 2006; Norwood, 2005: Sheppard, Rubin,
Wardman, & Wessely, 2006). Several underlying definitional issues drive this discussion as do
the presence of a number of moderating factors that in are present in the nature of potential
crises.
From a definitional perspective some of the debate over the impact or occurrence of panic
may be semantic. For example, Sheppard, et.al. (2006) note that many scholars define panic as
being irrational behavior or as a maladaptive behavior. Similarly, Auf der Heide (2004) provides
an extensive discussion of the definition of panic and makes it clear that while the term “panic”
commonly is used to describe any type of fear or flight, that technically it describes irrational
behavior, hysteria, and a complete disregard for others. These authors as well as Norwood
(2005) note that in many natural and terroristic crises fleeing may have been a rational response,
and that there were frequent reports of collaborative activity such as victims assisting others,
which would make the definition of panic difficult to apply, even though fear and flight were
present. In sum, while on the surface there appears to be a body of literature which suggests that
preventing panic should not be a concern for those planning emergency management and crisis
response and efforts, a closer inspection of this body of research suggests that panic could occur
and increase morbidity and mortality in a crisis such as a terrorist CBRN attack or a large scale
pandemic.
A key moderating variable in the ability of a crisis to create panic which could lead to
increased mortality is the persistence of the crisis and the availability of an adaptive response
and/or assistance. For example Sheppard et.al. (2006) and Auf der Heide (2004) note that the
perceived persistence of a crisis is a moderating factor. In other words in the aftermath of a
tsunami or a major earthquake most individuals will tend to believe that the immediate threat has
passed and thus may not panic (or begin to flee). However, this may not be true if victims
perceive the threat to still be present or persistent and/or they believe that there is a lack of
control and/or a lack of assistance. A crisis such as an epidemic or a terrorist attack using CBRN
weapons could create such conditions. Interestingly, while Sheppard et.al. (2006) do argue that
the term panic is perhaps overused they do see a crisis such as a CBRN attack on the US as able
to create the conditions for mass panic which could increase the impact of such a crisis. The
note that:
“Following a CBR attack, fear of the unknown and a high degree of
uncertainty about the lethality of the agent will combine with a lack
of public understanding to complicate greatly effective response,
recovery, and advice on what actions the public should take.
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Understanding and respecting the ways people make risk judgments
as well as appreciating their fear and anxiety can help governments
assist their populace frame risk perceptions (and ultimately
behaviours and attitudes). Such perceptions, behaviours, and
attitudes are critical for effective communication and engagement
with the public following a major attack.” (Sheppard, et. al., 2006, p. 241).
Rogers et. al. (2007) also note the increased possibility of panic in the aftermath of terrorist
attack or an epidemic. Moreover they also claim that ineffective governmental or organizational
response may add to that panic and increase morbidity and mortality. In sum, there is a sense of
urgency for more research in the arena of fear; fear control, and panic, and public relations
scholars have the ability to greatly contribute.
Recent Trends in Public Relations Crisis Oriented Research
The roots of crisis oriented research in the field of public relations are founded on
rhetorical theory and models of organizational apologia such as those first organized by Benoit
(1995, 1997) and later modified and synthesized by others such as Coombs (Situational Crisis
Communication Theory- SCCT: Coombs 1999; 2007; 2009). The goal of these lines of research
was to categorize organizational communicative response in the face of crisis with the hope of
better identifying and/or differentiating effective communication techniques to protect and
rebuild organizational image in the face of an emerging, active, or receding crisis.
For example an examination of recent research in the area of crisis communication and
management has focused on topics such as an analysis of red cross crisis strategies based on
situational crisis communication theory (Zoch, Collins, Sisco, 2010), image repair in politics
(Sheldon & Salllot, 2009), in the Chinese Governments efforts in the aftermath of the “Made in
China crisis” (Cai, Lee, & Pang, 2009), in the Chinese governments efforts in the aftermath
earthquake (Chen 2009), in the Chinese governments handling of SARS (Zhang & Benoit,
2009) and in fraud crises ( Caldiero, Taylor, & Ungureanu, 2009), as well as many others.
In the past 20 years, crisis oriented public relations research has heavily focused on these
two theoretical and conceptual models that focus on protecting and repairing organizational
image. Avery, Lariscy, Kim, & Hocke (2010) report the results of a quantitative content analysis
and review of public relations crisis communication literature from 1991 to 2009. The authors
note that an analysis of the existing research in the field finds that the majority of research in the
public relations crisis literature focused on or was performed using either Benoit’s Image
Restoration typology or Coombs Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT). This metaanalysis
examined 66 published articles across the 18 year time period and found that most of the
most of the research (86%) focused on organizations/individual response and image restoration
or repair. Avery, Lariscy, Kim, & Hocke, conclude by calling for more diversity in public
relations research into the areas of crisis communication and management and note that more of
it should be prescriptive as opposed to descriptive. Coombs (2009) makes a similar call for more
research, but also notes that such research should offer empirical research oriented support for
response recommendations.
While recent public relations research that examines multiple factors that would reduce
fear or panic in the event of a disaster such as a terrorist CBRN (Chemical, Biological,
Radiological, Nuclear) attack is not common, some research has been undertaken in this
direction. For example, Avery and Kim (2009) examined the practices and media releases of
health organizations such as the CDC (Centers for Disease Control), DHHS (Department of
Health and Human Services) and the WHO (World Health Organization) in response to the threat
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of Avian Flu. It is important to note that this research examined the structure, format, terms, and
some of the messages contained in 72 releases and communications, but did not identify impacts,
or factors that would either cause or reduce fear and panic.
Avery and Kim report that inconsistencies across releases, materials and organizations,
could make response efforts less effective. Inconsistencies for example in the terms used to
describe Avian Flu, and localization of possible threats. Moreover, they also raise the issue of
credibility and trust, especially in the context of partner health organizations. They found that
many of the releases did not include additional scientific information to support claims, and that
a high number of releases did not contain an outlet that the public could contact for further
information (37%). Avery & Kim, did however, assess the degree to which information about
timeliness/urgency were communicated and found that 65% of the releases contained some
element of timeliness/urgency/ or haste. Unfortunately that also meant that approximately 35%
did not. More related to the communication of risk, threat and fear, was an analysis of the
mention of information about the transmission of Avian Flu, which would be key in driving
perceptions of public threat and risk. Avery and Kim report that none of the 72 releases
contained information about transmission, and that only 10% contained information on
safeguards, protection, and preparation, which are key to the publics perception of trust in the
ability of governmental health organizations to protect the public and manage the crisis, and in
turn could lead to increased levels of fear and eventual panic.
A second recent study was undertaken by Heath, Lee, and Ni (2009), who examine the
need for a more community based approach to effective crisis and emergency preparedness.
Moreover, while this article forwards a brief suggestion of the need to better understand risk
communication and fear control processes and does include a brief discussion of Witte’s (1992;
1994) work on the inclusion of efficacy to drive adaptive response, the focus of the article is
more on the need for the development of community based responses, specifically those that
include diverse populations represented in emergency preparedness and in communicative
response.
Overall, while the aforementioned research does approach the study of fear, the control of
fear, and adaptive response in the face of emergencies and crises it does not examine it directly.
This paper suggests that scholars directly examine fear in the face or crisis, fear control
processes, panic, and danger control/protection processes.
Research in Psychology, Psychiatry, and Healthcare
While scholarship in the public relations and communications discipline has not focused
on the impact of fear and techniques to control fear and panic, other disciplines such as
psychology, psychiatry, and health care have lines of research that examine fear.
For example researchers in the field of psychology has focused on the psychological
impact of disaster and post disaster intervention (Allen 1993), the role of personality and prior
experience on distress during crisis (Sattler, Kaiser, and Hittner, 2006), and scholars in the field
of psychiatry have begun to examine the impacts of fear and risk induced stress on populations.
For example, Rogers, Almot, Rubin, Wessely, and Krieger (2007) examine the role of effective
communication and the perception of risk in mediating the social and psychological impacts of a
terrorist CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) attack. They stress the importance
of effective governmental communication to accurately communicate risk, reduce perceptions of
risk, reduce fear and alleviate the risk of panic. Using case examples of radiological accidents,
the anthrax attack and other crises Rogers et al. also discuss the role of fear as a health risk and
discuss the factors that can lead to panic, and those that can reduce mortality and morbidity in the
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event of a terrorist attack. Of particular interest is their examination of the role of organizational
trust and credibility of the governmental unit or organization in reducing perceptions of risk,
fear, and related behaviors. They suggest that organizations assess levels of public trust and
build levels of public trust as a preventative measure in crisis preparedness. Finally they call for
more research into factors that can impact perceptions of risk, the role of trust in the crisis risk
communication process, and that can reduce fear.
Researchers in the field of health promotion also are conducting research in the area of
risk communication, disaster preparedness, and the possibility of an epidemic. Elledge, Brand,
Regens, and Boatright (2008) examined the role of knowledge and understanding on community
preparedness for the Avian. They found that communities in Oklahoma were not prepared, did
not believe it would occur, and if it did that the government would take care of it. Elledge et.al.
conclude by calling for more research into effective risk communication messages in the face of
a crisis such as the Avian Flu. In sum, while other disciplines are conducting research, all agree
on the need for research on the effective communication of risk and adaptive response in the face
of crisis. Research that public relations scholars are well equipped to develop, conduct, and
deliver.
Fear, Fear Control and Danger Control,
"Fear is not necessarily related to any sort of physical modification of the human
environment, either internal or external. In other words, it may be created, sustained, or
terminated by purely psychological means." (George N. Gordon 1971, p. 255)
In the quotation above George Gordon (1971) notes the perceptual affective nature of fear,
stressing that fear is psychological and can be created or diffused through surrounding stimuli
including communication. Gordon suggests that fear is an emotion or feeling, is a frequently
visible function of behavior, is a learned reaction, is aroused differently in different people, and
is unpleasant. From a communications and public relations perspective what is important is that
he notes that it “may be created, sustained, or terminated by purely psychological means.” which
implies that effective communication management has the ability to diffuse fear and prevent
panic. Moreover, these statements also imply that ineffective communication in the face of crisis
can also lead to increased fear and panic.
A large portion of the communication research focusing on fear and the control of fear is
rooted in the work of Levethal’s parallel response model (Leventhal, 1970). This model suggests
that when faced with a fear arousing stimulus (fear is defined as an emotion that leads to an
unpleasant state) that individuals pursue one of two different cognitive processes; fear control or
danger control. To control fear individuals can practice such mental techniques as defensive
avoidance (they don’t think about the threat, or minimize the risk of the threat). In contrast, the
danger control processes involves the individual changing their attitudes and/or behavior to avoid
the threat. In a review of the fear and fear appeal literature Dillard (1994) notes an important
aspect of this model which posits that fear and danger control are two separate processes, which
means that they can facilitate each other, (e.g. If the individual takes action to control the threat,
they may also experience less fear) or disrupt each other (e.g. not believing that the individual is
at risk, may lessen the probability of taking action). Finally, Dillard notes that while Leventhal
specifies these processes, that he does not clearly identify factors that drive or impact these
processes and calls for more research into the fear control/danger control process.
The Extended Parallel Processing Model (EPP)
Witte’s (1992; 1994) Extended Parallel Processing model is based on the works of
Leventhal’s Fear Control/Danger Control Model, which suggests that when individuals are faced
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with an arousing stimulus or message they are motivated to either control their fear by
controlling their fear (by perhaps avoiding the issue or attacking the credibility of the message or
source), or to control the danger by taking action to protect themselves. Witte’s (1994) Extended
Parallel Process Model (EPPM) (1994) modernizes Leventhal’s Parallel Response Model, by
adding components that minimize the probability of fear control (defensive avoidance, reactance
against the message or messenger) and maximizes the likelihood of danger control. Witte does
this by combining elements of Leventhal’s parallel response model (Danger Control, Fear
Control) and Rogers (1978; 1983) protection motivation model which suggests that to motivate
individuals to take appropriate adaptive protective behavior, messages should contain four
components: A severe threat, information about susceptibility, certainty, or vulnerability,
information regarding a response, and information about the efficacy of the response. EPPM
predicts that by including message components that provide information on the risk of the threat,
an adaptive response, and that information for self efficacy (the individual can do it) and
response efficacy (the response averts the threat) the individual is better equipped to pursue
danger control or protection motivation processes.
An important component of this model is the notion that the inclusion of factors such as
efficacy eliminates that need to pursue the defensive avoidance or fear control mechanisms to
reduce fear. For example, in the face of a threat an individual without an option to avert the
threat may try to rationalize that it won’t affect them, or to believe that because they have no
control. In other words, by providing an efficacious response component in a message the
motivation and/or the need for fear control is reduced. Finally, the key to an understanding of the
role of fear, cognitive and emotional responses and the importance of effective message strategy
is the understanding that “adaptive behavior results from the danger control process, not from
fear or the desire for fear reduction” (Witte 1994,). Which means that effective communication
strategy that provides the information needed for danger control helps to first reduce the
probability of maladaptive fear control behavior, and increases the probability that effective
adaptive behaviors would be undertaken in the event of a large-scale crisis.
The EPPM has received extensive empirical support. Recent examples of the applications
of the EPPM include protecting farm, landscape, and mining workers from hearing loss (Smith et
al., 2008; Murray-Johnson et al., 2004; Patel et al., 2001), terror management (Shehryar & Hunt,
2005), health promotion (Dutta-Bergman, 2005), and the prevention of cardiovascular disease
(McKay, Berkowitz, Blumberg, & Goldberg, 2004).
Merging Disciplines and Literatures
An in-depth analysis of the literatures cited in this manuscript would identify common
themes across disciplines and approaches. For example, Leventhal (1970), Witte (1994) and
Dillard (1994), Heath, Lee, and Ni (2009), and Rogers et. al., (2007) all note that there is a need
to further examine fear and fear control processes from a cognitive and affective perspective.
Additionally, the works of Rogers et.al. (2007), Avery and Kim (2009), and Heath, Lee, and Ni
(2009) all note the importance of community response, relationships among community and
organizational partners, and perceptions of credibility by the community in the development of
effective crisis response. These are all areas that public relations scholars can contribute by
applying existing theory and applying empirical research.
A third intersection of these works lies in the need to study the factors that impact the
credibility of sources communicating risk during a crisis. Dillard (1994) and Witte (1992:1994)
note that when individuals feel threatened they may cognitively question the credibility of the
communicator or the communications (defensive avoidance) as a mechanism to control fear,
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especially if an efficacious response is not readily present. These ideas are echoed by Rogers et.
al. (2007), who notes that the public may doubt the credibility of governmental response
organizations, especially if they have been critical of past failures, and Heath, Lee, and Ni (2009)
who note that credibility may be questioned if stakeholders appear dissimilar to or less sensitive
to diverse populations.
Additionally, as noted above a consistent theme across all studies and disciplines is the
need for more research into specific empirically tested communication strategies that can be
effective in the face of a large-scale persistent crisis. All in all public relations as a discipline is
well suited to scientifically pursue the study of fear and the way that individuals seek to
minimize it, examine communicative mechanisms to help the public and/or stakeholders control
fear, prevent panic and to maximize the probability of a positive adaptive response.
Conclusion
This paper has forwarded a call for a shift in the focus of public relations research from
organizational crisis response that protects and repairs organizational image to a focus on
protecting the public by managing fear, preventing panic, and better communicating effective
adaptive response mechanisms in the face of persistent crises. To be clear this manuscript in no
way suggests that public relations scholars should abandon the lines of research that have
evolved from Benoit’s and Coomb’s models. Rather, given the recent governmental warnings
regarding threats such as a terrorist incident using a CBRN, or perhaps a deadly pandemic, this
paper suggests that public relations scholarship needs to diversify and to better balance research
efforts on protecting the image and reputation of organizations as well as on the needs of public
safety. Finally, this paper also forwarded a theoretical model which has received a large amount
of empirical support (Witte’s EPPM) that can first assist in better communicating more effective
adaptive responses in the face of crises, and second helps to control fear and prevent panic.
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Excellence in an Activist Organization: A Case Study of Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids
Beth A. Kuch
University of Maryland
bkuch@umd.edu
Abstract
In response to a call to develop more research on the public relation activities of activist
organizations, this study uses case study methodology to evaluate the practices of the Campaign
for Tobacco-Free Kids (CTFK). In addition to the theoretical understanding, this case study
presents valuable lessons for other activist organization in how to develop a successful
communication campaign to accomplish changing policies and social norms. It utilizes six
interviews with executive level management and content analysis of 61 organizational documents
and 124 media stories. The study finds that CTFK demonstrates many concepts of the excellence
theory, while also providing unique insights into an activist organization such as the usage of
advocate versus activist and having an organization solely focused on communicating
information instead of providing services or selling a product. This leads to the determination
that additional theory building needs to be developed around activist organizations and how they
accomplish their goals and relate to other organizations.
Each year thousands of laws are passed at the federal, state, and local levels. Activists
play a large role in working to create policy and social norm changes through influencing others
(Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002). Yet the concept of activists in public relations literature is
relatively limited to activists creating conflict or comparing activist and corporate strategies. This
limited viewpoint does not take into account the valuable social contributions activists provide.
Why are activists not being looked at as an individual type of organization? Although
there is interest in activists it has been fairly limited because they tend to be harder to identify
because there is not a standard structure, there are less of them than corporations, and they may
be stigma attached to the organizations. The activist organization needs to be examined and
studied on its own (Dozier & Lauzen, 2000), not in comparison to corporations or lumped
together with nonprofits to determine unique contributions to the field of communication through
evaluating the activist’s merits, skills and methodology. If public relations scholars do not study
activist organizations, many changes in our society including passage of laws and altering of
social norms will not be fully understood. Dozier and Lauzen (2000) proposed that “it would be
more interesting to study social movements to see how they differ from other types of publics,
how they are not adequately accommodated by existing public relations theory” (p. 9).
The excellence theory was set out as an example of best practices and believed to apply
to all public relations organizations (Grunig & Grunig, 2009). This case study provides a look at
whether an activist organization possesses the attributes of an excellent public relations
organization. The research provides a case study using interviews and content analysis of the
primary activist organization in tobacco control, the Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (CTFK).
This study looks at how CTFK has accomplished influencing law changes and developing a
social movement around tobacco control issues through public relations.
Organization
The Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids (CTFK) is the only national level tobacco control
activist organization and is recognized as the top tobacco issues advocacy organization. They
were founded on the principals of communication and have a staff of over 90 people with 10 of
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those dedicated specifically for communications roles, combined with other staff having
significant communication responsibilities. CTFK works towards a goal of reducing tobacco use
and its harmful effects through changing public attitude and public policies on tobacco
(Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2009b) by influencing policy makers, the tobacco industry,
and voters to create changes. Since 1996, CTFK has been advocating, educating, empowering,
mobilizing, and assisting others by advancing policy development, distributing research, funding
organizations, speaking out, and other methods (Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2009a).
CTFK has worked to accomplish its goals including tobacco tax increases at the state and
national levels, advising negotiations leading to the Master Settlement Agreement between the
states and tobacco companies, supporting legislation for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
to regulate tobacco, and shaping laws that created smoke-free workplaces including bars and
restaurants (Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, 2009a). As a well-organized, consistently funded,
and accomplished activist group, CTFK provides a depth of information that can be studied.
Literature Review
Activists
As defined by Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier (2002) “an activist public is a group of two or
more individuals who organize in order to influence another public or publics through action that
may include education, compromise, persuasion, pressure tactics or force” (p. 446). This
comprehensive definition presents who the activists are, individuals that have come together on a
common topic or issue, and what they are trying to do, influence other publics to support a
similar viewpoint and invigorate a target audience to become active members of the public.
Many times, public relations professionals and theorists view activists as the “enemy,”
even though the activists may only have an alternate view from the organization. This viewpoint
of the “enemy” has been expressed such as when Mintzberg stated that activism is a problem for
organizations (1983, as cited in Grunig et al., 2002). Grunig et al. state that a fear of some
organizations is being “taken hostage” by activist groups because they do not fully understand
the activist public (p. 446). Grunig et al. even call activist publics “belligerent groups” (p. 447).
Activists tend to be considered threats to organizations, specifically corporations, because
of the effects they have by creating disruptions and refocusing attention on specific issues that
the organization does not want to address (Smith, 1997 as cited in Smith & Ferguson, 2001). The
conflicting relationships between corporations and activists have been studied: between AIDS
activists and Merck pharmaceuticals (Taylor, Vazquez & Doorley, 2003); a tobacco control
activist organization’s public relation efforts in Colorado against Philip Morris (Rubin & Stokes,
2006); and analysis of the relationship between Greenpeace and Dupont (Murphy & Dee, 1996).
Recently, there has been a growing trend to view activists as individual public relations
practitioners (e.g., Dozier & Lauzen, 2000; Holtzhausen, 2007; Holtzhausen & Voto, 2002;
Taylor, Kent, &White, 2001). “Activists are not just publics of an organization” (Aldoory & Sha,
2007, p. 352), but activists are organized entities. There has been an increasing scholarly interest
in activist organizations, “but it has not kept up with the increasing importance of activists on
public policy and advocacy efforts” (Aldoory & Sha, 2007, p. 352). Smith and Ferguson (2001)
put forth the idea that activist organizations are organized, use strategic communication to
achieve their organizational goals, and engage in public relations practices.
Much of the current research has contrasted activist publics and other organizations,
leading to a significant amount of the research comparing and measuring activists against
corporate standards (e.g., Reber & Kim, 2006; Simmons, 2003; Zoch, Collins, Sisco, & Supa,
2008). Although it is acknowledged that activists are unique entities, the studies analyzed the
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public relations functions or tactics of activist groups and compared to standards that are applied
to corporations. As a result of comparing the activists’ methods with the corporate methods,
sector differences were not taken into account leading the studies to find that the activists’
methods do not meet the same standards set for the corporations. Only a few studies have looked
at activists on their own merits including Derville’s (2005) study of activist identity development
and usage of disruptive image events and Sommerfeldt’s (2008b) case study of Moveon.org.
From the recent research on activist organizations, some basic ideas of how they function
have emerged. Rubin and Stokes (2006) found that in the two-way symmetrical model, the
compromise metaphor is not accurate for activists because many times activists are better able to
make gains by not compromising. Additionally, they found that activists use public relations in
order to direct public debate and sway discussions and decision-making (Rubin & Stokes, 2006).
Theory and Activists
Before original theories are developed, current theories should be reviewed to determine
if they are valid for activists. One component of the theory of relationship development
examined in terms of activists is if they are involved in dialogic relationships. Kent and Taylor
(1998) identified five methods for creating a dialogic relationships using websites including
dialogic loops, a simple interface, retaining of visitors on the site, generation of return visits, and
providing relevant information and applied these to activist websites. Relationship management
studies the “linkage between public relations objectives and organizational goals” which can
easily be addressed in studies of activists (Ledingham & Bruning, 2000, p. xiii).
Sommerfeldt (2008b) analyzed relationship development theories with the activist
organization Moveon.org. This study examined the rhetoric used to develop an identification
through sympathy, unawareness, and antithesis, which helped Moveon.org develop relationships
with individuals supporting the cause and who could become potential members or funders.
The excellence theory addresses the value of public relations to organization and society,
presents theory on public relations functions, and puts forward the need to examine the
organizational and environmental context (Grunig & Grunig, 2006). The excellence theory’s
basic findings included a set of 20 key characteristics that identified excellent programs. These
characteristics include having knowledge to play the communication manager role; using the
two-way symmetrical and asymmetrical models; having communication valued and support by
the dominant coalition; the importance of research and communication of it to outside groups;
consideration of communication when developing a strategic plan; and providing a participative
organizational culture (Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig, 1995).
These key characteristics were broken up into three groups falling under the categories of
the knowledge base of the communication department, the shared expectations about
communication with senior management, and the organizational culture (Dozier et al, 1995).
The authors envisioned these categories as a layered sphere. The knowledge category is the
core, with the shared expectations as the middle sphere, and the organizational culture
encompassing them. The middle sphere contains the most characteristics and was further split
into three components: departmental power, the demand-delivery loop for two-way practices,
and the organizational role played by the top communicator (Dozier et al, 1995).
Although it has been theorized that all organizations are able to exemplify the excellence
theory, a thorough analysis has not been completed of activist organizations to determine if they
conduct public relations similarly. This paper will be one of the first steps into exploring if
activists conduct public relations in a similar manner to other organizations through evaluating:
RQ 1: How do activists accomplish their goals through public relations?
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Dozier and Lauzen (2000) also proposed that studies of social movements are needed to
determine the linkages between activists, public relations, social movements, policy changes, and
shifts in institutions.
Social Movements
Within public relations and communication, there is no clear definition of a social
movement. The most relevant definition for this study is from sociology. Diani (1992) identifies
a social movement as a social dynamic consisting “in a process whereby several different actors,
be they individuals, informal groups and/or organisations, come to elaborate, through either joint
action or communication, a shared definition of themselves as being part of the same side in a
social conflict” (p. 2). This definition fits with the key elements of the public relations definition
of an activist in terms of the composition, the action, and the use of communication tactics.
Activists and social movements can be linked further based on Dozier and Lauzen’s
statement that “despite emancipatory rhetoric that demands immediate change, social movements
often bring about changes only slowly; at the same time, social movements can profoundly affect
public policy and fundamentally alter and destroy institutions” (2000, p. 13). Activists attempt
to affect public policy and create change in institutions, government and corporations.
Many times the changes that activists want to create are similar to the changes that
decision makers, politicians, or the general public may want, but each group has different means
of obtaining that solution. This is similar to the study of Greenpeace USA and DuPont
conducted by Murphy and Dee (1996). They found that although the values of the two
organizations were similar on specific issues, and the organizations wanted the same end result,
the organizations could not agree on a similar path, thereby causing conflict. Conflict often
arises in social movements whether it is among the different groups working together, the
activists and corporations, or the activists and government.
Conflict can arise because activist organizations addressing issues seen as problems of
society. Heath and Waymer (2009) found that to engage in a social movement many times
activists have to “correct [the] overly positive interpretations of various conditions that cause a
strain between what is and what ought to be (p. 212).” This gap is brought forth through
communication and at times the strife is increased by the activists “mobilization, confrontation,
and perhaps engage[ment] in negotiation and resolution” (Heath & Waymer, 2009, p. 212).
Although activist organizations have been studied in relation to corporations and through
possible tactics, there are no major studies to date on activist organizations that are focused
primarily on social change including governmental policy and social norm modification.
RQ 2: How do activists influence social movements through communication?
Methods
A case study methodology was used to explore the research questions in this study. A
case study analyzes a current issue within real life context, which is meant to lead to multiple
findings developed from data from a variety of sources and guided by theoretical propositions
(Yin, 2009, p. 18). Berg (2009) more simply defines a case study as “systematically gathering
enough information about a particular person, social setting, event or group to permit the
researcher to effectively understand how the subject operates or functions” (p. 317). Although a
case study can be a valid form of research, the results found in a case study cannot be
generalized to or be applied to other cases, yet the results can be further ascertained to determine
if it can be replicated in additional cases (Yin, 2009).
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Data Collection
Documents. In an effort to triangulate the data, two types of data were collected:
documents and in-depth interviews. There were two categories of documents: ones generated
by the organization such as the website, annual reports, and press releases, and ones generated by
outside sources such as media stories. The outside documents were gathered through a Lexis-
Nexis search of relevant media coverage from December 1, 2008 to December 1, 2009. The
search term used was “Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids.” The sources searched included
newspapers and magazines published in the United States, the Associated Press State and Local
Wire. The Associated Press, and. The Associated Press newswire was chosen because it creates
original content. When distributed on the state wire, a story is only received by newspapers
within that state, when distributed on the national wire, it goes to approximately 1,700
newspapers in the United States who have the option of running the story (The Associated Press,
2009).
The Lexis-Nexis search yielded a total of 124 unique articles focused on tobacco control
issues from 10 newspapers, one magazine, and the four Associated Press newswires. Additional
articles mentioning CTFK were eliminated because they focused on the appointment of a now
former CTFK employee as deputy secretary at the Department of Health and Human Services
and, thus, were not relevant to the study's focus.
The 61 organizational documents were collected through CTFK’s website, including
website content, press releases, annual reports, and research reports. The website pages
evaluated were archived in December 2009 using Adobe Acrobat to record the information at the
time of assessment since websites can easily be changed or updated. The benefits of using these
documents include the ability to research longer periods of time, it can be undertaken without the
cooperation of the organization, and the documents can be repeatedly viewed (Yin, 2009).
Interviews. The six in-depth interviews with staff at CTFK included organization
leadership. Initial interviews were conducted with executive level staff to facilitate additional
interviews. Six interviews were conducted, five in-person and one via phone from November
2009 to April 2010, and lasted between 42 to 75 minutes. Each interviewee agreed to have their
name associated with their comments. Individuals interviewed included: William (Bill) Novelli,
board of directors chair and former president; Peter Fisher, advocacy vice president, state issues;
Joel Spivak, associate director, media relations; Mark Hurley, director, international
communications, Elaine Yin, associate director, international communications; and Brian
Hutchinson, advocacy director, grassroots. Novelli was the first president of CTFK and helped
found it in 1995. Executive staff was chosen based on the long-term employment of many of the
staff and the need for in-depth insight into the organization at the strategic and managerial levels.
The in-depth interview is one of the most vital sources of information for a case study
because it provides information that may not be available otherwise (Yin, 2009). The interviews
were conducted in an interpretive constructionist frame to develop an understanding of the
organization based on the experiences reflected in the interviews (Rubin & Rubin, 2005).
The interview data was analyzed using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) methodology of
data reduction, data display, and drawing of conclusions. The data display was generated using
Microsoft Excel and listed in checklist matrices. The data were coded based on the research
questions and emergent themes. Data displays were created. Data that did not match the
research questions was also coded to determine if there were additional patterns.
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Results
Activists Accomplishing Their Goals Through Public Relations
Different themes emerged from the data to address how this activist organization is
working to accomplish its goals through communications. Overall it was found that a number of
different tactics and strategies were used to accomplish goals, such as media relations, the
development and usage of research, and how the different units within CTFK would together.
Interestingly, these themes aligned with major components in the excellence theory. Some other
themes were also discussed in specific interviews such as strategic planning and lobbying.
Media relations. Findings showed significant media coverage on tobacco issues and
CTFK. Of the 124 media articles reviewed, 65 of them directly quoted CTFK staff, primarily the
president, a vice president or a director. Additionally, 11 articles were editorials supporting a
tobacco control issue that included a mention of CTFK. Twelve articles included a letter to an
editor, a letter to an advice columnist, and other miscellaneous mentions. This substantial
amount of media coverage averages over 1.69 articles a week per year where CTFK is quoted or
mentioned.
The importance of media relations to CTFK can be seen in the amount of information
available on its website for the press. There is a specific section called the “Press Office” on the
site, which provides reporters with fact sheets, media releases, statements, and contacts for
CTFK media relations staff. There are 68 press releases and statements posted covering
December 1, 2008 to December 1, 2009, the same period the media articles were pulled from
Lexis-Nexis. Additionally, there are additional press releases dating back to August 14, 1998.
This large number of press releases, leads to the question of which comes first, the story
idea or the press release? Spivak, associate director of media relations, stated “any work with the
press is somewhat reactive I think…I think within the last few years, that it is more often the
case that we will initiate contact.” In comparison, in the Associated Press article “Historic antismoking
vote to give FDA new power” distributed on June 11, 2009 there is a quote from
Matthew L. Myers, president of CTFK, that “this legislation represents the strongest action
Congress has ever taken to reduce tobacco use, the leading preventable cause of death in the
United States” (Abrams, 2009). Exactly the same as the statement posted on the CTFK website
on June 11, 2009, entitled U.S. Senate Casts Historic Vote to Regulate Tobacco Products.
According to Spivak, CTFK has gained media coverage because:
We’ve had a very aggressive press outreach over the years. When we’ve got a story to
tell, we reach out. We’ve got an extensive press list…we’ve got contacts we’ve
developed over the years. We can pick up the phone and talk to people at major news
outlets and get a hearing.
Not only is CTFK using traditional methods of developing media relationships but it is
also integrating Facebook and Twitter. Hutchinson, director of grassroots advocacy, described
how CTFK “follow(s) every major health reporter, I think we added 200 to 300 health reporters
to our follow list. We’re following all these people and a lot of them followed us back. We’re
really trying to build relationships that way.” Hurley, director of international communications,
also described how they are working with journalists on the international level through
traditional mediums of press releases but moving towards more interaction via social media.
Media relationships being developed with journalists in other countries are fostered through
educational workshops, network development, fellowships to fund investigative reporting, and
travel grants to locations already implementing tobacco control policies according to Hurley.
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Research. A key area of CTFK’s website is the “Research and Facts” section. This area
provides users with a wealth of information that is thorough and covers a variety of topics,
issues, types of resources including fact sheets, special reports, tobacco political action
committee contributions, and web resources. This research has either been conducted directly by
the CTFK or it has compiled secondary research into usable formats.
The research covers a range of topics from exposing tobacco industry tactics, to policy
statements regarding the FDA legislation, cigarette taxes, smoke-free workplaces, and spending
on tobacco prevention and cessation program. This research is to be used by a wide variety of
people, including the press. Out of the 124 articles analyzed from the Lexis-Nexis search, 36
specifically relied on and quoted research from the CTFK. These articles did not include specific
quotes from individuals, only the information from the research. The press has identified the
research developed by CTFK as a credible source for information on tobacco control issues.
CTFK’s research focus is demonstrated by Novelli, board of directors chair:
You can’t be an advocate without good policy research and analysis. So that was part of
our structure from day one. We had to have that. It wasn’t that we had to do all original
research, far from it, but we had to be synthesizers of research, packagers of research,
promoters of research and then we were doing our own research in terms of polling,
message testing and things like that.
Not only does CTFK do research on issues, but they also develop message testing and
research on its communication tactics prior to implementation. Spivak stated, “we do focus
groups, we do polling, we understand what resonates with people, and we spend the money to
make sure we know what resonates with people and then we use it.”
Integrated with other departments. Sometimes communication departments may
operate separately from other departments and only coordinate when needed. That is not the
case with CTFK. The communication team is integrated into meetings and decision-making on
campaigns and efforts with the other departments through participation on task forces. The
message development is developed through a “kind of an interdepartmental decision making
process. Everybody has a hand in it” according to Spivak.
This idea was echoed in the statements of Fisher, vice president of state issues, as well:
We’re a very collegial group. Obviously we have an org chart and there are lines of
authority and so forth… It’s not just my state team with the advocacy department that is
working on state issues. It’s the research team and the communications team, everybody,
we all work across it, everybody’s involved to achieve all of those goals.
Hutchinson said that the “international people come pick our brains…[asking] well what
do you guys do in the states to get around something like this? We have this wealth of
information to share with our newer folks who are doing similar things internationally…we’re all
very interconnected.” However, the feeling is not necessarily mutual coming from the
international department. Yin, associate director of international communication, stated, “we
(the international division) try very hard to communicate and learn the best practices from the
domestic part. But…the international staff travels so much and are so busy that people don’t do
enough communication and learning and experience sharing.” She goes on to talk about how she
hopes this changes in the future.
Activists Influencing Social Movements Through Communication
Based on the definition developed by Diani (1992) that a social movement is “a process
whereby several different actors, be they individuals, informal groups and/or organisations, come
to elaborate, through either joint action or communication, a shared definition of themselves as
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eing part of the same side in a social conflict” (p. 2), data from the website and interviews was
analyzed for emergent themes to demonstrate how CTFK participates in and influences the
tobacco control social movement.
Developed partnerships. According to the CTFK website, they have more than 130
organizational partners, including public health, medical, education, civic, corporate, youth and
religious organizations. The three primary organizations CTFK has worked with over the past 12
years are the American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, and American Lung
Association. Also, they work closely with tobacco control coalitions on the state and local level.
In addition to sharing research, many of the press statements, press releases and reports provide
information from multiple partners involved with CTFK.
These partnerships involve funding, information exchange, and working on issues
together. According to Fisher, CTFK “still get(s) some money from Robert Wood Johnson. We
get money from The Legacy Foundation, Cancer Society, Heart Association, and the rest we
fundraise.” This is also presented in the 2008 Annual Report, which lists American Cancer
Society, American Legacy Foundation and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation as $1,000,000 plus
donors, and the American Heart Association as a donor in the $100,000 to $499,000 range.
In the international arena, Yin reported that the in-country partners provide key insights
“into the political systems to understand how to advocate and put effective policies in place so
that Indonesians and Chinese can be protected.” Hurley further described the international
partnerships between both the other grantees of the Bloomberg Initiative and the organizations in
the specific countries as vital to accomplish goals, a way to reinforce each others efforts, and a
great way to create lasting change by empowering the local organizations.
Not only does CTFK receive funding from partners, but they also distribute funding to
state and local coalitions. Hutchinson described how each year the advocacy department
develops a strategic plan with the regional directors, key members from other departments, and
the president of CTFK. In this meeting, they discuss key states, coalitions and partner
organizations CTFK can work with to accomplish policy goals and “by the end of year, we have
a list of 5 or 6 top priority states that we are going to set aside money for” stated Hutcinson.
In terms of working with state and local coalitions, Novelli expressed that “the state
coalitions were pretty strong and getting stronger. So we were pretty supportive of them. Doing
research, packaging research, getting it to them, trying to help them with their legislative work.”
Although this has changed in the past few years due to state tobacco control coalitions losing
significant funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJ). Fisher explained some of
the changes when he said:
RWJ pulled out, that money was one of the best things they ever did…because it
established an infrastructure that their sole responsibility was to work on tobacco…So
we’ve sort of reverted back to the situation before SmokeLess States, where we’re
working with the three big voluntaries.
In terms of issues management, conflict does occur between partners. A specific
example is on legislation that empowered the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to regulate
tobacco. In an article from the New York Times, conflict demonstrated between Dr. Stanton
Glanz, a respected researcher on tobacco control, and CTFK on the position of compromising on
provisions within the FDA regulations (Wilson, 2009). Novelli specifically mentioned how the
public health community split over the first attempt to pass FDA regulation in 1996, over the
issue of compromising with the tobacco industry, with CTFK being willing to develop
compromises and consensus to get a bill passed and other groups not willing to compromise.
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Engaging individuals. Many times activists are individuals and not organizations.
CTFK has taken steps to engage individuals in the social movement through a number of ways,
specifically its websites and activating youth participation through events. One way that an
individual can be involved in CTFK is through becoming a part of the “growing network of
volunteers, called E-Champions, who take action over the Internet to contact elected officials and
hold the tobacco industry accountable” (Coalition for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2009a). CTFK’s
“Take Action” link directs individuals to the “Action Center,” which registers individuals. Once
registered, individuals can use six different ways to get involved in the social movement: sending
pre-written emails, signing a tobacco-free pledge, writing a letter to the editor of a local
newspaper, writing a letter to a legislator, purchasing CTFK gear, and writing narrative on how
tobacco impacted them.
Hutchinson directs the grassroots advocacy efforts of CTFK, including activating
individuals. He described methods of getting individuals engaged such as action alerts through
the E-Champion network, calling individuals through phone banks, contacting them through
Facebook and Twitter, and attracting them in new and creative ways, such as a new interactive
microwebsite called “the playbook”. Hutchinson states that the playbook “allows people to say
what they would really be willing to do in response to what big tobacco is doing in their local
community. Then it prints out a playbook for them at the end, it allows them to share it on
Facebook and Twitter.” Hutchinson described how the playbook is a research tool to gauge what
actions people are willing to take and helps CTFK customize communication with individuals.
Other Findings
Activist versus advocate. Although many of the findings reported have been tied to the
research questions, one major theme found outside the established research questions was on the
reluctance of the organization to identify itself as an activist. CTFK primarily refers to itself as
an advocacy organization. This led to adding a question in the interview protocol to address the
perceived differences. One major reason for not using the activist term is articulated by Fisher:
An activist is somebody that has an interest in the issue, and acts to change public policy
on that issue. So in that sense we’re an activist organization…I think activist has a
negative connotation with people, so we tend to use advocacy as our mantra.
Novelli defined a clear delineation between the goals of activists and advocates:
I think you can be an activist in many ways. You can write a letter to the editor, you can
march…there’s a lot of ways to be an activist. I think that what distinguishes advocates
is they do many of those things and they try to galvanize activists to be a part of it. But
they’re [advocates] also focused on legislative, regulatory, and legal change.
Hurley presented another perspective when he described that advocates typically have a
specific goal they are trying to achieve through a strategic plan, whereas an activist could be an
advocate, but they could also be just a single person or an organization that delivers a single
message within an advocacy campaign.
Centered on communication. Communication is vital. As an activist and non-profit
organization, CTFK does not produce a product to sell, offer programs, or supply any sort of
direct services. Hurley put it in the perspective that CTFK is selling its mission. CTFK (2009a)
states on its website that it works to:
• Educate the public and policy makers about the tobacco problem and its solutions.
• Expose and counter tobacco industry efforts to market to children and mislead the public.
• Advocate for solutions that reduce tobacco use and exposure to secondhand smoke.
• Mobilize organizations and individuals to join the fight against tobacco use.
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• Empower a tobacco-free generation by fostering youth leadership and activism.
• Enhance tobacco prevention efforts worldwide by sharing programs and information
with international partners.
All of these tasks are centered on communication. Novelli stated it best that:
Communications is a critical part of what the campaign does. It has always been and
always will be. If you look at what the campaign does, communications and advocacy
are married. Communications is connected to everything else, the synergies with the
public health community, with the campaigns partners, with the public, against the
industry. So communications will always be critical.
Resource for others. Throughout the interviews a key theme that appeared was the need
to empower other organizations. Fisher stated that CTFK “provide(s) technical assistance, here’s
how best to get your op ed placed, or we help write op eds. We will go down and participate in
press events, or provide testimony that that gets covered in the press” as ways to assist other
organizations.
Not only has CTFK provided direct assistance to organizations but it has also acted as an
example of how to accomplish goals. Novelli provided an example when he said:
The campaign has been a leader, a catalyst, and that catalytic advocacy role is unique. If
you look at the American Heart Association and American Cancer Society, they have
really built their advocacy dimensions. I think in large measure, they learned that from
the campaign.
Yin described the three main activities for the international communication directors as
“implementing media advocacy strategies by in-country advocates,” “increasing the capacity and
capabilities of in-country advocates,” and “increasing the capacity and awareness of journalists
to do a better job on reporting on tobacco control.” According to Yin, these goals focus on
increasing the capacity of journalists, individual advocates, and partner organizations by
providing trainings for advocates, workshops for journalists, funding, legal advice, access to
research, and experience of supporting and helping pass laws in other countries and states.
Discussion
In an attempt to study an activist organization’s use of communication and public
relations, this study has provided a wealth of information. CTFK’s efforts have been evaluated
on their own merits and not in conjunction with or comparison to a corporation or another
organization. It has been found that some of the existing public relations theory can be applied
to this activist organization, yet additional theories are in need of further development.
One of the primary public relations theories resulted from the excellence study. The
excellence theory focuses on a three-layered sphere of communication: a knowledge core, a
partnership between communicators and senior managers, and a participative culture within the
organization (Dozier, Grunig, & Grunig, 1995). CTFK demonstrated all three levels and many
of the individual components of each level. These included the knowledge to implement a
successful media relations program, prioritizing the communication among the organizational
decision makers, and a creating a collegial culture.
Public relations has a significant impact on society through communicating on “levels of
public policy, activism, and social norms, and even values” (Bowen, 2007, p. 277). CTFK has
been able to have a significant impact on influencing policies and changing the social norms in
regards to the acceptance of smoking and tobacco products. This is demonstrated through
accomplishments of CTFK, including helping to pass smoke-free workplace laws in 27 states,
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Washington, DC, and Puerto Rico; getting lawmakers to increase taxes on the federal and state
levels; and working to advocate for funding of prevention and cessation programs.
In terms of research, Grunig (2008) feels that research should be completed at the
program, functional, organizational, and societal levels. CTFK has been conducting research
from day one. Although the primary research publicly available is at the societal level, CTFK is
also engages in message testing, strategy development, and evaluation of campaigns. To
determine if CTFK is developing research at all four levels more thorough research is needed.
There needs to be additional theory development in how activists relate to social
movements. This study presents some preliminary findings in that CTFK provided a method to
bring organizations and individuals together to work towards a common goal. This issue needs
to be addressed by additional studies of activist groups and the social movements to fully
develop a theory through both quantitative and qualitative research.
Additionally, this study provides initial support that activists engage in unique behavior,
outside of the excellence theory. Researchers should begin to formulate new theories that
activist organization’s primary goals are accomplished through communication and partnerships.
The contrast activist versus advocacy can be addressed through the definition of an
activist, which includes using persuasion (Dozier, Grunig & Grunig, 2002). Edgett (2002)
defined advocacy “publicly representing an individual, organization, or idea with the object of
persuading targeted audiences to look favorably on—or accept the point of view of—the
individual, the organization, or the idea. (p. 1).” Therefore, when organizations identify as
advocates, they are likely engaging in the persuasive method used by activist organizations.
Limitations
A major limitation of this study is that it only analyzes a single activist organization.
With the limited number of interviews there is also a restricted view of the organization.
Although there is triangulation in terms of data gathering methods, additional research on activist
organizations should utilize a variety of research approaches. Additional weaknesses include
that only online documents were analyzed which means that some additional documents that
may have provided insight were not examined and as with any research (Yin, 2009). A possible
weakness in using the interpretive constructionist approach includes possible researcher bias that
may impact data gathered and the researcher’s interpretation of the data based on cultural
assumptions and experiences (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Through self-reflection and interview
design, these weaknesses were mitigated (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Although there are some basic
limitations, this research provides a vital look into key aspects of an activist organization.
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119

Analyzing Student Writing Proficiency and Assessment Measures
in Programs of Mass Communication
Andrew Lingwall, Ph.D.
Clarion University of Pennsylvania
alingwall@clarion.edu
Across higher education institutions in the United States, an established body of evidence
suggests that students are entering programs of mass communication with serious writing
deficiencies. In studies dating back to the 1970s, researchers have documented a steady decline
in students’ writing skills. Some studies have placed the blame on primary and secondary
education, while others have addressed university-level instruction in English or general
education. More recently, researchers have established links between students’ increasing use of
technology -- including Internet use, social media, text messaging -- and a general decline in
writing skills.
The issue is a critical one for faculty and students alike in programs of mass
communication, including those that offer study in public relations. Writing is arguably the most
important skill that graduates bring to the mass communication field in general, and to the public
relations profession in particular. Students who are weak writers cannot succeed in their
coursework or careers, regardless of their skills in social media or other new technologies.
Amid this reality, public relations educators are beset with issues that work against their
best efforts to produce good writers. Too many students show up as university freshmen without
adequate writing instruction from high school, and may feel entitled to good grades regardless of
their performance. Today’s world of social media and text messaging seems to stress immediacy
and gratification over critical thinking. University administrators are often more concerned with
boosting enrollments and cutting budgets than with screening out unqualified students or limiting
class sizes. Faculty members cannot qualify the best students and teach well in a culture of
entitlement, grade inflation, and generalized student apathy toward writing. Burgeoning
workloads in grading, paper editing, and remedial writing instruction have only added to an
overall sense among faculty that they are fighting a losing battle.
It is therefore notable that relatively little research has been done within the last decade to
explore the major writing-related issues facing faculty members in mass communication
programs, and how faculty are attempting to better assess and improve student writing. This
study builds upon the demonstrated need for a better understanding of these issues, and for
practical writing assessment and improvement measures that faculty can implement in their own
departments, schools and colleges.
Review of Literature
In examining the writing skills students bring into mass communication programs, it is
useful to review their formative sources of writing instruction, and factors that have influenced
their development as writers along the way. Some of these include primary and secondary
education, technology, and the undergraduate university curriculum. It is also useful to review
measures that mass communication programs have used to assess and improve student writing.
Educational Shortcomings
According to Bauerlin (2010), student scores on three national assessments of student
reading and writing ability have decreased steadily since the 1990s. On the National Assessment
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of Educational Progress (NAEP), 80% of 12 th graders in 1992 scored “basic” or higher. By 2005,
that figure had fallen to 73%. Students’ critical reading scores on the SAT have dropped 4 points
since 1999, while their writing scores have decreased 4 points since 2006 -- the first year for that
section. Reviewing ACT trends from 2006 to 2009, the percentage of test-takers who met college
readiness benchmarks in English fell by 2%, with flat scores in reading. Only two-thirds of the
test-takers were prepared for college work in English, and only 53% were ready for college-level
reading.
In 2003, the National Commission on Writing in America’s Schools and Colleges
sounded a warning call to educators and policymakers in its report, “The Neglected “R”: The
Need for A Writing Revolution”. The commission bemoaned the lack of writing instruction and
quality student work in America’s high schools and universities. “Both the teaching and practice
of writing are increasingly shortchanged throughout the school and college years,” the report
noted. “Writing, always time-consuming for the student and teacher, is today hard-pressed in the
American classroom. By grade 12, most students are producing relatively immature and
unsophisticated writing. Indeed, more than one in five continues to produce prose with a
substantial number of errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. We must do better.” The
commission reported that at the university level, more than 50% of freshmen are unable to
produce papers relatively free of language errors.
The 2008 National Assessment of Educational Progress supports the commission’s
conclusion. Manzo wrote in 2008 that only small proportions of middle and high school students
showed proficiency in writing – use of proper spelling and grammar, along with more
sophisticated skills needed to write an essay or explain complex information.
Technology Influences
Researchers have established links between students’ increasing use of technology --
including Internet use, social media, and text messaging -- and a general decline in writing skills.
In a pair of studies done in 2009, Turner found that among college students sampled, college
grade point average and levels of need for cognition were negatively related to the frequency
with which students used certain interactive media. Turner’s studies also revealed that frequent
use of socially interactive technologies (including text messaging and instant messaging) was
consistently associated with the use of particularly informal written communication techniques,
along with formatting problems, nonstandard orthography, and grammatical errors. The second
study also showed that multitasking on the computer was significantly related to problems with
formatting and an increased number of grammatical errors.
Other scholars have raised alarm over students’ increased use of technology and a general
decline in reading and critical thinking, both of which are prerequisite skills for writing. In his
2008 book The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and
Jeopardizes Our Future (or Don’t Trust Anyone Under 30), Bauerlin lamented students’ apathy
toward reading or learning about the world around them. “The Dumbest Generation cares little
for history books, civic principles, foreign affairs, comparative religions, and serious media and
art, and it knows less. Careening through their formative years, they don’t catch the knowledge
bug, and tradition might as well be a foreign word. Other things monopolize their attention – the
allure of screens, peer absorption, career goals……it’s a new attitude, this brazen disregard of
books and reading. Early generations resented homework assignments, of course, and only a
small segment of each dove into the intellectual currents of the time, but no generation trumpeted
a-literacy as a valid behavior of their peers.”
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In a separate publication (2010), Bauerlein wrote that high-school English teachers face a
stiff challenge in overcoming such attitudes in the digital age. “With the digital age, the English
teacher’s task has turned into Mount Everest,” he wrote. “Kids see and say more words than ever
before, but their texts and posts and e-mails have only made them less disposed to study the
medium. By the time they reach their senior year of high school, students have internalized a
sense of expression that teachers must labor mightily to dislodge. Their verbal intelligence has
been formed in a crucible of keyboards and “send” buttons, where language is all about
communication, not craft.”
The High School to College Transition
Substantial research demonstrates that high school graduates are not prepared to write at
the college level. According to Knudson et al. (2008), a growing number of incoming university
freshman need remediation in reading and writing before they can take university-level
coursework. This places a heavy burden on both the student and the university faculty. The
authors predict this trend will escalate throughout the country. In a separate study, Attewell et al.
(2006) found that the ranks of students needing remediation include large numbers of students
who successfully completed college preparatory tracks in high school.
This disconnect may be partially explained by a pair of 2006 studies by The Chronicle of
Higher Education. Here, researchers found that college professors are much more concerned
than high-school teachers about the writing abilities of freshmen. Nearly 44% of university
faculty members said that students are not well prepared for college-level writing, compared with
only 10% among high-school teachers. Conversely, only 6% of professors viewed students as
very well-prepared writers, while 36% of high-school teachers held this view.
Other critics have faulted the English instruction that some students receive in universitylevel
courses. In 2006, Miller wrote that at many universities, English 101 is now based on a
“postmodern” approach taught by composition theorists who are more concerned with process,
collaboration, and individual expression than with mechanics, paragraph structure, or studying
classic literary works. In Miller’s view, such an approach fails to prepare students to write in
upper-level classes and produces students who cannot conform to strict conventions of spelling,
mechanics, and usage required for career employment. Miller concludes that the postmodern
approach is founded on fallacies and produces poor results. “Hundreds of thousands of recent
college graduates today cannot express themselves with the written word,” wrote English
professor Stanley Ridgeley in the article. “Why? Because universities have shortchanged them,
offering strange literary theories, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and other oddities in the
guise of writing courses. They’ve offered everything, really, but the basics of writing.” In a
“back to basics” argument, Miller contends that college instructors should teach writing
strategies in class rather than having students work in groups, design and use systematic
grammar reviews, schedule frequent conferences with students, and require students to read and
write about classic literature.
California State University has attempted to diagnose and improve the writing skills of
high-school graduates with the California Early Assessment Program, a collaboration among the
university, the California Department of Education and the California State Board of Education.
The program provides California high school 11 th -graders with an early indication of whether
they are ready for college-level work in English and mathematics. Students who do not
demonstrate readiness can pursue more intensive high-school classes to prepare for college-level
work. Although the concept shows promise, Tierney and Garcia noted in 2008 that many
students, especially those from underrepresented and low-income groups, are failing the high-
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school assessment, and that the program leaves students on their own to find the right highschool
writing instruction to prepare them for college. The authors suggest shifting the focus
from generic assessments to writing courses before, during, and after 12 th grade to enable
students to bring their writing skills up to university level.
Implications for the Workplace
The assessment and improvement of student writing in mass communication programs
gains urgency when viewed in light of the skills employers expect of graduates. A substantial
body of literature has underscored the importance of solid writing skills as a prerequisite for
career employment in the communications field. “Writing as an advanced skill becomes both the
means and the expression of critical thinking and problem solving,” wrote White in 1993. “When
critical thinking and problem solving have been taught, they have been taught through writing.”
In its 2006 report, the Commission on Public Relations Education wrote that the top-rated
competencies sought in hiring entry-level practitioners included writing skills, critical thinking
and problem-solving skills, a good attitude, the ability to communicate publicly, and initiative.
A substantial body of literature has also established that communication graduates as the
whole are not prepared to write at a professional level, and that this skills deficit is costly to
employers in a variety of ways. The Commission on Public Relations Education (2006)
identified writing skills, and critical thinking and problem-solving skills as major deficiencies in
entry-level practitioners. In 1993, Hansen noted that managers and executives spend nearly 25 %
of their day writing business letters, memos, and reports, and that unclear writing at that time
was costing U.S. businesses more than $1 billion annually. By 2004, the National Commission
on Writing estimated this figure to be more than $3 billion. In a 2008 survey of 120 diverse
American corporations, Cole et al. found significant dissatisfaction with the writing performance
of entry-level public relations practitioners. On the whole, respondents in this study rated the
skills of their entry-level colleagues as “bad” and “getting worse.” While the quality of entrylevel
public relations writing appears to be declining, new graduates are facing a constantly
growing set of writing challenges, particularly in the area of new media.
In a 1999 study, Treadwell et al. found that 25% of respondents said they regretted
hiring a new communication graduate. Respondents cited reasons including basic writing skills
(spelling and grammar), intellectual skills (research, reasoning, problem solving, synthesizing
information, writing for multiple audiences), and lack of attention to detail among others.
Writing Assessment Measures in Mass Communication Programs
A well-documented body of literature has established that from the mid-20 th century
onward, mass communication programs have utilized a range of measures to assess the writing
of entering students. These have included minimum GPAs, language skills exams, Grammar,
Spelling, and Punctuation (GSP) tests, and written essays. GSP testing grew rapidly in the 1970s
as scores on national standardized testing indicated declining writing abilities. Many programs
have required all incoming students to complete a basic writing skills class. However, despite
longstanding interest in formally assessing writing skills of entering students, nothing
approaching uniform standards has ever been applied across institutions.
An early study by Fedler and Taylor in 1982 found that scores on a writing skills entrance
exam were a strong predictor of later student success in journalism courses. The same study also
established a strong correlation between scores on the writing skills exam and grades in English
composition courses.
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However, in a 1991 survey of journalism programs by John et al., only 36% of
respondents required a formal writing skills test. Accredited programs were more likely to
require testing than non-accredited programs. A 1998 study by Oukrop, Brown and Parsons
found that 31% of respondents required prospective students to take a skills exam. The same
study also revealed that the use of minimum GPA for admission grew ten-fold in the 1990s. In a
1995 study, researchers discovered that a minimum GPA requirement predicted success in
writing and grammar courses.
In 2009, Alvarado and Callison found that students’ scores on the GSP Test could be
best predicted by scores received on the English portion of the ACT. They concluded that GSP
test scores and grades earned in college introductory English composition classes, taken together,
offered the most accurate picture of how mass communication students would perform in an
introductory media writing course. However, they noted that among majors, the GSP performed
most poorly at predicting writing grades among journalism students – the group for whom the
test itself was created.
While the above research has explored the effectiveness of individual writing assessment
and improvement measures, this study builds upon the need for a more comprehensive view of
student writing proficiency, measures that programs are utilizing, and the degree of success
achieved with those measures.
Method
Research Questions
To better understand the range of writing-related issues that mass communication faculty
face and how they are attempting to deal with them, it is necessary to know how respondents
perceive the writing proficiency of students entering their programs, as well as the issues raised
by student writing deficiencies. It is also important to discover which measures programs are
using to assess and improve student writing. Finally, it is useful to determine whether
institutional attributes such as academic unit, Carnegie classification, or accreditation are
correlated with any of the above factors. Therefore, the following research questions were
developed:
RQ1: What are respondents’ perceptions of the writing proficiency of students entering
their academic unit?
RQ2: What are respondents’ perceptions of the issues, if any, that have been raised by
writing deficiencies of students entering their academic unit?
RQ3: What types of measures are respondents using to assess and improve student
writing?
RQ4: What degree of success has been achieved by utilizing such measures?
RQ5: Is there a correlation between the above factors and the institutional attributes of
respondents?
Survey Method
Considering the varying media preferences of JMC educators and the uneven reliability
of e-mail, the researcher developed both a paper and Web-based version of the survey. The paper
version was mailed to all prospective participants. The cover sheet of the survey contained a link
to the Web-based version of the survey, with an invitation to take the survey online.
The survey was fielded between November and December 2009. Within three weeks of
mailing, a reminder postcard followed. The postcard contained the researcher’s contact
information and the survey Web site. Five, $50 gift certificates to Amazon.com were offered and
awarded to individuals completing the survey.
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Both the paper and Web-based survey instrument contained three sections with a
combination of check-off, barometer scale and open-ended items. Sections were divided as
follows:
Section 1: Perceptions of student writing skills
Section 2: Measures used to assess or improve student writing
Section 3: Institutional information
At its conclusion, the survey contained one open-ended question inviting participants to
share further observations or insights. In all cases, respondents’ anonymity was protected.
Participants
The survey was mailed to 1,000 randomly selected members of the Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC). A total of 166 surveys were
completed, yielding a 16.6% response rate. Of the total, 138 were completed on paper, and 28
were completed online.
Participants came from a range of academic units. Among 163 respondents, 57% (n = 93)
came from departments, 32 % (n = 52) came from schools, and 11% (n = 18) came from
colleges. Regarding Carnegie Classification, 25 % (n = 41) of participants came from
baccalaureate colleges or universities. Another 23% (n = 37) came from master’s colleges or
universities. Just over 50% of the participants (n = 85) came from doctorate-granting
universities. Regarding ACEJMC accreditation, 60% (n = 98) of participants’ academic
programs were accredited, while 35% (n = 57) were not accredited. Another 5% (n = 8) indicated
that accreditation was in process.
Independent Variables
Measures used to assess or improve writing were selected as the first group of
independent variables. To determine measures used to assess or improve writing, respondents
were provided with a list of check-off items to select one or more of the following: (a) minimum
GPA, (b) language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance, (c) language skills
exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students, (d) written essay, (e) basic
writing class required for all incoming students, (f) other and (g) none.
Institutional attributes were selected as the second group of independent variables. Here,
respondents were asked to select their: (a) academic unit, (b) Carnegie Basic Classification, and
(c) accreditation status.
Dependent Variables
Four groups of dependent variables were identified for this study: (1) perception of
student writing skills, (2) issues created by student writing deficiencies, (3) hours per week spent
dealing with basic writing issues; and (4) degree of success achieved with measures to assess or
improve writing.
To measure perception of student writing skills, respondents were provided with
barometer scale items for: (a) critical thinking, (b) paragraph and sentence structure, (c) grammar
and punctuation, (d) Associated Press style, (e) proofing and editing, and (f) other. Here, 1 =
unskilled and 5 = highly proficient.
To measure the intensity of issues raised by student writing deficiencies, respondents
were again provided with barometer scale items for: (a) student frustration with grades, (b)
inability to pass required courses, (c) lack of quality work in student media, (d) class time spent
reviewing basic writing conventions, (e) time and effort spent on grading, and (f) other. Here, 1 =
not an issue and 5 = major issue.
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To measure the number of hours per week respondents spent dealing with basic student
writing issues (e.g., correcting grammar and spelling, reworking drafts, explaining basic skills to
students), a barometer scale question was developed with the following choices: (a) 0-3 hours,
(b) 3-6 hours, (c) 6-9 hours, and (d) more than 9 hours.
To determine which measures were being used to assess or improve writing, and their
degree of success, respondents were provided with check-off and barometer scale items for: (a)
minimum GPA, (b) language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance, (c)
language skills exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students, (d) written
essay, (e) basic writing class required for all incoming students, (f) other and (g) none. Here, 1 =
complete failure and 5 = complete success.
Finally, through two open-ended questions, respondents were asked: (1) to briefly explain
why they believed any of their measures had succeeded or failed, and (2) to list any measures
they would like to see implemented, as well as any barriers they had encountered.
Data Analysis
To investigate RQ1-4, responses were compared using descriptive statistics. T-tests, the
Mann-Whitney U –test, and Spearman correlations were used to test for significant differences.
To investigate RQ5, responses were compared using descriptive statistics. Pearson correlation, t-
tests and chi-square were used to test for significant differences. An alpha level of .05 was used
for all statistical tests.
Results
RQ1: What are respondents’ perceptions of the writing proficiency of students entering
their academic unit?
Across institutions, respondents (n = 166) indicated that they perceive overall student
writing skills as slightly below average ( x = 2.70, sd = .672). Within the item, respondents gave
the highest mean scores to paragraph and sentence structure ( x = 2.72, sd = .808), the secondhighest
mean scores to critical thinking, and grammar and punctuation ( x = 2.44, sd = .885;
.865), followed by proofing and editing ( x = 2.12, sd = .760) and Associated Press style ( x =
1.74, sd = .870)
Notably, none of the scores for the above responses varied by more than one standard
deviation. This tight cluster around the mean indicated fairly consistent agreement among
respondents. Mean scores for respondents’ perceptions of student writing proficiency are
displayed in Table 1.
RQ2: What are respondents’ perceptions of the issues, if any, that have been raised by
writing deficiencies of students entering their academic unit?
Across institutions, respondents indicated that too much time and effort spent on grading
was the biggest issue ( x = 3.61, sd = 1.16). Too much class time spent reviewing basic writing
conventions was the second-biggest issue ( x = 3.40, sd = 1.13). Student frustration with grades
and lack of quality work in student media was the next-biggest issue ( x = 3.21, sd = 1.10),
followed by inability to pass required courses ( x = 2.61, sd = .973).
Mean scores for respondents’ perceptions of issues raised by student writing deficiencies
are displayed in Table 2.
Within the “other” category, respondents indicated scores of “4” and “5” on a number of
related issues. These included: lack of intellectual curiosity, student boredom, leaving the major,
plagiarism, and lack of challenge for more capable students.
Regardless of institutional attributes, all faculty indicated that they spent between 3 and 6
hours per week dealing with basic student writing issues that could have been resolved before the
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student was admitted to their academic unit. The fact that the standard deviation was quite small
(sd = .990) indicates that regardless of academic unit, Carnegie Basic Classification or
accreditation status, all respondents are spending about the same amount of time each week
grappling with basic student writing issues.
Further examining the relationship between hours per week faculty spend dealing with
basic student writing issues and other factors, several significant correlations were found
utilizing the Spearman’s rho correlation:
Hours per week spent and perceived writing proficiency. Four negative correlations
were established between hours spent each week and perceived student writing proficiency in:
(a) paragraph and sentence structure (r = -.199, p = .010); (b) grammar and punctuation (r = -
.235, p = .002); (c) Associated Press style (r = -.177, p = .025); and (4) proofing and editing (r =
-.319, p < .001). Faculty who spent more hours per week dealing with basic writing skills tended
to believe their new students were less proficient in the above areas.
Hours per week spent and issues raised by student writing deficiencies. Three
positive correlations were established between hours spent each week and issues raised by
student writing deficiencies in: (a) class time spent reviewing basic writing conventions (r =
.361, p < .001); (b) time and effort spent on grading (r = .281, p < .001); and (c) student inability
to pass courses (r = .246, p = .001). Here, faculty who spent more hours per week dealing with
basic writing skills tended to believe that these were bigger issues.
Hours per week spent and perception of success with a basic class for all students.
One negative correlation was established between hours spent each week and degree of success
achieved with a basic writing class for all students (r = -.247, p = .019). Faculty who spent more
hours per week dealing with basic writing issues indicated that the basic class had been less
successful at their institutions.
Correlations for the above items are displayed in Table 3.
RQ3: What types of measures are respondents using to assess and improve student
writing?
Basic writing class required for all incoming students. By far, this was the largest
percentage indicated among all of the listed measures. Across institutions, 59.6% of respondents
(n = 99) indicated they were utilizing this measure.
Minimum GPA. This was the second-largest percentage indicated among all of the listed
measures. Across institutions, 46.3% of respondents (n = 77) indicated they were utilizing this
measure. Here, the data was widely dispersed, and no clear pattern of GPA requirements
emerged.
Language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance. Across institutions,
22.3% of respondents (n = 37) indicated they were utilizing this measure.
Written essay. Across institutions, 20.5% of respondents (n = 34) indicated they were
utilizing this measure.
Language skills exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students.
Across institutions, 13.3% of respondents (n = 22) indicated they were utilizing this measure.
None. Across institutions, 15.1% of respondents (n = 25) indicated they were not
utilizing any of the listed measures to assess or improve student writing.
Other. Here, 14.5% of respondents (n = 24) listed a range of measures not on the survey
list. These included: work in the writing skills lab, a writing-intensive course requirement,
minimum ACT and SAT scores, freshman writing assessments, minimum GPA requirements for
specific courses including English, and others.
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Frequencies for all writing measures are displayed in Table 4.
Further examining the relationship between measures utilized and other factors, a number
of significant findings were made:
Written essay and hours per week spent dealing with basic student writing issues.
Utilizing the Mann-Whitney U-Test, a significant difference was found between programs that
require a written essay (mean rank = 67.12) and those that don’t (mean rank = 87.12) relative to
hours spent per week dealing with basic writing issues (U= 1687, p = .022.). Faculty who teach
in programs that require a written essay spend fewer hours per week at this task.
Language skills exam and student frustration with grades. A t-test established a
significant difference between programs that require a language skills exam with minimum score
required for entrance and those that don’t, relative to student frustration with grades (t = 1.987,
df =1, 163; p = .049.) Programs requiring the exam reported a lower mean level of student
frustration ( x = 2.89) than programs not requiring the exam ( x = 3.29).
Basic writing class required for all incoming students, and time and effort spent on
grading. A t-test established a significant difference between programs that require a basic
writing class for all incoming students and those that don’t, relative to perception of time and
effort spent on grading (t = -2.439, df =1, 160; p = .016.) Programs requiring the class reported
that time and effort spent on grading was a bigger issue ( x = 3.8) than programs not requiring the
class ( x = 3.4).
RQ4: What degree of success has been achieved by utilizing such measures?
Across institutions, respondents indicated they had been most successful with a language
skills exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students ( x = 3.22, sd = .751). This
was followed by a language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance ( x = 3.17, sd
= .892), a basic writing class required for all incoming students ( x = 3.04, sd = .923), and a
written essay ( x = 3.03, sd = 1.01). Respondents reported the least amount of success with a
minimum GPA ( x = 2.96, sd = .877). Mean scores for respondents’ perceptions of degree of
success are displayed in Table 5.
Taken as a whole, the above mean scores indicate that no more than a moderate amount
of success has been achieved with any of the above measures. Notably, all but one of the scores
for the above responses varied by less than one standard deviation. This tight cluster around the
mean indicated fairly consistent agreement among respondents.
Reasons for Success or Failure
In an open-ended question, respondents were asked to briefly explain why they believed
any of the above measures had succeeded or failed. A review of the 85 usable responses revealed
that 61% (n = 52) respondents believed their measures had failed. Only 39% (n = 33) of
respondents believed their measures were successful.
In general, the “failure” responses fell into the following categories:
Inadequate high-school preparation. “In recent years, entering students not only show
the results of insufficient writing instruction by overworked and underpaid high school teachers,
but students also show that their parents (or peers) don’t reward reading,” wrote one faculty
member. Another wrote, “The crux of the situation is the process writing approach used in our
state’s high schools. Students have not learned the basics. They truly wind up starting over, in
some cases.” A third respondent added, “It has to happen in K-12, actually; we don’t seem to
have a coherent educational system with regard to writing instruction.” Another noted that many
of his new students had never written a research paper or done much writing of any kind in high
school.
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Problems with the measures: Here, some respondents indicated that although they had
instituted specific measures within their academic units, the measures weren’t working. “Most of
my students cannot write even after passing the super-easy grammar exam or getting a C in
ENGL 203,” wrote one faculty member. Another added, “Students do not seem to grasp basic
writing concepts, such as grammar and sentence construction, after taking the basic writing class.
They need more help than they are receiving.” A third respondent wrote that the required “C” in
the basic communication writing class is inadequate to improve writing or to be an adequate
filter for progression to future courses in the mass communication major. Another faculty
member wrote, “The writing skills of incoming students are at such a low level that it’s difficult
to get them to an acceptable level in the basic writing class. Also, our basic writing course is not
strenuous enough.”
Yet another respondent noted that not all measures are designed primarily to assess or
improve student writing skills. “The language skills exam works for some things like grammar
and punctuation, but not for others like clarity, sentence and paragraph structure. It is machine
marked because it is a large lecture class. The written essay is largely meaningless -- I’m not
sure it’s even read critically unless a student is a borderline admit.”
A number of respondents indicated their belief that a minimum GPA was an ineffective
measure. They noted that a high GPA is not always indicative of good writing skills, and that the
minimum GPA often isn’t high enough. “Even students who achieve the minimum GPA lack
basic writing skills,” wrote a faculty member. “They treat the newspaper style class like other
academic classes and forget the information after the semester.” “Teachers tend to inflate grades
to enable students to pass, particularly on a second or third try,” wrote another.
Student attitudes toward writing: Several faculty members commented on students’
attitudes toward writing. “Too many students are resentful and dismissive of writing
corrections,” wrote one respondent. They act like it is a waste of their time. The instructor is
being overly picky. The instructor is correcting them on something they will not need when they
become a rich and famous anchor person, or when they own their hugely successful PR firm.
Many of them want to write as they do in their text messages.”
None of the measures changes student attitudes or values for standard written English,
according to another faculty member. “In general, students don’t seem to grasp or care about
writing proficiency. They care more about the grade, so unless you fail them for poor writing
(which would mean failing a majority), the lessons you teach them don’t sink in and they have to
be continually re-taught.”
Institutional culture: Several respondents indicated either that they are pressured by
university administrators to keep writing standards low, or that their own colleagues do not share
their own high standards for writing. “Administration wants us to be academically ‘accessible’ to
the students, even though they don’t deserve to be in our unit,” wrote one. Another added, “Most
of my colleagues are from PR or broadcasting backgrounds. They do not expect the same level
of writing skills that I expect.”
Of the 39% of respondents who believed their measures had succeeded, reasons provided
generally fell into the following categories:
Faculty and classroom factors: “Small classes and dedicated professors have long
proven to be imperative to improving the writing of undergraduates,” wrote one faculty member.
Another noted, “We regularly work with students on their writing. Students work in groups on
rough drafts of written work, and have the opportunity to rewrite assignments. A third
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espondent added that their 110-level writing course is taught by a team of professors with a
common syllabus, and that the instructors work collaboratively.
Increased expectations. “Language skills exams get students’ attention about the
importance of writing quality, and they raise student expectations,” wrote one faculty member.
“A language skills exam with a minimum score is very motivational, since it is competitive to
get into our news writing courses,” added another. “Students who score low must take an on-line
grammar course until they pass the exam.” Another respondent noted that since students are
required to pass a grammar, spelling, and punctuation test in order to stay in the program, they
are forced to take the exam seriously and to prepare for it.
Weeding out of underprepared students. “Our measures do improve students’ writing
as well as their sensitivity to the importance of good writing,” wrote one faculty member. “But
mostly, they just remove the poor writers from the program.” “Our measures have eliminated
many of the students we saw before who were unprepared, and overall, student writing skills
have improved,” added another respondent.
In contrast to their colleagues who indicated their belief that minimum GPA was a failed
measure, several respondents indicated it had worked well for them. “A minimum GPA filters
out the worst writers with the greatest ease,” wrote one faculty member. “Our media programs
had been viewed by university-level counselors as a haven for those who bordered on illiteracy,”
wrote another. “The minimum GPA now bars those students from our program.”
RQ5: Is there a relationship between the above factors and the institutional attributes of
respondents?
Perceived writing proficiency. A Pearson bivariate correlation established no
significant relationship between institutional attributes and any of the writing proficiency scale
items.
Issues raised by writing deficiencies. A t-test revealed one significant difference
between accredited programs and non-accredited programs on their perceptions of lack of quality
of work in the student media on campus (t = -2.13, df = 1, 152; p= .035). Faculty in accredited
institutions saw this as less of an issue ( x = 3.08), than faculty in non-accredited institutions ( x
= 3.46).
Hours per week spent dealing with basic student writing issues. A Pearson bivariate
correlation established no significant relationship between institutional attributes and hours per
week spent dealing with basic student writing issues.
Measures to assess and improve writing and perception of success of measures. Chisquare
analysis revealed no significant differences between any of the categories of respondents
according to measures utilized, or success with those measures.
Discussion
Based on the results, it is clear that most faculty in this survey, regardless of institutional
attributes, are dealing with many new students who are only moderately proficient in writing,
and that student writing deficiencies are raising a host of serious issues for universities of all
kinds. It is equally clear that faculty members are spending a substantial amount of time each
week dealing with basic student writing issues that they believe should have been resolved
before students entered their academic units. These findings are all the more significant, given
that 52% of respondents (n = 85) teach at doctorate-granting universities and 60 % (n = 98) come
from accredited programs. Evidently, even students who are able to compete successfully for
admission to more prestigious universities and accredited programs lack basic college-level
writing skills as sophomores or juniors.
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Patterns in the open-ended response items indicate that faculty across institutions believe
they are facing an epidemic problem created by the K-12 educational system, digital technology,
university culture, and enrollment pressures.
However, what is less clear is any trend in measures used among institutions to assess or
improve student writing, or the degree of success achieved with those measures. Based on the
data, it can be inferred that departments, colleges and schools are attempting to better assess or
improve student writing in many different ways, but without clear indications of whether they
have succeeded or failed. Respondents appear to have many more questions than answers about
how to address this complex issue.
Regarding RQ1, an overall mean writing proficiency rating of 2.70 is hardly reassuring.
The fact that most items within this question fell below 2.70 – for example, a mean rating of 2.12
for proofing and editing – is further evidence that too many students are showing up in programs
unable to perform basic college-level writing tasks.
The data provided in response to RQ2 show that at least two of the issues raised by
student writing deficiencies are impacting faculty most heavily in terms of grading workload ( x
= 3.61) and class spent reviewing basics ( x = 3.40). These findings are cautionary because they
indicate that many faculty members do not have enough class time to teach the new ideas,
theories and skills that students need to become better thinkers, writers and communication
professionals. The three to six hours per week that most faculty indicated they are spending on
basic writing issues means they have less time and energy available for the research, planning,
and reflective thinking that are so necessary to good teaching.
All of the statistically significant findings related to this question centered on hours per
week spent dealing with basic writing issues such as correcting grammar and spelling, reworking
drafts, and teaching basic skills. It is not surprising that: (a) a negative correlation was
established between hours per week spent and perceived writing proficiency, and (b) a positive
correlation was established between hours per week spent and perception of issues raised by
writing deficiencies. The negative correlation discovered between hours per week spent and
perceptions of success with a basic writing class for all students perhaps indicates that faculty
members spending more time per week dealing with basic writing issues have observed that the
basic class has not been successful for their students.
In answering RQ3, the results suggest there is no clear pattern in measures that programs
are utilizing to assess or improve student writing. Of 166 respondents, 14.5% (n = 24) indicated a
wide range of measures in the “other” category. It was notable that another 15.1% of respondents
(n = 25) indicated their programs were using no measures at all. However, the results did
establish that faculty members who teach in programs requiring a written essay spend
significantly fewer hours per week dealing with basic writing issues, and that programs requiring
a language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance report a significantly lower
level of student frustration with grades than programs not requiring the exam. Program planners
who are considering implementing or changing measures in their own programs can benefit from
this finding.
Faculty who indicated that their program requires a basic writing class for all students
also reported that time and effort spent on grading was a significantly larger issue for them. This
could be attributed to the fact that faculty who teach in programs that require a basic writing
class are simply spending more time and effort on grading for that class.
On a larger scale, results relevant to RQ3 point to a dichotomy between faculty who
desire a more rigorous approach to admissions and grading, and those who favor a more
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emediation-based approach through basic coursework and stronger academic support for
students who are weak writers. For example, 46.3% of respondents (n = 77) indicated they were
enforcing a minimum GPA for incoming students, and 22.3% (n = 37) listed a language skills
exam with minimum score required for program entrance. Yet, the majority of respondents
(59.6%, n = 99) indicated they required a basic writing class for all incoming students, and
another 13.3% (n = 22) listed a language skills exam with a basic class required for low scorers.
This “rigor versus remediation” dichotomy also appeared in answers to an open-ended
question toward the end of the survey. Here, respondents were asked to list any measures they
would like to see their academic unit use to assess or improve the writing skills of students
entering their academic units, and any barriers they had encountered. Among 97 respondents, a
nearly equal number appeared to be divided between the “rigor” and “remediation” approaches
to student writing. Almost 17% (n = 16) indicated they would like to see more rigor in
admissions and grading standards. However, another 18% (n = 17) indicated their desire to
require a basic writing class for incoming students.
Among those favoring the “rigor” approach, one respondent wrote, “We need more
consistent and frequent evaluations of student writing. If they are unable to write clearly and
coherently at this level, they should not be in the university.” Another faculty member noted, “I
would like the department to be much more rigorous in passing/failing students in writing
courses. Faculty must stick together and follow writing standards.” “We are all guilty of grade
inflation, and it must be stopped,” wrote a third. “Students who cannot write, speak, listen, read,
or think properly should not be allowed to pass until they can.” A fourth respondent added that
he/she would like to increase the minimum passing grade for required courses from a “C” to a
“B.”
Among barriers to implementing more rigor in admissions and grading standards,
respondents cited heavy faculty workloads and institutional pressures to accommodate marginal
students.
About 8% of respondents (n = 8) indicated they would like to require a higher minimum
GPA of all prospective majors. Cited barriers included pressures to enroll as many students as
possible, and again, to accommodate marginal students.
Among those favoring the “remediation” approach, one faculty member wrote,
“Unfortunately, students need writing fundamentals because they are not getting them in high
school, junior high, or elementary school.” Another added, “I would like to see a required eightweek
skills course that focuses on grammar and punctuation for students who don’t pass a
language skills exam. This would give them the extra help they need and allow our writing
classes to focus more on style and technique.”
Among barriers to implementing a basic writing class, respondents cited shortages in
funding and staffing, state rules disallowing remedial instruction, and the fact that remedial
instruction was simply beyond the scope of what university faculty could provide to students.
This “rigor versus remediation” dichotomy presents program planners with important
questions about what kind of programs they want to create, and how those programs will best
serve students. As established in this study, even faculty teaching in more selective accredited
programs at doctorate-granting institutions say they are encountering serious problems with the
writing skills of entering students. Given this reality, will it serve anyone to weed out
underprepared students in even greater numbers, or is it more sensible to meet students where
they are with basic writing classes, labs and diagnostic help?
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Trends evident in K-12 education, the impact of digital technology on writing skills, and
financial pressures in higher education all suggest that regardless of institution type, more and
more underprepared students will be turning up at the university gates. Tougher standards, on
their own, may only result in smaller programs filled with students who still need help with basic
writing skills. Based on the results of this study, a more balanced approach between rigor and
remediation is advised.
Reviewing RQ4, it is evident that faculty believe their programs have achieved no more
than a moderate amount of success with any measures listed in the survey. The highest mean
rating of 3.22 ( language skills exam with a basic class for low scorers) is hardly encouraging,
and the cluster of mean scores near 3.0 (“neutral) for all items illustrates faculty members’ mixed
feelings toward any measures they have tried. The fact that nearly two-thirds of the open-ended
responses for this item indicated failure rather than success is further cause for concern among
program planners. It is notable that the top two measures utilized – a basic writing class for all
students and minimum GPA – garnered the lowest mean scores in terms of perceived success.
Results relevant to RQ5 highlight a major finding of this study. All respondents,
regardless of academic unit, Carnegie classification, or ACEJMC accreditation gave students
similar ratings in writing proficiency. All respondents also indicated they are dealing with many
similar writing-related issues and trying many of the same measures with mixed success. Given
that all respondents appear to be fighting similar instructional battles with similar results, future
studies might explore the best combinations of measures that could be pursued to everyone’s best
advantage.
On a more optimistic note, faculty in ACEJMC-accredited programs noted lack of quality
work in student media as less of an issue than their counterparts in unaccredited programs. This
might be explained by Standard 2: Curriculum and Instruction in ACEJMC’s accrediting
standards. This standard states, “Students may take up to three semester courses (or their
equivalent) at a media outlet owned and operated by the institution where full-time faculty are in
charge and where the primary function of the media outlet is to instruct students.” ACEJMC
adds, “The Council urges journalism and mass communications programs to advise students to
acquire appropriately supervised experience in campus media and professional internships.” In
other words, careful supervision of campus media by full-time faculty, as required by ACEJMC,
appears to improve the quality of work in student media.
Trends in Open-Ended Responses
Among the 97 respondents who answered the open-ended question on measures they
would like to see their academic unit use, by far the largest number (32%, n = 31) indicated they
would like to implement a language skills exam, either with a minimum grade required for
program entrance or with a basic class required for low-scoring students. “I think it is effective in
not only assessing student writing skill, but in getting students to realize our expectations in
those areas,” wrote one respondent. Four respondents wrote that they would like to expand the
language skills exam to include an essay. “Some students do very well on parts of speech,
punctuation, or grammar, but can’t write clear sentences,” added another. “I’d like to eliminate
sections on spelling and most of the parts of speech. You can look up spelling.”
Respondents noted several barriers to implementing language skills exams at their
institutions, ranging from time and staff shortages to faculty resistance and institutional culture.
“Most of my colleagues believe administration of the exam would be a nightmare if we don’t
have the staff to handle it,” noted one respondent. Another wrote, “A minimum skills entrance
test would probably be helpful, but it wouldn’t fit the institutional ethos of nurturing marginal
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students along with skilled students. A third faculty member added that too many students would
be unable to achieve a minimum score to enter the major, and would be likely to switch majors.
Three respondents wrote that they could not suggest any measures to better assess and
improve student writing because of political and institutional pressures. “Grade inflation is a
problem,” wrote one. “There is pressure from administration NOT to hold students back. That
would make a low graduation rate even lower. Additionally, low student evaluations negatively
impact faculty evaluations at the end of the year. Low faculty evaluations impact merit raises.
The faculty does not want to upset the clients/customers.” A second respondent wrote, “I have
not proposed any measures. Grade inflation is rampant, so I just go with the flow. I am a tenuretrack
assistant professor and do not want to be perceived as too critical.” Another faculty
member wrote, “It is not practical to suggest anything. I work at a regional campus that derives
considerable revenue from student tuition. State cutbacks in support mean that such measures
are not a realistic possibility.”
Only one respondent mentioned the idea of creating new university partnerships between
universities and K-12 educators to improve student writing. Given the body of literature that has
been devoted to the importance of writing development at the primary and secondary level of
education, and the comments that many respondents made elsewhere in the survey, this was
somewhat surprising. “I’d like to see more resources sent to secondary educators,” he/she wrote.
“Materials on the importance and usefulness of writing sent to students’ parents, and an
agreement of sorts between grade school, high school, community colleges, and higher education
on expectations, standards and rewards regarding writing.”
At the conclusion of the survey, respondents were asked to share any final observations
on the subject of assessing and improving students writing in mass communication programs.
Out of 54 respondents who answered this question, 24% (n = 13) indicated their belief that the
issue was largely related to failures in the K-12 educational system. “I believe this is a systemic
problem, traceable directly to a poor level of instruction in elementary and high schools,” wrote
one faculty member. Another echoed, “It’s a universal issue that has been caused by K-12
schools who no longer stress writing.” “A key problem is the total failure of public schools in our
state,” concluded one respondent. “Students tell me they feel unprepared for college
writing…that they do not have sufficient grammar and writing in high school.”
Expressing a related concern, a handful of respondents (11%, n = 6) wrote that many of
their students do not seem to possess the requisite values and habits of mind to become skilled
writers. “While some students want to improve their writing and learn media conventions, others
persistently rebel,” wrote one faculty member. “They resist standards common to various media
(i.e. AP style, inverted pyramid organization, word limits in broadcast and social media, not
editorializing in news stories). These students make writing instruction a challenge.” Two other
respondents suggested that faculty require students to read more. “Read anything. Newspapers
are best, but good journalism is not possible to practice unless you know what it is.” “The
problem is that students don’t read enough. That affects writing ability,” added another.
“Students need to learn why and how important writing skills are for their daily lives and future
careers.”
Another 7% of the respondents (n = 4) indicated their belief that technology, including
social media, texting and e-mail were to blame for poor writing skills. “The social media
phenomenon is contributing to deterioration of traditional writing skills,” wrote one faculty
member. “Students are entering with poorer writing skills, probably due to habits acquired
through social media use,” wrote one faculty member.
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Another 15% of respondents (n = 8) expressed concerns about the competence of their
fellow faculty, both inside and outside of their academic units. “An increasingly important
concern is the weak writing skills of younger faculty,” wrote one faculty member. “In some
cases I have to ‘unteach’ what has been taught in a lower level course.” “Ultimately, it takes a
lot of faculty time to work on improving student writing, and many faculty aren’t willing to
make the investment,” noted another. “Despite students’ resistance to improve their writing, they
could do it if they knew that they had to do it. If they whine and resist, faculty and
administration usually give in,” added a third respondent.
Of this group, three respondents mentioned the English departments at their universities.
“I think more JMC programs need to reach out to the English departments at their schools,”
wrote one faculty member. “We’re both in the ‘good language’ business with different
applications. Students really need to be able to write well before they can understand the
sometimes nuanced variations with media writing, and that starts with their English classes.” “I
would like the English department to focus on grammar and composition and less on literature in
English 101 and 102,” added another respondent. “University English departments do not teach
writing. They prefer to teach something more akin to ‘expression.’”
Encouragingly, 11% of respondents (n = 6) offered some constructive techniques for
writing skills improvement. Ideas included the use of rubrics, the university writing center, peer
editing, or a pre-test and post-test in introductory media writing classes.
Conclusion
This study was limited by two main factors. First, the survey may have attracted more
respondents who were strongly dissatisfied with student writing skills in their own programs,
creating some response bias. Second, the response rate of 16.6% was less than desired. At the
same time, clear patterns in perceived writing proficiency and issues raised by deficiencies,
coupled with a lack of any clear trends in measures utilized or their success, indicate that
program planners must now begin doing more to meet students where they are and then
implement meaningful assessment and improvement measures that work for their own
institutions. Some remediation is inevitable, but it must be tempered with academic rigor that
students need in order to become competent thinkers, writers, and communication professionals.
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that future research explore
partnerships that might be undertaken with the K-12 educational system to strengthen student
writing instruction in primary and secondary education. In addition, future studies should explore
individual assessment/improvement measures on a longitudinal basis to examine how well they
have improved student writing performance over time.
The issues surrounding student writing are complex and multifaceted. From an early age,
writing skills are influenced at every turn of one’s life and education. By the time a student
appears in a university-level media writing course at age 19 or 20, much of the die has already
been cast. Yet, weak writing skills are not irreversible. Educators and policymakers at all levels
have much work ahead. The task begins with substantive policy changes and stronger writing
instruction at the K-12 educational level. The task continues as students arrive at the university
gates as freshmen, and then matriculate into mass communication programs. In the meantime,
educators will be best served by a dual approach stressing both remediation and rigor.
The National Commission on Writing in America’s Schools and Colleges challenges
educators at all levels to do better. They stress the importance of strong writing skills – not only
in gaining an education or securing meaningful career employment – but in shaping America’s
future. The commission recommends that every state should revisit its education standards to
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make sure they include a comprehensive writing policy, and that higher education should address
its special roles in improving writing. “American education will never realize its potential as an
engine of opportunity and economic growth until a writing revolution puts language and
communication in their proper place in the classroom.”
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Table 1
Respondents’ Perceptions of Student Writing Proficiency
Overall Critical Paragraph, Grammar, AP style Proofing
thinking sentence punctuation
& editing
structure
x 2.70 2.44 2.72 2.44 1.74 2.11
SD .672 .886 .808 .865 .870 .760
1 = unskilled 3 = neutral 5 = proficient
Table 2
Respondents’ Perceptions of Issues Raised by Student Writing Deficiencies
Frustration Inability Quality Class time Time, effort
With grades to pass work in reviewing on grading
courses student basics
media
x 3.20 2.61 3.21 3.40 3.61
SD 1.10 .973 1.08 1.13 1.12
1 = not an issue 3 = neutral 5 = major issue
137

Table 3
Correlations Between Hours Per Week Spent on Basic Writing Issues
And Perceptions of Proficiency, Deficiency, and Success
Item r Sig.
Paragraph and
sentence structure -.199 .010
Grammar and -.235 .002
punctuation
Associated -.177 .025
Press style
Proofing -.319

Table 4
Frequencies of Listed Writing Measures
Measure n %
Basic writing 99 59.6
class for all
Minimum GPA 77 46.3
LSE with
minimum score
for entrance 37 22.3
Written essay 34 20.5
LSE with basic
class for low scorers 22 13.3
Other 24 14.5
None 25 15.1
n = 166
* For this item, respondents were allowed to check one or more measures.
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Table 5
Respondents’ Perceptions on Degree of Success Achieved
Measure x SD
LSE with basic
class for low scorers 3.22 .751
LSE with
minimum score
for entrance 3.17 .892
Basic writing 3.04 .923
class for all
Written essay 3.03 1.01
Minimum GPA 2.96 .877
n = 166
* For this item, respondents were allowed to check one or more measures.
1 = complete failure 3 = neutral 5 = complete success
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141

How Publics Use Social Media to Communicate During Crises:
Proposing the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model
Brooke Liu, Ph.D., and Lucinda Austin
University of Maryland, College Park
bfliu@umd.edu and llaustin@umd.edu
Yan Jin, Ph.D.
Virginia Commonwealth University
yjin@vcu.edu
Abstract
Through an online questionnaire with 37 college students and 22 in-depth interviews with
college students this study empirically explores an emerging public relations model: the Blogmediated
Crisis Communication Model (BMCC). The findings support the validity of the BMCC
model including its expansion into broader social media context, but also suggest four revisions.
First, the influence of blogs through e-opinion leadership might not be as strong as that of other
social media during crises, particularly for young adults. Second, the direction of older media’s
indirect influence on publics’ crisis issue awareness might need to be reversed, indicating an
intertwined, more complex relationship loop rather than a linear relationship. Third, existing
media effects likely need to be further separated. Finally, to reflect previous research and this
study’s findings, renaming the BMCC model to the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication
(SMCC) model is suggested.
Introduction
As publics increasingly use social media more individuals are primarily turning to online
sources for news about crises. Despite this huge opportunity, research on incorporating online
media into crisis management is just emerging. The majority of this research focuses on websites
(e.g., Bucher, 2002; Perry, Taylor, & Doerfel, 2003; Taylor & Kent, 2007) and blogs (e.g., Bates
& Callison, 2008; Sweetzer & Metzgar, 2007) and overwhelmingly concludes that publics seek
out online media for both immediate and in-depth crisis information. However, recent findings
from the Pew Internet Research Center indicate that traditional blog use has decreased as
individuals are increasingly using social networking and microblogging sites (Lenhart, Purcell,
Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010). These emerging trends in Web use among publics indicate the need for
public relations to consider new media sources beyond blogging alone.
Additional research also is needed to determine how publics make decisions about which
social media they consider to be most influential. More studies have examined how public
relations practitioners and organizations use social media (e.g., Diga & Kelleher, 2009; Eyrich,
Padman, & Sweetser, 2009; Hathi, 2009) as opposed to how publics use social media to
communicate with and about organizations during crises. As such, a science-based, theory-driven
method is needed to strategically approach crisis communication via social media.
The purpose of this study is to build upon the blog-mediated crisis communication
(BMCC) model (see Figure 1)—a model that helps navigate the rapidly evolving social media
landscape (____ & ____, in press) 1 —to understand how individuals and organizations use social
media to communicate information in the event of an organizational crisis. Through an online
questionnaire and in-depth interviews, this study explores individuals’ social media use patterns;
how individuals engage with social media prior to, during, and after an organizational crisis; and
what primary factors affect their social media use in relation to organizational crises. By doing
1 Author names removed here and throughout for blind review.
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so, this study follows up on recent research (____, ____, ____, & ____, 2009) that expanded the
scope of the BMCC model beyond blogs alone to include other forms of social media. The study
concludes with suggestions for further revising the BMCC model including renaming the model
the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model (SMCC).
Literature Review
Social Media Defined
The Pew Internet Research Center defined social media as “an umbrella term that is used
to refer to a new era of Web-enabled applications that are built around user-generated or usermanipulated
content, such as wikis, blogs, podcasts, and social networking sites” (Pew Internet
& American Life, 2010). Here we operationalize social media broadly as various digital tools
and applications that facilitate interactive communication and content exchange among and
between publics and organizations. As Wright and Hinson (2009) stated, social media encompass
“a number of different forms including text, images, audio, and video” (p. 2).
The Role of Social Media in Public Relations Practice
In 2009, for the first time, American adults reported the Internet is their preferred source
for information and the most reliable source for news (Zogby Interactive, 2009). Online sources
are ideal for generating timely communication (Taylor & Perry, 2005) and interactive
conversations (Kent & Taylor, 1998; Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007), which are especially critical in
dealing with organizational crises.
Publics’ use of social media. Through virtual communities, consumers extend their
social networks to people they have never met in person and seek out these people regularly for
their opinions about products and services (Cheong & Morrison, 2008). During crises, social
media can provide a new platform for online word-of-mouth communication, working as an
informal communication channel through which personal, product/service, or organization
related information is conveyed, shared, and processed (_____ & _____, in press).
Pew Internet research showed that most teens (93%), young adults (93%), and older
adults (73%) regularly use the Internet (Lenhart et al., 2010) and are increasingly using social
media more than blogs. Close to two-thirds of teens and two-thirds of young adults have used
social networking sites, compared to close to 40% of adults over 30. The use of social
networking sites among college students is especially high, with 85% of all college students
reporting they used one or more social networking sites (ECAR, 2008). The number of college
students using social networking sites daily has increased dramatically from around one-third of
college students in 2006 to around two-thirds of all college students in 2008 (ECAR, 2008).
Young adults also lead use of microblogging sites such as Twitter, with one-third of these
individuals posting microblogs or reading updates, compared to only 8% of teens and 19% of all
adult Internet-goers. Young adults are also more likely to use and share online videos than were
individuals in other age ranges (Madden, 2007).
While social networking and microblogging use has increased, traditional blog use and
commenting has decreased slightly among teens and young adults. Although adults ages 30 and
older have increased in their blogging (11%), they still remain behind younger adults in use
(15%) (Lenhart, 2010). Approximately one-third of young adults comment on news pages or
blogs compared to a quarter of older adults, and young adults are more likely to create their own
Web pages or post content on others’ pages (Lenhart et al., 2010).
Motivations for social media use. Little theoretical work explores individuals’
motivations for social media use in relation to organizations or crises. On the purely applied side,
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esearch shows factors that may have an impact on individuals’ use of social media. Social
motivation is a driving force in online video watching (Madden, 2007). Also, consumers’
creation of their own media content is tied to social function and ego-defensive functions, but not
to utilitarian knowledge functions (Daugherty, Eastin, & Bright, 2008). Furthermore, young
adults’ motivations for use of newer communication technologies is related most to their need for
connectedness, but also to their need for self-expression and to a lesser extent for utilitatarian
purposes (Behairy, Mukherjee, Ertimur, & Venkatesh, 2006; Phillips, 2008).
More narrowly looking at blogs, there are six primary motivations for accessing blogs:
information seeking and media checking, convenience, personal fulfillment, political
surveillance, social surveillance, and expression and affiliation (Kaye, 2005). Finally, research
finds that consumers who share their opinions online utilize online opinion exchange platforms
in four ways (Goldsmith & Horowitz, 2006; Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner, Walsh, & Gremler,
2004): (a) topic-related utility, making a contribution to add value to the community; (b)
consumption utility, using contributions from other community members to user’s own benefit;
(c) approval utility, feeling satisfaction when commended by others; (d) moderator-related
utility, acting as a third-party to aid community members in lodging a complaint; and (e)
homeostasis utility, maintaining equilibrium or balance in user’s life.
The Role of Social Media in Organizational Crisis Communication
A crisis is an event that "creates an issue, keeps it alive, or gives it strength” (Heath &
Palenchar, 2009, p. 278). Issues emerging online can be more unpredictable, taking dramatic
turns and multiplying more quickly than issues that emerge offline (Coombs, 2008). During
crises publics’ social media use increases (Pew Internet & American Life, 2006) and, in some
cases, publics assign a higher level of credibility to social media coverage than to traditional
mass media crisis coverage (Horrigan & Morris, 2005; Procopio & Procopio, 2007; Sweester &
Metzgar, 2007). Social media may have a direct and indirect impact on publics in times of crisis
(_____ & _____, in press). In particular, journalists increasingly use social media as sources for
news generation (Lariscy, Avery, Sweetser, & Howes, 2009; GWU & Cision, 2009).
Motivations for social media use in crises. In crises publics seek out social media
because they provide an unfiltered, up-to-date line of communication (Johnson & Kaye, 2010;
Procopio, & Procopio, 2007). In addition, social media provide emotional support after crises
occur as well as a way to virtually band together, share information, and demand resolution
(Choi & Lin, 2009; Stephens & Malone, 2009). A few central publics use sites such as Flickr and
YouTube to collect crisis images and information for larger groups of individuals (Palen, 2008).
Finally, publics go online to find crisis information they cannot get elsewhere (Bucher, 2002).
The BMCC model (_____ & _____, in press; _____ et al., 2009) proposed that followers
use influential blogs and micro-blogs for the following three motivations: (a) issue relevance:
interest in the current issue discussed; (b) information seeking and sharing: search for additional
information that is not available from other public channels such as news media; and (c)
emotional venting and support: sharing of positive experiences and/or venting negative
experiences regarding the issue or organization with others, which creates a sense of compassion,
understanding, comfort, and excitement.
Influence of social media in crises. Examining the motivation of both speakers (opinion
leaders) and listeners (opinion seekers), Dichter (1966) emphasized that effective word-of-mouth
communication influence depends on the fit between opinion leaders, opinion seekers, the
product, and the quality of the message itself. The source similarity and message sensitivity
increased individuals’ belief that they could prepare for a disaster situation (Heath, Lee, & Ni,
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2009). In BMCC context, in addition to the blogger’s information credibility and authority, the
blog’s influence on blog followers also lies in the issue fit between the content provided by the
influential blogs and the blog followers’ interest and attitude (_____ & _____, in press).
Blog users rate blogs to be their most credible source of information (Johnson & Kaye,
2004), but Americans as a whole rate blog credibility much lower (Banning & Trammell, 2006;
Bernoff, 2008). However, during a crisis publics equally rate the credibility of third-person blogs
and blogs sponsored by organizations experiencing crises (Bates & Callison, 2008).
Additionally, increased blog reading and use enhances perceptions of blog credibility (Johnson
& Kaye, 2010; Sweetser, Porter, Chung, & Kim, 2008; Sweester & Metzgar, 2007).
Blog Mediated Crisis Communication Model
The BMCC model (___ & ___, in press—see Figure1) helps crisis managers decide if
and when to respond to influential bloggers through monitoring the blogosphere. The first part of
the model explains how information is transmitted on and offline among key players: influential
bloggers and their followers, mass media, and organizations’ online and offline communication.
The first seven propositions predict how these various publics interact (propositions 1.1 to 3.2,
see Table 1), while the second part of the model provides suggestions on how a given
organization should proactively manage blog-mediated crises from crisis monitoring to strategic
responses (propositions 4.1 and 4.2, see Table 1).
---------------------------------
Insert Figure 1 about here
---------------------------------
Through interviews with 40 American Red Cross chapters, researchers tested how an
organization in a given blog-mediated crisis should monitor and respond (propositions 4.1 and
4.2) and expanded the BMCC model to include micro-blogs such as Twitter and content-sharing
sites such as YouTube and Facebook (____ et al., 2009). This previous research also expanded
the model to include organizations’ internal social media platforms, as opposed to solely external
influential bloggers, due to emerging evidence suggesting that other platforms are increasingly
being used by public relations professionals (___ et al., 2009).
---------------------------------
Insert Table 1 about here
---------------------------------
In this study, we provide the first empirical evaluation of three key components the
BMCC model posited: (a) Influential blogs affect blog followers by providing issue-fit opinion
leadership to address the followers’ motivation for informational and emotional needs of the
crisis issue (proposition 2.1, see Table 1); (b) Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key
publics’ issue awareness by providing the media with newsworthy content that is later edited and
disseminated to general news audiences (proposition 3.1, see Table 1); and (c) Influential blogs
exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness though offline word-of-mouth
communication of issues among bloggers, blog followers, and other publics (proposition 3.2, see
Table 1). Research questions one and two follow up on propositions 2.1 and 3.1 by asking:
RQ1: Why, if at all, do publics seek out social or older media for crisis information?
RQ2: What factors affect whether publics seek social or older media for crisis information?
Research questions three and four follow up on proposition 3.2 by asking:
RQ3: How, if at all, do publics communicate about crises on and offline?
RQ4: What factors affect whether publics communicate about crises?
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Method
This study included screening questionnaires with 37 college students and interviews
with 22 college students as the first empirical evaluation of propositions 2.1, 3.1, and 3.2.
Because college students are typically savvier with social media and new technology and their
use often sets trends for how the broader culture views technology, studying this population
lends insight to future studies in this area (ECAR, 2008; Lenhart, et al., 2010). Additionally,
because research questions address how publics use social media in times of organizational
crises, participants were asked about issues they self-identified as involving.
Process. Participants were recruited through convenient and purposive means. Before
conducting the interviews, the researchers launched an online questionnaire via a participant pool
system at a large East Coast university. Thirty-nine students answered a brief questionnaire about
daily media habits to prescreen participants, which yielded 37 valid responses—from this prescreen,
22 individuals were invited to participate in in-depth, in-person interviews, which were
audio-taped and fully transcribed. The researchers stopped conducting interviews once the major
categories identified in the propositions displayed depth and variations (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
The interviews lasted on average 26 minutes with a range of 15 to 45 minutes. Participants
received extra credit for their participation in the study.
Online questionnaire and interview guide. The online questionnaire asked 19 openended
questions related to older and new media consumption on a minutes-per-day and hoursper-week
basis (e.g., “How much time on average do you spend reading blogs per day and per
week?”) and two demographic questions (“What is your age?” and “What is your gender?”). The
interview guide asked eight open-ended questions with additional probes related to the BMCC’s
propositions. For example, for proposition 2.1 on participants’ motivation, the guide asked, “For
what reasons do you use social media in a crisis?” For propositions 3.1 and 3.2 on the indirect
influence of social media, the guide asked, for example, “How did you first learn about the
crisis?” and “Did you talk about this crisis with friends, family, and/or coworkers?”
Analysis. Analysis occurred during and after data collection. During data collection, the
researchers immediately transcribed interviews, sharing transcripts, observer comments, and
memos. This co-current data collection and analysis process allowed the researchers to capture
early themes and identify needs for shifting questions or approach. Once the interviews were
completed, the researchers systematically analyzed the transcripts through Miles and
Huberman’s (1994) data analysis procedures: data reduction, data display, and conclusion
drawing/verification. During data reduction, interview transcripts were coded using Atlas.ti and
Excel. First, using Atlas.ti, researchers coded comments relevant to the theoretical propositions.
During this stage, the researchers also coded for data that did not fit into the propositions (i.e.,
outliers) and developed new codes for this data. During data display, the researchers merged any
related codes into common themes using Atlas.ti and then exported the data into an Excel
spreadsheet for each theme, called checklist matrices. Lastly, during conclusion drawing/
verification, researchers reviewed the matrices to identify the multiple meanings that emerged
from the data, noting commonalities as well as discrepancies in interpretation.
Findings
On average, the 37 questionnaire respondents most frequently spent time using social
networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace (M = 27.40 hours/week, SD = 77.55), reading
newspapers (M = 7.28 hours/week, SD = 25.15), and reading blogs (M = 7.15 hours/week, SD =
27.12) (see Table 2). As expected, there was a wide variety in the respondents’ media
consumption as evidenced by large standard deviations.
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---------------------------------
Insert Table 2 about here
---------------------------------
Media Use Before Crises
Before addressing why publics seek out social and older media for crisis information, we
first asked why participants use social and traditional media regularly to compare to use during
crises. Participants use social media regularly for four main reasons: entertainment, relationship
maintenance, networking, and education. In addition, participants used older media on a daily
basis for education and entertainment. All participants emphasized that they use social media for
entertainment and relationship maintenance purposes. For example, a participant noted, “For
social media, my main purpose for using it is to stay in contact with people,” and another
observed, “Entertainment value is really the root reason I use social media.” Related to
relationship maintenance, five participants also mentioned using social media for professional
networking. For example, one participant stated: “I will look at their Twitter feeds because a lot
of times they will put up postings, like ‘If you’re interested in this, contact this person,’ and
that’s kind of a good way to start networking.” Seven participants mentioned using social media
for educational purposes. For example, a participant stated: “Sometimes Facebook is the quickest
news source because everybody’s posting about the most recent thing that’s important to
everyone, so sometimes I’ll find out about it there and then go read the story on a news website.”
Participants primarily use older media for education. For example, one participant said:
“The newspapers and stuff are just for educational and so I know what’s going on in the world so
I’m not just living in a bubble.” Five participants mentioned using older media for entertainment.
For example, one participant noted: “There’s usually a section in the Washington Post about
travel or something, and I go to D.C. a lot, so sometimes I look in there for good places to go.
Also I look in the movie section just to see the reviews.”
RQ1: Why, if at all, do publics seek out social or older media for crisis information?
Participants explained recent crises, while researchers probed for their media use. The
participants discussed 17 different crises (see Table 3), with riots after a major athletic victory
and the H1N1 flu outbreak discussed most frequently. For the majority of the crises discussed,
the participants remembered first hearing about them through in person word-of-mouth
communication (n = 11), followed by TV news (n = 9), directly experiencing the crisis (n = 9),
and Facebook (n = 7). Less common media for first finding out about crises were text
messages (n = 4), email (n = 2), and radio, blogs, and news magazines (n = 1 each).
---------------------------------
Insert Table 3 about here
---------------------------------
For all crises, the participants first looked for information about why and how the crisis
occurred, followed by accountability. However, when participants were highly involved in crises
they also wanted to know what response steps to take. In other words, participants affirmatively
answering that crises personally affected them wanted to know information such as where to get
an H1N1 flu shot, how to repair their recalled Toyota, and how to prepare for the blizzard. For
example, one participant said, “I just wanted to know basically how many people had it [H1N1]
and then what to do. I knew that some of my friends had it, and I was just like ‘stay away.’”
Through discussing various crises, two themes emerged explaining why participants primarily
use social media during crises: insider information and checking in with family/friends. In
addition, one theme—education—emerged explaining why participants use older media during
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crises. Almost all participants mentioned using social media during crises to obtain insider
information. For example, talking about riots after a major athletic victory, one participant said:
“So when I went up to my room, obviously it wouldn’t be in the news yet because it was just
happening so I went on Facebook, and I noticed there were some people that had Facebook
statuses about it and about police being too brutal or something.” Most participants use social
media during crises to check up on friends/family. As a participant said, “For the earthquake in
Chile, I had a friend who is Chilean. So, I talked with him on Facebook for a little longer than I
usually do.” Finally, a majority of participants seek out older media during crises for educational
purposes. For example, one participant noted: “Well, for example, during 9-11 I started watching
TV more for the news…So if there is something dramatic and ongoing happening, I will turn on
the news to at least know what is going on and how dramatic it is.”
RQ2: What factors affect whether publics seek social or older media for crisis information?
Participants identified factors shared for social and older media as: convenience,
involvement, personal recommendation, and information overload. For social media, two
additional factors emerged: humor appeal and the primary function of social media. For older
media, one additional factor emerged: credibility.
Almost all participants reported that convenience initially was a driving force behind the
media they use during crises. Participants mentioned convenience in terms of Facebook, email,
and headlines on email pages. For example, one participant said: “I think I found out a lot of my
information about Haiti just through random news articles that would just pop up through like
the Yahoo opening page.” Those that did actively search for information typically relied on
search engines rather than specific sources. As one participant stated: “I just did some Google
searches [after hearing about the Toyota recall in the news] and that led me to various websites.”
Most strikingly, only four participants mentioned actively seeking out websites of organizations
experiencing crises. For example, one participant said: “I did go to the Red Cross because I just
wanted to get the number I could text and send that money to them [after the Haiti earthquake].”
Level of involvement was another theme for media use in crisis. If participants personally
experienced a crisis or had a close friend or family member experience the crisis, they were more
likely to consume media. For example, one participant said: “It [riots after major athletic victory]
was right here in our own environment…So I was more likely to find out more information on it.
I knew everyone was going to be talking about it the next day.”
Receiving a personal recommendation was a theme mentioned by most participants to
explain crisis media consumption. Recommendations came from friends, parents, and professors.
As a participant said, “There were different groups on Facebook. Someone invited me to a group
that said for every one million people that join, I’ll donate this amount of money to Haiti. So, I
joined the group and read more about Haiti.” Finally, participants mentioned information
overload to explain why they did not consume media during crises. For example, a participant
said: “I’m not going to lie. I probably ignored almost all of those emails because by the time the
University starting doing things I was so H1N1’d-out.”
For social media only, several participants mentioned humor appeal as a reason for using
media during crises. As one participant stated, “There was a video that was making a fun of
[H1N1] because it’s called the swine flu and it’s not from pigs actually. So I learned what it was
actually about from the video.” As a participant mentioned, however, lack of humor appeal was a
reason for not using social media in the event of crises: “If I really just want to watch something
that is silly, funny, I’m not going to like search Haiti videos on YouTube—that seems a little
depressing.” Participants explained not using social media during crises because the purpose of
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social media is not crisis communication. As a participant said, “I don’t think I’ve seen that
many people on Facebook pay attention. So, I don’t even see that much about those types of
crises on Facebook.” Participants mentioned using social media because traditional media had
not yet covered the crisis, as was the case with the athletic riots. Finally, all participants agreed
that older media generally are more credible than social media for crisis information. As a
participant noted, “You probably would want to go somewhere that is known for being reliable
for that, not just someone writing willy-nilly about something like swine flu.”
How Are Crises Communicated?
RQ3 asked how publics communicate about crises on and offline and RQ4 asked what
factors affect whether they communicate about crises. Participants primarily communicate about
crises face-to-face followed by Facebook and text messaging. On a more limited basis, they
sometimes communicate about crises through phone calls (mostly with relatives) and email
(mostly with parents). Four themes explain why participants prefer these formats: humor value,
insider information, social norms, and privacy concerns.
Participants mentioned joking about crises with friends on and offline. As one participant
stated, “With my friends we would just say jokingly if someone coughed they would
automatically assume that you have the swine flu.” Humor value also explained why participants
often did not communicate about crises. As a participant said, “I don’t think people want to put
their [Facebook] statuses as, ‘I have swine flu, leave the area.’ It’s really awkward…”
Seeking information seemed to be the primary motivator for communicating about crises
through all media. As a participant said: “Well both my roommates are from Potomac, so they
knew a lot more about it [metro crash]. So, I just talked to them more about it to ask them what
really happened.” Another participant noted: “I used Facebook [during the blizzard] because my
friends from high school were like, ‘How is it? Do you have power? Are you okay?’”
Almost all participants mentioned social norms as an explanation for why they might use
Facebook rather than other social media to communicate about crises. As one participant said, “I
would never go on Facebook to look up information on a crisis unless there are groups and stuff;
like I joined a Haiti group I think just to raise awareness because I got sent something.”
Conversely, if their friends do not use certain social media, they are very unlikely to use that
media. As a participant stated: “Well the reason why I don’t use Twitter is, I signed up for an
account but most of the people I know don’t use, except for celebrities. It’s kind of like a
celebrity gossip thing, to see what the celebrities are doing, and none of my friends are on it.”
Indeed, none of the participants sent tweets or posted blogs about crises, which can be
explained by a final theme: privacy concerns. More than half of the participants mentioned being
wary of Twitter and blogs because they do not want their online posts to be misrepresented or
twisted. For example, one participant said: “I guess because a lot of times with bloggers… the
responses are sometimes very not professional… it’s like someone is attacking you for your
opinion. I guess it’s kind of discouraging.” Another participant noted: “One of the reasons I
don’t use Twitter is that a lot of times employers are searching through your social media sites
and that’s not okay. As private as you make your profile, with hackers they can look at
anything.” Interestingly, only one participant who did not have a Facebook account raised
similar concerns about Facebook. Finally, most participants seemed to associate Twitter with
unnecessary status updates and blogs with gossip sites. When they did use blogs during crises
more often than not it was because a news source or Web search led them to the blog.
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Discussion and Conclusions
Motivation for Crisis Information and Emotional Needs
The BMCC model’s proposition 2.1 states that influential blogs affect blog followers by
providing issue-fit opinion leadership to address followers’ motivation for informational and
emotional needs related to the crisis or issue. RQ1 and RQ2 provide insights about why publics
seek out social and older media for information about crises and what factors affect this
behavior. The most obvious finding is that publics in our study do not actively use blogs during
crises. The interview participants provided insights into why they prefer older media during
crises: They generally view older media, and especially broadcast news and newspapers, as more
reliable sources for crisis information than all social media. However, participants still use social
media during crises, especially Facebook and text messages, to share or obtain insider
information and to check in with family and friends. While some social media are useful for
emotional needs and insider information needs, older media primarily are used for information
needs because participants perceive older media to be more credible than social media. This
finding matches prior research stating corporate blogs are seen as less credible (Bernoff, 2008),
but conflicts with other research that suggests blogs and social media may be perceived as more
credible during crises (Bates & Callison, 2008). This discrepancy may be explained by
participants’ relative infrequent use of blogs given that blog credibility is enhance by frequent
blog use (Johnson & Kaye, 2010; Sweetser, Porter, Chung, & Kim, 2008).
Indirect Influence
The finding about preferring older over social media during crises relates to the BMCC
model’s proposition 3.1: Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue
awareness by providing media with newsworthy content that is later edited and disseminated to
general news audiences. The majority of the interview participants only read blogs during crises
if they find a link to a blog in another news source or through passive Web searching. Future
research is needed to more systematically examine the content sharing relationship between
blogs and older media and how this process affects publics’ issue awareness during crises.
Participants, however, provide support for the converse of proposition 3.1: Older media
exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness by providing social media with
newsworthy content. Participants frequently mentioned that they passively receive information
about crises through logging onto Facebook, email accounts, and emailed news alerts). If their
friends post links to crisis coverage they are more likely to read these links via Facebook than
going to the original sources such as the New York Times for information. However, there
appears to be a tipping point—once participants notice a trend in their social media networks of a
crisis discussion they are more likely to seek out traditional media coverage of these crises.
Offline Word-of-mouth Communication
The BMCC model’s proposition 3.2 states that influential blogs exert influence indirectly
on key publics’ issue awareness through offline word-of-mouth communication of issues among
bloggers, blog followers, and other publics. RQ3 and RQ4 explored this proposition through
asking how, if at all, publics communicate about crises on and offline and what factors affect
their communication. For the majority of the crises, participants first heard about them through
offline interpersonal communication. Their preferred method for communicating about crises
was in person, followed by text messaging and Facebook. Participants frequently mentioned
discussing crises with friends, family, and professors indicating that these publics are influential
for our participants. Channel complexity theory at least partially explains why participants
preferred interpersonal communication on and offline. This theory draws on selective exposure
150

and uses and gratifications theories, predicting that publics select channels based on congruency
(Dutta-Bergman, 2006). In other words, publics use media for similar functions during crises.
Primary factors that motivate participants to communicate about crises on and offline are
humor value and having/seeking insider information. A primary factor that often causes
participants to avoid online communication is social norms, which includes: (a) whether their
family and friends frequently use particular social media and (b) level of comfort with and trust
of social media. For the crisis most frequently discussed (riots after a major athletic victory)
participants frequently mentioned posting comments and sharing pictures/videos on Facebook,
which sometimes were later picked up by local news and the campus newspaper. This crisis in
particular seemed to create a hot-issue public as conceptualized by the situational theory of
publics (Grunig, 1997), even for participants who reported lower involvement in the issue by
stating that the crisis did not affect them personally. As a consequence, participants that
mentioned this crisis reported active word-of-mouth communication primarily in person, via
Facebook, and text messaging. Future research could further investigate the relationship between
crises that are hot issues, on and offline word-of-mouth communication, and media consumption.
Proposed Revisions to the BMCC Model
While most our findings confirmed the validity of the current BMCC model with its
expansion into broader social media context we also suggest four revisions. First, the influence
of blogs through e-opinion leadership might not be as strong as that of other social media during
crises, particularly for young adults. To reflect our findings, we could replace influential blogs
with influential SM (social media). Second, the direction of older media’s indirect influence on
publics’ crisis issue awareness might need to be reversed, or, at least, it should go two-way:
Instead of flowing as older media social media publics, it can also flow as social media
publics older media, etc. This means, instead of a linear relationship, an intertwined, more
complex relationship loop or network might better describe the direct and indirect influences
among social media, older media, and publics in crisis situations. Third, existing media effects
likely need to be further separated into social media effects (SM effects) and older media effects
(OM effects) as our findings suggest individuals might use different types of media for different
purposes during crises. Fourth, given that the purpose of this study is to evaluate and expand the
BMCC model to a wider social media context, we propose renaming the model as the SMCC
(Social-Mediated Crisis Communication) model.
Limitations and Future Research
This study is limited in that the interview and questionnaire results are not generalizable.
Future quantitative research is needed to confirm and extend these findings. Additionally, this
study included only one public: college students at a single university. To triangulate and extend
these findings (a) additional interviews should be conducted with different publics, (b)
experiments should be conducted with college students and regional/national populations, and (c)
surveys should be conducted with organizations frequently experiencing crises. Through
additional research the SMCC model provides a science-based, theory-driven approach for
managing crisis communication in the evolving media landscape.
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Table 1 BMCC Model Propositions (_____ & _____, in press) 2
Propositions
Proposition 1.1.a
Influential bloggers engage themselves in blogging about organizational crisis
out of their issue involvement. 3
Proposition 1.1.b
Proposition 1.2
Influential bloggers engage themselves in blogging about organizational crisis
out of their self-involvement. 4
Influential bloggers and their blogs exert more influence when the information
authority and blogger credibility are both high. 5
Proposition 2.1 Influential blogs affect blog followers by providing issue-fit opinion leadership 6
to address the followers’ motivation for informational and emotional needs of the
crisis issue.
Proposition 2.2
Proposition 3.1
Proposition 3.2
Proposition 4.1
Blogs created by influential bloggers affect media coverage by
building/suggesting crisis issue agendas and providing alternative crisis
information to journalists.
Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness by
providing the media with newsworthy content that is later edited and
disseminated to general news audiences.
Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness
though offline word-of-mouth communication of issues among bloggers, blog
followers, and other publics.
Crisis managers should engage in issue monitoring at every stage of the rumor
generation process (generation, belief, and transmission) involving blog
followers, blog-resist publics, and mass media outlets.
Proposition 4.2 Crisis managers should focus on crisis management strategies to circumvent
rumor generation, belief, and transmission on and through influential blogs.
Table 2 Questionnaire Respondents’ Average Media Consumption
3 Issue-involvement is the positive or negative direct or indirect (from news media, employment history, or other
people) experience related to dealing with an issue that motivates a blogger to talk about the organization (___ &
___, accepted for publication).
4 Self-involvement is related to a blogger’s need for self-confirmation. By talking to others about a product or an
organization, bloggers can carry through their insecurities and build up authority and leadership (___ & ___,
accepted for publication).
5 Information authority is whether bloggers are insiders of the organization and/or experts on the issue. Blogger
credibility is whether bloggers convey a genuine sense of community and public interest (___ & ___, accepted for
publication).
6 Issue-fit opinion leadership is the fit between the content provided by the influential blogs and the blog followers’
interest and attitude (___ & ___, accepted for publication).
155

Media
Daily Consumption
(minutes)
Weekly Consumption
(hours)
M SD M SD
Using social networking sites (i.e., Facebook, 64.08 (n = 36) 49.20 (n = 36) 27.40 (n = 36) 77.55 (n = 36)
MySpace)
Reading newspapers (online, hard copies) 14.70 (n = 37) 14.94 (n = 37) 7.28 (n = 37) 25.15 (n = 37)
Reading blogs 9.43 (n = 37) 15.40 (n = 37) 7.15 (n = 36) 27.12 (n = 36)
Watching broadcast news (cable, network) 24.95 (n = 37) 38.69 (n = 37) 5.82 (n = 37) 24.83 (n = 37)
Reading magazines (online, hard copies) 12.39 (n = 36) 13.63 (n = 36) 5.34 (n = 36) 24.83 (n = 36)
Using video sharing sites (i.e., YouTube,Vimeo) 13.47 (n = 36) 17.09 (n = 36) 4.32 (n = 36) 10.42 (n = 36)
Listening to radio news (live, online, podcasts) 8.68 (n = 38) 16.63 (n = 38) 3.50 (n = 36) 14.99 (n = 36)
Using wikis (i.e., Wikipedia, Wetpaint) 10.64 (n = 36) 15.70 (n = 36) 2.88 (n = 37) 7.49 (n = 36)
Total time spent commenting on all social/digital 14.33 (n = 37) 26.86 (n = 37) 2.47 (n = 36) 4.69 (n = 36)
media
Interacting with blogs (i.e., posting comments, 2.54 (n = 37) 10.37 (n = 37) .30 (n = 37) .91 (n = 36)
writing content)
Using photo sharing sites (i.e., Flickr) .67 (n = 36) 3.38 (n = 36) .23 (n = 36) 1.05 (n = 36)
Using microblogs (i.e., Twitter, Foursquare) 1.50 (n = 38) 3.47 (n = 38) .12 (n = 37) .30 (n = 37)
Using social news sites (i.e., Digg, Mixx, Reddit) 1.11 (n = 37) 4.73 (n = 37) .11 (n = 36) .40 (n = 36)
Reading customer review sites (i.e., Eopinions, Yelp) 1.00 (n = 37) 2.85 (n = 37) .10 (n = 36) .26 (n = 36)
Writing blog posts .43 (n = 37) 1.82 (n = 37) .07 (n = 36) .24 (n = 36)
Using livecasting sites (i.e., ustream.tv) .43 (n = 37) 2.47 (n = 37) .06 (n = 36) .23 (n = 36)
Using virtual worlds (i.e., Second Life) .05 (n = 37) .33 (n = 37) .06 (n = 36) .33 (n = 36)
Creating content for video-sharing sites (i.e.,
YouTube, Vimeo)
.03 (n = 34) .16 (n = 34) .03 (n = 36) .17 (n = 36)
Table 3 Crises Discussed by Interview Participants
Crises
Number of Participants
Post-athletic Victory Riots 14
H1N1 Flu Pandemic 11
Haiti Earthquake 9
U.S. East Coast Blizzard 6
Toyota Recall 4
Chile Earthquake 2
Fort Hood Shootings 2
Hudson River Airline Crash 2
Virginia Tech Shootings 2
Cocaine at NASA Space Center 1
Hurricane Katrina 1
Iran Election 1
Metro Crash 1
Michael Jackson’s Death 1
Peanut Butter Recall 1
September 11 Terrorist Attack 1
Tiger Woods Extramarital Affairs 1
156

FIGURE 1 BMM Model (_____ & _____, in press)
Strategic Responses to Influential External Blogs
E-opinion leadership
P2.1
Measures
Influential
Blogs
Crisis blog intervention
P4.2
Other Blogs
P1.1-
P1.2
Influentia
l
Bloggers
CC
WOM offline
CC
Blog
Followers
Media effects
P4.1
WOM offline
Organizatio
n
CC
CC
WOM offline
Organization agenda building
Organizations and Publics
Media Content
P2.2
Issue agenda building
Nonblogfollowers
Media effects
P3.2
Media effects
Mass Media
& Other Social
Media
P3.1
CC: Crisis Communication
157

Practitioner Perceptions of Organizational Factors Impacting Web-based
Public Relations Strategies
Sheila M. McAllister-Spooner, Ph.D., APR
Monmouth University
smcallis@monmouth.edu
Abstract
A survey of public relations professionals sheds light on perceptions of the ease and
ability to manage Web-based public relations strategies. The findings show that public
relations professionals do not believe that they receive adequate time, training, staff,
resources, and support to effectively maintain Web-based practices.
Introduction
Researchers and practitioners both agree that 21 st century practitioners clearly
need Internet skills. Indeed, in a very short period, the Internet has emerged as an allpurpose
communication medium for interacting with a wide variety of stakeholders (van
der Merwe et al., 2005). As aptly pointed out by Wright and Hinson (2009), it is an
understatement to suggest that Web sites and new media technologies have had a huge
impact on the scholarship and practice of public relations.
Despite the relationship building potential offered by the Internet, Web-based
tools are vastly underutilized in the practice of public relations. Prior research suggests
that organizational factors may inhibit practitioners from utilizing the full potential
offered by Web-based tools. For example, Newland Hill and White (2000) found that
public relations practitioners did not get enough training, have enough time, or obtain
enough organizational resources to maximize the potential of the Web. These findings
were paralleled by Waters et al. (2009) in the area of new media use for nonprofit
organizations who found that practitioners were not taking advantage of the options that
could enhance their relationship cultivation efforts. More research is needed in this area
to find out why.
Viewed through the lens of the dialogic theory of public relations, this study
provides an examination of practitioner perceptions of organizational factors that impact
their ability to implement and develop Web-based public relations strategies and tactics.
The dialogic theory is relevant because it provides overriding tenets and principles to
serve as guidelines for the successful and ethical integration of dialogic public relations
tools. The sample surveyed includes public relations professionals serving in the higher
education sector. Colleges and universities were selected because they are highly
resource dependent organizations that are especially in need of public relations efforts via
the Internet and new media technologies (McAllister-Spooner & Kent, 2009). With
unprecedented decreases in national and state funding, college public relations
practitioners are faced with the daunting task of having to increase the visibility and
credibility of the institution with limited funds and resources. This can best be achieved
by focusing on filtering the messages through the media.
The field of public relations is now benefitting from broader theories that provide
alternative frameworks to think about organization-public relationships (Taylor, 2009).
Because dialogic public relations is considered one of the most ethical and effective
approaches to practicing public relations (Kent & Taylor, 1998), public relations
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practitioners and scholars argue for the use of Kent and Taylor’s dialogic Internet
features for Web sites as well as new media technologies (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009). To
contextualize the theoretical foundations of this study, the next section will provide an
overview of the dialogic theory of public relations.
The Dialogic Theory of Public Relations
Dialogic theory—deeply rooted in philosophy and relational communication
theory—was first applied to organizational communication and public relations theory by
Pearson, whose research agenda to develop a more ethical framework for public relations
theory and practice was cut short by his untimely death in 1989. Botan expanded upon
Pearson’s research, using dialogue to elevate publics to the status of communication
equal with the organizations (Kent & Taylor, 2002). Kent and Taylor (1998, 2002)
extended dialogic theory as an honest and ethical means to guide practitioners and
scholars in the creation and maintenance of effective organization–public relationships
(Kent et al., 2003).
Public relations, like other communication, should be dialogic, respecting and
facilitating the rights of publics to engage in informed and free decision making
by exchanging persuasive and informative messages. Public relations should
simply make available the information publics need, along with a forthright and
honest advocacy of what the client wants. (Botan, 1997, p.197)
Viewed as more than a relational strategy for interpersonal communication, Kent and
Taylor (1998, 2002) offered five principles to serve as guidelines for the successful
integration of dialogic public relations via the World Wide Web. The first principle,
Useful Information, suggests that organizations provide useful information of general
value to all publics in a logical hierarchical structure. As the title suggests, the second
principle, Ease of Interface, involves the intuitiveness and/or ease of the Web site’s
interface. Developed out of respect for the valued visitors, the third principle,
Conservation of Visitors, maintains that organizational Web sites should offer features
and links that conserve visit time. The fourth principal, Generation of Return Visits,
explores ways to create the foundation for long lasting relationships by offering features
that increase the “stickiness” of the site. The fifth principal, Dialogic Feedback Loops,
involves providing features that allow publics to query organizations and offers
organizations the opportunity to respond to questions (Kent & Taylor, 1998, p. 327).
According to Kent and Taylor, “sites should be dynamic enough to encourage all
potential publics to explore them, information rich enough to meet the needs of very
diverse publics, and interactive enough to allow users to pursue further informational
issues and dialogic relationships” (p. 341).
For over a decade, scholars have extended and refined the dialogic research of
Web sites. Kent and Taylor’s dialogic principles have been applied to research of various
organization types and public relations sectors. (Esrock & Leichty, 1999, 2000; Kang &
Norton, 2006; McAllister-Spooner & Kent, 2009; McAllister-Spooner, 2008, 2010,
McAllister-Spooner & Taylor, 2007, in press; Reber, Gower, & Robinson, 2006; Reber &
Kim, 2006; Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007; Taylor & Kent, 2004).
Some have examined the dialogic principles in relation to the usability of Web
sites (Hallahan, 2001; McAllister-Spooner, 2008; Vorvoreanu, 2006), and others have
studied user perceptions of importance of the features (McAllister-Spooner, 2010).
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As noted earlier, because colleges and universities have high resource
dependencies with multiple publics, they are important organizations to study. Moreover,
Kang and Norton (2006), McAllister-Spooner (2008, 2010), McAllister-Spooner and
Kent (2009), McAllister-Spooner and Taylor (2007; in press), and others have identified
colleges and universities as organizations that could do more to improve their Web sites
and new media strategies for public relations efforts.
For example, Kang and Norton (2006) detected a strong relationship between
retention rate and dialogic relational communication functions such as feedback forms,
discussion forums, online surveys, online shopping, and alumni connections. The
researchers also found that the universities were greatly lacking in the area of creating
synchronous dialogic loops with targeted publics, and not fully embracing the strength of
their Web sites in their relational communication capabilities (Kang & Norton, 2006).
These findings were supported in research exploring New Jersey’s nineteen
community colleges (McAllister-Spooner & Kent, 2009; McAllister-Spooner & Taylor,
2007), which found that the Internet was only being used for early relationship-building
functions. McAllister-Spooner and Kent (2009) found that different principles did in fact
elicit different dialogic and responsiveness effects; college Web sites that appeared to be
dialogic were more responsive to user requests.
McAllister-Spooner’s (2008) two-stage usability study of Kent and Taylor’s
Internet principles suggests that users are not able to find critical enrollment and
academic information, and that improvement is needed in the method of content delivery
on community college Web sites. Despite the fact that users were unable to locate critical
information, they did not have strong feelings for or against the sites. With the exception
of the Dialogic Feedback Loop features, the user assessments of the remaining Internet
principles were positive. This is interesting in light of negativity of the users’ actual
experiences (McAllister-Spooner, 2008).
Through an examination of college Web site preferences of high school students,
parents/guardians of high school students, and high school guidance and admissions
counselors, McAllister-Spooner (2010) found that offering dialogic Internet features
could impact the likelihood of submitting applications. The findings also show that
intuitive interface and useful information that generate return visits take precedence over
flashy graphics, photos, and interactive features.
The extant research shows that, although the dialogic features enhance usability of
Web sites, and users perceive dialogic features as important and expect organizations to
offer them (McAllister-Spooner, 2008), the dialogic potential offered by the Internet is
not fully utilized. Kent and Taylor’s dialogic principles have also been applied to
research exploring new media tools. The next section will provide a review of the
research.
Relationship Development via New Media Tools
Because the Internet is fast becoming the key initial contact point for
communicating with stakeholders, public relations professionals should embrace new
tools and technologies (Christ, 2005). Through an investigation of online relationship
building through a comparison of weblogs to traditional Web sites, Seltzer and Mitrook
(2007) found that weblogs incorporate dialogic communication principles to a greater
degree than traditional Web sites, potentially making them better suited for online
relationship building.
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Several studies, however, suggest that organizations are not adequately utilizing
Web-based tools to generate dialogic communication, and that there are gaps between
relationship-building goals, implementation of online strategies, and actual dialogic
engagement (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009; Seltzter & Mitrook, 2007; Waters, Burnett, Lamm
& Lucas, 2009).
For example, a content analysis of Facebook Profiles of 50 environmental
advocacy groups conducted by Bortree and Seltzer (2009) suggests that advocacy groups
are not taking advantage of the dialogic strategies afforded by social networking. These
findings are particularly troubling because the results suggest that dialogic strategy use
appears to be closely related to dialogic outcomes, including networking activity,
network extensiveness, network growth, user responsiveness, and organization
responsiveness (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009, p. 318).
Waters et al. (2009) content analyzed 275 nonprofit organizations for the presence
of items representing organizational disclosure, information dissemination, and
involvement to find that, although nonprofit organizations understood the importance of
disclosure in their profiles, they did not use the Facebook profiles to distribute
organizational news. Very few took advantage of the multimedia capabilities, and they
did not provide many methods for their supporters to become involved. The study found
that nonprofits have not incorporated the vast majority of the Facebook applications
available to them into their social networking presence (Waters et al., 2009).
As social media tools gain strategic momentum, practitioners are developing
skills related to this online technology (Eyrich, Padman & Sweetzer, 2008). Several
researchers have also explored practitioners’ assessments of how they adapt traditional
public relations practices to the new technologies (Curtis, Edwards, Fraser, Gudelsky,
Thornton & Sweetser, 2010; Diga & Kelleher, 2009; Eyrich et al., 2008; McAllister-
Spooner & Taylor, in press; Newland Hill & White, 2000; Porter, Chung & Sweetser,
2009; Wright & Hinson, 2009). The next section will briefly review those studies.
Practitioner Perceptions
Ten years ago, Newland Hill and White (2000) found that public relations
practitioners did not get enough training, have enough time, or obtain enough
organizational resources to maximize the potential of the Web in media relations. The
authors also found that the Web site has become one more job added to a long list of
tasks including marketing, advertising, employee relations, government relations and
publication design (Newland Hill & White, 2000).
Seo, Kim, and Yang (2009) surveyed communication representatives at 75
transnational nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to find that promoting the
organization’s image and fundraising were the two most important functions of new
media tools, and that organizational capacity and main objective of the organization were
significant predictors of NGOs’ new media use in their public relations.
Eyrich, Padman and Sweetser (2008) surveyed 283 public relations practitioners
about their adoption of 18 social media tools and their perceptions on the growth of social
media trends in public relations practice. The data shows that although the practitioners
have adopted the more established and institutional tools (e-mail, Intranet) and seem
comfortable with blogs and podcasts, they are slower to integrate more technologically
complicated tools that caters to a niche audience such as text messaging, social networks,
and virtual worlds (Eyrich et al., 2008).
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Porter, Chung and Sweetser (2009) examined the perceptions and adoption of
blogs among public relations practitioners and how blog use relates to roles and status.
The data shows that, although blog use was similar to national audiences, practitioners
were using blogs professionally at low levels, and that women lagged behind men in the
strategic use of blogs. The researchers argue that practitioners may be missing an
opportunity to reach publics directly through blogging (p.250).
Diga and Kelleher (2009) detected a relationship between social network use and
power. The findings suggest that practitioners who were more frequent users of social
network sites and social media tools reported greater perceptions of their own structural,
expert and prestige power.
Curtis et al. (2010) surveyed 409 nonprofit public relations practitioners to
examine of how nonprofits are adopting social media tools. The results suggest that social
media tools are becoming beneficial methods of communication for nonprofit
professionals, and that women consider social media to be beneficial, and men exhibit
more confidence in actively utilizing social media. Additionally, organizations with
specified public relations departments were more likely to adopt social media. (Curtis et
al., 2009, p. 92).
Wright and Hinson (2009) conducted an international survey of 574 public
relations professionals to examine how social media are being implemented in the
practice of public relations. The findings show that meaningful and statistically
significant gaps exist between what practitioners say what “is” happening and what
“should” be happening. The findings also suggest that demographic differences exist:
younger respondents were more likely to recommend using social media tools (Wright &
Hinson, 2009).
McAllister-Spooner and Taylor (in press) found that many organizational factors
inhibit Web-based communication strategies and tactics in higher education. The survey
of community college public relations practitioners reveals that respondents see great
potential with public relations practices via the Internet, and overwhelmingly agreed that
it is necessary to offer many of Kent and Taylor’s (1998, 2002) dialogic features. The
data suggests that there are many organizational, departmental, and inter-departmental
factors inhibiting practitioners from offering the dialogic and relationship building
features that they deem important.
Christ (2005) maintains that public relations professionals that do not master new
media technologies may face encroachment from other business areas. More research is
needed to explore the role that public relations practitioners play in managing Web-based
initiatives, which prompted the first research question:
RQ1. What role do public relations practitioners play in managing Web-based
initiatives? This question is answered by assessing practitioners’ responsibilities
and the perceived levels of ease that practitioners experience managing Webbased
initiatives.
The articles reviewed show that there may be organizational factors that inhibit
practitioners from using Web-based tools to their fullest potential. More research in this
area is necessary, which led the researcher to pose the second research question:
RQ2. What types of internal organizational factors influence practitioners’ ability
to effectively develop Web–based initiatives? This question was answered by
assessing practitioner perceptions of departmental, organizational, and practical
162

factors that impact the development and implementation of Web-based public
relations strategies and tactics.
The findings of this study provide a glimpse into practitioner perspectives of the
role that public relations professionals play in managing Web-based public relations
initiatives, and how internal organizational factors influence externally focused Webbased
public relations efforts. The next section describes the research design.
Research Design
Perceptions of organizational factors impacting use of Kent and Taylor’s (1998,
2002) Internet principles via Web sites and new media tools were assessed via Webbased
survey research. The highly structured multipart questions were divided into 2
parts: 1) perceived ease and ability of managing Web-based initiatives, and, 2) perceived
organizational support of Web initiatives.
E-mail invitations to participate were disseminated to a purposive sample of
college and university communication professionals affiliated with the Council for
Support and Advancement of Education (CASE)―the largest professional organization
serving communications and advancement professionals at more than 3,400 colleges,
universities, independent elementary and secondary schools, and educational associates
in 61 countries around the world (retrieved May 13, 2009, from
http://www.case.org/container.cfm?CONTAINERID=40&CRUMB=2&NAVID=54).
In an effort to strategically reach communication professionals that are involved
with the management and development of the college/university Web sites and new
media tools, the invitation was sent to a convenient sample of CASE members enrolled in
the Communications Professional listserv. Although, 1,626 CASE members were
enrolled in the listserv, not all were involved in management and development of Webbased
public relations tools; 159 started the survey and 81 completed the survey (5% of
the total listserv population and 51% of those that responded). Because respondents were
provided the option to skip questions or exit the survey, response rates to individual
questions varied.
The respondents were asked what title best describes their position at the
college/university. Of the 63 participants that responded, 43% serve as directors (n = 27),
17% as managers (n = 11), 9% as executive directors (n = 6), 8% as assistant directors,
5% as vice presidents (n = 3), and 2% as technicians (n = 1). Sixteen percent of the
respondents selected “other,” and specified the following positions: Web/graphic
designer, director within a school, communications staff, new media specialist, assistant
vice president, staff writer/public relations assistant, senior director, communications
specialist, and Web content editor (n = 10).
Regarding types of colleges/universities that they serve at, of the 63 participants
that responded, nearly 29% indicated public university (n = 17), 27% private 4-year
colleges (n = 16), 20% private university (n = 12), nearly 14% public 4-year colleges (n =
8), and 10% indicated public 2-year colleges (n = 6). Nearly 7% indicated “other,” and
specified the following types of schools: independent school in New England,
independent academy, independent school, and public 4-year medical school (n = 4).
RQ1 asked whether public relations practitioners are able to effectively manage Webbased
initiatives. Recall, this question was answered by assessing practitioners’
responsibilities and the perceived levels of ease that practitioners experience managing
Web-based initiatives. The next section reports the findings.
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Results
Ease and Ability to Managing Web Initiatives
RQ1 asked whether public relations practitioners are able to effectively manage
Web-based initiatives. Ryan (2003) and McAllister-Spooner and Taylor (in press) found
that the responsibilities of public relations departments are vast. Newland Hill and White
(2000) found that the Web site has become one more job added to a long list of tasks
including marketing, advertising, employee relations, government relations and
publication design. Unfortunately these findings are supported in the current study.
Over 83% of the 79 participants that responded are responsible for marketing (n =
66), 82% for public relations (n = 65), over 78% are responsible for photography (n =
62), 75% for graphic design and Web site management (n = 59), over 69% are
responsible for advertising (n = 55), and 56% for printing (n = 44), 20% indicated
development/alumni, 17% indicated government relations (n = 14), 15% indicated
fundraising (n = 12), 13% indicated enrollment management (n= 10), and 9% indicated
managing the TV/radio facilities (n = 7). Nearly 27% selected “other” and specified
responsibilities such as: media relations, sports information, electronic communication,
internal communications, community relations, and publication management (n = 21).
Organizational Web sites can be developed through centralized or decentralized
management systems. As explained by McGovern (2003), whereas centralizing
publishing ensures a consistent quality of what is published, it is often slow and
frustrating. Decentralized publishing, on the other hand, is faster and often more costeffective,
but can result in inconsistent quality, unless rigorous publishing standards are
adhered to (retrieved March
http://www.gerrymcgovern.com/nt/2003/nt_2003_10_27_publishing.htm).
For nearly 58% of the 78 participants that responded, the Web site is maintained
through several decentralized departments (n = 45). Forty-two percent indicated that
content is developed and maintained through one centralized department (n = 33).
Similar to the findings reported by Ryan (2003), the respondents said their public
relations departments contribute significantly to their Web content. The respondents also
reported that Web content is also overseen by key stakeholders in the enrollment
management departments, information technology departments, and learning resources
departments.
To assess the perceived levels of ease of accomplishing Web management tasks,
the respondents were asked to rank their level of agreement on a 7-point Likert scale
ranging from “very strongly agree” (+3) to “very strongly disagree” (-3), with “0”
indicating neutrality. Recall, because respondents were provided the option to skip
questions or exit the survey, response rates to individual questions varied. Table 1 reports
the findings.
For Web site related functions, the findings suggest that the college and university
practitioners have relative ease in ensuring delivery of accurate Web content (n = 73, M =
.65, SD = 1.23), ensuring user-friendly navigation (n = 74, M = .49, SD = 1.40), and
ensuring that the Web site is organized well (n = 76, M = .35, SD = 1.43). The
respondents indicated that they have relative ease getting diverse interests to agree on the
purpose of Web-based initiatives (n = 74, M = .29, SD = 1.57).
To test whether variability exists between the mean scores for the Web site related
functions, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated on practitioner
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perceptions of administrative support for Web initiatives. The analysis yielded a
significant main effect for the four constructs: ease in ensuring delivery of accurate Web
content F(6,59) = 97.098, p < .05; ease in ensuring user-friendly navigation F(6,59) =
75.808, p < .05; ease in ensuring that the Web site is organized well F(6,59) = 87.745, p
< .05; and getting diverse interests to agree on the purpose of Web-based initiatives
F(6,59) = 80.999, p < .05. Post hoc tests could not be performed because at least one
group had fewer than two cases.
These results suggest that it appears likely that of the population means were not
equal for each of the four features. Based on the findings and the small sample size, these
results should be viewed with caution.
Organizational Support of Web Initiatives
RQ2 asked what types of internal organizational factors influence the creation and
formation of college-public relationships via college Web sites and new media tools.
Again, the respondents were asked to rank their level of agreement regarding perceived
levels of support on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from “very strongly agree” (+3) to
“very strongly disagree” (-3), with “0” indicating neutrality.
As shown in Table 2, although the respondents indicated that the
college/university administration understand the importance of Web-based initiatives (n =
61, M = .49, SD = 1.48), and they receive relatively low levels of administrative direction
(n = 73, M = -.16, SD = 1.44). The findings also suggest limited support for technical
training (n = 74, M = -.46, SD = 1.37), and conceptual training (n = 73, M = -.66, SD =
1.54).
Finding time to develop and refine Web sites is also a factor. The respondents
indicated that they do not receive necessary time to devote to Web initiatives (n = 76, M
= -.58, SD = 1.62).
The respondents also reported low levels of budgetary support (n = 73, M = -.51,
SD = 1.41), as well as staffing and resources (n = 59, M = -.79, SD = 1.52).
To test whether variability exists between the mean scores for the Web site related
functions, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated on practitioner
perceptions of administrative support for Web initiatives. Again, the analysis yielded a
significant main effect all of the constructs and Post hoc tests could not be performed
because at least one group had fewer than two cases. As such, the results should be
viewed with caution.
To get a clearer understanding of the staffing and resource allocations, the
respondents were also asked what percent of the total budget and staff was allocated
toward the Web site development and what percent of the total budget and staff was
allocated toward new media strategies and tactics.
The budget allocations for the college/university Web sites varied considerably,
ranging from 0 to 50% (n = 70, M = 7.28, SD = 11.16). For new media strategies and
tactics, the budget allocations ranged from 0 to 95% (n = 70, M = 10.61, SD = 21.43).
The staffing allocations for the college/university Web site functions ranged from
0 to 100% (n = 70, M = 28.88, SD = 30.39), and for new media strategies and tactics, the
staffing allocations ranged from 0 to 95% (n = 70, M = 19.90, SD = 23.36). Given the
large standard deviations, these findings should be interpreted with caution.
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Discussion
For Web site related functions, the findings suggest that the college and university
practitioners have relative ease in ensuring delivery of accurate Web content, that the
Web sites provide user-friendly navigation, and ensuring that the Web site is organized
well. The respondents indicated that they have relative ease getting diverse interests to
agree on the purpose of Web-based initiatives. This is good news, particularly because
almost 60% of the respondents indicated that Web initiatives are managed through
decentralized management processes. A common sense of purpose is imperative for
success.
Curtis et al. (2010) maintain that it is absolutely essential for public relations
practitioners to recognize the resourcefulness of social media tools and take advantage of
every available opportunity to effectively reach their publics. Kent and Taylor (2002)
argue that, through the commitment of organizational resources and training, the Web can
function dialogically rather than monologically. Unfortunately, although the respondents
indicated that they do not believe that the administration understands the importance of
Web-based initiatives, and that they are not receiving adequate levels of support.
Furthermore, the findings suggest that they believe that they do not receive adequate
allocations of staffing and financial resources, or training.
Seo, Kim, and Yang (2009) surveyed communication representatives at 75
transnational nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to find that promoting the
organization’s image and fundraising were the two most important functions of new
media tools, and that organizational capacity and main objective of the organization were
significant predictors of NGOs’ new media use in their public relations.
The findings support Seltzer and Mitrook (2007) − a gap continues to exist
between the relationship-building potential of Web-based public relations tools and the
objectives of practitioners. The findings of the current study, point to lack of time and
organizational support as factors inhibiting practitioners’ abilities to realize the full
potential offered by Web sites and new media tools.
The findings of the current study are troubling because, as indicated by Bortree
and Seltzer (2009), dialogic strategy use appears to be closely related to dialogic
outcomes, including networking activity, network extensiveness, network growth, user
responsiveness, and organization responsiveness (p. 318).
Limitations
As with all studies, there are limitations that must be acknowledged. Although e-
mail surveys have demonstrated superiority over postal surveys in terms of response
speed, it is important not to overlook one important element; the response rate (Sheehan,
2006). A purposeful sample of public relations professionals managing the development
of college/university Web-based strategies and tactics was sought through a larger sample
of communication professionals serving the higher education sector. Self-selection occurs
when the entities in the sample are given a choice to participate. The data was collected
from a convenience sample that opted to participate. Consequently, the response rate for
the current study is low.
Furthermore, the response rate for individual questions varied because
respondents were provided the opportunity to skip questions. As explained by Sheehan
(2006), there are numerous potential influences on response rate including survey length,
respondent contacts, design issues, research affiliation, and compensation. Waters et al.
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(2009) reminds us that the limitations should not discourage researchers, but give ideas
for future research. Further testing of the instrument should be conducted before
attempting to administer to a larger or different sample. Despite the limitations, this study
lays the groundwork for future research in this area.
Table 1
Ease and ability to manage Web-based tools
Scale Item n M SD
Ease in ensuring delivery of accurate Internet content 73 .65 1.23
Ease in ensuring user-friendly navigation 74 .49 1.40
Ease in ensuring Web site is organized well 76 .35 1.43
Ability to getting diverse interests to agree on Internet’s purpose 74 .29 1.57
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Table 2
Perceptions of Organizational Support
Scale Item n M SD
Administration understands importance of Web-based initiatives 61 .49 1.48
Receives adequate administrative direction 73 -.16 1.44
Receives adequate technical training 74 -.46 1.37
Receives adequate monetary support 73 -.51 1.41
Receives necessary time to devote to Web initiatives 76 -.58 1.62
Receives adequate conceptual training 73 -.66 1.54
Receives adequate staffing and resources 59 -.79 1.52
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Intersections and Overlaps: Building Leader-Employee Relationships through
Internal Public Relations, Leadership Style, and Workplace Spirituality
Nance McCown, Ph.D.
Messiah College
nmccown@messiah.edu
* Recipient of PRSA Top Faculty Paper Award
Although strategic public relations practice continues to shift paradigmatically
from promotion and one-way communication toward two-way communication and
relationship management between organizations and key publics (Heath, 2001;
Ledingham, 2003), scholarship addressing the relationship between organizational
leaders and their internal publics remains relatively undeveloped. Moreover, little
research has explored the leader-internal publics relationship within specific workplace
cultures (i.e., Denison, 1990; Kotter & Heskett, 1992; Schein, 1985). The relatively
unexplored interplay of these concepts prompts the need to probe the contextual
intersection of leadership, public relations practice, and internal publics. Specifically,
how might leadership style leadership influence internal public relations, leaderemployee
relationship building, and employee leadership development within a specific
type of organizational culture: Wagner-Marsh and Conley’s (1999) spiritually based
workplace?
Study Rationale and Research Questions
This organizational case study used qualitative, in-depth interviews, participant
observation, and document analysis to examine converging phenomena with several
specific goals: explore application/expand understanding of the influence of several
potentially existing leadership styles—transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978),
authentic (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), and principle-centered (Covey, 1992) or servant
(Greenleaf, 1977, 1978)—on internal public relations practices; build on previous
research (McCown 2005a, 2005b, 2006, 2007) to apply relationship management theory
to the organizational leader-internal public relationship; discover potential confluence
between certain leadership styles, excellent internal public relations practices, and leaderemployee
relationship management and relational outcomes within the context of a
spiritually based firm (Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999). The following research questions
explored this knowledge gap:
RQ1: What leadership style is exhibited in the organization’s top leader (as selfascribed
and as ascribed by organizational employees)?
RQ2: How does that particular leadership style influence the organization’s
workplace culture?
RQ3: How does that leadership style influence internal public relations (employee
communication) practices?
RQ4: How does the confluence of this particular leadership style, the
organization’s internal public relations, and workplace culture facilitate leaderemployee
relationship building? What are the resulting outcomes of leaderemployee
relationship building?
Organization to be Studied
This study researched a banking corporation (“CommunityBankCorp”) with more
than 100 employees at eight branches. Located in the Eastern United States, the bank has
171

een in existence only three years, yet established itself as the region’s fastest-growing
community bank during that time period. Chosen for its match with study criteria, the
organization features a relatively developed internal public relations (employee
communication) program, potential for leader to exhibit certain leadership styles as well
as religiosity, and organizational culture known for its spiritual foundations.
Conceptualizations
Several theoretical streams lend insight to this research problem: internal publics
and employee communications; relationship management; and public relations power,
leadership styles, and organizational culture.
Internal Publics and Employee Communications
J. E. Grunig’s (1997) situational theory of publics suggests that publics act based
on three independent variables (problem recognition, constraint recognition, level of
involvement) that influence a public’s information seeking/processing communicative
behaviors affecting an organization. This theory mandates that public relations
practitioners measure, identify, and segment publics in order to better understand their
nature and appropriately plan organizational communication (J. E. Grunig, 1997; J. E.
Grunig & Hunt, 1984; J. E. Grunig & Repper, 1992) with internal/external publics.
Several scholars (Friedman & Miles, 2002, 2004; J. E. Grunig & Repper, 1992; J. E.
Grunig & L. A. Grunig, 2000; L. A. Grunig, J. E. Grunig, & Dozier, 2002; Hallahan,
2001) offered theoretical public relations programs for effectively managing publics
through varying behavioral levels, shifting organizational communication processes from
long-term, relationship-building communication to greater public involvement in
organizational decision-making processes and greater use of mass media/interpersonal
communication.
Public relations practitioners/scholars desire increased focus on an organization’s
internal public—its employees (Toth, 2006). According to the excellence theory (Dozier,
L. A. Grunig, & J. E. Grunig, 1995; J. E. Grunig, 1992; L. A. Grunig et al., 2002),
organizations that value communication excellence exhibit several principles guiding
communication management between organizational decision-makers and employees,
including decentralized, less formal, and often more complex communication processes
and two-way symmetrical internal public relations that foster a participative, organic
organizational culture affording employees significant decision-making input. Also,
public relations practitioners with power in/direct access to the dominant coalition are
best able to influence the organization’s world view on public relations, to help set goals,
and to identify and manage relationship-building communication with strategic publics,
including internal ones. In addition, public relations practitioners span boundaries
between organizational leadership and internal publics, relaying messages and helping
give voice to all parties. These characteristics lead to employee job satisfaction/increased
productivity.
Other research addressed the role of an organization’s public relations manager in
mediating organizational environments (Lauzen & Dozier, 1992) and discovered largely
“journalistic” rather than relationship-oriented internal public relations functions (Wright,
1995. Jo and Shim (2005) posited that “employees receiving positive communication are
more likely to be motivated to form trusting relationships with the management level” (p.
278). McCown (2005a, 2006) also found that leaders employing transformational
leadership style with individualized consideration strategies enhanced internal public
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elations excellence, relationship-building, and leader-employee trust. Employees
perceiving internal communication gaps, particularly in turbulent situations, may also
become “activist” to force organizational leadership into symmetrical communication
(McCown, 2007).
Marketing and management scholars suggested that managers encouraging
ethical, benevolent workplace climates enhanced employee communication/increase
manager-employee trust (Ruppel & Harrington, 2000), and used strategic communication
including face-to-face direct involvement/dialogical communication with employees,
matching actions/words, openness, and shared communication responsibility “to manage
tough organizational changes” (Young & Post, 1993, p. 31). Other scholars explored
cooperative leader-employee communication processes resulting in shared vision,
job/personal satisfaction, service focus, empowerment, organizational commitment, and
sustained loyalty (Asif & Sargeant, 2000) and employee relations success through
relationship-building rather than information dissemination (Dolphin, 2005). Also,
Therkelsen and Fiebich’s (2003) macro review of employee relations literature supports
the employee public’s primacy and the frontline supervisor’s critical role in effective
employee communication. Leadership’s internal communication affects follower
perceptions of leader charisma and effectiveness based on vision content (Awamleh &
Gardner, 1999), organizational performance (Kirkpatrick, 1996), and leader delivery of
the vision (Romm, 1999). Through employee communication, leaders create shared
vision of organizational goals (i.e., Cameron & McCollum, 1993; Farmer et al., 1998;).
Also, although leaders may enhance management-employee relationships best through
team meetings, group problem-solving sessions, and supervisor briefings (Cameron &
McCollum, 1993), they experience frustration regarding their own limited direct
communication with employees below the middle-management level (Pincus et al, 1991).
Finally, manager/leader-employee communication to enhance participative decisionmaking
produced employee job satisfaction increases (Kim, 2002) and improved
perceptions of employee trust in leadership’s decision making and organizational loyalty
(Sobo and Sadler, 2002).
Relationship Management
Numerous scholars have examined various facets public relations’ shift from
manipulation/persuasion to relationship building (Broom, , and Ritchey, 1997, 2000;
Bruning & Ledingham, 2000; Ledingham & Bruning, 2000a, 2000b; Ledingham,
Bruning, & Wilson, 1999). Further studies identified “good” organization-publics
relationships dimensions—trust, openness, involvement, commitment, and investment
(Ledingham & Bruning, 1998). J. E. Grunig and Huang (2000) noted the importance of
measuring these characteristics in both internal and external publics. Recently, Flynn’s
(2006) multi-dimensional public relations perspective advocated balancing dialogue,
collaboration, and organization-publics negotiation through relationship building.
Scholars have tested and applied organization-publics relationship management
theories in a variety of settings (Bruning, 2002; Bruning, Castle, & Schrepfer, 2004;
Bruning, Langenhop, & Green, 2004; Ledingham, 2001; Ni, 2006), often using Hon and
J. E. Grunig’s (1999) guidelines for relationship measurement to test for control
mutuality, trust, satisfaction, commitment, and exchange vs. communal relationships.
Finally, Scott (2007) noted improved access to and positive attention gained from
organizations’ dominant coalitions, increased focus on practitioners’ crucial role in
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effective company management, increased transparency of the connections between
building effective public relationships with achieving organizational goals (particularly
the bottom line), and trust in the organization-publics relationship all achieved through
“real client” relationship instruments. (For a synopsis of organization-public relationship
research published between 1985 and 2004, see Ki & Shin, 2006.)
Public Relations Power, Leadership Styles, and Organizational Culture
Examining leadership styles and their power/influence to enhance public relations
excellence is crucial to this study. Berger and Reber (2006) define power and influence as
“the ability to get things done by affecting the perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, opinions,
decisions, statements, and behaviors of others” (p. 5). Drawing from this definition, the
power-control perspective (Berger, 2005, 2007; Dozier & L. A. Grunig, 1992; L. A.
Grunig, 1992; Plowman, 1998) suggests that leaders will set up organizational structures
that merely satisfice, and beyond that make decisions based on their own interests in
power/control. Although public relations practitioners with power in the dominant
coalition can best influence the organization’s worldview of public relations (L. A.
Grunig et al., 2002), they sometimes risk co-opting their professional voice and values
(Berger, 2007; Holtzhausen, 2000, 2007; Holtzhausen & Voto, 2002), and may need to
resist usual power structures (Berger & Reber, 2007; Holtzhausen, 2007; Holtzhausen &
Voto, 2002) to gain additional power and influence to accomplish organizational goals
(Hay & Hartel, 2000) and give voice to less powerful publics (Karlberg, 1996).
Although authoritarian leadership is not conducive to excellent public relations (J.
E. Grunig, 1992), relatively little research has further explored types of leadership styles
that most effectively contribute to an organization’s public relations excellence.
Exceptions include Aldoory and Toth (2004), who found strong preference among
practitioners for transformational style combined with employment of situational (a
combination of transformational and transactional) style in more turbulent times, and
McCown (2005a, 2006), who found strong connections between transformational
leadership style and internal public relations excellence.
One emerging leadership style theory explored transformational leaders who
recognized follower needs beyond transactional exchanges (Burns, 1978). Bass (1985)
argued that these leaders “can move those influenced to transcend their own self-interest
for the good of the group, organization, or country” (p. 15). Ultimately, “transformational
leadership is closer to the prototype of leadership that people have in mind when they
describe their ideal leader and is more likely to provide a role model with which
subordinates want to identify” (Bass, 1990a). Yukl (2002) described behaviors that most
often draw followers to such leaders, including unconventional behavior in order to
accomplish a vision; willingness to self-sacrifice or risk personally for the vision; and use
of persuasive or “visioning” appeals rather than authority or participative decisionmaking
processes. Other charismatic leader behaviors sway follower attitudes/behaviors,
such as articulating appealing vision; strongly communicating vision; communicating
high expectations; expressing follower confidence; modeling behaviors consistent with
vision; building organization identification; and empowering followers (p. 244). These
leaders also influence followers through social identification (employing slogans,
symbols, rituals, ceremonies, or storytelling), internalization, augmentation of individual
and collective self-efficacy, and celebration of reaching organizational goals (Yukl,
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2002), all of which encourage employees to develop organizational loyalty/pride
(Ashforth & Mael, 1989).
Employing individualized consideration (IC) strategies, transformational leaders
exhibit friendly/close behavior, treat followers as equals, and offer
support/encouragement according to followers’ individual needs (Bass, 1985). Leaders
using IC draw from compassionate, ethical value systems that include other-oriented end
goals and high need sensitivity (Musser & Orke, 1992) to empower followers (Musser,
1997). Further research linked transformational leadership’s with a wide range of IC
outcomes (Berson & Avolio, 2004; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003; Piccolo & Colquitt,
2006; Pillai & Williams, 2004; Rafferty & Griffin, 2006; Seltzer & Bass, 1990;
Walumbwa & Lawler, 2003, Walumbwa et al., 2004).
The tenets of another leadership style, principle-centered (Covey, 1992), align
closely with this study’s purpose, despite limited scholarship in this area. Heightening
attention to the importance of ethics, character, and principles in organizational
leadership, Covey identified characteristics of principle-centered leaders, among them
being service-oriented (seeing life as a “mission”), radiating positive energy, believing in
the potential/good in other people, being adventuresome, and exercising physical, mental,
emotional, and spiritual self-renewal (pp. 33-39). Covey saw employee empowerment
and trust as critical for creating principle-centered workplaces, suggesting that these keys
enable employees to meet expectations “without being reminded” because leaders have
“built an emotional bank account with them” (p. 155).
Relatedly, servant leadership style involves leaders “serving” their followers, not
“because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material
possessions. . . . [but to] make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being
served” (Greenleaf, 1998, pp. 18-19). In corporations, the primary purpose of a business
should be to create a positive impact on its employees and the greater community;
servant-leadership brings together service and meaning in the workplace (Greenleaf,
1977, 1978). DePree (1989) noted that servant-leaders employ participative management,
creating “covenantal relationships” with employees and elevating workplace
“redemption” above profit (DePree in Lee & Zemke, 1995, pp. 101-102). DePree (1992)
also promoted 12 keys to successful servant-leadership: integrity, vulnerability,
discernment, awareness of the human spirit, relational courage, sense of humor,
intellectual energy/curiosity, respect for future/regard for present/understanding of past,
predictability, breadth, comfort with ambiguity, and presence. In addition, Spears (1998)
summarized servant leadership traits including listening; empathy; healing; persuasion
through convincing/consensus rather than coercion; awareness of self, others, and
environment; conceptualization (dreaming dreams); foresight (understanding
past/present/future); stewardship (commitment to serving needs of others first);
commitment to the growth of people; and building community among employees (pp. 4-
7). Recently, Fry’s (2003) spiritual leadership model (similar to servant-leadership)
incorporated vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love; theories of workplace spirituality; and
spiritual survival. Spiritual leadership creates vision and value congruence across the
strategic, empowered team, and individual levels, and, ultimately, fosters higher levels of
organizational commitment and productivity.
Finally, focusing on the shared root construct of transformational, charismatic,
principled, and servant leadership styles (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), Luthans and Avolio
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(2003) developed a theory of authentic leaders—those who “take authentic action” and
meet criteria such as correspondence between ideas and behaviors, consistency between
“talk” and “walk,” coherence connecting one consistent action to another, and
convergence of mutual understanding (Terry, 1993, pp. 223-229). Authentic leaders
exhibit deep awareness of their own thoughts, behavior, values/moral perspectives,
knowledge, and strengths; sensitivity to the context in which they operate; and
confidence, hope, optimism, resilience, and high moral character (Avolio, Luthans, &
Walumbwa, 2004; Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004; May,
Chan, Hodges, & Avolio, 2003). They also work to transform associates into leaders
themselves (Luthans & Avolio, 2003, p. 243), and possess “self-transcendent values and
positive, other-directed emotions” (Michie & Gooty, 2005, p. 441).
Shamir and Eilam (2005) narrowed authentic leadership’s definition to four
defining characteristics. Authentic leaders do not “fake” leadership; do not lead for
“status, honor or other personal rewards”; are “originals, not copies”; and base their
actions on values and convictions (pp. 396-397). Through belief-action consistency,
authentic leaders also facilitate development of authentic followers who realistically
perceive and share the leader’s beliefs, values and convictions, the leader’s concerns, and
the leader’s definition of the situation (Gardner et al., 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005).
Ultimately, authentic leadership—through developing self-awareness and encouraging
follower personal growth—leads to greater follower authenticity and increased leaderfollower
intimacy and trust, increased follower (employee) engagement, and “workplace
wellbeing” that contributes to greater workplace performance (Gardner et al., 2005, p.
360-367).
Turning to organizational culture, those behaviors and norms that distinguish one
organization from another, Schein (1985) suggested that organizational culture is a set of
assumptions developed through group consensus and shared experiences, and “valid”
enough to teach new group members (p. 9); key elements include consensual mission
statement and shared economic and esoteric purposes. Kotter and Heskett (1992) defined
organizational culture as a combination of shared values and group behaviors that emerge
as top management shares an organizational vision/philosophy. Schein also contended
that religion often provides a context for organizational members to understand difficult
or “‘unexplainable’ situations and ‘provides guidelines for what to do in ambiguous,
uncertain, and threatening situations’” (p. 79). Integrating involvement, consistency,
adaptability, and mission provides organizations with purpose, meaning, and clear
direction and goals (Denison, 1990, p. 15).
Recent studies examined workplace spirituality as part of organizational culture.
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) defined workplace spirituality as a “framework of
organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ experience of
transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected in a
way that provides feelings of compassion and joy” (p. 13). Employees in spiritual
workplaces often exhibit a sense of vocational calling and a need for social connection/
membership. McCormick (1994) identified themes of spiritual workplaces without regard
for specific spiritual traditions: compassion, right livelihood (the Buddhist concept of
choosing work that does not cause people or animals to suffer); selfless service (drawn
from Christianity and Hinduism); work as meditative; and pluralism, which, if not
checked, could “endanger an employee’s right to religious freedom” (p. 7).
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Conley and Wagner-Marsh (1998) proposed that spirituality and ethics in the
workplace complement each other, producing synergy when combined with concern for
ethical performance in the workplace (p. 255). Leaders who encourage a more
widespread commitment to the organizational philosophy’s spiritual foundations could
enhance acceptance and practice of ethical behavioral codes which, in turn, might lead
employees beyond mere conformity to ethical codes and into internalization (p. 257).
Further, “honesty with self [in the organizational leader], articulation of the corporation’s
spiritually-based philosophy, mutual trust and honesty with others, commitment to
quality and service, commitment to employees, and selection of personnel to match the
corporation’s spiritually-based philosophy” are critical for achieving a spiritually based
organizational culture (Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999, p. 292). Defining spirituality in
the organization’s written mission statement helps potential employees determine if
personal spirituality fits with an organization’s spirituality and helps avoid employee
confusion and frustration (Konz & Ryan, 1999), while organizations with strong
corporate cultures correlate positively with profitability and employee job performance,
suggesting that organizational leaders should focus on individuals and establish
“organizations with a higher sense of business purpose” (Garcia-Zamor, 2003 p. 361).
Method
Blurred lines between context and phenomenon support a qualitative case study
(Yin, 1994) as the most appropriate means for exploring this study’s research questions.
Data collection occurred through a three-pronged, iterative process. First, 21 individual
in-depth interviews (H. J. Rubin & I.S. Rubin, 1995; Lindlof & Taylor, 2002) with
employees, public relations staff, and the organization’s leader provided data regarding
employee and leader perceptions of leader style, internal public relations practices,
employee leadership development, and relationship management outcomes. Purposive
and maximum variation sampling strategies gained interviews with employees from a
variety of organizational levels, employment lengths, and gender. The pretested, semistructured,
21-question interview protocol began with “grand tour” questions to establish
rapport, and used follow-up probes throughout to clarify and allow for rich data
emergence. Interview durations ranged from 50-90 minutes each. Second, ten hours of
participant observation yielding extensive field notes discovered the setting’s
social/cultural meanings and context clues (Wolcott, 1994) through “witnessing
evidence” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, pp. 135, 139) in one-on-one, small group, and large
group interactions/meetings. Finally, document analysis of key internal materials
including a corporate foundations booklet, vision/values statement, web site, and
employee newsletters provided “confirmatory evidence and strengthen[ed] the credibility
of the results of interviews and observations” (Potter, 1996, p. 96).
Data analysis began with the first interviews/observations, with insertion of
observer comments regarding potential emerging themes during transcription and
multiple readings. Further constant comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss
& Corbin, 1998) used a coding scheme to categorize recurring themes. Visual data
displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994) helped identify relationship/links between
data/categories. Comparison of emerging themes with relevant literature from the review
aided analysis to address the overarching research questions.
In addition to data collection triangulation (Kvale, 1995), the study employed
lengthy fieldwork duration (four months) to increase validity, resulting in “thick
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description” (Geertz, 1973) and saturation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Frequent reflexive
memo writing prior to and during the data collection analysis processes helped “bracket”
potential researcher bias (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 80) while still allowing the data to
“speak” and categories to emerge (Wolcott, 1994, p. 10). Appropriate Institutional
Review Board approvals as well as ethical participant treatment (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002;
H. J. Rubin & I. S. Rubin, 1995) respected and empowered participants in the research
process. Finally, member checks through mailed research summaries and findings
presentations solicited participant feedback to confirm the account’s accuracy (Ellis,
1995).
Results
Based on data analysis, this study revealed numerous interrelated themes. The
organization’s founder and top leader based his leadership style on his understanding of
and desire to live out his own religious faith; this faith foundation permeated the entire
organization, from the top leader’s style and its influence on the way others led and
managed, to the underlying cultural values (both expected and “lived”), to the internal
public relations and employee communication practices. The organization’s prescribed
leadership style demonstrated a hybrid of characteristics found in authentic,
transformational, principle-centered, and servant leadership theory. Cultural values
focused on positive, relational interactions between all employees—from leaders to
entry-level employees. Central to “living out” the cultural values effectively, internal
public relations emphasized face-to-face communication whenever possible, whether
through formal communication channels such as regular one-on-one/team meetings, or
informally through interpersonal conversations. Specific outcomes of the confluence of
three elements—leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public relations—
included strong relationships among organizational members as well as organizational
unity and a commitment to employee leadership development. Specific emerging themes
are organized around the study’s four research questions. Participants have been assigned
pseudonyms to preserve confidentiality, although general position levels are included to
increase contextual understanding.
RQ1: Leadership style
CommunityBankCorp’s founder/top leader, David, demonstrated a variety of
traits/activities characteristic of leaders identified as authentic, transformational,
principle-centered, and servant, including leading in accordance with one’s true self
(authenticity), especially born out of life experiences; establishing, sharing, and “living” a
vision/culture consistent with the leader’s authentic self; communicating effectively with
employees, enacting a positive, people-driven approach to leadership; inspiring mutual
trust/respect with employees; exhibiting a servant attitude toward subordinates;
employing individualized consideration strategies in employee-leader interactions;
intentionally acting to positively grow and transform employees into leaders; recognizing
and celebrating employee achievements; and demonstrating commitment to constant
improvement. Certain themes stand out, illustrated here.
David’s leadership style grew from his upbringing in extreme poverty in a thirdworld
country, deep religious faith (“spirit-filled Christianity”), and educational
opportunities afforded to him in the United States. After experiencing a pivotal “vision,”
he felt “led” to leave a leadership role in a large banking conglomerate to found a new
community-based bank based on “fundamental biblical principles [of] integrity, honesty,
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passion, caring for people.” Noted by interview participants as integral to
CommunityBankCorp’s vision, these principles underpinned leadership style as well as
cultural values and communication processes.
Many participants mentioned David’s Christian faith or the Bible as the
principles’ basis. Senior leader team member Tamara said, “David is a very religious
person, and I know that has a lot to do with how he deals with individuals and with
businesses.” Branch teller Kendra added that David’s leadership style and the
organization’s culture/communication were based on “moral” or “ethical” principles,
noting, “Here, the leaders want to do things ‘right.’ It’s a better way to treat each other.”
Branch leader Jared stated that David constantly reaffirms and lives the organizational
vision, adding, “We’ve heard it a million times and seen him put it into play. . . and it’s
something we actually do.” Also highlighted by many participants, David’s people-driven
positivity goes beyond simply being “Mr. Blue Skies and Rainbows,” as mid-level
employee Angela title David. “This organization isn’t about money, it’s about people,
and to truly be able to put people first. Every opportunity David has, he puts employees
first.”
Every participant also expressed trust in David’s leadership and the leadership
team. Senior leader team member Brandon said, “I would pretty much follow David
anywhere because I trust him that much.” Participants described a culture-permeating
mutual respect between organizational leaders and employees. Branch leader Jared noted
his leaders treated “everyone underneath them with respect. And if the leaders treat
employees well they’re going to give respect to other people. They’ll be more willing to
communicate with those above them, and they’ll be more willing to let leaders know
what’s going on out in the branches.”
CommunityBankCorp’s employee handbook actually defined one of the
organization’s strategic objectives as “an authentic management style that incorporates a
servant-leader model,” devoting a full page to detailing how employees at all levels
should carry out the organization’s four key principles: grace, authentic, partnership, and
stewardship. In addition, David’s use of individualized consideration strategies,
supported by an intentional organizational structure committed to keeping leaders
visible/accessible to employees, was clear in every aspect of his leadership style, from his
first-floor office located where everyone could see him to the way he frequently stopped
by their offices or cubicles to talk, joined them outside for a break, or walked to lunch
with them. Several participants also noted David’s balance of building relationships with
ensuring employee work accomplishment. CommunityBankCorp’s leadership also
intentionally encouraged employees to grow and reach their potential and career goals,
from participatory, collaborative decision-making, to empowerment without micromanaging,
to focused career planning, to regular training in leadership, relationship
development/management, customer service, and cultural values maintenance.
Participants noted all leaders’ effective communication through purposeful listening
styles, clear expectation setting, and respectful confrontation of issues/mistakes. Finally,
led by David’s example, CommunityBankCorp leaders frequently recognized and
celebrated employee accomplishments, both through special honors and through regular
expression of gratitude for employee work, as evidenced by mandated “storytelling” of
exemplary employee actions and an annual employee appreciation week extravaganza.
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RQ2: Leadership style influence on workplace culture
CommunityBankCorp’s founder/current CEO David has greatly influenced the
establishment/ maintenance of organizational culture through his leadership style. Based
on spiritual foundations and “biblical principles” (David’s term), the organizational
culture prompted a variety of participant descriptions such as respectful,
warm/friendly/family-like, team-oriented, supportive/encouraging, fun/enjoyable,
accommodating to personal/family life, philanthropic, and
open/empowering/participatory. Leadership invested heavily in intentional cultural
maintenance through a specific leadership position (the Chief Relationship Officer),
cultural training, vision/values reinforcement, written documents (such as the foundations
booklet), storytelling, appropriate hiring an dfiring, building relationships inside and
outside of work, and special committee activities.
Regarding CommunityBankCorp as a spiritually based firm, participants
recognized David’s faith foundation; some shared the same religious beliefs, which they
felt informed the company’s business philosophies. Senior leader team member Brandon
noted, “Faith is strong for many people in the organization, and you know, that kind of
drives who we are.” Mid-level officer Rebekah added, “Everyone’s crystal clear on
David’s faith, and for the most part, everyone brings the same faith to work. That’s a
huge part of this organization.” However, those participants who did not share the same
religious faith still agreed with the moral and ethical principles guiding
CommunityBankCorp. Senior leader team member Ryan, self-identified as having a
strong faith other than Christian, stated, “We have shared beliefs about doing the right
thing, about treating people the right way. . . . But for an [employee] who doesn’t have
religious beliefs, I think that person still believes fundamentally how to do business in a
certain manner.” David himself noted that he did not require employees to share his
specific faith, but rather to adhere to the principles he felt grew out of that faith. Midlevel
officer Jennifer confirmed this, saying, “David will tell people he wants to build a
biblical foundation for our company, but that doesn’t mean that every person in our
company is a Christian. . . . If we were labeled as a ‘Christian bank,’ he would be very
turned off by that.”
Participants described CommunityBankCorp’s cultural values in a wide range of
terms, all related to the original biblical principles David noted. “A lot of it is very
moral,” shared mid-level employee Lindsay, “like you give people the benefit of the
doubt.” Added senior leader team member Gary, “It’s the integrity, the attitude, the
commitment to doing a good job, caring for people and for each other.” And senior leader
team member Maria stated, “Here, it’s the Golden Rule. . . Do unto others.”
Distinguishing CommunityBankCorp from other corporate cultures, branch
employee Michael noted, “Here it’s less of a corporate mentality and more of a family
mentality.” Looking to David as the model for this cultural value, senior leader team
member Edward said, “People really do care for each other, and David kind of sets the
tone. He’s always asking people about things that are going on with them, no in an
intrusive way, but because he cares.” That family mentality also translated into teamwork
and mutual support among leaders and coworkers. Employees regularly covered each
other’s workloads during family illnesses and emergencies. “Non-issue,” said senior
leader team member Ryan. “That’s what it looks like for all of us in any position in here.
People make sure they back each other up if there is ever a need or things need to get
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done.” Accommodations such as flexible schedules for raising children or finishing
college are also part of the corporate culture, as are having fun and enjoying work while
still remaining accountable. As mid-level employee James noted, “I love the work
environment here. We get our jobs done, but we have fun!” Finally, nearly every
interview participant highlighted leadership’s commitment to maintaining the cultural
values of openness, empowerment, and employee participation in decision-making. As
mid-level officer Andrea noted, “We definitely have an open door policy where we say,
‘Let’s talk about this, let’s figure this out.” Senior team leader member Ryan also stated,
“We want to engage employees and even customers in the process so they feel like
they’re actually part of our bank.”
As CommunityBankCorp continues to grow—and every participant expects that
to be the case—maintaining its cultural values will require even greater intentionality.
Many participants believed that without intentional cultural maintenance, the
organization would lose its distinction, resulting in slowed growth and perhaps less
bottom-line success. Current cultural values maintenance strategies include keeping the
Chief Relationship Officer’s role prominent, continuing ongoing cultural training,
communicating vision/value statements, engaging in cultural storytelling, practicing
participatory/informed hiring and firing, promoting relationship-building informally and
through activities, and tying cultural values engagement to performance reviews.
Although data supported every strategy, several stand out as key. First, researcher
observations noted frequent reminders of the organization’s vision/values statements.
Printed cards displayed the statements on employee desks and workstations, screensavers
scrolled them across every computer screen, corporate newsletters explicitly or implicitly
wove them throughout articles, and leaders/employees referred to portions of them quite
naturally in everyday conversations. Second, cultural storytelling occurred at every
meeting observed, occupying at least one-quarter of each session with leadership sharing
stories about employees assisting customers through exemplary, helping each other
accomplish tasks during crunch times, or jumping in to cover for a forgotten detail. After
every story, attendees cheered and clapped voluntarily, showing genuine appreciation for
the way employees were “living the CommunityBankCorp cultural values.” Finally,
“right hiring” practices, even to the point of leaving key positions unfilled until a
“cultural fit” was found, demonstrated intentional cultural maintenance. As mid-level
officer Rebekah noted, “When we’re looking for someone, they could have the absolute
best skills, they could be the best at what they do, but if they don’t fit from a personality
perspective or from a cultural perspective, we just don’t bring them on board.”
RQ3: Leadership style influence on internal public relations practices
CommunityBankCorp’s leadership model clearly influenced the organization’s
internal public relations/ employee communication practices. As senior leader team
member Brandon noted, “If you have leaders doing the right things, you’ll always have
open communication because you won’t have fear in the workplace. People will feel their
opinions matter and they’ll feel valued. So you’ll get that open communicating.” Top
leader David—as well as the rest of the senior leader team—exhibited authentic,
participatory, and open communication consistent with the organization’s prevalent
leadership style. Formal internal communication processes fell under the Chief
Relationship Officer’s purview, and flowed through a variety of channels. Within the
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formal processes as well as informally, timely, open, two-way, and supportive
transactions characterized CommunityBankCorp’s internal communication.
Participants said that leaders communicated “well” and frequently, set clear
expectations, practiced good listening skills, and acted beneficently in confronting
issues/rejecting ideas. Mid-level officer Rebekah noted, “David makes it clear where
we’re going and what’s expected, and then he walks the walk rather than just being a
figurehead that shouts out commands and then does his own thing.” Senior team leader
member Robert added, “The biggest thing I’ve found about David is I didn’t expect him
to be as good of a listener as he is, especially with the success and community reputation
that he has.” David’s model of listening was shared by other leaders. In addition, he
communicated value for others in the way he preserved employee dignity even when
confronting an issue or rejecting an idea. As branch employee Michael shared, “Even if
David’s upset about something, he always has a kind and positive way of explaining what
was wrong. And if you tell him something and he totally disagrees with it, he tells it back
to you why he doesn’t agree with you in a positive way that you feel he actually listened
to you.”
All CommunityBankCorp formal internal communication processes were created
and implemented by employees reporting to the Chief Relationship Officer, including
postings on the company intranet, email notices and blasts, a quarterly newsletter,
company-wide voicemail messages, and face-to-face supervisor/employee and team
meetings. The corporation’s “foundations booklet” outlined “Rules of Engagement” to
guide communication (i.e., be loyal to the absent; give people the benefit of the doubt;
don’t make assumptions; respond to the person, not the position; and approach every
situation in a positive, helpful way). In addition, guidelines for email usage, an emphasis
on face-to-face communication wherever possible, and required communication from
team leaders to subordinates within 24 hours of weekly management meetings further
promoted open, timely communication.
Although participants expressed overwhelmingly that they felt informed, a few
negative examples emerged where employees felt either “out of the loop” or confused
because information was shared while still under discussion and then later changed. Also,
CommunityBankCorp culture includes frequent mandatory meetings, occasionally
causing employee frustration. However, one participant noted that during “crunch” times,
supervisors were willing to excuse employees to make tight deadlines. Still, David
maintained that “face time” was critical to excellent internal public relations and leaderemployee
communication, noting, “People will look at it and say, ‘That’s a lot of time,’
and I say, ‘No, it’s not the time, it’s the process of having a weekly meeting where you’re
looking at people. . . face to face, watching their tone and their facial expressions. That
builds accountability.”
RQ4: Leader-employee relationship building/relational outcomes
As clearly evidenced under RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3, top leader David ascribed to
specific spiritually based principles that provided the foundation for the organization’s
promoted leadership style, cultural values, and internal public relations practices. The
confluence of these elements led to well-developed, strong, and positive leader-employee
and employee-employee relationships. Key indicators demonstrated relationship strength
and organizational unity, including trust, control mutuality (empowerment),
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organizational commitment and loyalty, motivation/productivity, and job
satisfaction/enjoyment.
Although data provided ample evidence for all indicators noted, several bear
specific mention. First, mid-level officer Rebekah stated, “Trust is something that’s built
by follow through. Here we see come to fruition what [the leaders] have promised or said
they’d do and having them back you up or support you when you make a decision.” In
addition, beyond CommunityBankCorp’s status as the #1 Best Place to Work in its state,
employee loyalty, motivation/productivity, and satisfaction clearly manifested
themselves. “There’s a high loyalty,” mid-level employee Lindsay noted. “Most anyone
will stay past normal hours to get things done. You don’t have to, but you want to stay
and help. You could say this is an 8-5 job and I’m out of here, but I’ve never seen
anybody do that.” Mid-level employee James added, “If you treat employees right, they’ll
give it right back in return with their work.”
Two other relationship-building outcomes emerged from the data. First, a
powerful sense of unity pervaded the organization, as evidenced by senior leader team
member Maria’s comments: “We all kind of believe in the same values, so that really
helps to know that we have the same beliefs, the same ideas, the same expectations. That
kind of grounds people.” For top leader David, unity meant synchronizing all aspects of
the organization to achieve an integrated whole. “At the end of the day, it’s all in
alignment, which is what most companies are missing.” Second, employees felt
empowered to grow as leaders within the organization. David noted his own vision and
purpose for employee leadership development. “When you look at the average age of the
current leadership team, it’s 43. So that’s a young team. But 20 years from now. . . if
we’ve developed the next generation of leadership, I would like nothing more than to
walk away and say, ‘Now you guys take over with the same vision.’”
Discussion and Conclusions
This study discovered that the organization’s top leader, driven by faith and
vision, enacted authentic (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns,
1978), principle-centered (Covey, 1992), and servant (Greenleaf, 1977, 1978) leadership
characteristics within the context of spiritually based organizational culture (Wagner-
Marsh & Conley, 1999). Open, two-way symmetrical communication (i.e., L. A. Grunig
et al., 2002) fostered intentional, positive, people-driven cultural maintenance,
interpersonal communication, and employee empowerment/growth strategies. In turn,
this hybrid environment encouraged strong relationship building (i.e., Heath, 2001;
Ledingham, 2003) between employees and organizational leaders as well as between
employees across the organization. The confluence also promoted organizational unity as
well as intentional leadership development among employees through both specific
career goal planning and opportunities for honing individual employees’ leadership skills.
These outcomes fed back into the leadership, culture, and communication processes to
perpetuate a cycle of organizational success. Findings led to development of a model for
internal relationship building (see Figure 1) explained through several theoretical
propositions:
1. An organizational leader’s faith and vision can drive leadership style,
organizational culture, and internal public relations processes.
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2. Leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public relations processes
influence each other to create specific cultural values, leader-employee interaction
characteristics, and communication values.
3. The confluence of leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public
relations processes forms the basis for relationship-building and employee
leadership development outcomes,
4. Relationship strength, organizational unity, and intentional leadership
development perpetuate the organization’s espouse leadership style/model,
cultural values, and internal public relations excellence, thus serving as the keys
to organizational success.
Applying these theoretical propositions, the model shows the organizational
founder’s/top leader’s faith and vision as driving the entire organization, providing a
strong foundation from which to establish a specific leadership style—authentic,
transformational, principle-centered, and servant; organizational culture—spiritually
based; and excellent internal public relations processes and practices—two-way
symmetrical. These three elements, represented by the three ovals, exert influence on
each other; as participants noted, changing any one of these elements (i.e., enacting a
different leadership style or constraining open, two-way internal communication) would
greatly affect the other components’ ability to exist in their current state. Moreover, these
three elements work consistently and cooperatively with each other to foster intentional,
positive, and people driven cultural maintenance, interpersonal communication, and
employee empowerment/growth. Specifically, cultural maintenance elements encompass
practices of hiring/firing according to cultural fit, cultural storytelling, and intentional
cultural training. In addition, interpersonal communication is characterized by frequent,
open, timely, and two-way interactions between leaders and employees—evidence of
internal public relations excellence. Finally, employee empowerment/growth stems from
intentional leadership training, participatory idea generation and decision-making, and
control mutuality.
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Founder/Leader Faith & Vision
Authentic/Transformational/
Servant/Principled
Leader Style
Spiritually Based
Organizational Culture
Excellent Internal Public
Relations Practices
Intentional, Positive, People-Driven
Cultural Maintenance,
Interpersonal Communication, &
Employee Empowerment/Growth
Relational Strength
Organizational Unity
Employee Leadership Development
Figure 1. McCown’s model of internal relationship building.
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The organizational realities depicted in the oval resulting from the confluence of
leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public relations practices combine to
produce a hybrid environment which nurtures relational strength, organizational unity,
and employee leadership development. As the data revealed, relational strength grows out
of trust, control mutual, organizational commitment, and loyalty, motivation/
productivity, and job satisfaction/enjoyment. In addition, organizational unity is
demonstrated through participants’ high dedication to teamwork and commitment to
“living out” the organization’s mission, vision, and values. Finally, employee leadership
development clearly occurs through specific leadership training and coaching sessions,
leader modeling, and intentional career path planning. In turn, these three outcomes feed
back into the environment to perpetuate the organization’s defining characteristics,
ultimately leading to organizational unity and success.
Theoretical implications
Although many studies have examined dyadic relationships of leadership style
influence on public relations and on organizational culture, or organizational culture
influence on public relations, no research explored the confluence of all three and their
resulting effect on a spiritually based organization’s ability to achieve strong internal
relationships. These findings enhance understanding of how these phenomena come
together to produce internal relationship building as the key to organizational success.
Going beyond previous studies identifying leadership styles not conducive to
internal public relations excellence and strong employee-leader relationship building (i.e.,
Dozier et al., 1995; J. E. Grunig, 1992; L. A. Grunig et al., 2002), and building on the few
studies that specified leadership style(s) that may actually strengthen public relations
excellence and relationship-building (Aldoory & Toth, 2004; McCown 2005a, 2005b,
2006, 2007), this study’s findings indicate that authentic leadership style as enacted
through transformational, principle-centered, and servant leadership strategies positively
influenced internal public relations and led to strong relationship-building, not only
between leaders and employees, but also among employees at various organizational
levels. Leadership’s value for employees as people as well as a desire to serve them and
empower them to do their jobs/reach their potential was key. Despite assertions that
organic, open, participatory cultures are most conducive to excellent internal public
relations (Dozier et al., 1995; J. E. Grunig, 1992; L. A. Grunig et al., 2002), no studies
examined a spiritually based organizational culture’s influence on employee
communication. This study indicated that commitment to specific principles (in this case,
biblically based) that elevate valuing people through respectful, open communication has
a profound influence on the organization’s ability to practice excellent internal public
relations. Thus, the resulting model for internal public relationship-building further offers
scholars a theoretical understanding of how an organizational leader’s faith and vision
can drive enactment of particular leadership styles, organizational culture, and internal
communication. Through intentionality, positivity, and value for people in maintaining
culture, interpersonal communication, and employee empowerment/growth,
organizational leaders—working with those responsible for internal public relations—can
build strong relationships, promote organizational unity, and develop employees as
leaders to create a self-perpetuating cycle of increased organizational success.
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Practical implications
This study also poses several implications for applied practice of internal public
relations. First, organizational leaders can, and perhaps should, allow their faith and
vision to contribute meaningfully to the types of leadership style, organizational culture,
and internal communication practices promoted within an organization. As
CommunityBankCorp has demonstrated, spirituality can provide a strong foundation for
shared organizational values and behavioral expectations/principles. However, leaders
must be careful to maintain respect for employees from other faith traditions or no faith
traditions to foster buy0in to those values, expectations, and principles. Second,
enactment of authentic, transformational, principle-centered, and servant leadership styles
coupled with open, two-way symmetrical internal communication within a spiritually
based organizational culture should, according to the model, produce positive, peopledriven
cultural values, interpersonal communication, and employee
empowerment/growth. In praxis, leaders and public relations professionals must be
consistent, intentional, and unified in maintaining these specific leadership styles, cultural
values, and excellent communication processes. Commitment to constant training and
reinforcement will be required across all organizational levels. In addition, leaders must
employ carful hiring and firing practices based on foundational cultural values,
behavioral expectations, and principles. In short, for the model to work, the organization
must “practice what it preaches.”
Finally, the resulting outcomes of relational strength, organizational unity, and
employee leadership development will feed back into maintaining organizational success
over time. Special attention must be paid to encouraging these outcomes from the top
leadership trickling out through mid-level leaders to employees at all levels. Again,
intentional, consistent organization-wide training, modeling, and mentoring will help
ensure a perpetuating cycle of success. As leaders model positive, respectful relationship
building and as appropriate hiring/firing practices (with careful attention to cultural fit)
are employed, employees at all levels should begin to emulate this behavior. Public
relations professionals, through facilitating face-to0face communication as well as
through cultural maintenance strategies such as vision/values communication,
storytelling, and relationship-building informally and through activities, should help to
facilitate this perpetuating cycle as well.
Future research. Directions for future research include further model
testing/development, specifically its staying power within the original organization and
its potential applicability and universality in both similar and dissimilar organizations. In
addition, testing the importance of cultural maintenance assessment within the
organization as well as specifically exploring the role of listening in achieving internal
public relations excellence will enhance understanding of the hybrid confluences depicted
here.
Due to its unique context and combination of research streams as well as the
resulting model, this study is theoretically and descriptively rich, adding to the
understanding of internal relationship management found in mainstream public relations
research. For too long, employees have been passed over as a critically value public and a
crucial research topic; yet without them—and more importantly, without greater
understanding of how to best build relationships between them and organizational
leaders—businesses would experience constraint in their ability to practice both internal
187

and external public relations with excellence. Ultimately, this study’s most important
scholarly contribution is focused attention on an organization’s exemplary combination
of specific leadership styles, organizational culture, and internal public relations practices
that give voice to its employees, clearly identifying internal organizational
communication as critical for effective future public relations practice.
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194

Prioritizing Stakeholders for Public Relations: A Case Study of Envirocare
Kenneth D. Plowman and Brad L. Rawlins
Brigham Young University
plowman@byu.edu
The value of stakeholders to the successful operation of businesses and other
organizations have received greater emphasis in the business and public relations
literature. Traditionally, businesses have almost exclusively focused on the value of
stockholders, employees and customers to help them reach their goals. However, there
are other groups, without as much vested interest in the success of the organization,
which can also affect business policy and the bottom line. The question becomes, how
do you identify these groups and when can you know when they will have an impact?
This is the question at the heart of stakeholder theory, and inadequate answers to the
question have lead several scholars to criticize the theory and its subsequent artifact,
stakeholder management.
Some of the holes in the stakeholder literature can be plugged by research
conducted in the field of public relations. In particular, public relations studies help to
identify ways to prioritize publics in certain situations, and which publics are important in
your communication strategies during these situations. This paper will merge the
literature of stakeholder theory, stakeholder management, and public relations to develop
a prioritizing strategy that is focused on the need to maintain key relationships during
times of conflict. The strategy is based on three steps: First, identifying stakeholders;
Second, prioritizing the stakeholders according to their attributes; and Third, prioritizing
the stakeholders according to their level of interest in the situation.
Defining Stakeholders and Publics
As Grunig and Repper (1992) noted, “often the terms stakeholder and public are
used synonymously” (p. 125). Stakeholders have been identified in the business
literature according to their relationships to organizations. Publics, in the public relations
and other mass media literature, are often identified according to their relationship to a
message.
Stakeholders
Freeman and Reed (2008) assert that “the stakeholder notion is…a simple one. It
says that there are other groups to whom the corporation is responsible in addition to
stockholders: those groups who have a stake in the actions of the corporation” (p. 49).
The most quoted definition of a stakeholder in business literature is that given by
Freeman (1984) in his book, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Freeman
says a stakeholder is “any group or individual who is affected by or can affect the
achievement of an organization’s objectives” (Freeman, 1984). In earlier writings, this
definition is what Freeman refers to as the wide sense of a stakeholder; however, he also
spoke of the narrow sense of a stakeholder when he described it as, “any identifiable
group or individual on which the organization is dependent for its continued survival”
(Freeman & Reed, 2008, p. 51). Preston and Donaldson (1995) agreed with the
definitions of Freeman and other scholars, but are careful to make an important addition:
“Stakeholders are identified by their interests in the corporation,” regardless of the
corporation’s interest in them. Other scholars are specific when they say the stakeholders
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of a firm are individuals or groups “that contribute, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to
its wealth-creating capacity and activities” (Post, Preston & Sachs, 2002).
Publics
“Publics” is the term used for stakeholders in the public relations literature.
Because the public relations profession evolved from journalism, the term has frequently
been related to the recipients of messages from organizations. These publics, or more
accurately, “audiences,” become segmented into more homogenous subsets that help
communicators choose appropriate channels for reaching them. However, research in
public relations has recently turned to the value of the relationships these publics have
with organizations. This emphasis has encouraged adaptation of the term “stakeholder”
in both practice and scholarship.
Grunig (1992) separated stakeholders from publics by focusing on issues that
form different levels of publics. As Grunig and Repper (1992) argued, organizations
choose certain stakeholders by their marketing strategies, recruiting, and investment
plans, but “publics arise on their own and choose the organization for attention” (p. 128).
Publics organize from among the ranks of stakeholders when they recognize a problem
and decide to do something to seek redress.
Identifying Stakeholders
Jennings (2001) argued that stakeholder theory does not provide direction as to
how the theory should work. She, and other scholars, criticize the theory stating it does
not make clear who is a stakeholder and who is not (Dunham, Freeman, Leidtka, 2001;
Preston & Sapienza, 1990; Jennings, 2001). These scholars claim that stakeholder theory
focuses heavily on the importance of meeting the needs of all stakeholders, but does not
tell anyone who the stakeholders actually are or how to identify them. It is because of this
uncertainty that so many different, yet similar, definitions of who and what a stakeholder
is have arisen. Sternberg (1999) also lashed out against the idea by saying, “If the
stakeholders include all who can affect or are affected by the organization, the number of
groups whose benefits need to be included in the calculation will be infinite.” Therefore,
“stakeholder theorists and practitioners must move toward a ‘names and faces’
orientation, seeking a highly specific understanding of and communication with each
stakeholder” (Dunham et al 2001). Employees, customers, shareholders, communities
and suppliers are those most commonly classified as stakeholders within an organization
(Winn, 2001; Dunham, et. al., 2001).
Several scholars in stakeholder theory, including Freeman, have attempted to
identify stakeholders using systematic models and criteria. However, the focus has been
on the attributes of the stakeholders in their relation to the organization. For example,
whether the stakeholders could influence the organization or were dependent on the
organization (Freeman, 1984; Savage, Nix, Whitehead & Blair, 1991; Harrison & St.
John, 1994; and Mitchell, Agle & Wood, 1997). This categorization of stakeholders fits
the second stage of prioritization according to the model proposed here. Before
identifying stakeholder attributes, all stakeholders should be identified according to their
relationships to the organization, not their attributes.
In the public relations literature, there has been little effort to identify
stakeholders according to the relationship with the organization. Some stakeholder
segmentations are as simple as internal versus external publics. Perhaps the best effort to
identify all stakeholders from the public relations literature is the linkage model
196

developed by Grunig and Hunt (1984). This model, based on the work of Milton Esman
(1972), William Evan (1976) and Talcott Parsons (1976), has four linkages that identify
stakeholder relationships to an organization: enabling linkages, functional linkages,
diffused linkages, and normative linkages.
As Rawlins and Bowen (2005) explained, the enabling linkages identify
stakeholders who have some control and authority over the organization, such as
stockholders, board of directors, governmental legislators and regulators, etc. These
stakeholders enable an organization to have resources and autonomy to operate. When
enabling relationships falter, the resources can be withdrawn and the autonomy of the
organization restricted.
Functional linkages are those that are essential to the function of the organization,
and are divided between input functions that provide labor and resources to create
products or services (such as employees and suppliers) and output functions that consume
the products or services (such as consumers and retailers).
Normative linkages are associations or groups with which the organization has a
common interest. Stakeholders in the normative linkage share similar values, goals or
problems and often include competitors that belong to industrial or professional
associations.
Diffused linkages are the most difficult to identify because they include
stakeholders who do not have frequent interaction with the organization, but become
involved based on the actions of the organization. These are the publics that often arise
in times of a crisis. This linkage includes the media, the community, activists, and other
special interest groups.
Prioritizing Stakeholders According to Attributes
The first step in the prioritizing model is to identify all stakeholders using the
linkage model. Stakeholder theory attempts to answer the question, “Which groups are
stakeholders deserving or requiring management attention and which are not” (Mitchell,
Agle, & Wood, 1997). From a strategic point of view, stakeholders are prioritized
according to the self-interests (see the subheading on situational for more explanation) of
the organization (Berman, Wicks, Kotha, & Jones, 1999). Since it is impossible that all
stakeholders will have the same interests in and demands on the firm, one scholar
specifies that stakeholder theory be about “managing potential conflict stemming from
diverging interests” (Winn, 2001). Once organizations have identified their stakeholders,
there is a struggle for attention: who to give it to, who to give more to, and who to not
give it to at all. Sacrificing the needs of one stakeholder for the needs of the other is a
realistic, yet difficult concept to accomplish. When these conflicts arise it is important to
the success of the organization that it has prioritized the value of the stakeholder
relationships. Otherwise, it might spend undue resources on publics that are minimally
tied to organizational goals.
Much of the literature in stakeholder theory and stakeholder management
prioritizes stakeholders based on their attributes. Harrison and St. John (1994) sorted
stakeholders according to Freeman’s (1984) original classification: stake in the
organization and influence on behavior. Stake is broken down into three parts: those
stakeholders who have ownership in the organization; those stakeholders who are
economically dependent on the organization; and, those stakeholders who are not linked
directly to an organization, but who are interested in seeing the organization act socially
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esponsible. The authors also suggested classifying stakeholders by determining the
extent to which an organization is dependent on them for survival and prosperity. The
stakes are broken down by the potential to influence behavior, which Freeman (1984)
identified as formal (contractual or regulatory), economic, and political.
Savage, Nix, Whitehead and Blair (1991) considered two attributes for identifying
who is a stakeholder: a claim, and the ability to influence. This introduces the concepts
of legitimacy and power as important attributes for recognizing stakeholders. Savage et
al. (1991) then used the attributes of cooperation and threat to identify four different
types of stakeholders: the supportive, the marginal, the non-supportive and the mixed
blessing stakeholder. The supportive stakeholder supports the actions and goals of the
organization and is a low threat. The marginal stakeholder really has a minimal stake in
the organization and isn’t very threatening. The non-supportive stakeholder is a threat to
the organization and is always a concern for managers because they are the least likely to
cooperate. The mixed blessing stakeholder has a potential for great cooperation as well as
threat for the organization.
Building on to the Savage et al. (1991) model, Mitchell et al. (1997) identified
stakeholders by their possession of power, legitimacy and urgency. Their model
expanded the limited scope by recognizing that legitimacy and power was not either/or
variables, but part of a mix that would help prioritize stakeholders. By combining these
attributes, Mitchell et al. were also able to identify the dependent stakeholder, which was
missing from the Savage et al. model. Dependency of stakeholders on organizations is
just as important as their influence over organizations in the context of social
responsibility.
Stakeholders have power when they can influence other parties to make decisions
the party would not have otherwise made. Mitchell et al. (1997) relied on Etzioni’s
(1964) categorization of power: coercive power, based on the physical resources of
force, violence, or restraint; utilitarian power, based on material or financial resources;
and normative power, based on symbolic resources. Power is not a constant attribute,
and can be lost or gained by stakeholders.
Other stakeholders are attached to the organization by a legal, moral, or presumed
claim (legitimacy) that can influence the organization’s behavior, direction, process or
outcome. Clarkson (1994) identified stakeholders as risk-bearers who have “invested
some form of capital, human or financial, something of value, in a firm” (p. 5). Mitchell
et al. (1997) used the notion of risk to narrow stakeholders with a legitimate claim. These
stakeholders are often dependent on the organization. The combination of power and
legitimacy is authority.
Urgency exists under two conditions: “(1) when a relationship or claim is of a
time-sensitive nature and (2) when that relationship or claim is important or critical to the
stakeholder” (Mitchell et al., 1997). Urgency, then, requires organizations to respond to
stakeholder claims in a timely fashion. Urgency alone may not predict the priority of a
stakeholder, especially if the other two attributes are missing. However, this attribute
does add a dimension that is particularly salient to the practice of public relations,
because it is the urgent public that often attracts the attention of the media and other
stakeholders.
Mitchell et al. (1997) used the combination of the three attributes to develop a
prioritization strategy. Accordingly, latent stakeholders possess only one of the attributes;
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expectant stakeholders possess two attributes, and definitive stakeholders possess all
three attributes. If individuals or groups do not possess any of the attributes, they are not
considered stakeholders (Mitchell & Agle, 1997).
The stakeholders who have all three attributes are definitive stakeholders and
should be the most salient to management. An important tenet of the Mitchell et al.
(1997) model is that each attribute is variable and not constant. In other words, any
group can acquire power, legitimacy, or urgency depending on the situation. Therefore,
an expectant stakeholder group can become a definitive stakeholder if it acquires the third
attribute. A dangerous stakeholder group can acquire legitimacy, as has been the case
with many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) over the last few years. In fact,
according to a recent study on trust, NGOs are more trusted in many countries, including
the United States, than are corporations and government (Edelman, 2005). A dependent
stakeholder group can acquire power, such as a community affected by irresponsible
corporate behavior, by appealing to governmental agencies. As Savage et al. (1991)
noted, each of these groups could be supportive or threatening, and stakeholder strategies
would be dependent on the level of support.
After synthesizing the linkage model with other stakeholder attribute models, a
priority hierarchy becomes apparent. The enabling and functional linkages are the most
important for an organization to maintain long-term success, or what systems theory calls
homeostasis. The enabling linkages, such as stockholders and regulatory agencies, have
power over the organization, and their interests are usually legitimate, thereby dominant
stakeholders by definition. If the issue affecting enabling stakeholders is urgent, then
they become definitive stakeholders and would be given highest priority. Enabling
stakeholders can also have ownership of the organization and economic and formal
(regulatory) influence on the organization according to the model developed by Harrison
and St. John (1994).
Functional linkages providing the input necessary to create a product or service
include employees, suppliers, and unions, and are also given a high priority. These
stakeholders have constant contact with the organization and high levels of involvement.
They are economically dependent on the organization, and as such, the power resides
primarily with the organization. In this case, the organization has a moral and legal
responsibility to those stakeholders that also increases their priority. The relationship of
employees is also critical to the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. As such,
these publics have legitimate interests in the operations of the organization. Employees
would fall under the necessary compatible relationship identified by Friedman and Miles
(2002), whereas unions would probably fall under the necessary incompatible
relationship. Savage, et. al (1991) identified unions under the nonsupportive stakeholder
category, suggesting they can be a threat to organizational goals.
Functional output stakeholders consume what the organization produces, and
include consumers, distributors, and retailers. Scholars have noted the recent shift in
power from the producers to the retailers, citing large chains such as Wal-Mart, Priority
and Costco as primarily responsible for this shift. Companies know that long-term
customer relations are necessary for financial success. Because these stakeholders have
power, legitimacy, and economic influence, any issue that imminently affects their
relationship gives them high priority. Savage, et. al (1991) considered consumers and
employees as mixed blessing stakeholders because they can be supportive or non-
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supportive depending on the actions of the organization. They suggested a collaborative
strategy with these stakeholders.
Normative linkages, such as competitors, have little direct power over the
organization, but are considered a non-supportive threat by Savage, et. al (1991). They
fall under the contingent incompatible relationship much of the time, and most
organizations devise ways to eliminate them rather than foster positive relations. The
only time they become important for cooperative purposes is when the industry is facing
an issue with economic or regulatory impact, in which the peer organizations develop a
contingency compatible relationship until the issue is resolved. For example, chemical
manufacturers may rally together to fight increased environmental standards that would
damage their profitability.
Diffused stakeholders are the most problematic, because they do not have direct
relationships with the organizations. Because these stakeholders are reactive to
organizational actions, they are harder to predict and to recognize. These are contingency
publics, or what Savage, et. al (1991) called a marginal stakeholder group. Diffused
publics are usually situational and their relationship to the organization is often
temporary. These publics do not have a lot of power over the organization, and their
legitimacy is sometimes suspect. What they have that gives them priority is urgency,
because the issue is usually something that may imminently affect the organization.
Because they lack the power and direct influence of other stakeholders, diffused
stakeholders will attempt to affect the organization by working through members of the
enabling or functional linkages according to Rawlins and Bowen (2005). In this sense
the diffused stakeholders shift from marginal stakeholders to non-supportive
stakeholders, which Savage et al (1991) identified as likely to form coalitions with other
stakeholders to damage the competitiveness of the organization. Therefore, the diffused
stakeholders attack the organization through those who have more power and influence
on the organization, namely the enabling and functional linkages. Activist groups ask
consumers to boycott products, or NGO’s ask government to increase regulations to
prevent certain activities. Because of the appeal process of the diffused stakeholders,
these groups cannot be ignored, and to do so can lead to serious financial losses and
damaged reputations.
To sum, the enabling and functional linkages have the greatest priority as
stakeholders because their power/dependency/influence relationship is frequent and
critical to the regular operations of the organization. Normative linkages, as competitors,
are constantly on the mind of the organization, but not as groups that have a stake in the
operations of the organization. This only changes when the industry or profession is
faced with a crisis that requires cooperative effort. The diffused linkages do not require
as much attention and have a lesser priority, except when they react to an organization’s
action or policy. Urgency is the variable that increases the priority of any of these
stakeholders. However, this method of prioritizing does not answer the question of who
will become the active groups in urgent situations. The next step will address that
problem.
Prioritizing Stakeholders for the Relationship to the Situation
As noted before, Grunig and Repper (1992) made a distinction between publics
and stakeholders. “Stakeholders are people who are linked to an organization because
they and the organization have consequences on each other—they cause problems for
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each other” (p. 125). Examples of this include employees or residents of a community,
which Grunig and Repper suggest are often passive. On the other hand, “the stakeholders
who are or become more aware and active can be described as publics.” (p. 125).
Building on the Dewey (1927) definition of a public— that it is a group of people
who face a similar problem, recognize the problem, and organize themselves to do
something about it—J. Grunig (1983) segmented publics based on active or passive
communication behavior. Those publics who do not face a problem are non-publics,
those who face the problem but do not recognize it as problematic are latent publics,
those who recognize the problem are aware publics, and those who do something about
the problem are active publics. Grunig (1989) identified three variables that explain why
certain people become active in certain situations. These variables— level of
involvement, problem recognition, and constraint recognition—led to the development of
the situational theory of public behavior. Grunig and other researchers have used
situational theory to explain communication behavior and “the effect that communicating
has on cognitions, attitudes, and other behaviors” (Grunig & Repper, p. 135).
Level of involvement is measured by the extent to which people connect
themselves personally with the situation. However, people do not seek or process
information unless they recognize the connection between them and a problem, which is
the level of problem recognition. Whether people move beyond information processing
to the information seeking behavior of active publics often depends on whether they think
they can do something about the problem. Those who think that nothing can be done
have high constraint recognition and are less compelled to become active in the
resolution of the problem. Another consideration, referent criteria, is the guideline that
people apply to new situations based on previous experiences with the issue or the
organization involved.
Grunig and Repper (1992) concluded, “Publics consist of people with similar
levels of problem recognition, constraint recognition, and involvement for the same
issues or problems” (p. 139). Grunig (1983) tested the theory using problems that would
create active and passive publics, and found four kinds of publics: all-issue publics, that
are active on all issues; apathetic publics, that are inattentive to all issues; single-issue
publics, that are active on a small subset of the issue that only concerns them; and hotissue
publics, that are active on a single issue that involves nearly everyone and that has
received a lot of media attention.
To summarize this step, active publics will have more priority over aware and
latent publics. Whether stakeholders will become active publics can be predicted by
whether the problem involves them, whether they recognize the problem, and whether
they think they can do anything about it. Publics in the diffused linkage are more likely
to be single-issue publics or hot-issue publics, and their priority will diminish once the
problem is resolved. Enabling and functional linkages are also likely to only become
active on issues that involve them, but because the behavior of the organization has more
of an impact on their power/dependency/influence relationship, they are also more likely
to be multiple-issue publics.
Referring back to the section on attributes, a latent public has lower salience to an
organization because they only have one of the three attributes of power, legitimacy and
urgency. These stakeholders are further identified as dormant, discretionary, and
demanding. The dormant stakeholder has power but no legitimacy or urgency in its
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claim. Therefore its power remains unused. Discretionary stakeholders possess
legitimacy, but no power to influence and no urgency in the claim, and therefore are
reliant on the good will of the organization rather than through any other pressure. This
group most likely falls under what Carroll (1991) called discretionary social
responsibility, which is a reliance on corporate philanthropy according to Mitchell et al.
(1997). The demanding stakeholder has urgency, but no legitimacy or power. These
groups could be bothersome, but not dangerous.
Expectant stakeholders are a mix of the Grunig and Repper (1992) defined active
and aware publics. They possess two attributes and thereby increase their saliency but
that saliency may only be an awareness of an issue, not active involvement. These
stakeholders are organized into dominant, dependent, and dangerous stakeholders.
Dominant stakeholders have power and legitimacy but may be only aware publics, but
because they can easily become active, they receive much of management’s attention.
Dependent stakeholders have legitimacy and urgency and can be active publics. The
inclusion of a dependent relationship in the prioritization scheme is important because it
recognizes that stakeholder priority is not limited to influence over the organization.
Organizations should be socially and morally responsible to stakeholders that have a
legitimate and urgent claim, and who depend on the organization to address and resolve
the claim. Dangerous stakeholders are definitely active publics, have urgency and power,
but lack legitimacy. These stakeholders may become violent or coercive to achieve their
claims. Social activist groups sometimes engage in forms of protests, boycotts, and (in
extreme cases) damage to property and lives.
In order for a firm to effectively manage its stakeholders the self-interests, “the
interests of key stakeholders must be integrated in the very purpose of the firm, and
stakeholder relationships must be managed in a coherent and strategic fashion” (Freeman
& McVae, 2001). These self-interests can be defined those underlying, broader and more
abstract values that individuals and organizations may have in common (Fisher, Ury, &
Patton, 1990). Self –interests, from the public relations literature, are not necessarily
selfish interests but those interests that have intrinsic value for the survival of an entity,
e.g. quality of life, needs of family and friends, and even economic well-being (Wilson,
2005). These self-interests motivate individuals and organizations to act and to change
behavior.
Taken one step further, enlightened self-interests assist relationships to be
mutually satisfactory in the long-term among related stakeholders. This is inherently
two-way symmetrical as in the models literature of public relations because stakeholders
have a constraining effect; they have consequences for each other. The basic survival of
an organization in the long-term depends on the relationship of self-interests and
enlightened self-interests between it and its stakeholders (Plowman, 2005). L. Grunig, J.
Grunig and Dozier (2002) “suggested that using the two-way symmetrical model or the
combination of the two-way symmetrical and the two-way asymmetrical models that was
then called the mixed-motive model could almost always increase the contribution of
public relations to organizational effectiveness.”
To complete a discussion of publics, there is another critical step. According to
Wilson (2005), there are three types of publics to consider when developing
communication strategies: priority publics, intervening publics, and influentials.
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Priority publics are those whose participation and cooperation are required to
accomplish organizational goals. In relation to the first two steps, they are the
stakeholders who have the highest priority according to their
power/dependency/influence relationship, the urgency of the issue, and their level of
active involvement in the issue. To communicate effectively with these stakeholders, an
organization must understand them as much as possible. Priority publics can be profiled
by their demographics, lifestyles and values, media preferences, influentials, and selfinterests.
Effective strategies appeal to the self-interests of the priority publics and reach
them through the most appropriate channels. At the same time, knowing publics
according to these characteristics will help an organization plan goals consistent with its
publics’ needs and interests.
The intervening publics pass information on to the priority publics and act as
opinion leaders. Sometimes these publics, such as the media, are erroneously identified
as priority publics. If an organization is satisfied when the message stops at a public,
then it is a priority public. If the expectation is that the message will be disseminated to
others, it is an intervening public. In most cases the media are intervening publics. Other
influentials can be important intervening publics, such as doctors who pass information
on to patients, and teachers who pass information on to students. The success of many
campaigns is determined by the strength of relationships with intervening publics.
Influentials can be intervening publics, but they also affect the success of public
relations efforts in other ways. Influentials can either support an organization’s efforts or
work against them. Members of some publics will turn to opinion leaders to verify or
refute messages coming from organizations. The opinion of these personal sources is
much more influential than the public relations messages alone. Therefore, successful
campaigns must also consider how messages will be interpreted by influentials that act as
either intervening or supporting publics. However, Spicer (2007) wrote of stakeholders
and influentials in terms of risk: “stakeholders with claims incur risk, influencers do not”
(p. 30).
In summary, stakeholders that become active publics and that can influence the
success of an organization, or can appeal to the other stakeholders with that influence,
should become priority publics for communication strategies. Publics that are critical to
getting the information to the priority publics, such as the media, need to be recognized
as intervening publics and critical to the success of the communication strategy.
Influential groups or individuals may not be stakeholders in the organization, but may be
important in shaping or framing the way the message is interpreted by the priority public,
and therefore must be a part of the communication strategy.
Conclusion
The first three steps to stakeholder analysis, according to Harrison and St. John
(1994), are to identify stakeholders, classify them into meaningful groups, and prioritize
them. By combining the stakeholder relations and public relations literature, a more
comprehensive process for prioritizing the stakeholder groups, particularly those that
become active publics has been provided.
Developing positive relationships with stakeholders is a necessity for
organizations. “The traditional management tendency is to respond to the squeaky wheel
stakeholder,” (Savage, Nix, Whitehead, & Blair, 1991). If the organization has not
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properly prioritized its stakeholders and their relationships, the squeaky wheel
stakeholder may get more attention than is deserved.
Too often the squeaky wheel is attributed to the stockholders. One of the reasons
there is so much confusion and conflict over stakeholder theory is that too many
managers and scholars see stakeholder management as the enemy of stockholder
management. Some managers feel the only way to effectively manage stakeholders is by
putting the interests of stockholders somewhere other than first on the list. This leads to a
stakeholder versus stockholder perspective, and eventually leads to conflict.
Freeman & McVae (2001) believed that stakeholder theory should never be
viewed in a stakeholder versus stockholder perspective. The days of always putting the
stockholders at the top of the list, no matter what, are gone. “Stockholder theory is an
idea whose time has come and gone…. I believe we can safely say that the stockholder
theory is or at least should be intellectually dead” (Freeman, 1994). Certainly
shareholders will consistently be one of the key stakeholders in a firm, but there needs to
be a balance; there will be times when shareholder interests should not come first.
Ogden and Watson (1999) conducted a study in the United Kingdom on the
recently privatized water industry. By observing different companies that sell the same
good (water), Ogden and Watson learned what effective organizations did well. The
researchers observed that there were times when managers put the interests of customers
in front of the interests of the organization’s shareholders, not knowing what the reaction
would be. Ogden and Watson (1999) concluded that “It is possible, to some extent, to
align the apparently conflicting concerns of different stakeholders” (Ogden & Watson,
1999).
Similarly, Preston and Sapienza (1990) evaluated 108 companies’ stakeholder
relationships. The authors concluded, “We can say that there is no indication in this data
that managers have pursued growth objectives (or short-term profits) at the expense of
major stakeholder interests. Instead, the higher the growth and profit indicators, the more
favorable the performance ratings for most major stakeholders” (Preston & Sapienza,
1990).
This research provides evidence that the squeaky wheel may not be the
stakeholder with the greatest priority. By using the steps outlined in this paper,
organizations can take a more systematic and comprehensive approach to prioritizing
stakeholders. By using the three steps in the Prioritizing Model below, a stakeholder
analysis was conducted of Envirocare, a hot-waste processing company in Utah.
According to Jensen and Uddameri (2009), models are most useful if they are based on
real-world scenarios.
Place Model Approximately Here (See separate page at end)
Methodology
A qualitative case study of Envirocare and Initiative One that was placed on the
ballot in 2002 was conducted to investigate the three steps of stakeholder analysis
previously explicated. The initiative would have banned hotter levels of radioactive
waste than currently being processed in Utah and raised taxes on existing levels of waste
by 1000 percent (Unfairtax, 2002). Revenues would have gone to public programs such
as schools and homeless relief, but the initiative would eventually result in the
bankruptcy of Envirocare.
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Collection of data triangulated (Yin, 2009) direct observation, documents, and
interviews. Direct observation included field notes collected from 9 observers visit to
Envirocare headquarters and plant site, documents on Initiative One collected from
proponents and opponents of the initiative, and interviews of many of the stakeholder
groups.
Analysis of data consisted of categorizing (the patterns of Yin, 2009) for the three
steps from all three sources of evidence. To clarify, identifying stakeholders consisted of
a broader category of internal and external stakeholders who have consequences for
Envirocare on Initiative One. Prioritizing stakeholders for attributes include power,
legitimacy and urgency that also fall under enabling, functional, normative, an diffused
linkages. The attributes mean nothing without the context of the situation, covering
active, aware, latent publics as well as the support relationship involved in the singleissue
regulatory environment of the normative and diffused linkages.
Results
Background
In the 1980’s Vitro Company closed in the Salt Lake area. Its closure left
radioactive sludge and uranium waste, which the government had an urgent need to clean
up. As a result, government surveyors searched for and located what to them was the
ideal waste storage site. It was located 60 miles west of Salt Lake City in a practically
biologically dead area. After the federal government disposed of the radioactive
substances created by Vitro, the door had opened for other firms to capitalize upon the
reserved storage area identified. Soon after Vitro had disposed of its radioactive
materials in Tooele County, Envirocare purchased 100 acres of land and established its
waste processing and storage facilities in the same area.
The Department of Energy’s atomic testing in parts of southern Utah and Nevada
that affected thousands of people created sharp distrust and disapproval of all activities in
the state that involved radioactive substances. Envirocare processes level A low-level
radioactive materials, though they recently received their federal license to process higher
levels of B and C wastes as well. In Utah, it is necessary for both the legislature and the
governor to activate such a license, which was the cause of much civil unrest and the
beginning of Initiative One.
According to Bette Arial of Envirocare, one of its future competitors, Waste
Control Specialists of Texas, in an attempt to impede Envirocare’s ability to gain access
to the lucrative market of processing levels B and C waste, funded the political
movements in Utah to legislate against the activation of Envirocare’s newly issued
license. Through lobbyists and opinion leaders Frank Pignanelli and Doug Foxley, this
Texas-based organization began its destructive campaign efforts in Utah to petition
Envirocare’s license approval and continuance in Utah. Other anti-radioactive waste
organizations such as Sierra Club, Heal Utah, Physicians for Social Responsibility,
Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance, Families Against Incinerator Risk, Utah Rivers
Council, Citizens Against Chlorine Contamination, Friends of Great Salt Lake, Utah
Legislative Watch and the Downwinders participated in the lobbying efforts and
successfully submitted a petition to the legislature with sufficient signatures to place
Initiative One on the ballot.
If the majority of Utah voters had supported Initiative One, then Envirocare
would have been forced to eventually file bankruptcy and to cease operation. As a
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esult, it is essential for Envirocare to effectively perform a stakeholder analysis and
identify and prioritize each stakeholder to formulate an effective campaign with which
they can defeat Initiative One in the upcoming elections.
Identifying Stakeholder Groups
In any communications campaign, the first and most vital step is to identify
stakeholders and their relation to the company’s objectives. This can be done through the
linkage model of enabling, functional, normative and diffused links.
Enabling. An enabling link between a stakeholder and an organization is a
connection in which the stakeholder is responsible for allowing the organization to exist.
In relation to Envirocare, most enabling stakeholders are those related to government
bodies both national and state. This is because as a waste disposal facility the actions of
Envirocare fall under a variety of governmental regulatory agencies ranging from the
EPA to the DOD. If any of these agencies were to decide against Envirocare on any
matter and impose sanctions or fines on the company than Envirocare would not be able
to function and would eventually shut down. Therefore Envirocare depends on the
continual support of these enabling publics to be able to continue operations. The main
enabling stakeholders for Envirocare are:
- Regulatory government bodies. State, local and Federal. (e.g. Utah Department of
Transportation, Utah Radiation Commission, Utah Health and Water, Utah Water
Quality, Utah Health Department, Tooele County, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Dep. of Energy, Department of
Defense etc.
All of these agencies are in the same group because an elected official that wishes
reappointment heads each. Their application of policy and their stance on Initiative One
directly reflects upon the federal government that would affect their potential for reelection.
The authority vested in each organization mentioned above enables them to
shut down or perpetuate Envirocare’s operations.
- Toole County government (Tooele Mayor: Charlie Roberts; County
Commissioner: Dennis Rockwell; Chamber of Commerce Director: Jack Howard;
School board)
- Clientele (Defense Department, State governments, defense contractors dealing
with nuclear technology)
- Utah government (Governor, Senator, Legislature)
Functional Linkage. A functional link between a stakeholder and an organization
means that the group in question allows the organization to function in its day to day
operations. The most obvious example of this would be employees of the organization
because without the employees the company would cease to function. In the case of
Envirocare, transportation and emergency management stakeholders are also vital to the
running of the company because without them the company would not be able to
effectively function. The main functional stakeholders for Envirocare are:
- Employees (on-site medical, clean-up crews)
- Emergency management (S. Dep. Highway Patrol, Regional Medical Center and
Fire District, Wendover emergency response units, Utah Division of Radiation
Control.)
- Owner of Envirocare
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Diffused Linkage. A diffused stakeholder is one which arises suddenly in order
to lobby against the company in question or to try and disrupt operations in some other
way. These are publics which would not normally be a public and become one simply in
response to a perceived threat or are normally categorized in a different public but
become a diffused stakeholder because of some issue. Envirocare’s diffused stakeholders
are:
- Tooele County Citizens
Normative Linkage. A normative stakeholder is one that has common interests
with other groups involved with the organization. This means that while these
stakeholders do not always have a direct link to the organization they do share many
common interests with it, such as safety, contamination, and property value. The
normative stake holders for Envirocare are:
- Families of Envirocare employees.
- Toole County Citizens (Home Owners and Citizens)
- Opposition Groups.
- Competitors (WCS of T, Int. Uranium)
When analyzing the effects of these different stakeholders on Envirocare there are
two main questions that need to be asked: what is their influence and what is their
potential for threat? The most effective way to do show all the stakeholders and the
relationships is through a chart but for the sake of brevity we will just show you a part of
the first page below.
Table 1
Level of
Stakeholder
Stakeholder Self Interests Relationship to Situation and Opinion
Leaders
Active Owner - Make money
- Grow the
corporation
- Stability
- Prestige
- Internal public of
Envirocare
- Against Initiative One
- Supporting all the work against
Initiative One
- Portfolio
Active Envirocare Employees
-Emergency
Response Team
- Make money
- Be safe
- Job security
- Stability of family
- Health care benefits
- Good work
environment
- Rewards and
incentives
- Satisfaction
- Internal public to Envirocare
- Responsible for taking care of the waste.
- Very important in stopping Initiative One
as they went door to door and took
signatures off the ballot
1.) Utah Farm Bureau
Prioritize These Stakeholders
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In the prioritization of our stakeholders we consider the Farmer’s Bureau the number
one stakeholder. This is because the Farmer’s Bureau has come out very strongly in
support of Envirocare; so much so that they have provided man power necessary to go
door to door and fight the initiative by officially removing names from the petition.
2.) Utah State Legislature
Our number two stakeholder is the Utah State Legislature because they actually have
the power to give Envirocare permission to carry the higher level waste. Also, because
the public eye is so closely scrutinizing their position and statements regarding Initiative
One, they become powerful media magnets. By persuading them to oppose Initiative
One, we will have access to enormous amounts of media coverage, which will positively
affect the voters.
3.) Congressional Delegates
Our next stakeholder is the congressional delegates for our key voter’s specific area.
We consider these opinion leaders very important to target because of the huge influence
they have on their constituents. If we can get these congressional delegates to come out
on the side of Envirocare it is very likely that many of their constituents would do the
same. Also, because the public eye is so closely scrutinizing their position and
statements regarding Initiative One, they become powerful media magnets.
4.) Media outlets
Media outlets are next in importance on our list of stakeholders because they have
such a large influence with the public at large. Thus far, the media has been generally
negative toward Envirocare, but if it were possible to bring them to Envirocare’s side or
at least to a more neutral position Envirocare would see a jump in support because of fair
coverage of the issues behind Initiative One.
5.) Envirocare employees
The employees of Envirocare and their families are our next stakeholders because like
the Farmer’s bureau they have provided the manpower necessary to take the names off of
the ballot supporting initiative one. Also these people are key opinion leaders in the
Tooele County area. Because the media seeks their discourse on the topic of Initiative
One, they will have a positive effect on media coverage regarding this initiative. Also,
they can initiate a grassroots movement through word of mouth efforts. These types of
movements, because of their personal nature, tend to have a much more lasting effect
upon voters’ decisions.
6.) Utah State Government
The Utah state government comes next on our list because of its power as opinion
leaders as well as its ability to grant Envirocare permission to handle the higher level
waste. Also, because the public eye is so closely scrutinizing their position and
statements regarding Initiative One, they become powerful media magnets. By
persuading them to oppose Initiative One, we will have access to enormous amounts of
media coverage, which will positively affect the voters.
7.) National Regulatory Agencies
National regulatory agencies come next because they have huge potential to harm
Enviorcare’s operations. If the federal government decides that Envirocare is doing
something wrong with the waste they can shut the company down with sanctions and
fines. On the other hand, if these regulatory agencies decide that there is a greater need
for the higher level waste to be disposed of they can strong-arm their way into letting
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Envirocare take it. They are also major opinion leaders, and their public discourse
regarding Initiative One will be covered closely and read by Utah voters.
8.) Voters
Voters are next on the list because they are the people who will actually be deciding
in favor or against initiative one. For this reason Envirocare needs to pay particular
attention in gaining the support of voters in key districts. They are not higher on the list,
because it would require ridiculous amounts of money and time to attempt to contact each
Utah voter. However, through using intervening publics and then by implementing
symmetrical communication research efforts to evaluate what measures Envirocare
should take to meet the self-interests of Utah voters, they will be able effectively
influence voting behavior.
9.) The Tooele Government
The Tooele government comes next on the list because of its position as key opinion
leaders. They will be contacted regularly by media outlets for comment, thus, it is
essential to have their support.
10.) Industry Associations
Industry associations follow the Tooele government because they have come out
strongly against initiative one. This provides Envirocare with a possible base for forming
a coalition to oppose Initiative One. Such a financial and political base would empower
Envirocare in its lobbying efforts.
11.) Envirocare Owner
The owner is next on our list because he provides the funding for many of the anti-
Initiative One activities. Without his support many of the stakeholders could never be
reached.
12.) Competitors of Envirocare
The competitors of Envirocare follow, because like industry associations, they also
can provide a base for a coalition. They are not as important as industry associations,
however, because they are not in favor of Envirocare. In fact, it is suspected that one of
these companies provided the money for Initiative One. However, if these companies can
see that Initiative One will eventually come to them as well if it’s passed, they may be a
viable option for a coalition against the initiative.
13.) Opposition Groups
Opposition groups come next on our list even though it will be basically impossible to
change their opinion about Envirocare. We cannot leave their claims unanswered.
Currently, they are the biggest advocates of Initiative One, therefore, Envirocare must
address their claims if it is to bring key opinion leaders to oppose the initiative.
14.) Tooele Citizens
Tooele citizens are our next group because they are some of the most adamant critics
of Initiative One.
15.) Transportation Companies
Transportation companies come next because if we can show key opinion leaders that
the people moving the waste are not worried about the increase then it will diffuse a lot of
the fear about the nature of the waste. Also, the Wagoneers is one of the larger lobbyist
groups in America. This political ally could allow for more funding and political sway in
efforts to defeat Initiative One.
16.) Emergency Management Associations.
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Emergency Management Associations are our last stakeholder for the same reason as
the transportation people. If we can show key opinion leaders that the people dealing with
the waste are not worried about the increased level than it will diffuse a lot of the fear
about the nature of the waste. Also, following 9-11, such public employees have had a
tremendous increase in public discourse and opinion formulation, because of how the
public venerates them.
Conclusion
Stakeholders play a crucial role in the success or failure of a company. Thus,
conducting a stakeholder analysis was essential in helping Envirocare defeat Initiative
One. As Envirocare performs its stakeholder analysis, it has the distinct advantage of
gaining insight on various people, companies and organizations that have a relationship
with it and an effect upon whether or not Initiative One is passed. In order to discover
pertinent self-interests and gain common ground with those stakeholders involved with
Initiative One, Envirocare needs to conduct some preliminary and perhaps secondary
research. Through determining which stakeholders have a positive effect and which
carry a negative effect, a company can launch a particular campaign to meet specific
goals. They also have the assurance that the message will be clear to each key
stakeholder, because of the previous efforts to understand them. This involves a more
symmetrical model of communication, which will promote lasting relationships with the
afore-mentioned stakeholders.
Determining which of the stakeholders are most important to Envirocare also
needs to be done. This is crucial to make sure that proper measures are taken with the
most influential stakeholders first to maximize use of all resources. For example,
Envirocare has a numerous amount of stakeholders who have a direct, enabling effect on
the company. Some that have a greater effect are the state legislature and other
government regulatory agencies. In the case of Initiative One, if Envirocare doesn’t
recognize the importance of, and focus on the legislature and other key stakeholders, then
Initiative One will pass, not allowing “hotter” waste into Utah, and Envirocare will
eventually file for bankruptcy. This is just one of the examples of why conducting a
stakeholder analysis plays an important role in a company’s success. If after conducting
this stakeholder analysis, Envirocare specifically targets its most influential stakeholders
and goes after them with effective plan’s they will be successful in defeating Initiative
One.
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Management Studies, 39(1), 1-21.
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* For a copy of the model, please send a request to the study’s author.
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PEDAGOGICAL
POSTERS
213

Information Gathering as a Form of Experiential Learning for
Corporate Communications
Suzanne Berman
Hofstra University
Suzanne.berman@hofstra.edu
Abstract
Involving students in the process of learning can often lead to exciting discoveries
and help students develop their own concepts in a memorable way. This project is the
final assignment of a Case Studies course in public relations designed to teach students
the functional areas of corporate communications including; employee communications,
cross-cultural communications, consumer relations, financial relations, public policy,
crisis communications, and corporate social responsibility. At the beginning of the
semester, students are asked to choose a corporation to follow, gathering information as
each area is introduced in class throughout the semester. By conducting research through
the media, via databases, periodicals and social networking sites, and through the
corporation directly, students are encouraged to analyze the corporate communication
activities of the corporation real time as they deal with crises, earning results, government
regulations, brand management and other issues.
Literature Review
Recognizing the complex environment of corporations today, this course draws
upon the concept that companies that succeed are proactive, have well-defined
communication strategies linked to business objectives, and practice open, honest
communication. (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman &Toth, 2007). With confidence levels for
corporations falling substantially in the last 20 years (Gallup Organization), restoring the
credibility of corporations has become a major priority facing many companies today and
has increased the need for corporate communications. Argenti and Forman (2002) define
corporate communications as the corporation’s voice and the image it projects of itself on
a world stage, as well as the process it uses to communicate its messages to key
constituencies, such as employees, government, communities and consumers. By learning
the important role that communication plays for corporations students learn that
businesses must develop a number of cooperative relationships with outside
organizations. Public relations helps a company do this by helping them build a world
class reputation through openness and honesty, consistent actions, being socially
responsible and through public education (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman and Toth, 2007).
By utilizing a form of information gathering based on experiential learning theory
this course draws students into the corporate world directly and teaches them the
concepts of corporate communications through current examples and real time
experiences. Pedagogically, this project is based on experiential theory where students
gain knowledge through gathering data and personal discovery. Boyatzis and Kolb define
experiential learning theory as portraying two dialectically related models of grasping
information based on concrete experience and abstract conceptualization, and two
dialectically related modes of transforming experiences through reflective observation
and active experimentation (Boyatzis &Kolb, 2002, p.3). A central problem in university
education is that often students do not transfer their knowledge across different settings,
and they often find it difficult to relate theory to practice and that knowledge does not
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seem to be context-dependent (Laurillard, 2002). According to Laurillard (2002),
“teaching strategies are most effective when situated in accurate contextualized,
objective, real-world settings, designed with features to afford learning and encourage
reflection (p. 24). Similarly, Shapiro (2003) argues that interpretive, experiential and realworld
context-based learning environments encourage reflection and provides a
counterpoint to the study of hegemony and discursive control that creates passivity in
citizens (Shapiro, 2003). Drawing upon these theories this course encourages student
participation by adopting information- gathering practices as a tool to engage students
directly. Once gathered, students share information and collectively build a knowledge
base and understanding of the discipline.
Teaching Activity
At the beginning of the semester students are asked to submit the name of the
corporation they wish to follow throughout the semester and write a 500- word paper
citing the reasons they selected the organization. This initial paper ensures that students
select a company that is large enough to be active publicly and therefore allow for a
richer learning experience. It also encourages the students to think about companies from
a public relations perspective whereby the professor directs their analysis through a series
of questions they must answer in their outline. As the semester continues each of the
functional areas are discussed in class with accompanying case studies to illustrate each
area. At the same time, students are reminded to continue following their company’s
activities in the related specialty areas as they prepare for their final case study analysis.
This allows them to experience the specialty area, whether it is employee
communications, crisis communications or a variety of others and at the same time
complements their classroom learning experience.
By the end of the semester students have gathered significant information about
the corporation and are asked to compile a case study analysis. This analysis includes a
communication audit of the company complete with an overview, a review of strengths
and weaknesses in each of the functional areas, a brief section on competitors and
potential threats and finally, recommendations for future public relations efforts.
Inventive information gathering techniques are encouraged and suggested such as
following companies on social network sites, conducting one-on-one interviews with
employees, monitoring the work of beat reporters and other industry analysts, media clips
analysis, review of published case studies, monitoring and observing marketing activities,
and participating in observations and site visits.
Additionally, students are asked to contribute to a class blog by writing short
posts on events appearing in the media about their companies. Events can include
quarterly earnings announcements, recalls, sponsorships, product announcements and
others. Students are asked to submit material about events as they occur so they can learn
from each other by sharing and commenting.
Rationale
This approach was designed to allow students to be as close to an organization as
possible without actually being there. Students are able to be part of an organization and
experience the issues that companies deal with on a day-to-day basis. They learn to
appreciate and understand what it means to approach corporate communications
strategically and why corporations view communications as an integral part of their
operation. In many cases students have never closely reviewed corporate websites or
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followed the activities of a corporation in the news media for an extended period of time.
This assignment ensures that students employ the research methods they learned in earlier
courses while at the same time encourages them to actively follow both traditional and
new media as they cover their corporations, much like a real public relations professional.
By mirroring the work of the in-house public relations specialist, students are better able
to learn the process of corporate communications as they blend abstract conceptual
learning received from the classroom with concrete experience they obtain through their
own information gathering.
Outcomes
Students often find it difficult to research beyond a basic Google search on their
laptop. Since so much of public relations is based on research this assignment pulls them
out of their comfort zone and attempts to introduce some of the information gathering
challenges they will be faced with when they enter the workforce. Creatively uncovering
information to determine potential opportunities or problems is the basis of corporate
public relations. Through this process students become more capable of seeing
connections regarding; why companies select spokespeople, how they choose target
markets, how they strategically position their corporate philanthropy and how internal
and external audiences such as employees, government and the media factor into their
overall brand position.
The goal is to extend students understanding of public relations. Many students
have not yet been exposed to the strategic side of public relations and are only familiar
with the basics of creating a media relations pitch for a product or service. This
assignment brings them into the world of corporate communications and makes them
explore the critical role public relations plays in the corporate world.
In some instances, students select a company in the middle of handling a crisis
during the course of the semester and follow closely as the company simultaneously
issues press releases, notifies employees, deals with consumer confidence and repairs a
tarnished reputation. What had seemed so simple and easy to criticize before they knew
more about the organization now becomes a strategic puzzle that the student is invested
in and determined to solve. In other instances, companies are embarking upon major rebranding
efforts and new product positioning and students get to follow along as
companies re-define themselves and approach new audiences. Many students gain a new
respect for both corporations and the profession of public relations. Some students have
even shown their final case study analysis to prospective employers and have impressed
them with their in-depth knowledge of the complexities of corporate communications.
References
Argenti, P.A. and Forman, J. (2002). The Power of Corporate Communication. McGraw-
Hill, New York
Boyatzis, R.E. and Kolb, D.A. (2000). Experiential Learning Theory, Previous Research
New Directions. In R.J. Sternberg & L.F. Zhang (eds.), Perspectives on
cognitive and learning styles. NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000
The Gallup Organization Web site: http://www.gallup.com
Lattimore, D., Baskin, O., Heiman, S.T., Toth, E.L. (2006). Public Relations:
The Profession and the Practice. 2 nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, Boston.
Laurillard, D. (2003). Rethinking University Teaching, A Conversational Framework for
the Effective use of Learning Technologies, Taylor & Francis, London & NY
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Shapiro, A. (2003). Case Studies in Constructivist Leadership and Teaching. The
Scarecrow Press Inc. Lanham, Maryland and Oxford
217

Story: A Powerful Tool of Influence for PR
Patrick Bishop, APR
Ferris State University, CEPR
patrickbishop@ferris.edu
Introduction
“We rely on stories like we rely on air, water, sleep, and food” (Haven, 2007, p.
4).
Seriously, stories? How can story be a powerful tool of influence for public
relations, particularly when the industry is striving for credibility and a seat at the
executive table? In an era where the business case for public relations rules, this report
will offer exceptional, credible testimony based on extensive research reviews
demonstrating that the use of story is the single most powerful public relations tactic for
influencing values, behavior, corporate culture, and reputation.
Words often fail. Even as expert, ethical communicators, our powers of
persuasion are sometimes viewed as manipulation. Other times, our attempts to convince
are met with skepticism (Patterson, Grenny, Maxfield, McMillan, & Switzler, 2008). The
PR professional should be the right-hand person of the president or CEO, consulting him
or her on the right course of action based in high ethical standards and public
expectations (Cobb, 2008). That said, there is significant discussion in the field of PR that
there are not enough PR practitioners in top management (Cobb, 2008). This being the
case, most PR professionals do not have the luxury of direct authority and therefore, even
when seated at the executive table, must rely on indirect leadership skills. Stephen R.
Covey had it right when he stated that in order to gain a person’s head and hand, we must
first capture his or her heart (1989). The best method for doing this is through the use of
vibrant story. Author Annette Simmons (2001) says it best, “You do not need a position
of formal leadership when you know the power of story” (p. 29).
Before I present the overwhelming evidence for this premise, I will address a few
of the misconceptions of storytelling and provide a clear definition of what story is. After
which, I will offer a brief historical perspective on storytelling, followed by discussions
on brain physiology, the credibility of story as a resource, the over-arching benefits of
story, and concluding thoughts.
The Untold Story
Chances are, when you read the statement that stories are a profound tool of
influence you likely had one of two reactions: (1) that’s a bunch of who-ha, or (2) I want
to believe, but how can it be true? These are natural, implicit reactions to story, but where
does this skepticism originate from and is it justified? Let me address these doubts head
on. First I will present three common arguments against story. Then I will offer a clear
definition of story, followed by the evidence that debunks these arguments.
Argument #1: stories are lies. This concern is especially alarming to PR
practitioners who strive to be transparent and truthful. We tell bedtime stories to children
before saying goodnight, so it is difficult to take storytelling seriously in today’s
sophisticated business environment. At some level, stories have been associated with
make-believe, myth, legend, and fiction. Like losing our belief in Sana Claus, we are
conditioned to believe that stories are false or, at best, unrealistic whimsy having little to
do with the real-world of profit-and-loss statements (Haven, 2007).
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Argument #2: stories are for children. Similar to the above scenario, we not only
believe stories are false, naïve, or impractical, most people believe that stories are for
children. In his well-known 2006 speech at TED, Sir Ken Robinson talks about the
education of children and how we slowly squeeze creativity out of people. As children
outgrow their childish ways, storytelling is discarded and left behind as a sign of
immaturity. It seems, big boys and girls don’t tell stories.
Argument #3: stories are boring. We have all been in meetings when someone
attempts to tell a story and he or she drones on about their life and priorities. Author and
storyteller Dan Yashinsky (2004) says, “We humans have limited patience with the
display of somebody else’s life on a screen, but we find our own lives infinitely
fascinating” (p. 155). Some people feel the need to add all the minutia of detail and
simply talk too much. Regarding the storyteller, Yashinsky humorously understates that
sometimes, “They leave too little unknown” (p. 157).
A Definition: stories are…? What is story? It turns out most people have a poor
idea of what story is. First, we have no other word besides story for the wide variety and
diversity of subcategories of narrative (Haven, 2007). This means that everything in the
narrative category becomes “story” in our dialogue, adding significant confusion to this
discussion. Additionally, as you will see from the research review later, we are
surrounded by story, like a fish surrounded by water, and therefore, we take it for
granted. For the purpose of this paper, I generally adopt the intricately researched
definition of story by Kendall Haven (2007): “A detailed, character-based narration of a
character’s struggles to overcome obstacles and reach an important goal” (p. 79). If you
want the detailed explanation of why this is the best definition of story, I highly
recommend his book (see references).
The real story. Stories are not lies. “Story is not the information, the content.
Story is a way of structuring information…” (Haven, 2007). Story is a process and can
be thought of as the skeleton with our words providing the flesh. Simmons says that story
is truth with transparent meaning, quite the opposite of lies. She states that, “Story
doesn’t grab power. Story creates power” (p. 29). Consider this condensed story of three
men working at a construction site. Each man is asked in turn, what are you doing? The
first man replies, “I am laying brick.” The second man states, “I am building a wall.” The
third man answers, “I am building a cathedral!” This story illustrates the power of vision
and inspiration much better than simply talking about vision and inspiration. As Simmons
puts it, story is less direct, more gracious, prompts less resistance, and is true with a
capital “T.”
The real story. Stories are not just for children. The research in the following
sections will overwhelmingly demonstrate that our brains are hardwired for story. Think
about how people perk up when someone says, “Listen to this story.” However, because
society has deemed story as a children’s resource, “…we set aside the most powerful
communications and teaching tool available to humans and then idly wonder why our
efforts to communicate and to teach concepts, ideas, beliefs, values, attitudes, and facts
do not succeed” (Haven, 2007, p. 17). Influential leaders use story to communicate
values. Consider the story told by retailer Nordstrom’s illustrating exceptional customer
service by the employee who warms customer’s cars while they finish shopping. You can
say, “we provide excellent customer service,” but the story clearly illustrates the caring
and desire to go above and beyond.
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Stories are not boring; okay, but maybe the storyteller is. The question is one of
focus: who is the story for? Many people make the mistake that storytelling is an act,
presentation, or play. As Yashinsky says, “It is more important for the listener to see the
story than to see you” (p. 151). Yashinsky goes so far as to state that actors get in the way
of story. A story must come through the teller without ego; authenticity must shine
through. In addition to putting the focus on story, it is important to fully understand the
previously offered definition of story in order to fully engage the process. Leaving out
important qualities such as character description, goals, struggles, and outcome will
dampen story results.
Historical Perspective
Storytelling precedes history; it is literally prehistoric. Scientists agree that about
40,000 years ago, our ancestors first began to draw pictures on cave walls (Haugen,
2001). However, it is believed that language came much sooner, perhaps as early as a
million years ago. In fact, many paleontologists believe the use of language is a major
contributing factor for our ancestor’s brain growth over a relatively short historical time
period; more than a 33% increase (Baker, 2003). There is even recent research indicating
that the use of stories predates language (Haven, 2007).
Early use of verbal and non-verbal language most likely served as a warning
against danger. Over a great span of time, families formed tribes and civilization
transitioned from pre-historic to the modern era. By then, storytelling was at the heart of
the community as the primary mode of communication.
“…wherever simple men were together relating the experiences of vigorous days,
there would be found someone whose adventures were always the pleasantest to hear,
whose deeds were the most marvelous, whose realistic details the most varied”
(Ransome, 1909, p. 7). Often, according to story historian and author Arthur Ransome,
the storyteller would grow in stature “to become the medicine man of his tribe, the
depositary of their traditions, their sage as well as their entertainer.” (p. 7). The roots of
psychology, teaching, and religion, all stem from storytelling (Wilson, 2002).
Many thousands of years later, and fairly recent in our history, the written word
appeared in Samaria, Babylonia, and Egypt in approximately 4,000 B.C. (Grun, 1991).
EVERY single culture in the history of this planet has created stories in the form of
myths, fables, legends, folktales, or similar constructs (Haven, 2007). Interestingly, there
is one universal theme consistent in nearly all ancient stories (regardless of origin); they
are predominantly stories of morality and they significantly contributed in shaping
culture, perhaps even being the primary mechanism for the advance customs (Wilson,
2002). According to Ransome, there is no story written today which cannot trace its
pedigree back to the primitive types of narrative. He states, “The history of story-telling
henceforth is that of the abasement of the grand and the uplifting of the lowly, and of the
mingling of the two… the history alike of the progress of humanity” (p. 10).
Clearly, our capacity for language and storytelling has been hardwired into the
brain for hundreds and thousands of years. Written communication began less than 6,000
years ago. Haven (2007) states that modern forms of argument, persuasion, and logic
developed well after than. He adds, “Most Western cultures began, en masse, to read and
write only a few hundred years ago. Before that, oral stories were the dominant form
through which history, news, values, cultural heritage, and attitudes were passed from
person to person and from generation to generation” (Haven, 2007, p. 3-4).
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Physiology
“…your mind was evolutionary hardwired long before birth to think in specific
story terms” (Haven, 2007).
We are born with approximately 100 billion brain cells (neurons). Each cell
makes about 100,000 connections, called synapses (100 billion x 100,000 = 100 trillion
connections!). The more connections a neuron makes, the stronger the neuron becomes.
The more a connection fires, or is used, the stronger the bond becomes, turning this link
into a super-highway for information to travel. Connections that go unused die off or
become hard to access, like two-track pathways through the backwoods of the mind
(Haven 2007; Baker, 2003; Goleman, 1995). “Somehow, through this freeway maze of
links, loops, and electric traffic jams, we each manage to think, perceive, consider,
imagine, remember, react, and respond” (Haven, 2007).
Through the organic construction of this vital organ, what connections become the
strongest links and superhighways? Evolutionary biologists and other researchers who
perform clinical studies on infants confirm that, at birth, the human mind processes
information in story terms (Haven, 2007). It appears, hundreds of thousands of years of
ancestral storytelling has hardwired the brain in a very specific way. The structure of
story is how our brains are designed to internalize and interpret data before we even take
our first breath. Odd as it may sound, researchers all agree, we enter this life prepared to
understand the world through story.
As infants grow and develop, the story structure is reinforced. Not only are
newborns looking to make sense of their world through the story structure, but children
are constantly exposed to information in the form of story. During the most malleable and
important learning years of our lives, the story-based neural network is replicated,
reinforced, and solidified. “This dominance of story exposure through the key years of
brain plasticity results in adults irrevocably hardwired to think in story terms” (Haven,
2007, p. 27). Story works best because our brains are hardwired to process information
specifically as story.
Narrative as a Credible Resource
According to esteemed psychologist and research fellow at the New York
University School of Law, Dr. Jerome Bruner (1986), there are two primary modes of
cognitive functioning: argument and stories. They differ radically in their process, each
offering distinctive, yet valuable ways of ordering experience. Arguments verify truth
through singular, focused procedures of formal, empirical proof. Story establishes a
perspective of truth from many points of view.
This qualitative outlook is an extremely important process for explaining human
phenomenon. Author Mary Midgley (2001) agrees stating, there is no way we can collect
any significant aspect of life without viewing it from different angles. John Seely Brown,
former chief scientist at Xerox and well-known knowledge management guru, agrees
stating, “As a scientist, I moved from equations and formulas to artificial intelligence,
and from there to a growing appreciation of the power of the narrative -- the power of
realizing that generalities are different from abstraction” (Ruggles & Holtshouse, 1999, p.
ix).
Researcher, author, storyteller, and NASA consultant Kendall Haven (2007),
performed an exhaustive and comprehensive review of more than 100,000 pages of
quantitative and qualitative research from fifteen independent fields of study regarding
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story. He also collected more than 1,300 personal accounts from practitioners, performed
storytelling for millions, and taught workshops to more than 240,000 teachers and
students. Haven is an expert in the field of storytelling and he states; many research
studies are contradictory, but not so with story. ALL researchers agree that stories work.
Stories are the most effective and efficient structural method to motivate or communicate
factual, conceptual, and abstract information.
From a leadership perspective, story is extremely important in communicating
long-term reputation, and fostering culture. Legendary leadership researchers and
authors, Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal state that “Stories give flesh to shared values and
sacred beliefs… Turned into stories, these events fill an organization’s treasure chest with
lore and legend. Told and retold, they draw people together and connect them with the
significance of their work” (p. 407).
Benefits
Due to the fact that our historical predestination and organic makeup preprograms
us for stories, there are multiple benefits for the use of storytelling for
education and industry. Haven (2007), author of Story Proof: The Science Behind the
Startling Power of Story, provides the following list of benefits backed by thousands of
consistent and comprehensive research studies: (a) improved comprehension, (b)
improved logical thinking and general learning, (c) enhanced meaning, (d) creates
motivation and enthusiasm for learning, (e) creates involvement and sense of community,
(f) improves literacy and language mastery, (g) improves writing structure, and (h)
enhanced memory.
The best-selling authors of Influencer: The Power to Change Anything (Patterson,
et. al., 2008), agree that stories are a primary method to change minds and behavior. The
authors offer the following award-winning research study as proof that story uniquely
impacts brain functions. Three Italian researchers were studying action and brain
response using a monkey as their subject. The monkey was hooked with electrodes to
monitor brain activity and movement. While on break, one of the researchers wanted a
snack and he reached out and grabbed a banana. Instantly, neurons in the monkey’s mind
fired as if she were performing the action herself. By chance, the researchers made a
groundbreaking discovery. The brain cells, now known as mirror neurons, fire as if action
is being taken even when the subject is only observing the action. The same firing of
neurons holds true when subjects listen to a story. “Poignant narratives help listeners
transport themselves away from the content of what is being spoken and into the
experience itself” (Patterson, et.al., 2008, p. 72). And again, “Concrete and vivid stories
exert extraordinary influence because they transport people out of the role of critic and
into the role of participant” (p. 61). One reason story is so powerful is that we virtually
re-live the experience of someone’s story.
As if these documented studies weren’t enough, former financial corporate
executive and leading storytelling authority, Steve Denning, offers these benefits from his
diverse experience: (a) rapid understanding, (b) instant reach, (c) applicable to any size
group (d) hi-tech compatible, (e) low-cost, (f) intrinsically known, (g) collaborative in
nature, (h) fun and entertaining, (i) action oriented, (j) authentic and credible, and (k)
creative and innovative. Denning sums up his experience by saying, “Storytelling
works… Purposeful storytelling can get results in the modern organization that traditional
abstract modes of communications can’t” (2003).
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Conclusion
In the movie, Indiana Jones and the Holy Grail, Professor Jones is faced with a
decision to pick out the real Holy Grail among dozens of imposters. The wrong choice
brings a painful death and the right choice heals his dying father. Before he makes his
decision, the noble knight who had guarded the Grail with his life understates the
situation by saying, “Choose wisely.” The same can be said in selecting story as a PR
tactic.
Most obviously, story is not always the right tactic for PR. Strategy must still
dictate which technique is best suited for the individual situation. Story is not a panacea
for all PR issues. That said, a case can be made that story is severely underutilized based
upon its power as a tool of influence. Story should certainly be considered more often for
a well-rounded, more effective public relations plan.
Lastly, like all influence tools, the power of story can be used unethically.
Simmons (2001) presents a case demonstrating Hitler’s masterful use of story to commit
horrendous crimes against humanity. Ethics in public relations must continue to lead the
use of appropriate tactics and be the cornerstone for all decision-making.
References
Baker, D. (2003). What happy people know. New York: New Martin’s Press.
Bolman, L.G. & Deal, T.E. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and
leadership (3 rd Ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Boston: Harvard University Press.
Cobb, C. (2008). Driving public relations: Chrysler moves PR under the HR umbrella,
spurs debate about where PR reports. The Public Relations Strategist, 14(3), 6-11.
Cobb, C. (2008). Following the leader: What makes the great ones so great. The Public
Relations Strategist, 14(4), 21-24.
Cobb, C. (2008). The real-world connection: Assessing the state of PR education today.
Public Relations Tactics, 15(11), 14-15.
Covey, S.R. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in
personal change. New York: Fireside.
Denning, S. (2003). Storytelling. Presentation at The Springboard Smithsonian
Associates 2003. Retrieved from the Internet on August July 29, 2010 at:
http://www.creatingthe21stcentury.org/stevedenning.html
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Grun, B. (1991). The timetables of history (3rd ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster.
Haugen, P. (2001). World history for dummies. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Publishing.
Haven, K. (2007). Story proof: The science behind the startling power of story. Westport,
CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Midgley, M. (2001). Science and poetry. London: Routledge.
Patterson, K., Grenny, J., Maxfield, D., McMillan, R., & Switzler, A. (2008). Influencer:
The power to change anything. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ransome, A. (1909). A history of story-telling: Studies in the development of narrative.
London: T.C. & E.C. Jack.
Robinson, K. (Feb., 2006). TED: Ideas worth spreading. Ken Robinson says schools kill
creativity. Retrieved from the Internet on August 24, 2010 at:
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html
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Ruggles, R. & Holthouse, D. (1999). The knowledge advantage: 14 visionaries define
marketplace success in the new economy. Dover, NH: Capstone.
Simmons, A. (2001). The story factor: Inspiration, influence, and persuasion through the
art of storytelling. New York: Basic Books.
Wilson, J. (2002). The history of storytelling. Retrieved from the Internet on July 29,
2010 at: http://www.essortment.com/all/historystorytel_tukm.htm
Yaskinsky, D. (2004). Suddenly they heard footsteps: Storytelling for the Twenty-first
Century. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.
224

Pitching on your Feet: Using a Mock Press Conference as a Teaching Tool
Denise M. Casey
Appalachian State University
caseydm@appstate.edu
Introduction
Polished public speaking skills are highly desirable qualities in new PR hires.
However, beyond a required Public speaking course in a core curriculum and a few
scattered class presentations, the Public Relations student has little oral persuasion
experience in his or her vocational area. With the increased focus on new media use for
students, even less time may be spent on oral communication skills. This paper describes
a class activity for a capstone Public Relations seminar that allows the student to advance
speaking skills while learning important press conference routines. It provides
instructional goals and objectives for the activity. Finally, it also presents opinions of
practitioners in the field as to the value of this activity.
The Mock Press conference
The Mock Press Conference is designed to allow the student to behave as a Public
Relations professional in a safe environment. The lecture material that leads up to the
activity includes all of the document preparation that goes into a press kit, public
speaking training, speech writing training, power points creation and presentation, press
conference descriptions, “ preparing a speaker” training, and fielding questions training.
Instructional objectives
At the completion of the activity, the student are able to: present his/her client’s
press kit, use an informative speech outline to present information, plan a press
conference, start a press conference, run the press conference , write a press conference
advisory, and field questions from reporters. PR practitioners agree that this is valuable
preparation for their work.
Planning the Press Kit
Students are divided into groups of five. Each group is assigned a client.
Directions are given to assign roles and the responsibility of each role. The group’s
overall guideline and time line is based upon research, action planning, communication
and evaluation. By the time the student arrives in the capstone course, he/she should be
well prepared to create a media press kit for a client. A review of documents is all that is
needed to prepare students for this part of the activity. The next step is to create speaking
points from the press kit and organize them into a presentation format.
The Informative Speech Outline
The informative speech outline requires little instructional time and is readily
adaptable to a variety of content. There are skeleton outlines available in all public
speaking texts. The preview, develop, and review mantra allows students to effectively
present complex material with clarity. This format also allows for flexibility in time
constraints. The students are directed to introduce the client, the company, the mission,
and then specific items in the press kit including the news release and its contents. Once
the team has created and edited the outline. Rehearsal is the next step. One team member
is the speech trainer and is required to work with the speaker(s), just as a PR professional
would do speech training with a client prior to a presentation. Time is also spent in
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training if fielding of questions and the routine of: listening to the question, breaking eye
contact with the questioner, rephrasing the question, and then answering it.
Fielding Questions
The key to fielding questions is determined by your ability to rephrase questions...
in other words, you say the question again, using different words before you answer it.
The benefits of this technique are numerous: it provides the speaker with extra time to
formulate answer as well as assess questioner, maintains audience control, assists other
members of audience to actually hear the question, avoids conflict, avoids confrontation,
and helps to maintains personal credibility. The next step is rephrasing the question.
Rephrasing questions is useful if the question has hostile words in it, remove the hostile
word or words and replace them with neutral words; if the question is not a question but a
comment, identify it as a comment and thank the commenter and incorporate the
comment into your material; if the question is long and confusing, simplify; if there is an
"attitude" to the question, rephrase in a positive and cordial manner. Some tips for
successful fielding of questions include: always rephrase the question, always maintain
eye contact with the questioner while he/she is asking the question, always break eye
contact when rephrasing the question, and never look at questioner again.
The Press Conference
A press conference is a formal media event. This event includes a prepared text to
be delivered and question and answer sessions to be managed. The press conference is
multipurpose and can achieve many goals including getting widespread media coverage,
showing the strength of your organization or getting increased recognition for your cause.
Students are responsible for all aspects of the press conference including the setup, how
to start the press conference and how to run the press conference.
The setup
The most important step in setup is audience analysis. This requires a firm grasp
of all of your clients publics, potential publics, and stakeholders. This background
knowledge will determine the location, the dates, the times, and the deadlines of
attendees. The next crucial step is the invitation- both phone and written to attendees and
media, followed by a press advisory the week before the event and a phone call reminder
three days before the event to confirm attendance and one more call the day before as a
reminder to reporters, for good measure. The next steps in the setup are the message, the
material, the training, and the visual aids. All of these steps have been previously
addressed in informative speech and press kit preparation. Finally, the moderator is
chosen and trained to start the press conference and keep it on track.
How to start the press conference
The readiness factor cannot be stressed enough. Students are warned to be ready.
Honor those who are on time and preserve your credibility with your commitment to time
schedules. The first step is to get reporters in and step up which takes time. Then meet
and greet all the attendees and have them sign aguestbook or place their business cards in
a location for a prize drawing- this is not absolutely necessary, but people like drawings.
Distribute your materials- everything except the press release.
How to run the press conference
There are several different roles that have specific functions. The moderator
welcomes the guests and introduces the speakers, he/she solicits and guides questioning
acknowledging “hands up” and “turn taking”. He/she also lets the reporters know if the
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speaker(s) are available after the press conference. The spokesperson(s) is the subject
matter expert and delivers the message on behalf the client. He/she also fields the
questions from reporters. Is this experience valuable?
Professional opinion
Some wish that they would have been trained in school instead of on-the-job. After
interviews with several PR practitioners, Monte Reid of Reid Communications-Sweden
sums it up in an email
“Our world is interconnected more than ever before in
history. Technological developments have made it
possible for us to get our message out quickly and easily.
However, that same technology has also made it easier
than ever before to bring corporates under scrutiny and
hold them accountable in the public eye. It is our duty to
see that our stakeholders hear our corporate message
clearly and truthfully in harmony with the core values
that drive our business. For this reason, the development
of superior "people skills" in conjunction with
professional communication skills is in high demand.
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Connecting the Public Relations Writing Course with the Community through
AmeriCorps VISTA
Jane Dailey, Ph.D., APR
Marietta College
jd001@marietta.edu
Public relations practitioners engage in a multitude of activities and fulfill a
number of responsibilities within their organizations, but one skill is common to all they
do and remains important throughout their career – writing (Broom, 2009). For several
years, though, practitioners have been making note of a precipitous decline in writing
skills mostly among entry-level practitioners. While evidence has been largely anecdotal,
a large national survey has recently confirmed what practitioners were saying is true. Of
848 survey respondents from diverse public relations backgrounds, most agree that
today’s entry level practitioners could not be classified as “good writers.” The
respondents who employ these practitioners also expressed a sharp dissatisfaction with
their subordinates’ writing performance across most media forms. In judging their ability
to use proper grammar, spelling and punctuation, the respondents gave their more
inexperienced cohorts a writing grade between a C and D (Cole, Hembroff & Corner,
2009). Clearly, this is disturbing news for a field that relies heavily on the written word to
communicate and could pay a hefty price in terms of credibility, image and sales when
mistakes are made (Canavor & Meirowitz, 2005). This also is bad news for young
professionals who find they cannot meet their superior’s expectations and are unable to
advance through the ranks as their predecessors once did (National Commission on
Writing, 2005).
The fact is the ability to write and produce easy-to-digest, informative, and
grammatically correct copy is a fundamental skill in public relations. Educators and
practitioners alike agree undergraduate public relations students must master this skill
before they enter the field (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2006). Therefore,
greater attention should be given to the undergraduate public relations writing course,
which will help students improve this core skill. This presentation focuses on a public
relations writing course where direct experience and community service was integrated
into a concluding project through the services of an on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA
representative. The project drew from the basic tenets of experiential education and
service learning that emphasize active learning and real experience in order to increase
knowledge and develop important skills (Dewey, 1938; Jacoby, 2009). The 300-level
undergraduate course is designated as “writing intensive” and is required of all public
relations majors. Students typically take the course their junior year prior to completing
their internship. The community service component was integrated into the course over
three consecutive semesters beginning in 2008.
AmeriCorps VISTA
Having a full-time AmeriCorps VISTA volunteer on campus presented a unique
opportunity to connect the Public Relations Writing course to the community and meet
the course objectives. The overall mission of AmeriCorps VISTA is to provide full-time
members to organizations in order to create and expand programs focused on helping
under-served families and communities (AmeriCorps VISTA, 2010). Beginning in 2008,
the college employed an AmeriCorps VISTA member in an effort to increase the
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college’s connection to the community and to provide civic engagement opportunities for
students through its Volunteer Services Program. The program’s principal focus is to
meet pressing community needs within the Appalachian region in which the college is
located. Students benefit by having an opportunity to explore social issues, work for
positive change, look for professional experiences, and add experience to their resume.
The on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA representative maintains regular ongoing contact
with about a dozen community organizations where she attempts to link student interests
and skills to the organizations’ needs. A common service requested by these
organizations is public relations in terms of press releases and general promotion pieces
to publicize their services and events.
Course Overview
The public relations writing course teaches students how to plan, research and
write effective public relations pieces for mass media and other public audiences,
including news releases, executive bios, fact sheets, brochures, press statements, public
service announcements, and online blogs. It is one of four core public relations courses
required for majors. The course objectives include: 1) learn how to write as a process that
leads to a finished product; 2) demonstrate the ability to write clear, effective messages
designed to reach a variety of audiences; 3) demonstrate the ability to write for multiple
media formats; and 4) demonstrate the ability to write effective public relations pieces
that address real-life public relations challenges. Students write in more than half of all
class periods and the remaining time is used for instruction and feedback. On average,
there are 12-14 students enrolled in the class, and the course is open to all students with
the majority being public relations, journalism and graphic design majors. The course is
designed for students to learn and practice their writing skills in class before applying
them to the larger project.
Student Projects
Early in the semester the on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA representative was
invited to speak to the class and present a list of organizations seeking help with public
relations. The students then assembled into groups and selected organizations based on
their interest. Once paired with these organizations, students researched and produced
various public relations pieces based on their organization’s needs. The project deadline
was scheduled toward the end of the course giving them a chance to learn and practice
their skills in class before producing them for their client. Organizational leaders were
under no obligation to use the students’ work, but did, in some cases, publish their work.
In addition to producing the public relations pieces, students also were required to present
their projects to the class and to their client.
The organizations helped by this course included the Boys & Girls Club of
Washington County, Marietta Community Food Pantry, Kris Mar Woods, Skaters United
of Marietta, Marietta YMCA, Washington County Community Action, and the Humane
Society of the Mid-Ohio Valley. The following is a brief description of the pieces written
and produced by the public relations writing classes:
o Boys & Girls Club of Washington County: Prepared a brochure, news releases,
public service announcements, and flyers to promote after school programs and
member achievements.
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o Kris Mar Woods: Wrote press releases, public service announcements, a fact
sheet, an information bulletin board, and a brochure to promote a local natural
woodland and recruit volunteers.
o Marietta Food Pantry: Developed news releases, public service announcements,
a video news release script, and posters to promote the Empty Bowls Lunch
campaign.
o Skaters United of Marietta Ohio: Prepared public service announcements, news
releases, a fact sheet, flyers, and a Powerpoint presentation to help promote the
construction of a new community skate park.
o Humane Society of the Mid-Ohio Valley: Wrote press releases, newsletter
articles, fact sheets, a brochure, and posters to inform the community about the
importance of spaying and neutering.
o Marietta Family YMCA: Created public service announcements, press releases,
a brochure, a fact sheet, posters, a video promo, a community bulletin, and
window display to promote Summer Adventure Camp.
o Washington County Community Action: Developed press releases, flyers,
brochures, fact sheets, and public service announcements to promote local bus
services and other community services available for low-income families.
Course Assessment
In almost every case the students opted to produce more than the minimum five
public relations pieces for the concluding project. In comparing previous classes where
outside clients were not used, students’ time and level effort increased. For example,
more class time was used discussing the projects and students sought out more advice and
feedback on their written pieces. Overall, students seem to spend more time editing and
being attentive toward editing than with their in-class assignments. Although this project
did not require students to spend time on-site like traditional service learning projects do,
many groups scheduled multiple site visits to their organizations to meet one-on-one with
their client, inventory existing publications, take photos, experience the setting, or in the
case of Kris Mar Woods – hike the trails.
Student feedback supported these observations. Students noted this was an
important class helping them succeed in their internship and claimed they put forth
significant effort on this assignment. During their post-internship presentations to
department faculty, at least five students cited the PR Writing course as the class that
prepared them the most for the work that was expected of them. Two students who
visited campus after graduation mentioned the concluding project and its relevance to
their current job duties, and at least three students throughout the course of this project
asked for feedback after the class had ended concerning a press release they were
voluntarily writing for another community or student organization.
Some comments related to the concluding project from course evaluations
include:
“The PR client project was unique and useful for the future.”
“We had a chance to put the skills we learned into practice in real world
situations … it was helpful for preparing us for real world writing.”
“The client projects were a great way to gain a glimpse into the real
world.”
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“I felt the class built upon our knowledge base effectively. We began
writing press releases with a lot of assistance … and related classroom
material to real-world experience.”
“I feel like this class gave me material suitable to include in my
portfolio.”
Comments from the participating community organizations were also positive and
reflect the level of work performed by the students. According to the AmeriCorps VISTA
on-campus representative, “feedback from the organizations the students worked with
was outstanding” and “many of the organizations planned to use the students’ press
releases and other writing pieces.” Some organizations have subsequently asked to be
included as candidates for future class projects and provided positive feedback to the
students on their work. Although the assessment was positive overall, there are
disadvantages that should be noted. Some disadvantages included the limited availability
of certain organizational leaders for students to receive appropriate feedback and the
difficulty in meeting numerous and changing deadlines necessary for providing
appropriate instructor oversight and feedback. Some students also struggled with group
work and believed the level of effort they put toward the project was not always equitable
compared to other team members.
Conclusion
The public relations writing course is one that can easily be linked to community
service where students can take knowledge they have learned and practiced in class and
actively apply it to a real-world setting. When they do this, as the course assessment
showed, they also become more attentive to their work. It is exciting to see students
devote more energy toward their work and get excited about their work. Connecting the
course to the community through on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA gave students a
valuable opportunity to step up their work and understand the potential impact good
writing can have.
References
AmeriCorps VISTA. (2010). Retrieved from www.americorps.gov
Broom, G. B. (2009). Cutlip & Center’s Effective Public Relations, Tenth Ed., Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Canavor, N. & Meirowitz, C. (July – August, 2005). Good corporate writing: Why it
matters, and what to do. Communication World, 30-31. Retrieved from
www.iabc.com/cw
Cole, R.T., Hembroff, L.A. & Corner, A.D. (Spring 2009). National Assessment of the
Perceived Writing Skills of Entry-Level PR Practitioners. Journalism & Mass
Communication Educator, 10 – 26.
Commission of Public Relations Education. (2006). The professional bond – public
relations education and the practice. Retrieved from www.commpred.org
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Collier Books.
Jacoby, B. (2009). Preface. In B. Jacoby and Associates (Eds.) Civic engagement in
higher education: concepts and practices, ix-xi. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
National Commission on Writing (July 2005). Writing: a powerful message from state
government. Retrieved from www.collegeboard.com
231

Take It To The Extreme: Using Immersive Service-Learning To Build Students’
Multimedia Skills And Cross-Discipline Understanding
Kelly B. Everling, Ph.D., APR, and Lori Blachford
Drake University
kelly.everling@drake.edu and lori.blachford@drake.edu
Abstract
Can academic curricula keep up-to-speed with changing technologies in this fastpaced
media environment? Researchers created an immersive, 9-day “extreme” social
media experience to test just that. Students from each of Drake University’s School of
Journalism and Mass Communication’s majors joined together for an interdisciplinary
service-learning project in the university’s neighborhood. Through pre- and post-test
surveys, researchers examined students’ self-proclaimed understanding and their actual
ability to use social media as an effective communication tool. Managing Twitter,
Facebook and YouTube outreach, students were forced to approach their work in new
ways, challenging their understanding of the needs and roles of communicators in this
age of the smart phone and continuous news cycle. Among the largest changes in student
understanding were public relations and video gathering and editing. Researchers saw a
nearly 25% increase in the understanding of public relations among students, while 33%
of students reported a full understanding of video production at the project’s conclusion.
The immersive service-learning project provided a unique opportunity for
students to expand their knowledge and awareness through an intensive collaboration
among businesses, political leaders, nonprofit organizations and fellow students. This
project – which expanded the classroom onto the streets of the neighborhood – has led
many students to reflect on their professional skills as well as their responsibilities to the
community. Armed with valuable experience, the interdisciplinary team of students
proudly continues to communicate on behalf of various nonprofit groups and remains
engaged citizens in the community. Perhaps these outcomes represent the project’s most
valuable ROI.
Introduction
Students from each of Drake University’s School of Journalism and Mass
Communication’s majors, including public relations, magazine, news/Internet, radio/TV
broadcast, and advertising, joined together for a service-learning project in their own
neighborhood.
Partnering with Hubbell Realty and Anawim Housing, the students were charged
with managing the social media outreach for the “Hubbell Realty Company Extreme – 9
Homes in 9 Days” project. The initiative, which featured the 24-hour-a-day construction
of 9 low-income homes just three blocks from campus, provided an opportunity for
students to supplement their classroom learning with on-site communication experience.
Students were responsible for posting hourly tweets, more than 10 Facebook status
updates and a minimum of three YouTube videos daily. The amount and frequency of
daily content challenged the students to cultivate fresh stories regularly, engaging readers
consistently. Through pre- and post-test surveys of participants, researchers were able to
gauge student growth in their understanding of various communication disciplines, their
use of new tools and technologies, and the needs of those in their surrounding
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community. Many participants have continued their work in this area, helping nonprofit
organizations and associations to develop a cohesive approach to their outreach efforts.
Project Overview
The number of social media and new technology workshops and seminars offered
by professional associations and private businesses seems to escalate daily. From the
annual Social Media for Communicators conference to numerous PRSA-sponsored
teleseminars and on-site workshops, the importance of social media understanding is
undeniable. Academia must develop innovative projects to ensure that students gain the
knowledge needed to be successful in communication positions globally. As Fiske wrote
in PR Week’s Social Media Survey 2009 edition, “…It’s not just about 140-character
messages. It’s having the right words at the right time, said to the right people through the
right medium, in the right tone and sentiment – all the while keeping in mind the
importance of public interest” (October 2009, 28).
Through a partnership with Hubbell Realty and Anawim Housing, students from
Drake University’s School of Journalism and Mass Communication were challenged to
manage the social media outreach for the “Hubbell Realty Company Extreme – 9 Homes
in 9 Days” project. The immersive project required students to shoot video, take
photographs, edit content, write stories and post updates – all from on-site media tents.
Students interviewed and worked alongside some of the most influential politicians and
business owners in the area. They shot video next to network affiliates, coordinated
media opportunities next to public relations professionals and finalized stories alongside
area reporters. Often the students’ content was available to the public first, due to the
immediate nature of social media. This provided a powerful lesson about the power of
these platforms.
Using Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, the students provided a direct connection
to the project for those not able to join the site daily. They quickly gained comfort with
the various mediums, using each of the tools to tell emotional stories. They learned the
importance of maintaining a consistent message across all communications and how to
harness the various strengths each student brought as a result of their major/discipline.
Finally, they developed a deeper understanding of how technology can meet an
organization’s goals – all while building a sense of community.
As Bruell noted in PRSA’s 2009 Career Guide, “social media savvy might get
you in the company’s door, but the ability to use it strategically will keep you there” (20).
This immersive project provided just that – a strategic use of technology to tell an
important story and an opportunity for students to become professionals in the field.
Results and Discussion
Participants were asked to complete a 10-item pre- and post-test survey regarding
their experiences with the “9 Homes in 9 Days” project. Responses were received from
all 15 participants, representing each of the sequences within the School (public relations,
magazine, news/Internet, radio/TV broadcast, and advertising).
Students were asked to report their comfort level with the social media tools used
throughout the project. While 66.7% of respondents reported extreme comfort with
Facebook prior to the initiative, 86.7% were extremely comfortable at its conclusion.
Comfort when using Twitter essentially remained the same among those extremely
comfortable, while the project seemed to move 13.3% of respondents from near the
“Extremely Uncomfortable” side of the scale to moderately comfortable and comfortable.
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Similarly, 13.4% of respondents reported extreme discomfort when using YouTube prior
to the project, but post-tests showed 40% of respondents felt moderately comfortable to
comfortable with the technology after the initiative. Overall, regardless of the technology
selected, all respondents reported an increase in comfort with each of the tools.
When students were asked to rate the effectiveness of each social medium in
“telling an organization’s story,” nearly half reported that Facebook and Twitter were
effective. Participants rated YouTube’s effectiveness higher in the post-test, moving from
33.3% effectiveness to 85.8% reporting the technology’s extreme effectiveness in telling
an organization’s story, perhaps as a result of their increasing comfort with the
technology and visual storytelling. Also, students often report that they “know” a
technology when they achieve a mastery of the technical tools. However, this project
allowed students to advance their use of social media from mere participation to purpose.
Overall, students reported that their ability to gauge the ROI of each medium
declined slightly (from 57.1% prior to the task, versus 51.1% after the task). Of
respondents, 6.7% also reported that they felt unable to judge ROI in the post-test (none
reported inability in the pre-test). As one student noted, as the team became increasingly
familiar with each of the tools, they found that the number of followers or video clicks
are not enough to rate the ROI for each of the tools. “Just becoming a fan of Hubbell
Extreme on Facebook does not mean they are really following. I guess it would be really
difficult to gauge how involved they are in the site unless they post or comment,”
reported one student.
Another student wrote, “The number of hits, tweets, fans, etc., can give us an idea
of general interest, but I think it’s more important to look at the level of involvement. Did
people keep coming back? How did they respond to our posts? … Did any of this prompt
them to become more directly involved? These are all very important things to consider.”
When asked in the pre-test if it was possible to maintain a consistent organization
message over multiple mediums, 26.7% of respondents reported that it was only
moderately possible. In contrast, 100% of participants reported that it was absolutely
possible to maintain a consistent message over all technologies after the initiative.
Another important element of this project was the students’ abilities to harness the
unique strengths of each of their disciplines. When asked to rate their understanding of
each of the major areas represented on the team, responses varied – especially in the preand
post-test responses. In the pre-test, 20% of respondents reported minimal
understanding of advertising prior. However, in the post-test, those reporting a strong
understanding of advertising actually declined slightly from 53.3% to 46.6%, while
moderate understanding of advertising rose from 26.6% to 53.3%. News
Reporting/Writing saw little change among respondents, with 79.9% in pre-test reporting
understanding and 86.6% reporting understanding in post-test.
While 100% of students reported in both pre- and post-tests feeling extremely
comfortable with laptops, digital cameras, and cell phones with texting capabilities, some
noted apprehension with some of the tools at the beginning of the project. For example,
respondents reported a lack of knowledge in the pre-test when using cell phones with
Internet capabilities (20%) and video cameras (28.5%). In contrast, at the end of the
project, 86.6% of participants reported high levels of comfort when using Internetcapable
cell phones, while 100% reported high levels of comfort when using video
cameras. Some respondents (35.7%) reported apprehension before the project with
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posting content to the Internet, but all respondents (100%) reported extreme comfort in
the post-test.
At the beginning of the project, photography seemed to be the area where most
students felt apprehension. In the pre-test, 53.4% of students reported only a moderate
understanding of photography. At the completion of the project, 80% of respondents
reported a full understanding of photography. Students became comfortable with the idea
that expert photography is not always available or necessary to share a visual message in
these social media formats. While only the best photographs were chosen to share,
students realized that the relentless need for fresh content quickly provided a unique
opportunity to build a skill set they had not previously developed.
One of the largest changes among student understanding was in public relations.
In the pre-test, 53.3% of respondents reported that they had only a moderate
understanding of public relations, with two students (13.3%) reporting no understanding
at all of PR. In contrast, in the post-test, 73.4% of respondents reported having a full
understanding of public relations. The students worked closely with the public relations
teams of both Hubbell Realty and Anawim Housing, perhaps increasing their
understanding of the many projects often falling under the PR “umbrella” of
responsibilities.
Another category in which students really gained knowledge was in video
gathering and editing. In the pre-test, 20% of students reported no understanding of video
gathering/editing, while 40% reported having complete knowledge in this area. In
contrast, when asked to report their knowledge after the initiative, 26.7% reported a
moderate knowledge, while 73.3% - a 33.3% increase from the beginning of the initiative
– reported a full understanding. Many of the on-site projects required the students to use
digital cameras, flip cameras and editing equipment available on laptops (such as
iMovie). This provided opportunities for students to immerse themselves in the use of
these tools while in the “depths” of the project.
When students were asked if they feel like they’re a part of the Drake
neighborhood, 13.3% of respondents reported an increase in feeling a part of their
neighborhood as a result of this project, bringing the post-test total to 80%. Projects that
re-enforce the students’ already high impression of their place in the neighborhood
provide them with opportunities to give back in special, meaningful ways while also
building their professional skills. Many have continued similar work with area nonprofits
and associations, building their resumes and their ties to the surrounding area.
As noted by Wright and Hinson (2009), there is a gap between the social media
use communicators perceive should be implemented in organizations and the actual use
of the tools daily. Students in this survey were also asked to report the percent of their
typical day spent using each of the three mediums used throughout the initiative. The
majority of respondents reported spending 20% to 40% of their day on Facebook, while
spending 10% to 20% of their day using YouTube. The majority of respondents reported
spending 10% or less of their day on Twitter. However, while no participants reported
using Twitter more than 40% of a typical day in the pre-test, the post-test research saw a
21.4% increase in the number of respondents reporting Twitter use in 60% to 90% of a
typical day. Perhaps students saw value in the technology or simply found a “new toy” to
test. Although a small sample, one can posit that increased exposure to a new
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technology/communication tool can also increase the use of that tool in both professional
settings and personal lives.
Conclusion
In an ever-changing media environment, it is imperative that educators continue to seek
innovative projects that allow students to supplement classroom learning with engaging
professional experiences. The “Hubbell Realty Company Extreme – 9 Homes in 9 Days”
immersive service-learning project provided a unique opportunity for students to expand
their knowledge and awareness through an intensive collaboration among fellow
students, local businesses, political leaders and nonprofit organizations in the area. This
project – which expanded the classroom onto the streets of the neighborhood – has led
many students to reflect on their professional skills as well as their responsibilities to the
community. Armed with valuable experience, the students proudly continue to
collaborate with fellow students from various majors, work to communicate the services
of various nonprofit groups, and remain engaged citizens in the community. Perhaps
these outcomes represent the project’s most valuable ROI.
Works Cited
Bruell, A. (2009). Digital Reality: Social Media Savvy Might Get You in the Company’s
Door, but the Ability to Use It Strategically Will Keep You There.” PR Week
2009 Career Guide.
Fiske, R. (October, 2009). Today’s PR Student Must Learn Completely New
Vocabulary. PR Week. 28.
Wright, D. K. and M. D. Hinson. (2009). Examining How Public Relations
Practitioners Actually Are Using Social Media. Public Relations Journal.
Summer 2009.
236

What’s All The Hype About Skype? Re-Invigorating The Introductory Public
Relations Course Through The Implementation Of Global Speaker Series
Dr. Kelly B. Everling, APR, and Ronda Menke, APR
Drake University
kelly.everling@drake.edu and ronda.menke@drake.edu
Abstract
We’ve all been there, spending many late nights planning for the all-important
introductory public relations survey course. With so much information to cover within
the confines of a semester, the task of preparing today’s public relations students for
future coursework and professional experience is daunting. In an effort to engage
students using free technology, the researchers developed a global speaker series, inviting
colleagues from around the world to join the class as guest speakers via Skype. Guests
lectured on various topics, adding personal anecdotes and “war stories” that enthralled
students and increased their understanding of PR and the role of communicators in the
world today.
Speakers hailed from France to Oregon, speaking about various public relations
topics including corporate, agency and international relations. The Skype experiences
expanded students’ knowledge of PR and diverse audiences and exposed students to a
new technology with wide application in public relations and engaged citizenship
(politics).
Using pre- and post-test surveys, the researchers found that students’
understanding of diversity increased by 38%, their ability to reflect critically increased by
20%, and their ability to communicate with diverse audiences increased by 17% as a
result of the Skype speaker sessions. As one student said, “Talking one-on-one with
someone who is actually in another country doing the things we learned about (in class)
really puts PR in perspective.”
Free. User-friendly. Accessible. So, what’s all the hype about Skype? Log on, and
start chatting. Your students will thank you.
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Using a Gaming Scenario in Reputation Management
Gregg Feistman
Temple University
greggf@temple.edu
Introduction
Learning public relations in the classroom often is guided by listening to lectures,
taking part in discussions, examining case studies, developing good writing,
understanding social media, and putting together strategic PR plans. But another teaching
technique can be just as effective, informative and even fun: using games.
In Reputation Management, a graduate level course on public relations, I use a
gaming scenario to give my students a taste of the “what if?” aspect of high-level
strategic public relations. According to Fombrum and Van Riel (2004, p. 20), reputation
is defined as:
A mirror that reflects an [organization’s] relative success at convincing upstream,
downstream, and diagonal stakeholders about the current and future validity of
the [organization]. But the mirror is also a magnet: if stakeholders like what they
see and hear, they support the [organization].
The structure of this three week game is based on a scenario developed by the
MIT-Harvard University Public Disputes Program, entitled “Dealing With An Angry
Public,” (Ansell, Susskind & Wheeler, 2000) which is modified for this particular class.
The scenario especially works well for classes with enrollments under 20 students.
Three parties
In the game, students are divided into three groups: A corporation, a consumer
rights advocacy group, and media organizations (e.g., local electronic or print). The
corporation and consumer rights advocacy group are purposely put into an adversarial
relationship. The third group represents the mass media and will continually report on the
goings-on as the scenario develops.
All three groups are given the same basic background information and context
about the two respective organizations and a medical product about to come into the
market with great promise and potential patient benefits. After this initial phase however,
the corporate and advocacy groups are each given proprietary information, the details of
which are to remain private within the context of the game.
Procedures
In the next stage, students are given approximately 30-45 minutes to consult with
each other in their respective groups, prepare strategies, anticipate questions and create
and deliver mock public positioning statements for an “open meeting.” Prior to the
meeting, the corporate group and the consumer rights group prepare a statement on their
position, which is videotaped and shown before the entire class. The “open meeting”
occurs in class for 30 minutes while the student “reporters” cover the event. It’s their job
to write mock media stories and post them through the class’ Blackboard electronic
grading system. After the initial meeting, “live” interviews with designated spokespeople
from each group are again videotaped, using a reporter-spokesperson format. The taped
interviews are shown to the entire class who discuss and analyze what happened, what
changes could have been made, and come up with suggestions for future actions or how
the results could have been different.
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In between the times the class meets (one night per week), the students continue
in their respective role playing. At any time over the three week period of the game, a
“reporter” might interview representatives from “the corporation” or the consumer rights
advocacy group for a story, or one group might issue a statement to those in the role of
the press. In addition, new random developments can be added at any time from outside
sources (the instructor) during the three week length of the game. The random elements
could be given to one, two or all three groups. Students then have to strategize and react,
appropriate to their role. At the end of the three weeks, each student is required to rate
their peers, which forms the basis for their individual grades.
Learning Outcomes
At least four learning outcomes are achieved with this exercise. First, students can
learn to create a “win-win” approach when faced with angry stakeholders and understand
how mutual gains can enhance an organization’s reputation. Mutual gains are a situation
in which both sides come away with something positive. The learning goals for this
outcome involve readily recognizing the issues and concerns the other side has, being
inclusive, offering “reasonable” preliminary commitments to minimize any potential
negative impacts (such as a media or web-based campaign, calls for consumer boycotts,
legislative initiatives, etc.), accepting responsibility (and admitting mistakes when
appropriate), developing trust, and building a constructive relationship with an opponent.
Second, students learn to identify where sources of power are, how they can
change, the way power can impact a situation, and how an organization can affect these
sources. In the game, the three groups use and exchange different types of power, such as
referent or legitimate, for example. As the students representing the media write and post
their stories throughout the exercise, each group must learn whether or not to respond to
what is published, how, and in what forum. Power ebbs and flows as each group tries to
exert control over what is reported, the potential impact on public opinion, and how their
side of the story is presented and perceived.
Third, students learn to interpret the perceptions of risk. One of the basic common
tenants of communication and managing reputation is it is about managing risk. As
students learn to understand the perceptions of risk to an organization, they learn how to
advise senior management and craft better messages to satisfy their various stakeholders.
Public relations practitioners operate in the court of public opinion, which can be a
powerful ally or enemy. Students gain the knowledge of judging what to communicate,
when to communicate it, and to whom. In addition, students learn to anticipate how their
communications may be represented to wider audiences through the media and prepare
for reactions.
Fourth, students learn to anticipate the role of neutral parties, such as an arbitrator
or mediator. In the game, the instructor plays the role of mediator; the instructor’s role is
to answer questions and clarify issues, not help with devising strategy, craft statements or
reach agreement on positions. Those responsibilities are left up to the student
participants.
This “slice of life” in the classroom is not only educational, it’s fun. “Real world”
role playing scenarios like this one help students learn to develop a wider view and
consider different sides of an issue, not just the side they represent. It helps them become
aware of how perception shapes reality, how quickly an awkward phrase or inappropriate
statement can be disseminated to wider audiences, and how words and actions can affect
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eputation. Games like this are an interactive tool to learning, in which students help
teach themselves and each other.
References
Ansell, J., Susskind, L.E., & Wheeler, M. (2000, May). Dealing with an angry public:
Protecting your reputation and your market share. Symposium conducted at the
meeting of the Program on Negotiation, Cambridge, Mass.
Fombrum, C.J., & Van Riel, C.B.M. (2004), Fame & Fortune: How successful
companies build winning reputations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
240

Best Practices in Public Relations: A Practical Analysis of Training Students
to Prepare and Present Proposals for Real-World Clients
Arhlene A. Flowers
Ithaca College
aflowers@ithaca.edu
Abstract
With more than 20 years as a public relations practitioner at leading public
relations agencies and corporate public relations departments in New York City and
Toronto before transitioning to academia, the presenter shares her experiences over the
past four years in teaching undergraduate students best practices in planning, writing,
and presenting public relations proposals to real-world clients. The end result is
application of public relations principles in the classroom to solve business problems for
real-world organizations, as well as the creation of professional-quality public relations
proposals that students can use as creative samples for job and internship interviews.
Active Learning in the Classroom and Real-World Benefits
From the Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research
University (1998) to the report by the Commission on Public Relations Education (2006),
studies have shown that participatory learning experiences can transform students from
passive to active learners. Public relations research also has investigated the impact of
experiential learning on students, clients, and faculty. Aldoory and Wrigley (2000)
evaluated the application of real-world clients in undergraduate public relations courses
by assessing the three parties involved. Their findings concluded that each party
benefited: students for “placing classroom material into a meaningful context” (p. 56);
clients, all of whom did not have public relations staff or agency support, found value for
the creative input; and teachers believed “that extra work and negotiation were required,
but the enhanced learning was worth it” (p. 56). Daugherty (2003) also reported “positive
outcomes” when examining the opinions of students and community partners in servicelearning
projects in public relations classes. Student feedback, however, reported a few
“obstacles,” primarily in communicating effectively with clients.
My teaching pedagogy integrates service-learning opportunities with real-world
clients to build teamwork, develop problem-solving skills that bring the lessons from the
textbook and case studies to life, and meet with professionals in various industries for
feedback in a supportive environment. From the perspective of a former practitioner who
had spent a significant amount of time training interns and entry-level staff, I have found
the following attributes important for career growth: the ability to see the big picture of
the entire public relations campaign, not just the individual tasks at hand; an
understanding of the client’s business in context of the industry at large, its competitors,
and other factors that can impact the organization’s viability and future; problem-solving
skills that separate the leaders from the doers in the business; and the patience to hone
fundamental basics such as writing excellence, attention to detail, and time management.
I believe that an active learning environment in the classroom helps students become
better prepared for the highly competitive career opportunities in public relations and
integrated marketing communications.
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Class Structure
The 200-level, three-credit introductory course in public relations is a required
course for the Integrated Marketing Communications B.S. degree program. In addition to
IMC majors, the course is required for the IMC minor, Communication Management and
Design majors with a concentration in Corporate Communications, and Sports Media
majors. The class size averages 32 students, comprised of sophomores (approximately
50%), juniors (30%) and seniors (20%). I teach two sections back-to-back, three days a
week, every fall and spring semester.
Client Identification and Communication
To provide students with a diversified selection of “clients,” I identify six
different nonprofits and for-profit companies every semester that have staff who are able
to be on campus for the final presentations at the end of the semester. Previously, I had
used clients from around the country and abroad who were unable to attend the
presentations. In those cases, other faculty or administrators participated in the
presentations to role play the clients in the question-and-answer sessions or we conducted
conference calls with the real clients. However, I have found that presenting to actual
clients is more beneficial to both the students and the clients.
Most of the clients have been local nonprofits and small businesses within an
hour-driving distance, which have limited financial and marketing resources. Non-profit
clients have included art galleries, museums, historical societies, youth and health
services, environmental advocates, educational institutions, and visitors and convention
bureaus. For-profits have ranged from hotels, resorts, restaurants, recreational attractions,
and private clubs to emerging musicians and new businesses in fashion, creative services,
and health and fitness. With the power of word of mouth and alumni networking,
organizations have been contacting me directly for support with student projects. I now
need to invest less time in identifying new clients.
I make outreach to prospective clients with a brief e-mail and, in some cases,
make follow-up calls. After their interest is secured, I establish realistic expectation levels
and outline in writing the parameters of the assignment and address any additional
questions by e-mail or phone. I distribute questionnaires for the clients to fill out
electronically or submit by mail or fax. This document supplies essential information on
their public relations and marketing objectives, current and desired target audiences, key
competitors, and current and previous public relations activities. I also ask them to send
any existing plans, market research, or other promotional and press materials that are not
readily available on their websites. This material is posted online for the students.
In addition, I ask clients their preferred means of contact and receive their
permission to have students meet with them face to face and tour their facilities, if
appropriate. I personally schedule the in-class presentations on campus. I also follow up
by e-mail and send driving directions and campus maps, and make follow-up calls to
reconfirm. Clients receive the written proposal the day before the presentation. For the inclass
presentation, clients fill out a one-page evaluation form to write comments and
notes during the presentation. Clients are asked to rank the recommendations on a scale
of 1 to 10, with optional comments, as well as to respond to open-ended questions on
which recommendations were most on target and if they have any other comments to
share with the teams.
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Assignment Structure
Client Selection
Students are given the opportunity to select their preferred client and team
members. They are provided with information on the client’s public relations objectives,
assets, and challenges, and then are asked to rank their client selection—from one to
six—and to indicate which classmates they would like to partner with for teams of five to
six students. I also provide them with the client’s websites, so they can spend more time
investigating the organizations. First choices are given to seniors. In most cases, I find
that students easily choose their account teams and preferred clients, while others have no
preference. Their final rankings are handed in during the next class. I then allocate team
assignments and presentation dates.
Planning Resources
Students are encouraged to put themselves in the client’s place and try to write the
plan with all the necessary information for the client to evaluate their recommendations—
and to inspire the client to approve the plan and grant the public relations agency the
account, as if this were a real-life new business presentation. I share with students
examples of real-world and student proposals—and discuss best practices on public
relations planning. Students are provided with guidelines on how to write and format a
proposal, covering the title page, table of contents, executive summary, situation analysis,
objectives, target audiences and media, strategy, tactics, timetable, measurement and
evaluation, budget (out-of-pocket expenditures), about the “agency”/biographies of the
“staff,” and supplemental material/appendix. Samples of proposals, tip sheets, and a
check list are posted online.
I also prepare them to conduct the in-class presentations with the clients, covering
how to write and design PowerPoints, tips on body language and appropriate attire, and
how to conduct a question-and-answer session. Tips and examples of PowerPoints also
are posted online. If students want to rehearse in the classroom, I will make arrangements
for them to have access to the classroom.
To help students develop critical-thinking skills, I have found Bean’s Engaging
Ideas (2001) to be an excellent resource on strategies to help me improve student writing,
small group collaboration and “teacher’s role as a coach” (Bean, p. 121) in active
learning environments.
Timing
Account teams are assembled by the eighth week of the 17-week semester, after
the classes have covered many of the core fundamentals with case study analyses
underway. Approximately eight class sessions are dedicated to team meetings, including
discussions on proposal development and presentation skills. I spend time with each team
during these class sessions to monitor their progress, review drafts, and answer any
questions. I also encourage each team to meet with me during my office hours or at
another scheduled time. Client presentations are held at the end of the semester in the
classrooms. Presentation teams have 50 minutes to cover the public relations proposal
and initiate a question-and-answer session with the client. Non-presenting students also
are encouraged to ask questions. During the 2.5-hour class sessions during finals week,
each account team critiques the proposal prepared by the other class for the same client
by filling out an evaluation form.
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Deliverables
The assignment requires three deliverables: a public relations proposal; an in-class
presentation to the client with a PowerPoint presentation with creative samples; and peer
evaluations. An electronic version of the public relations proposal is due 24 hours prior to
the presentation to both the client and professor. Two bound, four-color proposals are
distributed on the day of the presentation. The PowerPoint presentation with brief
bulleted points and imagery serves as a visual guide during their in-class presentation to
the client. Students also create other props or samples of tactics indicated in their
recommendations, such as releases, press kit materials, brochures, social media, websites,
or other documents, which help illustrate their ideas. PowerPoints and any supplemental
materials also are posted online the day of the presentation. Peer evaluations are handed
in by the end of the last class on finals week. Over the past year, I added a final
evaluation of the public relations plan prepared by the other class for the same client.
Evaluation
The project is graded for the following components: addressing public relations
solutions to meet the client’s specific challenges, needs, and goals (25%); demonstrating
knowledge of public relations planning, audience, media, research, strategies, tactics,
measurement, timetable, and out-of-pocket budget (25%); writing the PR proposal with
clarity and confidence, including careful grammar, proofreading, editing, and consistency
in formatting (25%); and presenting the plan in class and answering questions from the
client and audience (25%). The proposal and presentation comprise 35% of the total
grade for the class, including an additional 5% for peer evaluations. The evaluation of the
other proposal counts for an additional 10%. Each team is provided with written feedback
with my evaluation, including a selection of the most useful comments from the client
and the other student team.
Challenges
The major challenge I have encountered over the past four years has been team
dynamics, in which a few students faced problems producing high-quality work within
the team’s allotted deadlines. During my first year, I started with four teams of up to eight
students and expanded to six teams with five to six members, which has resulted in fewer
team management problems. Although I provide tips on team dynamics and
brainstorming and also will meet with the concerned team members and provide counsel,
I try to avoid serving as the liaison unless the student team is unable to resolve the
conflict. Learning how to work with people is an invaluable skill for students to acquire.
In the real world, they will most likely put together proposals in large teams—some
requiring input from multiple offices in the U.S. and abroad. Most student teams,
however, collaborate successfully to achieve a final product that they are proud of.
Earlier in the process, I had encountered a few clients who were disappointed with
the end result. I learned quickly to set clearer expectation levels in writing and by phone.
I also developed and continue to update a questionnaire for the clients to provide useful
information to guide the students. This process requires more of my time upfront, but it is
worthwhile to establish a rapport, understand the client’s public relations objectives, and
obtain useful resources for the students. I also recommend that client presentations be
held in back-to-back classes since this format gives the clients two different
recommendations and creative solutions.
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Conclusion
Integrating real-world clients in the classroom is a win-win proposition for all
concerned. Students gain real-world experience while acquiring valuable skills to learn
how to solve problems and how to create, write and present a public relations proposal.
Organizations receive free public relations recommendations that can be adapted for
actual use—and they also learn more about the “digital generation,” which is a target
market that many organizations are trying to reach.
Real-world proposals and presentations make the introductory public relations
class more dynamic and interactive. Student evaluations continue to be positive with
enthusiastic commentary, such as “the final presentation was a great simulation of a real
PR pitch and it taught me so much,” “made me want to continue learning about PR,” and
“incorporated relevant real-life experience.”
The public relations plan also has a lifespan beyond the classroom since it serves
as a creative sample for students to add to their portfolios for interviewing for internships
and entry-level positions. Students who use e-portfolios also post the proposals to
demonstrate their creativity and teamwork. Many students have told me that the
proposals impressed their prospective employers—and helped them receive an offer for a
job or internship. Some classroom clients also have become real-life opportunities for
students to serve as public relations interns, many of them in paid internships. In some
cases, the creative samples presented in the classroom resulted in paid freelance
assignments for the students.
References
Aldoory, L. & Wrigley, B. (2000). Exploring the use of real clients in the PR campaigns
course. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, Winter, 46-58.
Bean, J.C. (2001). Engaging ideas: The professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical
thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University (1998).
Reinventing undergraduate education: A blueprint for America’s research
institutions. Retrieved from http://naples.cc.sunysb.edu/Pres/boyer.nsf/.
Commission on Public Relations Education (2006, November). The professional bond –
public relations education and the practice. Retrieved from
http://www.commpred.org/_uploads/report2-full.pdf.
Daugherty, E. (2003). Service-learning integration in a public relations program
pedagogy for enhanced learning. AEJMC Teaching Public Relations Monograph,
Winter, 58.
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The Facilitation and Evaluation of Meaningful International Internships
James M. Haney, Ph.D.
University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point
jhaney@uwsp.edu
Professors and industry professionals have long cited the value of meaningful
internships for college students. The number of students completing internships has
grown substantially in recent years. The National Association of Colleges and
Universities found in 2008 that 50 percent of all graduating students completed
internships, up from only 17 percent reported in a 1992 Northwestern University study.
(1) With many schools stressing the value of international study experiences as a way for
students to broaden their worldview and build their skill sets to compete in a global
economy, the possibility of pursuing internships in a foreign country has great appeal.
A traditional internship program presents academic challenges for supervisors
whether students are working on campus or in local communities. When students are
interning in another country thousands of miles from their home institution, the internship
coordinator faces even more potential problems. The challenges include: 1) finding
quality placements where students can test their communication skills and learn more
about the public relations field; 2) screening potential interns to ensure that only well
qualified students are placed abroad; 3) preparing students for the unique work conditions
they will face in a foreign land; 4) complying with immigration and visa policies, laws
and regulations; 5) providing meaningful support and lifelines to assist students working
in another country in case of unforeseen circumstances; and 6) securing substantial
academic evidence of student work in order to assess and grade internships responsibly.
This paper details the experience of the University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point
(UWSP) in conducting an international internship program In London, England, for the
last six years (from 2005-2010). UWSP has 9,200 students and has been running
successful international programs since 1969. The university traditionally has been a
strong performer in international opportunities with about 20 percent of all students
participating in a study abroad experience. According to the most recent survey by the
Institute of International Education, UWSP ranked 18 th in the country among master’s
institutions in sending undergraduate students abroad. (2)
Though UWSP has wanted to provide international internships for many years,
the university didn’t commence its foreign internship program until 2005. After six years
of experience with the program, it is possible to report on some of the successes and
challenges the program has experienced. The focus of this paper is to establish some best
practices for other schools that might consider international placements in the future.
Special guidance is provided to communication faculty who must supervise public
relations interns abroad.
Initial Barriers
English is spoken widely in many parts of the world, but it is difficult for interns
to work in many countries without true proficiency in the local language. UWSP has
explored placing interns in a number of countries where its students study, but too few
communication majors are fluent in the languages they would need for successful
placements in many parts of the world. Working effectively in an internship setting
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equires true fluency in the host country’s language. Rudimentary language skills are not
sufficient for serving clients in the workplace.
Since its inception in 2005, 208 UWSP students have held internships in the UK.
Sixty of those students have been communication majors. In fact, over 35 percent of all
the university’s students participating in the London internship program (73 students)
have come from the Division of Communication in either its communication or arts
management majors. Both majors have well established U.S. based internship
opportunities. Students are encouraged to pursue work experiences in both the U.S. and
London. Though students may receive up to eight credits for domestic internships, only
three count for the communication major. Students also can earn an additional six credits
for a London internship, but only three of those credits count for the 40-credit
communication major thereby ensuring that they are taking a substantial number of
traditional courses in their major.
Finding Placements
Though a number of UWSP communication professors have established contacts
with industry professionals in London, creating an international internship program with
those few placement possibilities was not a viable option. The university pursued a
relationship with Anglo American Educational Services (AAES), a British based
organization which supplies assistance to numerous North American schools involved in
foreign study programs. UWSP’s London program relies on AAES to identify and secure
placements based on the student’s interests and skills. The organization also arranges
placement interviews for students, conducts an on-site visit of the intern, provides an
orientation program for student interns when they arrive in London and serves as a
lifeline in case students experience problems with their placements. AAES also
distributes and collects the final evaluation forms UWSP wants work supervisors to
complete as they assess the interns.
Communication placements have included positions at Bell Pottinger, Monro &
Forster Communications, Premier PR, Brand Republic, Resonate, InterContinental Hotels
& Resorts, Chase PR, the London bureau of NBC News, AP Radio London, Bang On PR
and Waterwise (a substantial NGO). Arts Management majors have benefited from
placements with organizations such as the British Museum, the English National Opera
and Royal Festival Hall.
Though a larger university might be able to place a full-time internship
coordinator in London, UWSP, which typically has some eight to 20 interns abroad
during the same term, cannot do that. Because of their extensive contacts, utilizing a firm
such as AAES gives UWSP students a wide range of impressive placement options.
Screening Interns
The university needs to screen internship candidates carefully. Improper
screening can result in students assuming positions that are a bad match for their needs
and skill sets. The Division of Communication at UWSP requires applicants for London
internships to be seniors with an overall GPA of at least 2.75 (on a 4 point scale) and
should have at least a 3.0 average for coursework in their major. Though these standards
are useful requirements to employ, screenings also should include at least two other
factors. First, students must be recommended in writing by their academic advisor.
Second, students must be interviewed and approved for the experience by the internship
director. Considerations that weigh heavily in the interview process are student
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achievements in and out of the classroom (grades received, extracurricular
accomplishments and other work experience), the types of courses a student has taken
and the personal goals they have for the internship. The university’s international
programs office also requires interns to provide three reference letters (one from their
academic advisor, another by a professor, and the third by someone who knows the
student well).
Students sometimes try to qualify for the experience before they have had the
coursework they need to be successful in the internship assignment. For example, a
student who hasn’t taken the advanced public relations writing class is a poor candidate
for a PR placement. Sometimes, juniors hope to go abroad before they have had the
proper training and experiences to qualify for London. A student’s application and
transcript can be reviewed carefully during an interview to ferret out weak candidates.
Student Orientation
Preparing the student for the international experience is also an important
consideration. The orientation for UWSP students takes place in several ways. The
international programs office provides a group orientation session on campus with all
students planning to take part in the internship program. When students arrive in
London, another orientation session is offered by AAES.
The division’s internship director also counsels students one-on-one during the
personal interview session. Topics covered in this conversation include how to
communicate with your work supervisor, advice on taking advantage of the great
opportunities London provides and how to prepare for the high cost of living they will
experience. Since many UWSP students come from small towns in the Midwest, alerting
them to the conditions they will face and giving them a chance to ask questions and
address their fears one-on-one is critical. Students are reminded during the interview that
they have been selected for an elite program and they must live up to the high standards
expected of them as ambassadors of the university and the United States.
Most students also take part in a two-week study tour of the European continent
prior to their arrival in London. This gives the interns and other students participating in
the university’s traditional semester abroad program in the UK a chance to bond before
entering the workplace and see other areas of Europe.
Legal Considerations
Students working abroad must comply with U.S. and British laws. Passport and
visa requirements must be met. This process has become more rigorous since 9/11. A
state criminal history background check and a retinal eye exam are required of all interns.
UWSP students also must enroll in a comprehensive insurance policy that covers all
university students studying abroad.
Students working in London prior to 2009 could earn 12 academic credits for fulltime
work (40 hours per week) for 12 weeks, or 10 credits when working fulltime during
10 weeks in the summer, British law changed last year. Now U.S. students are restricted
to part-time employment (only 20 hours per week). (3) Interns now can earn six
academic credits for their work assignments (usually serving as interns three days per
week). All are required to take other academic courses while in London. A course in
British life and culture and courses that give students a chance to learn from the
outstanding museums and entertainment offerings in the city are frequently provided.
Interns can take some of their courses with traditional UWSP study abroad students
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living in London. Because visa and other travel policies are constantly changing, relying
on the university’s international programs office and/or a professional educational
services firm to stay current on the applicable regulations is highly advisable.
Meaningful Support and Lifelines
UWSP tries to provide a number of useful support mechanisms for student interns
working in London. First, they can contact the division internship director via e-mail or
telephone. This lifeline is appropriate for questions about academic requirements or
issues related to communicating in the workplace. Second, contacts at AAES and the
university’s international programs office are available to help with emergencies or
worksite placement issues. A third safety net is provided by a UWSP faculty member
who is leading the traditional semester abroad program in London. The faculty member,
who is usually not in the communication discipline, resides with the other UWSP
students and the interns at the International Students House near Regents Park in London
and can provide important guidance for students with questions or concerns. Though this
lifeline exists during the fall and spring semesters, summer interns usually do not have a
UWSP faculty member on site.
Sending students to a foreign country without appropriate lifelines could be
disastrous. Even good students can encounter questions and problems when they are in a
different culture so providing reliable sources when help is needed is important. If your
university can have full-time staff in London, that would be ideal. If that is impossible,
other forms of valuable support can be developed.
Evaluating Academic Performance in an Internship
When interns are thousands of miles away, it is impractical to have frequent, if
any, firsthand observations of the students in action. That doesn’t preclude meaningful
evaluations to help the internship coordinator assign a grade. The UWSP communication
and arts management internships provide students a written course syllabus just like any
other class. The internship coordinator seeks four types of evidence when assessing the
performance of the interns.
All students must maintain a journal from the time of their arrival in London until
the conclusion of the internship. Journal entries should be made regularly – either daily
or once every two or three days. Students are asked to document what they are doing,
how they feel about the experience and how they are adapting to workplaces and living
conditions. The first half of the journal is e-mailed to the division’s internship director
about midway through the term and the second half is submitted at the end of the
semester.
Students are required to provide a few examples of the work they produced during
their internships. Some have more examples of work products to share than others.
Nevertheless, all have a few items they can submit for documentation of the contributions
they made in their jobs.
As the internship concludes, students must write and submit a 4-6 page reflection
paper on the experience. The paper assesses the strengths and weaknesses of their
internship and the skills they developed through their assignments. Students also must
discuss how they adjusted to the workplace and how they adapted to the culture.
The final form of assessment data is in the form of two evaluations. One is
usually provided by a UWSP professor or international programs official who visits the
intern and his or her supervisor midway through the term. This report is a quick
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summary of how the student appears to be doing. The more important evaluation
document is the final review provided by their workplace supervisors. These evaluations
assess the student through 16 questions on a six point scale on subjects such as
attendance, creativity, communication skills, demeanor and their abilities to work with
clients and the public. Supervisors provide an overall assessment of the intern on a scale
of zero to five (five being outstanding). The form also seeks comments from supervisors
to explain their ratings. Some supervisors provide more detail than others, but all offer
a clear indication of how the student performed.
Final Thoughts
The vast majority of UWSP students who have completed internships in London
have found the experience to be highly rewarding and consistently site supervisors say
they appreciated the work ethic and skill sets the students demonstrated on the job. The
few interns who have not excelled were either unclear about the kind of placement they
desired and were matched with an inappropriate position, or experienced personal
problems while abroad (such as long distance relationship troubles).
Administering an internship program is not easy and requires a strong team effort
with an internship director, international programs office and placement service that work
well together. Commitment to academic rigor, clear screening processes, appropriate
orientations, a solid support network for the students and substantial academic evidence
for evaluation at the end of the experience also are vital. If well constructed, an
international internship can provide students valuable work experience and some of the
critical skill sets needed to compete in a global society.
Steven Greenhouse, “The Unpaid Intern, Legal or Not,” The New York Times, April 2,
2010, p. B1.
Institute of International Education, “Open Doors 2008 – Report on International
Educational Exchange: Table 28B,” available at http://opendoors.iienetwork.org.
UK Border Agency Home Office, available at http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk.
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Using the Case Study approach to analyze crisis communication practices by
Emergency Management Association volunteers in a small community: An engaged
learning experience
Ann D. Jabro, Ph.D.
Robert Morris University
jabro@rmu.edu
The Problem
It was early when the freezing snow began to blanket the town. Sidewalks, streets
and lawns intersected; void of distinguishing features. Temperatures dipped below zero.
Howling winds whirled snow like a tornado flashes across a barren field. Excited
homebound children chattered about building snowmen, parents checked to see if they
had enough milk and bread to sustain the storm. Some townspeople were alone -
concerned they would be unable to manage the aftermath of the big storm. Newscasters
shared weather warnings and asked listeners and viewers to stay off the roads and keep
warm. Power outages throughout the county and in the tiny borough of 5,000 wreaked
havoc. Twelve hours of no electricity, sub-zero temperatures, and a broken plow altered a
community’s ability to protect its own. Power companies indicated that some sections of
the county could be without power for two to three days. To address the community’s
more than 40% elderly population who had been sharing their concerns with the 9-1-1
operator, the Emergency Management Team was activated and assembled to relocate
residents without power to warmer and safer accommodations. The emergency response
plan was activated and emergency responders braved the dangerous conditions on snow
mobiles, ATV’s, skis, and in 4-wheel drive trucks. The plan unfolded as scripted:
residents were rescued and taken to the appropriate locations only to find their keepers
were ill-informed about their roles and responsibilities and thus, incapable to performing
their specific duties. The emergency plan lacked clarity with respect to the specific
actions necessary for the second level responders’ to perform effectively. While the first
tier of emergency response worked like a charm, the training opportunities and
coordination of services after that tier was lacking. A crisis situation with the potential to
scar the untarnished reputation of emergency response efforts in general and emergency
responders specifically, in the community emerged. This crisis was rich with analysis
from a public relations, organizational communication and crisis communication
perspective.
The Course
This paper presents a service learning project performed by graduate students
enrolled in the course, “Case Studies in Communications and Information Systems.” The
project was designed to offer students an experiential learning opportunity that integrated
course content from three separate areas: The first content area was Grunig’s “Excellence
Theory” which has been consolidated to eight principles by Bowen (2005): 1) value of
communication; 2) contribution to strategic organizational functions; 3) perform the
management role; 4) use the two-way symmetrical model of public relations; 5) potential
to practice the ideal model; 6) activism as positive energy; 7) organizational culture and
structure; and 8) diversity as a strength. The second content area was general crisis
framed using Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Benoit, 1995; Benson, 1988;
Coombs, 1995; Hearit, 1994) which posits characteristics of the crisis situation determine
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the appropriate response strategy. The third area of synthesis was the organizational
problems dimensions using Bolman and Deal’s (2007), Reframing Organizations. The
authors’ establish four frames through which an organization can be analyzed: structure,
situation, culture and political. After students read the appropriate texts, discussed the
theory/information in class and demonstrated comprehension of the content, an
application exercise was designed to provide opportunities for students to link content to
practice. These exercises served as a prelude to the actual course task.
The Task
The instructor worked with a service-learning community partner on numerous
projects. She was made aware of the crisis and asked if her students wanted to assist the
community with understanding what happened in the emergency response effort that
rendered volunteers ill-prepared as well as how to avoid the situation in the future. After
contemplation and assessment of how the task would benefit students, support sound
pedagogy and complement the theoretical framework and readings in the course, the
instructor approached the class, comprised of adults who worked fulltime, to request
permission to pursue an analysis of the situation using the aforementioned theoretical
base. Students agreed unanimously that application of theory and information was their
desired course of action. Comments in students’ journals are best summarized by this
quote: “This was an amazing experience and a really interesting way to learn theory and
apply it to a situation that will benefit me personally for years to come as well as the
community.” An additional goal of enhancing students’ appreciation for research was
realized when the students expressed interest in preparing the results for presentation at a
conference.
The Outcome
According to Creswell (2007), case study research involves the study of an issue
explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (p.73). The bounded system
or setting was the specific response effort attempted on that cold day in January of 2010.
Observations, interviews, audiovisual material, documents and reports were data that
contributed to the analysis of the case. After the instructor provided instruction on case
study methodology, primary research was performed using depth interviews with 5
individuals from the community representing both primary and secondary response
efforts. Secondary research included analysis of the community’s emergency response
plan, library research on the local, state and federal emergency response guidelines, a
rigorous review of academic and popular publications on emergency response and an
assessment of excellence theory, situational crisis communication theory and Bolman and
Deal’s organizational frames. There were six students in the course. Each was assigned a
different component of research collection and analysis: history of the community,
federal emergency management guidelines, state emergency management guidelines, and
local response efforts, and analysis of the community’s emergency plan.
Students made oral presentation on the key findings of their research and then applied
this knowledge to Excellence Theory, Situational Crisis Communication Theory and
Bolman and Dean’s frames. Each student presented another oral presentation of their
analysis which led to significant discussion and consensus.
Results
After thorough analysis of the data and reflection of course content, the students
concluded the first tier of the emergency response plan was effective. However, second
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tier responders hadn’t participated in drills or been called to act in the past and were
unaware of the specific responsibilities they held. For example, emergency responders
were to rescue those in need and bring them to the High School to sleep and eat. While
the second tier responder understood he was to be at the High School, he was unaware
that he was responsible for obtaining the beds, setting them up and ordering food for
those in his shelter. Further, there was a lack of communication between first tier and
second tier responders when the transition began. A second tier responder stated, “I never
felt so incompetent. I represented an organization devoted to helping others, but I didn’t
understand the magnitude of my role. I didn’t prepare.”
The following assessments were made regarding the tenets of Excellence Theory as
they relate to emergency response efforts in this community:
1) value of communication - limited to a restricted group focused on one tier of
emergency management; 2) contribution to strategic organizational functions – not
observed beyond first tier responders. Because second tier responders didn’t participate
in emergency drills, they had no voice; 3) perform the management role - FEMA
establishes a structure that is mimicked by PEMA. The structure is utilized at the local
level, but doesn’t require scaled-up drills; 4) use the two-way symmetrical model of
public relations - emergency management personnel are not effective public relations
practitioners, and support staff performs one-way symmetrical public relations. One
responder commented, “As long as my people understand the goal and deliver on the
goal, we have been effective.” When the researcher asked about the people who weren’t
able to be sheltered in the Emergency Plan’s specified location, he responded, “That’s not
my problem. We did what we were supposed to do; someone else can figure that out. My
people responded and we have established contacts that work to cover our backs.” The
Fire Chief commented, “This is a highly complex process. We perform our job and who
has oversight for the other emergency responders’ role is out of our jurisdiction.” 5)
potential to practice the ideal model - There was limited potential because the second tier
responders are not organized and had no voice; 6) activism as positive energy - The
analysis of the response effort is the first effort by second tier responders to address the
lack of inclusion in the emergency management process; 7) organizational culture and
structure – see Bolman and Deal analysis; and 8) diversity as a strength - The local
emergency response team is a bonded group of males who have been together for years.
They interact and support other emergency responders in neighboring communities. As
was often mentioned, “We deal with the specifics of the plan; we don’t worry about the
external community during a response.” The emergency management coordinator was
focused on performing a response effort according to the plan. The only reputation he
appeared interested in preserving was that of his volunteer responders. He discussed the
array of crises types he managed on a regular basis: victim, accidental and preventable.
He and his support team consistently discussed the reinforcing strategies they employed
during and after each crisis. “When the bodies are bagged and we’ve taken a head count
of our own and find that we all made it, we’re content with the job we’ve done.”
An analysis of Bolman and Deal’s framing conventions supported the following:
adhocracy for the structural frame; ecosystems embedded in multi-level external systems
(FEMA, PEMA, LEPC) for the political frame, responders needs are met at the first tier
response level and the group is cohesive while second tier responders are disjointed
describe the analysis of the human resources frame, and myths of emergency responders
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eing unstoppable and an exclusive group of highly trained and specialized individuals
characterizes the cultural frame.
Best Practices were identified as training for second tier responders such as
representatives from local churches, schools, and the Salvation Army. The training is
offered free through the American Red Cross.
Public Relations Pedagogy/Service-learning assessment
Graduate students embraced this experience, worked independently and
collaboratively while developing an area of expertise with respect to emergency response
and course content. Each student made two oral presentations of their findings and the
class reached consensus on the perspectives presented in this paper. The instructor
offered on-going and regular feedback to perfect the process and the product. The final
product was presented to the emergency management coordinator and the response
community which generated open dialogue and opportunities for community residents to
understand the impact of volunteer work and the intricate nature of emergency response.
Students indicated the experience was positive, interesting, engaging and a perfect
opportunity to learn public relations, communications and information systems theory in
a challenging and meaningful context. This project was completed in an 8-week semester
and required intense supervision and occasional use of class time. The instructor believes
a 15-week semester would provide for more opportunities to reflect and collect additional
data.
References
Benoit, W.L. (1995). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: a theory of image
restoration. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Benson, J.A. (1988). Crisis Revisited: An analysis of the strategies used by Tylenol in the
second tampering episode. Central States Speech Journal, 38, 49-66
Bolman, L.G. & Deal, T.E. (2007). Reframing Organizations, Artistry, Choice and
Leadership (4 th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Coombs, W.T. (1995).Choosing the right words: The Development of guidelines for the
selection of the “appropriate” crisis response strategies. Management
Communication Quarterly, 8, 447-476.
Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design, (2 nd ed.). Thousand
Islands, CA: Sage Publications.
Grunig, J.E. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Hearit, K.M. (1994, Summer). Apologies and public relations crises at Chrysler, Toshiba,
and Volvo. Public Relations Review, 20 113-125.
254

Harnessing the Web for Teaching Writing for the Web:
A New Media Makeover of the Public Relations Writing Course Pedagogy
Beth A. Kuch and Abbey Blake Levenshus
University of Maryland
Bkuch@umd.edu and ABL@umd.edu
New media technologies have exploded in recent years, changing the landscape
for public relations practitioners, educators and students. Social or new media are
generally viewed as Internet-based tools and platforms that allow for user-generated
content and two-way communication. In their fifth annual survey of public relations
practitioners, Wright and Hinson (2010) found that 85% of practitioners reported that
social media had changed the way their organizations communicated. Ninety-nine
percent of practitioners stated they interact with some aspect of blogs or social media in a
given workday. While public relations practitioners have acknowledged the potential
benefits of using new media to achieve organizational public relations objectives, many
report slow adoption and struggling to incorporate new media to its fullest potential
(Avery et al., 2010; Jo & Kim, 2003; Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007). Today’s students, part of
the “Millennial generation,” have grown up with the Internet. According to recent
research on Millenials by the Pew Internet and American Life project (Lenhart, Purcell,
Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010), 93% go online; 72% use social networking sites like Facebook
and MySpace; and a third update their statuses on platforms like Twitter and Facebook.
Despite personal use, students may have little knowledge of how to use these platforms
and tools in a strategic organizational capacity.
Public relations educators, therefore, face a difficult challenge of finding
innovative ways to teach this digital generation (Swalbe, 2009). In addition to pedagogy,
educators are also challenged to update public relations curriculum and course content to
equip students to succeed in the new media infused workplace (Barry, 2005; Gower &
Jung-Yul, 2001). New media skills must not come at the expense of core public relations
education tenets such as writing and strategic planning. Even innovative educators face
barriers to making changes, including limited faculty support, funding, equipment, and
time (Davenport, Fico, & DeFleur, 2002; Voakes, Beam, & Ogan, 2003). Some educators
are working to meet the challenges through experiential learning. This paper analyzes
those efforts and offers suggestions for a public relations course focused on writing new
media pieces while using new media to deliver course content.
Method
Using the top three search engines, Google, Yahoo, and MSN/WindowsLive/Bing
(The Nielsen Company, 2010), we searched for syllabi for college courses focusing on
public relations and new media. The search terms included “public relations,” “syllabus,
“social media” and “new media.” The top 100 links found by each search engine were
evaluated to determine if it linked to a full syllabus, which included lecture topics for a
communication course with a significant focus on social media. “Communication
courses” were identified as public relations, journalism, or mass communication. A
“significant focus” was demonstrated by having more than two class sessions discussing
new media. The search resulted in 11 syllabi for courses taught between Summer 2009
and Spring 2010 or scheduled to be taught in Fall 2010 at U.S. universities. A content
analysis of the syllabi was performed to determine if course objectives, lecture topics and
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coursework covered the core public relations skills, specifically writing.
Results
The syllabi provided a range of examples from focusing primarily on journalism
to concentrating on public relations to centering on media and mass communication.
Course titles included “Social Media Skills for Journalists,” “Social Media for Public
Relations,” and “Social Media Communication, Community, and Literacy.” The
objectives for eight syllabi (three did not list objectives) were analyzed for core public
relations skills, including understanding the tools, writing, and strategic application.
Objectives in eight syllabi focused on tool knowledge, including “to understand the social
media environment” and to be able to answer “what is social media?”. Objectives
centered on writing were found in three courses: “to write and edit for online users,” “edit
your own writing for online use,” and “applying selected social media writing
techniques.” Five syllabi had a strategy objective, including “understand[ing] the
strategic PR functions social media can perform,” “strategies for using the internet as a
platform to communicate through multiple channels with consistent messages,” and
“understand[ing] strategies for successfully using social media in both proactive and
reactive situations.”
Lecture topics were categorized into nine categories. The level of detail of each
lecture varied across syllabi. Each of the 340 lecture topics was singularly categorized
based on the lecture topic listed. Tools were listed 146 times, the most out of any of the
categories. Strategies to use new media were listed the second highest at 102. Writing
was only listed 13 times as a lecture topic. Other topics included trends (24), career
development (23), ethics (15), measurement (9), strengths and weaknesses of new media
(4), and concepts (4).
The most common assignment in the syllabi involved students participating in an
online conversation through a blog. They were required to post comments and respond to
others’ posts or comments about in-class discussions, readings, social media and public
relations, students’ interests, and career issues. Depending on the class, students were
required to participate in a private class blog, create a personal blog, or comment on
public blogs. Other assignments that appeared in multiple syllabi included using Twitter,
audio (podcast)/video development, social media audits and monitoring, social media
strategic plans, and online portfolios/resumes.
Pedagogy tools that were used to deliver course content primarily were class
blogs, wikis, and class intranets such as Blackboard. One unique method that instructors
used was to hold virtual office hours through Skype, Wimba Live Classroom or web
conferencing. Additionally Twitter and Del.ici.ous were also incorporated including
using tags to maintain a unique area for course content. Social media sites including
Facebook, LinkedIn and Ning also provided forums for students to develop their skills.
Audio and visual tools did not appear to be popular with the instructors except for the
mention of downloading videos from Vimeo.com or podcasts.
Discussion
Although the majority of the courses focused on using new media tools and the
strategy associated with public relations, none of the classes significantly focused on
creating content or writing for new media. With the Millennial generation already
familiar with many social media tools and their personal use, it seems that public
relations writing courses should focus on creating or critiquing organizational use of
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these tools and platforms. With writing only a topic in six of the 313 analyzed lectures,
there was an apparent lack of focus on new media writing.
While the tools and platforms may change, the critical functions of public
relations still need to be taught. New media must be integrated into these skill sets and
knowledge bases, rather than as stand-alone “tools” lessons. We argue that new media
writing courses should teach new media writing skills tied to core public relations writing
functions (e.g., strategy planning, crisis management, relationship management,
environmental scanning and research, and execution, etc.). A new media writing course
can focus on how new media help facilitate online conversations with key publics,
develop an organizational voice, and write consistent messages across diverse channels
and platforms. Course content can go beyond press releases to writing for websites,
blogs, and viral videos. Pedagogy can move beyond PowerPoint and incorporate
multimedia user-generated content, course social networking sites, and Skyped-in guest
speakers. Students can critique and analyze organizational messages across platforms like
Facebook fan pages, official Web sites, organizational blogs, and Twitter and try their
hands at writing for multiple platforms and strategizing the best platforms for an
organization’s message.
Recommendations
The following recommendations can help build a course that integrates new media in
both course content and delivery for a public relations new media writing course:
Pedagogy objectives:
• Deliver content using new media that engages students
• Model professional use of new media
• Encourage student experiential learning of new media writing
In-class platforms for course delivery:
• Skype for office hours as well as have non-local guest speakers
• Ning.com or other social networks
• Discussion forum (preferably private) per class section and across all class
sections
• Chat including chat office hours, in-class exercises, during guest speaker
presentations
• Twitter monitoring
• Videocast and Slidecast presentations
• Wikis and intranets provided by university online classroom software such as
Blackboard
Course assignments:
• Presentations on new media tools/platforms focused on organizational uses,
strengths, weaknesses, case examples
• White paper and blog post drawn from presentation material written from a public
relations agency perspective to a potential client
• New media environmental scanning / audit analyzing an organization’s use of
new media
• Writing translations of a standard press release into different new media written
forms (e.g. website content, organizational blog, Facebook post, Twitter update)
• Audio/visual Script that asks students to develop concept and script for a podcast,
online video, webinar, or slidecast
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• Critique and make strategic recommendations for an organization’s new media
use written from the perspective of an external new media consultant
Limitations and Conclusion
A limitation of this study is the small number of syllabi analyzed. This likely does
not represent the total number of social media courses taught. Rather, it may demonstrate
some of the challenges faced by instructors in updating curriculum. These courses also
may exist but are not easily found or shared online despite the social media trend of
generating and sharing content. Professional associations like the Public Relations
Society of America, its Educators Academy, and the Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) play a critical role in speeding new
media integration into curriculum and pedagogy by creating venues for exchanging best
practices and syllabi, such as the site recently launched by AEJMC
(www.aejmc.blogspot.com) to highlight social media in the classroom. By tying new
media writing skills to core public relations functions and incorporating new media in
pedagogy, instructors can better engage students and prepare them for professional
success.
References
Avery, E., Lariscy, R., Amador, E., Ickowitz, T., Primm, C., & Taylor, A. (2010).
Diffusion of social media among public relations practitioners in health
departments across various community population sizes. Journal of Public
Relations Research, 22(3), 336-358.
Barry, W. (2005). Teaching public relations in the information age: A case study at an
Egyptian university. Public Relations Review, 31(3), 355-361.
Davenport, L., Fico, F., & DeFleur, M. (2002). Computer-assisted Reporting in
Classrooms: A Decade of Diffusion and a Comparison to Newsrooms. Journalism
& Mass Communication Educator, 57(1), 6-22.
Gower, K., & Jung-Yul, C. (2001). Use of the Internet in the Public Relations
Curriculum. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 56(2), 81-92.
Jo, S., & Kim, Y. (2003). The effect of Web characteristics on relationship building.
Journal of Public Relations Research, 15, 199–223.
Lenhart, A., Purcell, K., Smith, A., & Zickuhr, K. (2010, February 3). Social media and
young adults. Pew Internet & American Life Project, Retrieved from
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2010/Social-Media-and-Young-Adults.aspx
Schwalbe, C. (2009). Leveraging the Digital Media Habits of the Millennials: Strategies
for Teaching Journalism Courses. Southwestern Mass Communication Journal,
25(1), 53-68.
Seltzer, T., & Mitrook, M. A. (2007). The dialogic potential of weblogs in relationship
building. Public Relations Review, 33, 227-239.
The Nielsen Company (July 13, 2010). Top U.S. Search Sites for June 2010. Retrieved
from: http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/online_mobile/top-u-s-search-sites-forjune-2010/
Voakes, P., Beam, R., & Ogan, C. (2003). The Impact of Technological Change on
Journalism Education: A Survey of Faculty and Administrators. Journalism &
Mass Communication Educator, 57(4), 318-334.
Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. (2010). An analysis of new communication media use in
public relations: Results of a five-year trend study. Public Relations Journal, 4(2),
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article 2.
259

The Causal Relationship between Math Apprehension and Curricular Choices
among Communication Students: An Experiment
Alexander Laskin, Ph.D., and Hilary Fussell Sisco, Ph.D.
Quinnipiac University
Alexander.Laskin@quinnipiac.edu and Hilary.FussellSisco@quinnipiac.edu
Student’s communication-related anxiety has been extensively studied in the field
of communication. It has been established that this type of apprehension affects
students’ performance in the discipline and beyond. On the other hand, there is little
evidence about how communication students are affected by their apprehension of
mathematics. Since the undergraduate research course has become a standard in the
communication curriculum almost every communication student will encounter some
form of math in his or her educational careers.
Apprehension in the classroom encompasses more than just public speaking.
Specifically, a few studies have highlighted the appearance of mathematics anxiety in
communication students. Maier and Curtin (2005) proclaimed that students pursued
mass communication studies “in part because they thought they could avoid doing math”
(p. 356). Math apprehension is simply the fear or anxiety associated with approaching
math problems. Scholars believe that one of the inherent issues of this type of
apprehension is a lack of self-efficacy. Students, whether founded or not, believe they
don’t have the capabilities to handle math problems therefore they impede their own
performance. Research (Maier & Curtin, 2005) supports that self-efficacy in
mathematics effects classroom performance, grades, course enrollment and even choice
of major. A lack of self-efficacy (Richmond & Roach, 1992) has also been shown to limit
student’s educational and career choices. Students may be missing opportunities to excel
in certain fields based on the misperception that they aren’t good at math. This type of
anxiety needs to be addressed in disciplines that focus on math as well as those that don’t.
Students need to be given the encouragement to expand their opportunities and reduce
their math apprehension.
In their assessment of current undergraduate research courses Frey and Botan
(1988) found that the largest problem across the board in teaching the course was
“statistical apprehension/bias” (p. 253). Stacks and Hickson (1992) explain this type of
anxiety further, in that “many communication students really fear statistics and relate the
research methods course to a statistics course” (p. 353) even though statistics generally
play a minor role in the undergraduate research course. In the research methods course,
statistics is typically supplemental and only emphasized in final analyses. Furthermore,
the statistics covered in this course rarely advances past the basic mathematics skills
students are required to obtain in their general education curriculum. Regardless, Maier
and Curtin (2005) found that “math anxiety is a real and relevant force that needs to be
reckoned with in the research methods course” (p. 357). These authors support the
argument that it is important for instructors to address math apprehension in their
communication courses. Educators need to prepare students for multiple opportunities in
their field. Apprehension in the field of communication has primarily been studied either
as a case study (Maier, 2003; Maier & Curtin, 2005) or survey (Frey & Botan, 1988;
Baus & Welch, 2008) with a student sample.
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Experimental methods may be better suited to measure the impact of math anxiety
on student’s educational choices. Stacks explains “experimental designs allow the
researcher the control necessary to precisely specify and manipulate the source or
message characteristics he or she is interested in comparing” (2002, p. 265). This study is
interested in establishing a causal relationship between math anxiety and the choice that
students make in selecting a class or selecting their careers after college.
Simply speaking, we propose that students might avoid a certain profession or
specialization simply because they believe it is math intensive and they perceive that they
cannot take such a class, they cannot make a career in such a profession, they are not
capable to succeed in such a profession and that such profession is not a good
professional choice for them. If the math component was removed we believe students
would be more likely to enroll in such a class, pursue a career in such a profession, feel
more confident in their capabilities to succeed in such profession and perceive such a
profession to be more suitable for them.
This study, thus, proposes the following hypotheses:
H1. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to enroll in a
class perceived to be math intensive.
H2. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to pursue a
career in a profession perceived to be math intensive.
H3. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to perceive
themselves as more capable of succeeding in a profession perceived to be math intensive.
H4. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to consider a
profession perceived to be math intensive as a good choice for them.
To test these hypotheses, the study uses a sub-specialization of public relations,
investor relations. The choice of investor relations as a profession to test these
hypotheses is based on three main reasons. First, there is lack of understanding among
students about what investor relations as a profession involves. Laskin (2009) reports that
education in investor relations in virtually non-existent – there are no majors or minors in
investor relations, standalone classes in investor relations are largely non-existent, and
even mentions of investor relations in corporate communication and public relations
classes are rare. Second, despite this lack of education, investor relations as a professional
function has risen as one of the top communication functions in modern companies.
Investor relations is the highest paid specialization among all corporate communication
functions, investor relations is often considered part of the top-management team and has
a seat at the table when key decisions are made, and investor relations has a significant
impact on the corporate bottom-line (Laskin, 2007). Finally, there is anecdotal evidence
that students perceive investor relations as a math-intensive and finance-intensive
specialization. Although the research to support this claim does not exist, it would not
hinder the experiment, as the goal of such experiment is to identify causal relationship
between variables rather than to describe the static perceptions of students about investor
relations as a course or as a profession.
Methodology
To test its hypotheses, the study relies on the experimental design. The selection
of experiment as a research method for this study is based on the need to prove causality
between math anxiety and students’ choice of a class or a career. The study employs
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classical experiment with pre-test and post-test as well as control and experimental
groups.
The subjects were given a pre-test questionnaire with four questions asking them
how likely they would be to enroll in an investor relations class, how likely they would
be to have a career in investor relations, how likely they would be to consider investor
relations as a good choice for them, and how capable they perceive themselves of
working in the investor relations field. All the questions were measured on a 10-point
scale with 0 being strongly disagree and 10 being strongly agree. Then, students received
a print-out about investor relations – although, all the print-outs seemed to be the same,
there were actually two types of print-outs: one for the control group and one for the
experimental group. The assignment of students to these groups was random. The printout
for the experimental group included an extra paragraph designed to minimize math
anxiety of students about investor relations. The paragraph read:
Investor relations does not involve any math or calculations – it is a
communication function. The calculations are done by accounting and financial
specialists - investor relations practitioners help package the information
contained in the numbers for presentation to the financial publics. Thus, investor
relations course does not involve any arithmetic or mathematics.
After that, subjects in both control and experiment groups received a new questionnaire
that contained the same four questions as the pre-test questionnaire measured using the
same ten point scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
Results
The study recruited 48 participants with 24 being randomly assigned to an
experimental group and 24 to a control group. The first hypothesis asked whether
students will be more likely to enroll in the investor relations class, if their math anxiety
was minimized. Based on the results of the experiment, the likelihood to enroll in the
investor relations class was higher for students who were exposed to the experimental
treatment (M = 7.33; N = 24) than for students who were in the control group and thus
were not exposed to the experimental manipulation (M = 4.83; N = 24). To analyze if the
difference in the means between these two groups was statistically significant, the
independent samples t-test was conducted. The results of the t-test indicated that the
difference between the groups was statistically significant (t(46) = 3.54; p ≤ .001). As a
result, Hypothesis 1, after math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to
enroll in a class perceived to be math intensive, was supported.
The second hypothesis asked whether the students will be more likely to pursue a
career in investor relations if their math anxiety was minimized. Based on the results of
the experiment, the likelihood to pursue a career in the investor relations profession was
higher for students who were exposed to the experimental treatment (M = 5.58; N = 24)
than for students who were in the control group and thus were not exposed to the
experimental manipulation (M = 3.21; N = 24). To analyze if the difference in the means
between these two groups was statistically significant, the independent samples t-test was
conducted. The results of the t-test indicated that the difference between the groups was
statistically significant (t(46) = 3.57; p ≤ .001). As a result, Hypothesis 2, after math
anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to pursue a career in profession
perceived to be math intensive, was supported.
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The third hypothesis asked whether the students will be more likely to perceive
themselves as capable of performing duties of the investor relations professionals if their
math anxiety was minimized. Based on the results of the experiment, the likelihood to
feel capable about the investor relations profession was higher for students who were
exposed to the experimental treatment (M = 6.33; N = 24) than for students who were in
the control group and thus were not exposed to the experimental manipulation (M = 4.96;
N = 24). To analyze if the difference in the means between these two groups was
statistically significant, the independent samples t-test was conducted. The results of the
t-test indicated, however, that the difference between the groups was not statistically
significant (t(46) = 2.14; p > .001). Thus, although the means for the experimental group
are higher than the means for the control group as the hypothesis was predicting, this
difference could occur simply by chance. As a result, Hypothesis 3, after math anxiety is
minimized, students will be more likely to perceive themselves as more capable of
succeeding in a profession perceived to be math intensive, was not supported.
The last hypothesis asked whether students will be more likely to perceive the
investor relations profession as a good choice for them, if their math anxiety was
minimized. Based on the results of the experiment, the likelihood to perceive investor
relations as a good choice was higher for students who were exposed to the experimental
treatment (M = 5.46; N = 24) than for students who were in the control group and thus
were not exposed to the experimental manipulation (M = 3.67; N = 24). To analyze if the
difference in the means between these two groups was statistically significant, the
independent samples t-test was conducted. The results of the t-test indicated that the
difference between the groups was statistically significant (t(46) = 2.99; p ≤ .001). As a
result, Hypothesis 4, after math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to
consider a profession perceived to be math intensive as a good choice for them, was
supported.
Conclusions
The results of the experiment lead to the conclusion that math apprehension does
influence students in choosing their classes. In fact, students became more likely to enroll
in the investor relations class once they knew that no math was involved and the
difference was statistically and meaningfully significant as it represented more than a
quarter of the scale used for the measurement.
The same was true for the selection of the profession. Once students learned that
no math skills were required to work in the investor relations profession, all other
variables held equal, they became more likely to pursue a career in investor relations and
more likely to view investor relations profession as a good choice for them.
These findings suggest an important implication for educators. Students should
not limit themselves in their potential career choices. It becomes an important task for
educators to help students cope with their math anxiety and choose their classes and
career paths based on their interests rather than based on a fear of math. Investor
relations, for example, is the highest paid specialization in public relations and corporate
communications with vacancies available even during the toughest job market
environments (Iacono, 2006). Thus, it represents a lucrative career opportunity for current
public relations and communication students.
Minimizing math anxiety, however, did not cause subjects in the experimental
group to view themselves as more capable to carry out duties of an investor relations
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professional in comparison with subjects in the control group. Perhaps it indicates that
other anxieties may exist that hinder students’ perception of their capabilities. Or perhaps
it once again confirms the fact that investor relations is a little known specialization and
thus without sufficient information about it students have hard time judging their own
capabilities in regard to this professional choice. More research is needed to address this
assumption.
Apprehension in the classroom has proven to be a significant problem for
educators. It seems that math anxiety is also limiting student’s educational and
professional opportunities. It is important for instructors, in public relations, or any
communication field to address student apprehension. Baus and Welch (2008) suggest
that instructors should encourage group projects, assert learning outcomes and give pep
talks to increase students’ self-efficacy about mathematics. The findings of this study
would also suggest that simply informing students of the mathematical nature of courses,
majors and professions might help to reduce their apprehension. Future research should
explore the effect of apprehension in the various subfields and specializations of
communication majors. As educators, we should provide students with information
therefore they can diminish their apprehension and make clear choices based on their
own interests.
References
Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Baus, R. D. & Welch, S. A. (2008). Communication Students' Mathematics Anxiety:
Implications for Research Methods Instruction. Communication Research
Reports, 25(4), 289-299.
Iacono, E. (2006, February 20). Salary survey 2006: A rising tide in the job pool.
PRWeek, 16-22.
Frey, L. R., & Botan, C. H. (1988). The status of instruction in introductory
undergraduate research methods. Communication Education, 37, 249–256.
Laskin, A.V. (2007). The value of investor relations: A Delphi panel investigation.
Gainesville, FL: Institute for Public Relations.
Laskin, A.V. (2009). A descriptive account of the investor relations profession: A
national study. Journal of Business Communication, 46(2), 208-233.
Maier, S.R. (2003). Numeracy in the Newsroom: A Case Study of Mathematical
Competence and Confidence. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 80,
921-36.
Maier, S. R., & Curtin, P. A. (2005). Self-efficacy theory: A prescriptive model for
teaching research methods. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 59,
352–364.
McCroskey, J. C. (1976). The problem of communication apprehension in the classroom.
Western Speech Communication 40(1), 115-133.
Richmond, V P., & Roach, K. D. (1992). Willingness to communicate and
employee success in U.S. organizations. Journal of Applied Communication
Research, 20, 95-115.
Stacks, D. W., & Hickson, M. (1991). The communication investigator: Teaching
research methods to undergraduates. Communication Quarterly, 39, 351–357
Stacks, D. W. (2002). Primer of public relations research. New York: Guilford.
264

Crisis in the Classroom:
A cross-departmental approach prepares PR students as spokespeople
Colleen Pope Lemza
State University of New York, Plattsburgh
colleen.lemza@plattsburgh.edu
Introduction
Much has been written about the value of service learning in the public relations
education curriculum. Just from last year’s conference proceedings Bartoo & Slater and
Muhtaseb all discussed the positive benefits to the public relations industry, the service
learning clients and mostly, the students. However, service learning, born from
experiential learning, isn’t new. John Dewey discussed its benefits in his 1959 paper
entitled Experience and Education (Dewey, 1959). Educators agree there’s value in
experiential classroom learning, but incorporating all aspects of public relations into the
classroom can be difficult or even damaging to the client.
Any public relations practitioner who’s been responsible for handing a crisis
situation knows that doomsday isn’t the right time for a student to be calling the shots in
an experiential learning course. It takes significant skill and experience, not to mention a
cool head, to come out on the other side of a hot issue with your reputation intact. This
isn’t a learning opportunity most companies would turn over to an intern or a project
team in a service learning class.
The Challenge
So the question becomes how do students learn this important aspect of public
relations to gain an appreciation for the preparation and composure it takes to handle the
pressure? Think back to your first heated interview with that first microphone in your
face. I’m sure like most you watched the evening news and asked yourself why you said
that. Or just as common, screamed “That’s not what I meant!” at the television.
Who wouldn’t have appreciated an opportunity to be in the hot seat without any
negative ramifications to your organization or career before it was showtime? Certainly
there are day-long to week-long media training courses available to teach these valuable
skills, but not at a price recent college graduates can afford.
Relationship-Building
Another aspect of crisis communication that can’t be easily learned from a
textbook or even a campaigns course is how to develop, use and retain those important
relationships with the media. Granted, the landscape has changed drastically in this area
of media relationships with all the new technologies. However, in most small towns
across the country, a phone call or email from the local newspaper or television affiliate
still make public relations practitioners want to return messages.
How can students learn about culturing that relationship before they get burned on
their first job? Opening the newspaper in the morning and reading a quote not truly
intended for print is one way to learn your lesson. If nothing else, exposing too much
information once is a good incentive to master those media/practitioner relationship skills
so it doesn’t happen again. Being caught off-guard in a media interview, whether in
crisis mode or not, will prevent one from being ill-prepared the next time. This is exactly
the lesson I try to leave on my students by creating full-blown crisis scenarios in the
classroom involving television, print and audio journalists.
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If this crisis scenario does nothing else, it awakens fear in the students to realize
the need to be taken seriously. Josh Preston, a business student who took the Public
Relations Principles class related how useful it was. “It was an awesome experience. It
was exactly what I’ll need to know when I’m a CEO and facing the media,” he said.
Learning Outcomes
But my hope is, it’ll do much more than just make students take notice. The main
outcomes of this experience are to:
• Provide a no-negative consequences opportunity for students to be inside a
live public relations crisis;
• Illustrate the importance of issues-management and having a crisis
communications plan in place;
• Allow students to experience first-hand the chaos and loss of media
control that can often happen in a crisis;
• Provide students with an opportunity to craft key messages based on their
role in the scenario, then read or view what could have appeared in the
media had the situation been real;
• Learn from their mistakes…enough to know that once they graduate they
will need to be prepared.
Underneath it all though, is that this is fun. It makes learning fun and interactive.
It combines true elements of the field by involving television, print journalism and audio
students in a classroom with public relations students.
Implementation
This scenario finds its home in an introductory principles class instead of a more
advanced public relations course for a couple reasons. The first is that since this is
students’ first PR class, most don’t know each other. It also allows business and political
science students to take the course without having to take any pre-requisite courses.
To gain the involvement of journalists, I work with a Journalism professor who
also used this as an opportunity for a real-life assignment with her classes. In addition, I
recruit one or two television production or broadcast journalism students to come to class
with cameras and microphones.
The first crisis scenario, the biggest one with the most initial impact, fits in nicely
with a discussion about issues management and crisis communication. I try to create
scenarios that are large enough so there would be a number of departments or
organizations involved to give half of the class spokesperson roles. In the second
scenario, the other half gets the spokesperson roles. By this point in the semester, I have
a good idea who the serious students are and I dole out the crucial roles to the ones I
know will fully prepare. I also try to make the scenario revolve somewhat around the
campus so it will have more of a personal impact on them. They might not care about a
nursing home in town, but if their sorority house burns down, they tend to take it more
emotionally.
One week before Crisis Day, roles are given out and they’re told to fully research
them. They don’t know what the crisis will be at this point but they need to understand
the organization, who reports to whom, research past incidents, what’s currently in the
media about their organization, etc. Two students are named for each role: Student A
and Student B. However, they don’t know which one of them will be the actual
spokesperson on the day they walk into the classroom. That way they both have to
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prepare and do the research. I provide four possible scenarios for the students to
research. I’ve found that this provides better research for the students and the better the
research the more successful the scenario tends to be.
On crisis day they tend to come to class a bit early, all dressed up in their
spokesperson attire. As they arrive in class, I hand out their roles, whether they’re the
spokesperson role or not. They’re provided with the initial scenario information and told
they’ll have about 15 minutes before the media start coming in.
Throughout the class, updates are provided. These are twists and turns that help
to thicken the plot and make the scenario more enticing. Students have to learn to roll
with the information and change their messages accordingly. Occasionally there are
leaks to the media, and other unpredictable events that often happen in a real situation.
About 10-15 minutes after they’re given the information, the media begin to
invade, naturally before students seem fully ready. The media have been given the
scenario ahead of time and sworn to secrecy. By preparing in advance, they know what
questions to ask so the PR students can’t fool them. The media however, aren’t provided
with the updates prior to class. Everyone hears the scenario unfold at the same time.
Media cover the room finding spokespeople to answer their questions. When chaos is
unbearable, students are reminded they have the option of holding a media conference.
The following class, students must hand in a reflection piece that includes who
they thought their main audiences were, what their key messages for those audiences
should have been and how they felt about the scenario overall. We then watch the video
that was compiled of all the recorded interviews and read some the more interesting
newspaper stories that were submitted in the journalism class.
The best part by far is having students watch what they said and did on camera, or
listening to them complain that “that isn’t what I told her” when they read the newspaper
stories from the journalism students.
“Alumni” Involvement
Because students who’ve been through the class seem to still want to play a role, often
“alumni” of the 311 class come back for the scenarios to play the role of distraught
parents or community residents. They add to the chaos of the classroom and the drama is
fun. Also, since they’re older than those going through the class, they tend to be
somewhat intimidating.
Final Thoughts
Although these scenarios aren’t complete with blood and fire trucks, they allow me to
bring an opportunity into the classroom for students to experience the pressure of a crisis
first hand. Short of being allowed to watch a crisis on the sidelines during an internship,
I can’t think of a more effective way to put students in the hot seat and make them take
notice of the importance of preparing for crisis communication after they graduate.
References
Dewey, J. (1986). Experience and Education. The Educational Forum, 50(3), 241-252.
Muhtaseb, A. (2009). Service Learning as a Structured Pedagogial Strategy in Teaching
the PR Practicum Class. PRSA Educator’s Academy Conference Proceedings
(pp. 179-182).
White Bartoo, C., & Slater, J. (2009). Tribulations and Triumphs of Teaching Real-
World, client-Based PR: An Assessment of the Campaigns Course Pedagogy.
PRSA Educator’s Academy Conference Proceedings (pp. 176-177).
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Crisis Scenario
Preliminary Research
Date of Crisis: Thursday, March 25th, 2010
Due Date of Reflection Piece: Tuesday, March 30 th , 2010
Research the following points:
• Assigned role
• Your organization and department (how they would handle a crisis, what’s their
chain of command, etc.
• Current issues and past history for your organization/department? Media search.
• College’s and city’s emergency action plans for a variety of crisis-type situations.
*Students will be paired up and expected to research and work together to fully
understand the role they have been assigned. Each student will find out his/her specific
role the day of the crisis but is expected to work as a team in preparing and handling the
crisis.
Roles for Student A: ‘Student A’ will be the official spokesperson of the organization in
which their team represents. They are to work in collaboration with Student B.
Role for Student B: Student B will have no verbal role with the press/media on the day
of the crisis, but is to help and assist in preparing Student A who will be speaking directly
to the media.
Possible Scenarios Include:
Recent outbreak of an infectious disease
ROTC is experiencing opposition from campus faculty and administrators
Fire Alarms have been going off more frequently than ever in Moffitt Hall
NCAA is inspecting Plattsburgh State’s Men’s Hockey and Basketball teams for
suspected drug use.
Roles:
SUNY Plattsburgh President:
City of Plattsburgh Fire Chief
Director of Resident Life
Plattsburgh City Mayor (understanding of city operations)
Director of CVPH
Director of Maintenance and College Facilities
University Police
Dean of Students
Plattsburgh State Men’s Hockey Coach
Clinton County Emergency Medical Services
CRISIS SCENARIO
TIMELINE:
• August 2009 – Freshman students set off the Fire Alarms of Wilson Hall
frequently from Thursday through Sunday on a weekly basis.
o Resident Assistants are aware of the situation and attempt to punish the
students for their negligence. RA’s are aware that the main offenders
caused the alarms to go off due to smoking.
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• September 2009 – More students in Wilson Hall set off the Fire Alarms through
out the week due to students not being mindful of their cooking techniques.
o Resident Director is then called upon to address the entire dormitory about
the lack of awareness of students actions in regards to the fire alarms.
o November 2009 – As the weather gets colder, the same freshman students
as before, are continuing to set off the fire alarms. Resident Assistants
assume it is because of them smoking.
o Wilson Hall has become fed up with the fire alarms because of the colder
weather and students many are becoming very lax in vacating the building
during alarms-due to their frequency.
• December 2009 – Students wrap up their semester in Wilson Hall; fire alarms are
subdued as a result. However, the attitude toward them is lackadaisical.
• February 2010 – Students still experience frequent fire alarms. Resident
Assistants and Resident Directors are concerned with the issue as it could lead to
more problems in the future.
FACTS:
• Each dorm building has a “control box” to monitor the Fire Systems. Not many
Resident Assistants are trained on how it works…
• Students have not been caught with drugs or alcohol in conjunction with the fire
alarms being set off yet. However, that does not mean that the students were not
using any illegal substances…
• Parents and guardians are annoyed at the dormitory’s attitude towards this
situation and are considering alternative living situations for their children in the
future.
• The City of Plattsburgh Emergency Services is fed up with the “boy who cried
wolf” fire alarm scenarios that Wilson Hall has had this academic year.
• The Fire Alarms have gone off over 30 times this academic year. All of which
have been because of negligent and irresponsible students.
• Members of the Men’s Hockey Team, who live in Wilson Hall, are reported to be
involved in the ongoing problems that started at the beginning of the academic
year.
So…who’s in charge? What do you need to think about in terms of your constituents,
plan of action, key messages? What questions do you think will be asked of you? Is
there a crisis plan for the city, for the county, for the college, for the hospital? Who has a
plan? Also, whoever the class decides is “in charge” can assign whatever work
assignments he/she thinks is necessary to get the situation under control and to
communicate with your constituents.
The media will be coming in shortly. You also have the option of scheduling a media
conference. You may use the computer, the board, me, each other…whatever resources
you have for today in class.
THIS JUST IN!
• The Fire Alarms have gone off yet again in Moffitt Hall, however this time many of
the students exiting the building smelled smoke. People outside could see smoke
coming from the building as well.
o The Resident Assistant for that section of the building was not present at the
time of the fire alarm being activated
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o No one has seen the students from the suite that set the fire alarm off since
evacuation began
• The City of Plattsburgh Fire Department is assisting on a large structure fire outside
of town and have been delayed in responding to Moffitt Hall. They will be arriving
as soon as possible…
THIS JUST IN!
• By the time the fire department arrives, the suite that started the fire is engulfed in
flames. Heavy smoke has filled the building and outside region.
• Fire department crews are actively searching the building for students
THIS JUST IN!
• 10 students who were found in the suite that caused the fire alarm to go off have just
been taken to CVPH unconscious. EMT crews fear that the students have suffered
from excess smoke inhalation.
• The Fire Department has experienced difficulty in assessing the fire alarm situation
due to the Control Panel malfunctioning. The Resident Assistant on duty was not
able to assist in the analysis of the situation due to lack of knowledge with the Control
Panel.
THIS JUST IN!
• The students who were admitted to CVPH have just been declared deceased by the
county coroner. Autopsies have shown that the 10 students were found with drug and
alcohol in their blood upon death.
• The Fire Department has analyzed the scene of the fire and has concluded that
Marijuana was present at the origin of the fire.
270

Public Relations Leadership Through Social Networking: An Analysis of
Undergraduate Use and Attitudes
Bonita Dostal Neff, Ph.D., IEL Fellow, and Jennifer Halbert
Valparaiso University, Indiana
Bonita.neff@valpo.edu
Introduction
Social media is clearly a factor in the public relations communication process.
Students on the undergraduate level view their involvement or emersion in the social
media from a variety of perspectives. Informal responses during classroom discussion
seem to indicate a wide variety of approaches to social media. Perhaps with the college
undergraduate group, the Facebook site is as close to home as you can get. What this
means in terms of training those who will be in the public relations profession is not
exactly clear yet. Academics in the classroom will see some students tied to their
mobiles unable to disconnect during class. Sometimes the computer is used as a guise for
this behavior. Others are totally not interested. Emerging discussion suggests the
profession of public relations is considered to be the leader in the area of social media
usage. But are the students ready and willing to accept this leadership? What is this
“use” of social media mean for the emerging public relations leaders? The evolution of
the technological interface on Facebook, Twitter, FourSquare, LinkIn, and a myriad of
other approaches is obviously becoming an ongoing challenge in the educational process.
Literature
As noted in Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital Natives,
the authors point out “this is the most rapid period of technological transformation
ever….” Meanwhile, the landscape for social media is nascent and very complex. There
is on one hand the bare usage of social media individually vs. the organizational usage of
social media. Taylor and Kent in their “Anticipatory socialization in the use of social
media in public relations: A content analysis of PRSA’s public relations tactics” present
a rather strong contrasting argument of the need for better research in presenting the
social media impact to students. For public relations educators simple hype does not
work. The fact remains at the moment that publications, especially academic research, is
also nascent and this makes sense since the social media process per se is just catching
on.
The first public relations and social media journal dedicated to this topic features
a variety of substantive articles including: how social media is affecting the practice of
media relations (Waters, Tindall, and Morton, 2010), organizational image based on
social media (Gilpin, 2010), nondisclosure as a barrier to relationships (Sweetser, 2010),
social media usage in political campaigns (Levenshus, 2010), and the use of social media
by health practitioners (Avery, Lariscy, Amador, Icowitz, Primm, and Taylor, 2010).
Another research presentation focused on a twitter content analysis and analyzed the “40
Best Twitter Brands” in terms of “usage and authenticity/transparency of the
organizational tweeters”(McCorkindale, 2010) Such a study provides instructive
guidelines for developing more critical approaches to social media, especially for the
students entering the profession. These recent and very well-designed studies offer a
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more solid learning basis for social media as an emerging area for both the present and
future practitioners to study more critically.
A more comprehensive study of the status acknowledges that the literature
addresses social media more in light of marketing and/or advertising than public relations
(Kent, 2010) This already sets the stage for contemplating the need for a more definitive
approach to public relations in relationship to social media, especially in terms of ethical
issues. Most importantly, public relations professionals should not be used to extend the
marketing outreach or be used as a “less costly: option. Public Relations should be
focused on public relations’ unique functions—such as in developing relationships (Ibid).
Neff incorporated technology into the discussion on developing the identity of the
public relations profession. Suggesting perhaps that a more IC (Integrated
Communication) approach is needed to highlight the leadership of the public relations
functions in the communication process and, most importantly, within the social media
arena (Neff, 2010). Thus if public relations functions are truly based on a highly
interactive communication process, the role of practitioners should be reflective of this
highly prized functionality. With these thoughts in mind, undergraduates were involved
in a survey experience to assess the nature of their involvement with social media.
Social Media Assessment
This study involved an electronic survey of undergraduates enrolled in public
relations classes of a private university. Public relations classes involved in the survey
yielded a total of 40 completed questionnaires. The questions focused on the equipment
owned or used (mobiles or computers) for social media, the applications available, and
the use of social media in terms of personal and/or professional application. Specific
attention was focused on the identification of news sources, global outreach, and the
understanding of the myths about privacy. Some research questions were based on the
discussions developed at the Edelman Social Media Summit in June 2009 at Washington
D.C.
Overview of Study
Population: Students responding were 50% male and 30% female with 20% not
responding to the question. No student was a freshman (courses usually not enrolled
until introductory survey courses are completed in communication). Other levels: 10%
sophomores, 30% juniors, and 50% seniors.
Usage: Only 20% of the class owned a “smart phone.” The applications for these
students were primarily for Facebook and Twitter interface. A fuller overview of social
networking sites revealed no blog applications (neither Blogger or WordPress). Blog
sites for classroom use such as Blackboard were excluded from the study as these were
more assigned than personally utilized. Content-sharing sites included: YouTube 50%,
Flicki 0%, Wikis 0%. Social network sites covered: Facebook 90%, MySpace 10%,
LinedIn 30%. Tagging sites included: Del.icio.us 0% and Stumbleupon 10%. Microblogs
described: Twitter 70%, Google Buzz 10%, FourSquare 0%.
Outcome of Experience: Another question asked the respondent to provide three
phases that “best described your experience in social media.” These primary categories
emerged: 1) A connection, for example: “way to connect with friends at other schools,”
“thrilling to connect with classmates,” “excited to be able to locate friends all around the
U.S.,” “makes it easier to plan family get-togethers with in-laws in different cities.” 2)
Fun, for example: “fun,” “gossip.” 3) Usage, for example: “learner,” “student,” “went
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from using it multiple times a day to checking maybe once daily, “have gone with one
social media site to another, usually creating an account on another site because other
people told me how great and easy it was,” “I only check it when I get an e-mail update.”
Last primary category focused on critical evaluations and/or concerns: “primarily a
positive experience,” “watch what I say.” The responses tended to be more general. The
comments reflected more nascent users and fewer indicated a critical analysis. No one
mentioned public relations functions or application. This lack of public relations
connection would suggest the social media at this point is primarily for social application.
Global Outreach: Global outreach is important to our university and the
opportunity to use social media could enhance the university’s mission. 60% of the
students were contacting nonUS countries. 10% of the respondents were nonUS students
and so their outreach was expected.
Myths About Social Media: A series of true or false questions were developed
about the myths surrounding social media. These questions focused on “privacy settings”
(30% trusted) secure sites (10% trusted), no responsibility for online contributions (10%
believed), and for success one must go viral (30% supported statement).
Social vs. Professional Usage: The sample averaged 77% social usage and 23%
professional usage with self reporting responses.
Assessment Reflects Newer Trend
With the many concerns about students no longer reading newspapers or print
publications, the interest in this research was to identify the “source for daily news
updates.” Students did provide evidence of a major shift. The results indicated the
students were still pursuing news but from a wider variety of sources. Specifically the
respondents indicated that news was important but the sources varied. These sources
included (note multiple responses were acceptable): Internet-100%, Twitter 30%, Print
Media 50%, Other: 20%-cable news, Fox News. So no lack of news. Although it should
be noted in the introductory courses in public relations current events are always the first
focus of each session. True this ongoing class assignment is to emphasize this is to be
developed into a habit—not just an assignment. So the impact remained with the seniors
who represented 50% of the sample.
Finally, it should be noted that although the students were enrolled in public
relations classes as major or minor, their majors reflected a range of liberal arts including
sports management, music enterprise, political science and geo science.
Analysis of Results
The results provided some insight into the intersect of those studying public relations
with a social media focus. The students largely reflect the newness of the technological
advances. Coupled with the constraints of expense and issues of access (cell reception),
the option to rely on mobiles can be at times daunting. Generally, the conclusions seem
to focus on the following:
1. Undergraduate students are still largely enamored with the technology as
“new.” The attraction to the social media is mainly with the “thrill” not the
critical analysis of the experience.
2. When students are asked about the most precious item to them—the response
is more likely to be “my mobile phone.” So the social connection is strongly
felt.
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3. Students remain Facebook users with very few venturing into the Twitter
arena. YouTube is fast becoming easier to utilize but then, again, not for
professional uses.
4. Although most of the students are aware of the myths about social media
usage, at least one-third are holding two or more myths as “truths.” This
indicates the mentions about social media concerns have mediated the support
of myths but not entirely. This could also be due to the fact that not everyone
is yet experiencing a variety of social media.
5. Further reinforcing the conclusion about more prominent social use emphasis
is the question about the phrase that best describes their social media usage.
No one mentioned public relations functions or a specific professional usage.
Comments centered around “fun,” “staying connected with friends,”
“technical usage as in checking e-mail,” and a “positive and/or negative
concern/experience. So the usage in terms of professional support is largely
not addressed.
6. Finally, the low 23% usage for professional reasons is probably not really
intense engagement with the process. Students may be just “lurking,”
“following blogs,” “checking a computer Twitter site” but not really
participating. There were no specific mentions of what the students learned
other than 10% mentioned “learning.” The interpretation of this area of
response seems to probably mean the students are picking up new ways of
using the media but are not truly interactive on the content from a professional
perspective.
7. News interest is high but not primarily or even significantly from print. The
Internet reigns as the primary source
8. The global contact via social media is at a high of 60% and suggests these
newer
channels of communication are supporting one of the primary aspects of the
University’s mission.
The social and/or professional use analyzed the student’s primary responses to
their use of social media. The survey occurs at a time where social media is becoming
more present in the classroom as a topic if not a factor in the communication process,
including teaching. However, the primary modes of operation are more texing over e-
mailing and Facebook as home base with Twitter as the outlier and a form of
communication becoming more attractive to the student population.
References
Avery, E. Lariscy, R., Amador, E., Icowitz, T., Primm, C., and Taylor, A. (2010).
Diffusion of social media among public relations practitioners in health
departments across various community population sizes. Journal of Public
Relations Research. Vol 22, No. 3, 336-355.
Edelman Social Media Summit, June 2009, Washington D.C.
Gilpin, D. (2010). Organizational image construction in a fragmented online media
environment. Journal of Public Relations Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 265-287.
Halbert, J. (Spring, 2010). Public Relations Leadership in the Development of Social
Networking. Refereed poster session presented at the annual Undergraduate
Scholarship Celebration, Valparaiso University, Indiana.
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Kent, M. (2010). Directions in social media for professionals and scholars, Handbook of
Public Relations. Belmont: Sage Publications.
Levenshus, A. (2010). Online relationship management in a presidential campaign: A
case study of the Obama campaign’s management of its Internet-integrated
grassroots effort. Journal of Public Relations Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 313-335.
McCorkindale, T. (August 2010). Twitter me this, Twitter Me That: Analysis
Quantitative Content Analysis of the 40 Best Twitter Brands. Paper presented at
the annual conference of the Association for Educators in Journalism and Mass
Communication, Denver, Colorado.
Palfrey, J. and Gasser, U., (2008). Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of
Digital Natives, 3.
Neff, B. D. 2010). Public relations identity evolving from academic and practitioner
partnerships, Handbook of Public Relations. Belmont: Sage Publications.
Sweetser, K. (2010). A losing strategy: The impact of nondisclosure in social media on
relationships. Journal of Public Relations Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 288-312.
Taylor, M. and Kent, M., (September 2010). Anticipatory socialization in the use of
social media in public relations: A content analysis of PRSA’s Public Relations
Review, Public Relations Review, Vol. 36. No. 3, 207-214.
Waters, R. (2010). Media catching and the journalist-public relations practitioner
relationship: How social media are changing the practice of media relations.
Journal of Public Relations Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 241-264.
275

Poetry: A Surprisingly Powerful Teaching Tool for Public Relations
Robert J. Petrausch, Ph.D.
Iona College
“Those heights by great men, won and kept,
Were not achieved by sudden flight,
But they, while they companions slept,
Were toiling in the night”
Those words echoed by Longfellow in another time have relevance today for PR
practitioners in the competitive global marketplace. The message: Stay awake and be
alert. Your competitors are not asleep.
What Poetry Brings to Public Relations
The benefits of reading and studying poetry in the classroom may surprise and
intrigue the professional, the educator and the student. It helps prepare the ground for
creativity and breaking the rules, particularly in courses where public relations students
must step out of their comfort zones. It provides insight for students who someday will
have to make smart business and ethical decisions. Finally, it can be useful for shaping
the thinking strategies of students that are entering a changing workplace.
Another great poet T.S. Eliot in writing about the social function of poetry said:
“There is always the communication of some new experience, or some fresh
understanding of the familiar, or the expressions of something we have experienced but
have no words for, which enlarges out consciousness or refines our sensibility” (p.7). So
what poetry brings to the public relations and business is fresh perspectives on how to
look at the world with a new set of eyes that can make old problems appear solvable and
new problems open to a creative solution. Poetry opens the creative mind to different
ways of looking at things and gives the PR practitioner a new template for presenting
ideas to client. It also gives professors and students an opportunity to step out of their old
silos of learning and try new approaches for the very first time. Clients, after all, are
turning more and more to PR agencies and consultants for the “big idea” that will help
them navigate in a marketplace of change and turbulence.
To present new ideas, the professor and student must polish their prose so that it
can be understood and made meaningful for diverse audiences. This means making words
and conceptual ideas more economical and to the point. The art of writing, critiquing, and
presenting poems in class can give students an alternative way of sharing their ideas with
other students and the faculty instructor. Writing is considered one of the most useful
skills of the PR practitioner. Therefore, any new approach that faculty can use to get their
students to write more concisely and strategically will pay off when the students enter the
workplace.
University of Oxford, UK and Boston Consulting Group
Two unlikely partners, The University of Oxford and the Boston Consulting
Group have joined forces to make the case that poetry can improve an understanding of
complex issues. The partners believe that poetry has relevance in business and
professional school subjects and can help both professionals and students develop
analytical and cognitive skills.
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Professor Clare Morgan at Oxford notes that poetry is valued for the business
strategist in ways that are not normally understood in the business world. She states: “
Reading poetry, for example, generates conceptual spaces that may be different from the
spaces available to business strategists. These spaces are different because they are
associative rather than causal; are imaginative rather than deductive; offer new ways of
assessing relations between things; and encourages a radical skepticism about the nature
of fact,” (Morgan, 2010, p. 23).
The Boston Consulting Group decided to join forces with Oxford to promote
poetry in the professions because it recognized the discipline of strategy has often been
reduced to a narrow toolbox, and what was needed was a broader appeal that poetry can
bring to business problems. Poetry is starting to make its way in the field of advertising
and public relations. An ad for the Wonderbra states: Wonderbra for the way you are.
This is communicated with a device T.S. Eliot coined as the auditory imagination. It has
suggestions and meanings that resonate with the words of the ad that go beyond mere
logic. Morgan et al (2010) notes “ that the beyond logic message goes something like
this: If you don’t buy this bra, before long you may find you are a non-woman.” This
device of auditory imagination helps the writer of ads or public relations material expand
his or her message to the consumer that does not depend solely on logic or fact. In short,
the poetic words in the ad for the Wonderbra reaches the consumer’s mind in a totally
pleasing way that can affect the decision to purchase the product.
From the research at Oxford and the work of the Boston Consulting Group, it
appears that one can also teach aspects of values and ethics with poetry. For instance, the
researchers believe that poetry can help strip away the old ways of seeing events and help
an executive review the situation with the freedom of a new perspective. The Frost poem
“ The Road Not Traveled” is a very good example of complex decision-making at a
critical junction in life. In the case of business leaders from Toyota and BP, for example,
they could examine recent decisions that led to dire consequences for the public by not
taking alternative roads albeit more expensive and time consuming. This approach could
be the springboard of a large-scale public airing on topics important to the American
consumer and global citizens.
Poetry, Values and Decision Making
Poetry, in many ways, can help shape or reframe our values. It is the power of
poetry to move a professional by showing him or her an alternative viewpoint and giving
him or her a chance to practice moral courage. The image, rhythm, sound pattern and
syntax of the poem give rise to feelings that help us think deeply about important issues
or messages. And, it may make us also look at issues and messages from different angles
as a detached observer.
In his book Changing Minds, Harvard educator Howard Gardner argues “artists
changes minds different from scientists and leaders of nation. Artists rather than
employing theories, ideas, and concepts, tend to introduce new ideas, skills, and
practices” (Morgan et al 2010, p 166). New movements and shifts in art, music, and
poetry often change the way we see ourselves in the world, a good reason to study poetry
and make it part of our working life. At West Point, the study of poetry has become part
of a cadet’s life on campus. Cadets at the Point spend sixteen weeks studying poetry from
the ancients to the present day. Lt. General James Lennox who has responsibility for the
West Point curriculum believes that poetry is important to the development of the highest
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possible military leader. He believes that it gives cadets a new way to see the world and
look at issues and values from differing perspectives because the Academy must train
cadets to go to war. The General notes that poetry can strip away the romance of war and
make one see the clear reality of what war can do to a nation and society, (Morgan et al
2010).
West Point wants the nation’s future leaders to be humble and bring wellinformed
perspectives to decisions related to life and death on the battlefield. If one of
America’s top military institution understands the value of poetry for its future leaders,
business leaders in the U.S. could take a page from the West Point learning manual and
make the study of poetry a part of the leadership development curriculum at corporate
universities and training centers.
Poetry is not just for leadership training as illustrated by what is taking place at
West Point. As noted, it can help leaders and executives step out of their comfort zone. A
poem, as Morgan points out, stretches itself out beyond its own borders. A poem can
address issues related to change in a world that has been turned upside down by a global
financial crisis, global warning, and global terrorism. It can give executives some tools to
discover what is happening in the global marketplace where boundaries are difficult to
define and whose meanings are difficult to categorize. For business leaders to be
effective, they must stretch beyond their internal boundaries to find solutions to problems
that are complex and daunting in a global world.
Poetry, Creativity and Thinking Differently
Creative professionals are often challenged to leave their comfort zones for a
chance at coming up with better ideas. Poets have the same challenge as creative
professionals, the opportunity to step away from ordinary prose and come up with lines
of poetry that will reach the heart and not just the mind of the reader. When students
study the work of great poets, they typically find that the best poets create words that
make a poem come alive and have real meaning for its intended audience. Poets like T.S.
Eliot want readers to have a special experience that will capture the spirit of life.
In the same way, PR and marketing professionals want their audiences to have
special experiences with words, concepts, and ideas. They know that the bureaucracy can
zap the creative life in organizations. Groupthink prevails in many organizations so that
no original idea can surface that can make a difference. To counter the bureaucracy in
many large organizations, the public relations and marketing teams are turning to poets
and poetry to help improve the way customers and clients perceive them, making this
endeavor part of the public relations function. Daimler-Chrysler sponsored poetry
readings in five cities to show that it has creative spark in its teams. AT&T and Blue
Cross have brought in poets to speak to their marketing departments with the hope that
their insights could lead to new ways of approaching problems, creating new products,
and sharing ideas with others.
Recent topics in the Harvard Business Review are encouraging executives to
improve how they shape their interpretive outlooks and not just rely on “factualist”
thinking strategies. Dana Gioia, a closet poet, helped turn Jell-O from a seven million
dollar loss to a twenty million dollar profit venture by changing the way the public and
mothers looked at the product, by making it have more appealing shapes and associating
it with more fun activities. He used imaginative engagement to change the way the
consumer felt about the product. While he was creating this new strategy, he spent his
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evenings at home working on his poetry (Morgan et al 2010). Despite Gioia’s enthusiasm
for poetry and strategic thinking benefits, most business executives still have a hard time
with soft subjects such as poetry in the workplace. But some are beginning to understand
that facts do not always speak for themselves. Just relying on the facts alone can put a
company in extreme jeopardy that will not only hurt its reputation, but also its bottom
line. Enron and others in recent years have learned this lesson the hard way: they went
out of business.
The work at Oxford and the Boston Consulting Group point to evidence that
learning to read poetry can make one think differently is starting to surface, especially in
matters dealing with ambiguity. Morgan et al (2010) note that if you learn to handle
ambiguity, you will have more options to understand the fine points of a business
problem or text. The ability to think beyond the facts and come up with creative solutions
is often available to people who read and study poetry. In test studies with a controlled
group of literary professionals and students balanced by non-literary trained practitioners,
the literary trained professionals were better able to perceive subtle differences and
variations in poetry text than the non-trained professionals. These non-trained people
lacked a set of skills to detect the subtle differences in the complex text whose meaning
was not obvious (Morgan et al 2010, p 38).
Poetry may not always change the mind of business executives or PR
professionals. Its power lies in the way the poem evokes emotion using its image,
rhythm, and sound pattern to trigger a change in thought. We are moved by poetry. It
helps us think deeply about things that facts by themselves could never do. It may well be
the catalyst for making change in organizational life. More and more organizations are
turning to poetry as a way to help inspire new ways of thinking and generating ideas for
the future.
References
Eliot, T.S. (1957) On Poetry and Poets, New York: The Noonday Press
Hamill, S. (1992) The Infinite Moment: Poems from Ancient Greek, New York: New
Directions Publishing
Morgan, C., Lange, K., & Buswick, T., (2010) What Poetry Brings to Business, Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press
Packard, W (1992) The Art of Poetry Writing, New York: St Martin’s Press
279

Hope for Uganda:
How a PR Portfolio Honors Class gave hope to children in Rural Uganda:
Thirteen Students Work to Bring Education and Sustainability to a Small Village
Gemma Puglisi
American University
puglisi@american.edu
Project Description
Client: “Arlington Academy of Hope”
Students in this special class, the PR Portfolio Group, worked with a local
nonprofit that helps children in Uganda with education and medical/health needs. The
education system in Uganda is facing many challenges. Students don’t have basic items
such as books, pencils, food, or uniforms. Many travel over an hour in mud and
hazardous road conditions to attend school.
Many teachers never show up. Ten years ago, John and Joyce Wanda arrived in the
United States from a small village in Uganda called Bumwalukani. They never forgot
their homeland and promised to help the children and people there by creating AAH,
Arlington Academy of Hope. For very little funds, children can be fed, educated, and
finally have some type of medical help. Thus, the mission of AAH is to provide children
with a great education, a better life and a bright future.
Objective
There were various goals. They included: getting the word out to college
students, the media, and potential volunteers. Students also hoped to raise funds by
hosting entertainment events off campus and special events on campus. They also sent
pitch letters to the media and created bracelets for fundraising purposes and visibility.
Finally, the students wanted to leave a legacy for the organizations. They prepared media
lists; a list of perspective organizations that may want to help the nonprofit; and
marketing materials for the organization to use long after the class is over.
Challenge
This past year has been a difficult time for many nonprofits. And, there are many
that are in need of help and support. Despite this, the students did an extraordinary job
and left their legacy.
Process
The class was divided into two groups: “Marketing and Outreach” and “Events
and Media”
Marketing and Outreach
As mentioned, students in this group worked on a variety of marketing materials to raise
visibility for the client. Some of these included a “Get Involved” fact sheet; how to host
a screening of a small film about children in the AAH program; talking points about
AAH; and a sheet how to “stay in touch.”
For outreach, students sent e-mails and letter to U.S. Senators and Congressmen
about a mudslide that took place several miles away from the village. Students also
targeted these politicians to educate them on the great progress AAH has made and how
they can support the organization. Students also contacted those members of Congress
who were on the Subcommittee for Africa and Global Health and those on the
Subcommittee on African Affairs.
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Another strategy for the students was to contact local builders and members of the
local Business Association to help purchase bricks for another possible school. Students
also felt that elementary schools in the area would want to help other children. One
student in the class went back to one of her former schools in the area and suggested a
possible “Penny Challenge.”
This student also compiled a list of schools in Arlington County, where AAH is
based, to help with future projects. One of the most successful marketing tools the
students used was having a bracelet made (spurred off the success of “Live strong” and
Lance Armstrong) that had “AAH-Hope for Uganda” imprinted. They sold these for a
dollar and raised $150 for the organization.
Media and Events Group
This group contacted various media for both the mudslides and for AAH in
general. Though the students may not have gotten any “hits” regarding the mudslides,
their outreach was important. They pitched founder John Wanda, as an expert on Uganda
who could discuss the devastation that mudslides bring to the region. Students also
reached out to blogs, newspapers, as well as television and radio programs.
Perhaps the greatest contribution the students made for the project was their
successful events. Their passion and hard work truly paid off for AAH. Some of the
events the students organized and created included:
Panel Discussion: “Sustainable Development: The Many Facets of Community
• Empowerment”—the panelists included John Wanda, Nicole Hewitt with the
“Institute for Sustainable Communities; and Andrea Bachmann, an American
University student who went to Colombia during Alternative Break. (This
event raised $ll0.)
• Students also had a couple of “get togethers” at local bars to help raise funds.
One was at the Town Tavern in Washington and the other was at another bar.
The Tavern event raised $541 and the other event raised $245.
• The students also put together a wonderful event on our QUAD on campus. They
called this “Recess for Hope.” Students played games on the Quad to raise
visibility. They also sold ice-cream the bracelets, and took contributions. That
event raised $255.
Discussion
1) How did the project come to us?
This PR Portfolio class is quite popular now and many people do come to me for
help. I had heard about AAH through friends and family. For several years they
were mentioned and I had learned that another school had helped them with
research (School of International Service). It was also important because AAH
deals with children, sustainability, health and education. All important topics that
students want to learn about and help—and make a difference.
2) Why was the project a challenge?
Working to help a nonprofit is always a challenge. Nonprofits are having a very
tough time now because of the economy. We wanted to make a difference. Also,
this was work we were doing to help children in Uganda. Students didn’t get a
chance to meet any of the children, but their passion was there regardless. Also,
sometimes, nonprofits aren’t aware of some of the important things they can do to
raise their visibility. Convincing them can be a challenge.
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3) How did the students feel about the project?
This class was treated as a special class or “topics” class. Students were invited.
The requirement was that they had to receive at least an A- in both PR Writing
and Public Relations classes. Students were very passionate about helping the
children and AAH. They felt there was so much they could do to help AAH.
They also wanted to leave a legacy. It was wonderful to watch their hard work
and passion.
4) How did AAH feel about the students’ work?
It was so wonderful to see the reaction of many members of the board from AAH
hear all the great things the students achieved for them. The students also came
up with a strategic plan on how the organization can grow their annual gala. The
students also told AAH how much it would have cost the nonprofit had they billed
the client for their work: about $70,000. That was wonderful and got the crowd
excited and very grateful for all the work. The students left such an important
legacy. One student, decided on her own, to go to Uganda after graduation. It
was very a rewarding class and I was grateful to the students for their passion.
Evaluation
Arlington Academy of Hope was the perfect project for students who learned how
to make a difference globally by helping a small organization here at home that provides
help to children in Uganda. Helping others in a remote part of the world is not a
challenge. The students also left a lasting gift to the organization by raising not only
funds but visibility for AAH.
Overall accomplishments for the students:
Increased the visibility of the organization via:
Impressions
--AU Campus media, The Eagle (print and online) and ATV
--Blogs
The Arlington Academy of Hope
Brightest Young Things
The Sweetest Thing-DC
A Local Foodie’s Fight
Hey Jess
--Social Media
TOTAL:
l6,000 plus
1,000 plus
4,000 plus
2l,000 plus
With all the activities listed earlier, students raised about:
$l,30l.00
(Students told the organization they could use this to educate students or use
the funds to help with AAH’s annual gala.)
Students left a legacy:
--created marketing materials
promotional, informational, and business
--compiled contact lists—
Related DC area student organizations
Local elementary schools
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Media list and crisis media list
Sources of potential grants
--preliminary research and preparations for gala
--initial contact with potential donors, volunteers and sponsors
--one student’s mother works at a medical school in Berkeley, California
and she will recruit young med students to work in Uganda
Contents for the Poster
• Elements from the power point presentation the students put together for last class
• Some marketing materials students created
• Poster created by students for the final presentation
• Several of the media hits students got on campus from working on the project
283

Best Practices in Teaching Client-Based Courses
Donna Simmons, Ph.D.
California State University, Bakersfield
dsimmons2@csub.edu
Jean Jaymes West, Ph.D.
California State University, Bakersfield
jjaymes@csub.edu
Best Practice #1. Finding clients who recognize and accept their roles in educating
future professionals.
Clients who are willing to give student consultants the extra time needed to learn
as they go make a significant difference in the achievement of course learning objectives.
Instructors of client-based courses need to ensure that the client understands that the
students and professor are treating this client just as a professional consultant group
would treat the client. However, the instructor must also make sure the client understands
that students are doing the project to learn about public relations or marketing – that this
is a learning process for the students so they cannot be held to the same level as paid
consultants.
In our experience good clients meet two major criteria:
• Know the business and are enthusiastic and can spark interest and enthusiasm for the
business when talking to students. Clients should have sufficient knowledge about what
they want students to accomplish for their business so that they are able to clearly
verbalize what they want in several ways. They must have a sense of the “big picture”
and convey that to students. One client brought handouts for the students with detailed
explanations of the structure of the organization and the mission statement of the
organization to provide the big picture. Clients must be clear on the general, end goals
of what they want to clearly outline their expectations. Clients also must have some
sense of what they do NOT want and able to convey that to students as well—with an
explanation of why. The client and instructor must sell the project to the students. Even
if, on the surface, the business may seem like something students might not get excited
about, a “good” client can “sell” the project and no matter how mundane the tasks are
that students must undertake, the client can pitch the project in a way that makes
students eager to work on it when first coming to class. The instructor must sell the
client and the business to the students before the client comes to the class so the client
is well-received and students are receptive to the client. For example, the instructor
might describe the history of the company or explain what it contributes to the
community.
• Are willing to be available as necessary and as arranged prior to the implementation of
the project. . Clients must understand that students have deadlines to meet to complete
the work based on the length of the course. Clients must be willing to be available via
email or phone to address questions that might arise as the students develop the project.
The student contact can be limited to the student project manager only (one appointed
student per team), to reduce a flood of emails or phone calls to the client. The instructor
can explain to students that the clients are busy professionals with real-world work
responsibilities, and therefore direct contact must be limited. The client must
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understand that knowledge of the client’s business and industry does not replace the
content and learning objectives established for the course by the instructor.
An important caveat applies to the role of the client in educating students. Clients
should not be under-involved or over-involved, but sufficiently involved. At times
clients can take their teacher role so seriously that they can take over the class. Clients
who want to come to the classroom regularly or hold meetings with students, i.e., once
a week or even every couple of weeks fit into the over-involved category. Sufficiently
involved clients are willing to come to class as invited by the instructor or student team
– generally not more than three times during the course. The first visit by the client is to
sell the business. The second visit by the client is to review the project to date and
provide feedback to the students. The third visit is for the student team’s presentation of
the project to the client.
Best Practice #2. Connecting course learning goals with the realities of the
profession.
We have found that clients are often not public relations or marketing experts and
do not know what to expect from students’ projects or how to guide them with regard to
public relations or marketing activities. Students will be learning about public relations
and marketing as they work with their clients. To emphasize the realities of the real
world, instructors need to
• Understand what knowledge, experiences, and skills the client can provide to the
students and explain this information to the students.
• Explain to clients that their roles are to guide students using the clients’ unique
organizational experiences.
• Develop a clear understanding between the client and instructor that the course learning
goals are the primary focus of the class and how the client project helps achieve these
learning goals. This can be done by going over the course syllabus, evaluation process
of the students’ work with the client and matching the client’s expectations and course
learning objectives prior to the beginning of the course.
• If the instructor is planning to use a textbook along with the “real world” experience, it
is essential to periodically refer to the project as you present and discuss each segment
of the text. Sometimes it is difficult for students to make the connection clearly between
specific text principles and specific pieces of the project. The professor must make
these connections with real-world examples.
• We have also found that requiring exams and analyses of real-world cases during the
first half of the course forces students to learn the basics of the course text so that
students will, in theory, have learned all the principles of the course and can better
incorporate them into their project work during the final phase of the course.
• Clients’ feedback to the students as they would give it to their employees at the midway
point of the client project provides students with a much better sense of the realities of
the profession. If at this point clients give honest feedback as to their assessment of
whether the teams have devoted enough effort toward their projects, the teams gets a
taste of the performance level expected in the real world. Clients can let teams know if
they sense a lack of focus or if ideas need to be developed further. The instructor can
facilitate the effectiveness of this feedback by emphasizing to students that the more
well-developed ideas they bring to the midpoint meeting, the better their work will be at
the end.
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Best Practice #3. Motivating students and clients to fulfill their roles.
The client-based course offers some obvious motivators for students to commit to
the course and the client. We use four techniques to motivate students.
• One key to motivating students to fulfill their roles is to emphasize the importance of
making a good impression on the real world professionals who come into the
classroom. The instructor should emphasize that these are “connections” to the real
world—and these “connections” work in real companies/organizations who are their
future potential employers. While students might believe the project is only a “school”
project, the instructor should emphasize that any impression made throughout their
completion of this project will remain in that potential employer’s mind for long into
the future. If the impression is a positive one, the connection can be valuable. If the
impression is a negative one, the valuable opportunity to network and make a
connection that might help in future job hunting is lost. To emphasize opportunities that
can arise, we use examples of students who worked on projects that led to internships
that led to jobs. Even though this is rare, it has happened for several of our students.
• A field trip to the client’s place of business can be powerfully motivating. In one
project students visited an animal control facility. Their tour through the facility gave
them a reason for why what they were doing for the client was important. Not all
clients’ places of business can create such strong emotional reactions. But just going to
a client’s location gives students the sense that this is a real client, and that what the
students produce matters to this organization.
• Another motivation for students, although it might have to be emphasized and clearly
explained by the instructor, is that the project the team produces can go into students’
portfolios and resumes as a type of experience entry-level professionals are expected to
have while in college.
• Finally, we create peer-pressure motivation with individual accountability reports and
individual grades on group projects. Students rate themselves and other team members
on attitude, production, deadlines, and support at the end of the project. These
individual accountability reports are considered when assigning individual grades for
the project. While the team receives a grade for its final project, each member receives
an individual grade that is determined by the instructor’s evaluation and evaluation of
the student’s work by team members. It is important to let students know that the
instructor has the ultimate decision on student grades.
Motivating clients has to be done in the initial client meeting. Clients must know
before they make the commitment to the project what time will be required of them for
the project. Instructors must emphasize the importance of the client project to the learning
outcomes of the course. Client roles must be clearly explained, particularly the three faceto-face
meetings. Most importantly, if instructors do not feel comfortable after the initial
interview that clients are able or willing to follow through on the project, the instructor
needs to be able to turn down the client after the first meeting.
Best Practice # 4. Structuring student teams for the best outcomes for students and
clients.
First, a decision must be made about whether the class as a whole works on the
client project or student teams work for separate clients. The first option is to identify one
client for the course, and use teams of students to work on separate parts of the project.
Another option is to create 5-6 member teams who work with separate clients.
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If creating separate teams for one client project, it is important to ensure that the
teams that must present the proposal and write the proposal have good presentation and
writing skills. One way to manage this is to ask each student who wants to present to
prepare a 1-2 minute presentation to the class about why that student is a good choice to
do the presentation. Then class members vote for 2-3 people to be on this team. For the
team that writes the proposal, instructors can save themselves grief if they identify those
who are the best writers in the class and assign them to the proposal team. For the other
teams working on the project it has worked well to ask students to identify the three
teams they would like to work on and rank order their choices. Students generally get
their first or second choices of the teams they want. This method does not discourage
friends from trying to get on the same team, however, as long as there are enough
members of the team, the negatives associated with friends working on teams are
generally avoided. If students feel they have a choice of a team, i.e., research or tactics,
that appeals to them, it can help with motivation.
When using 5-6 member teams to complete client projects, several strategies can
help toward the productivity of the teams. One of the key strategies is to NOT allow
students to select their own team. Structuring in this way makes the team experience
much closer to the realities of the work world. Students are far more accountable to their
teammates when they don’t know other team members. Students seem much more likely
to let someone they are good friends with miss team deadlines, dismiss poor attendance at
team meetings, and overlook lack of work in general. Another strategy is to create teams
that are evenly matched. Instructors should survey students at the beginning of the course
to evaluate their academic/team strengths and weaknesses. Then members can be
assigned to teams in a manner that reduces the likelihood that all of the best writers, best
oral presenters, and best leaders will be on the same team. Another strategy for helping
the teams to be successful is to create a project manager system. The project manager is
someone who, based on the survey results, is willing to be in charge, but more like a
“lead worker. The ideal manager is someone whose strength is motivating and inspiring
other people to do something. Within the project manager structure, any team member
who the rest of the team believes is not performing as expected can be reprimanded or
fired. Once a student is fired from a team, the student has three options: (1) ask to join
another team—but that team must be advised of their “fired” status with the original
team; (2) the student can complete an entire project alone; or (3) do nothing and receive
an “F” for the project portion of the course grade (which is usually 30-50 percent of that
final grade).
Best Practice #5. Managing client and students expectations.
A key in managing client expectations is to stress that the client’s level of
involvement is key to the success of what the students produce as a final product. In other
words, the more they give to students (within reason) the more they will get back at the
end in terms of results. As we have noted, the instructor must take time to meet with the
client well before the course begins and describe the course learning objectives. It is
important for the instructor to emphasize the importance of the client project in the
course. Instructors must also ensure clients understand that the three class visits are
essential to the learning that will take place and the outcome of the project for the client.
By providing clients with a course syllabus and detailed description of the client project
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that the students receive, instructors can more clearly explain what clients can expect
from the project and emphasize the client’s importance to the success of the course.
In terms of students, instructors must stress that satisfied clients create good
connections between the campus and all of the community—not just that one client. It is
key to stress to students that the impression each one of them makes will reflect on
everyone else. It is sometimes beneficial to give them real examples of how this is the
case based on clients from the past—giving examples of both positive and negative team
results and what the overall final effect was on them as students, the department and
school, and the university as a whole.
It is also crucial to impress upon students that the work they are about to embark
upon is “real.” Therefore, while they may see themselves as “just students” completing a
project “just for the grade,” this kind of school experience is different. This experience is
a glimpse of what they will encounter in the real work world. Instructors can emphasize
the following benefits to students. Students can expect to:
• have a form of real work tied to their future professional goals to list on their resume at
the end of the course
• have enhanced confidence going into that field because they have done far more than
merely read books about the subject matter—they have actually experienced the
process
• be better prepared for interviews going into the field because they have a real work-like
experience to draw from
• have at least one professional contact upon leaving the course and completing the
project—but of course that means the contact will really only be beneficial IF they do a
satisfactory job. It is often good to say that the better their work on the project, the more
beneficial the contact will be—the contact is only “good” if the client is pleased with
their work
288

Integrating ethics into the undergraduate public relations curriculum
Jonathan R. Slater, Ph.D.
SUNY Plattsburgh
jonathan.slater@plattsburgh.edu
Deborah Silverman, APR, Ph.D.
Buffalo State College
silverda@buffalostate.edu
Ethics are intrinsic to the identity of the public relations professional. They define who
public relations practitioners are, what they do and what they stand for. Ethics guide the
practitioner’s behavior in relationships with clients, help to determine which projects to
undertake and which to refuse, and assist practitioners in daily decision-making
processes. A crucial obligation therefore of the public relations curriculum and of public
relations instruction is to lead students of public relations – especially at the
undergraduate level – into a meaningful and ultimately useful understanding of what
exactly constitutes ethics.
Unfortunately, the overt teaching of ethics has sometimes been treated as ancillary
to the public relations curriculum. For example, until very recently, many communication
and public relations textbooks typically placed chapters about ethics toward the end of
the book and publishers rarely infused ethical lessons into the overall content of each
chapter.
Such a treatment of ethics in the undergraduate public relations classroom is particularly
counterproductive to the constructive training of young public relations practitioners.
The public relations curriculum offers instructors a significant opportunity to impart
positive ideals and impress purposeful behaviors upon students, beyond merely making
sure that they are graduating with the requisite technical skills and competencies.
Two-fold challenge
The challenge of effectively teaching ethics to students of public relations is twofold.
First, students often do not have a clear understanding of what is meant by ethics.
The post-modern bias and ensuing cultural relativism that have been the hallmarks of 20 th
and early 21 st century Western societies have done little to reinforce absolute ethical
notions in the home, at school or at work. Ethics are therefore often viewed as what is
right for the individual and in fulfillment of a person’s own individual needs. One only
has to visualize the deleterious effects of this kind of thinking to comprehend that it leads
to dysfunction – or worse, malfunction – at virtually all levels. Witness the disintegration
of fundamental moral values in the executive suites of such infamous firms as Enron and
Adelphia, or even the more recent ethical missteps by BP, and one realizes how easy it is
for organizations to be set ethically adrift. If there is a single lesson students of public
relations can extract from these fiascos, it is perhaps this: Having a moral anchor is an
essential pre-requisite to building trust among people and between organizations and
people. Further, a moral compass is imperative to establishing reliable interpersonal,
group and organizational relationships. And not by chance, these are basic tenets of the
public relations profession, grounded in the pragmatic principle that the ability to earn
trust and build relationships is core to the communicator’s capacity to influence attitudes,
opinions and behavior.
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The second challenge is, in fact, posed by the first. In light of students’ possibly
inadequate or even fallacious notions of ethics, what tools and methods can a public
relations instructor bring to the classroom in order to engender a thorough and
comprehensive ethical mindset among students? However, the most important technique
in constructing an ethical framework within the minds of students is for the instructors to
start asking students unsettling questions with the goal of having them then ask the same
sort of questions later, in their careers.
Macroethics, normative ethics and applied ethics
To this end, the first question ought to go something like this: What are we talking
about when we refer to ethics? And the second question should perhaps be: What is an
ethical obligation?
There is, unfortunately, neither a simple nor totally satisfying answer to either
question. To understand what ethics are and what one means by ethical obligations, we
must first break the concept of ethics into three components: macroethical ideas,
normative ethics and applied ethics.
A macroethical view is one that focuses on broad, encompassing values that shape and
even determine the moral dimensions of human communication. A macroethical
approach implies a self-conscious examination of the effects of our communication
behaviors. An example of a macroethical principle might be Aristotle’s Golden Mean,
which counsels people to avoid extremes of behavior in favor of moderation and self
restraint, or Kant’s belief that other human beings should not be used as a means to an
end, or even Rawls’s veil of ignorance, advocating a social contract in which individual
rights cannot be bargained away. The purpose of introducing students to such ideas is not
necessarily to transform them into philosophy scholars, but rather to acquaint them with
the starting points for an appreciation of fundamental ethical conduct.
A normative approach assumes that – despite the existence of macroethical
principles – social prescriptions for how we ought to act in virtually any situation are
frequently informal, implicit and internalized. In other words, we often do not have clear
explanations for our ethical decision-making. The purpose therefore of normative ethics
is to expose and explicate normative rules of behavior in a manner that provides both
students and practitioners with accessible and identifiable guidelines, in both public and
private settings. Religious tenets, employee handbooks and professional codes of conduct
are but three cases of such an ethical framework. The PRSA Member Code of Ethics is
an excellent example – for the public relations profession – of normative guidelines
spelling out in some detail the ways one ought to think and act in practical public
relations matters.
An applied approach – often referred to as situational ethics – puts students’
macroethical understandings and normative knowledge to the test. Ethical behavior, from
the most mundane organizational contexts to the most stressful crises, ought not to be a
matter of random guesswork. On the contrary, ethical responses must be an outcome of
thoughtful, considered reflection even in the most fast-paced organizational contexts.
Situational ethical inquiry should provide students and practitioners alike with intelligible
reasons for intelligent decisions. This sort of introspective inquiry can only routinely
come about as a result of wise instruction over time and plentiful training opportunities –
two processes that the undergraduate public relations classroom traditionally seem wellsuited
to promote.
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Three-step approach
The present authors recommend a three-step approach to examining ethics in the
public relations classroom. The first step includes introducing students to some basic
macroethical and normative ideas and leading them through a historical survey of
precedents that led the profession to craft normative guidelines in public relations, and
bringing them up-to-date on what the profession sees as the crucial developments in the
fostering of public relations ethics. Instructors then should take the time to introduce
students to the PRSA Member Code of Ethics and, section-by-section, analyze and
deconstruct the precepts and principles embodied in the Code. This method is particularly
useful in introductory public relations courses, where students have not yet had the
benefit of the real-world experience they will receive in advanced public relations
management and campaigns courses, as well as through internships. But even for students
who have a service-learning background, the meticulous study of the Member Code can
prove valuable and formative. Once students have absorbed the Code, the instructor
might wish to lead students through a credible scenario or larger, classic case study in
order to evaluate how well they have applied their learning to the resolution of the
scenario or case in hand and integrated normative thinking into that resolution. The
instructor should conduct a cross-examination of the students – perhaps with the
collaboration of a local practitioner – soliciting active participation and feedback in a
rapid-fire, free-wheeling, but nonetheless structured dialogue around the ethical issues
posed by the scenario or case. The instructor can then bring the dialogue to a close by
inviting students to meta-communicate about their conclusions.
The present authors strongly recommend the above pedagogical approach in the
teaching of public relations ethics for four compelling reasons: (1) This is a technique
that often presents students with ethical issues in public relations in which scholars,
critics and industry practitioners typically have taken sides – which means these
individuals have devoted time to examining, analyzing and publicly commenting on such
issues; (2) teaching ethics in this way allows instructors to concertedly guide students
into postulating and defending positions on ethical concerns; (3) this approach provides
the philosophical, normative and other contextual frameworks that will permit students to
render their own critical assessments of the ethical issues presented; and (4) a dynamic
delivery format for teaching public relations ethics has the potential to help students to
more easily assimilate and interiorize important and enduring lessons they can call upon
in their professional careers.
291

Public Relations Pedagogy to Practice: Perceptions and Realities of Student
Preparedness to Enter the Public Relations Workforce
Natalie T.J. Tindall, Ph.D.
Georgia State University
drnatalietjtindall@gmail.com
Trayce B. Leak, APR
Clark Atlanta University
trayceleak@gmail.com
With steady growth in the public relations industry and in public relations as an
academic discipline, professional-preparation pedagogy has become critical. Educators
must align public relations curriculum with industry standards, while meeting student
needs. The purposes of this study are to understand student and professional practitioner
expectations and perceptions of public relations education and to pre-test an assessment
tool that measures those perceptions.
To evaluate the perceptions of student preparedness to enter the workforce upon
graduation, the researchers surveyed recent graduates and public relations practitioners.
Recent graduates rated their abilities and their perceived preparedness against the skill
sets most valued by employers. Practitioners rated the importance of certain skills in
today’s workforce and how they perceive new hires’ preparedness to execute those skills.
Recent graduates of a local university and Atlanta-area practitioners pre-tested the
questionnaire; their feedback will be incorporated into the revised questionnaire, which
will launch regionally in spring 2011.
The implications of this project can be extended to curriculum development and
revisions, classroom teaching styles and techniques, and learning outcomes assessment.
Through this examination of student perceptions of preparedness and professional
practitioners’
perceptions of necessary skills and new hire preparedness, public relations educators will
gain an instrument specifically designed to evaluate how well curriculum, teaching styles
and techniques, and learning outcomes are aligned with industry standards and how well
curricular efforts provide the technical, theoretical, and analytical skills necessary for
students to successfully transition into the workforce and make immediate contributions.
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Putting Theory, Research and Strategic Thinking to Practice in Writing Courses
Tia C. M. Tyree
Howard University
ttyree@howard.edu
Many educators teach students to produce PR tools setting them up to become
entry level works able to execute their technician roles well. Yet, the challenge is creating
students who are strategic thinkers who write effective PR tools that take into account PR
theories, research and fold within a well-developed strategic plan.
In my PR Writing I course, students to do it. Students select a “client” based on a
real for-profit, nonprofit or government entity. They develop a complete “8-Point” * plan.
Plan components - from completing research to develop the situation analysis to
identifying the audience and writing the tools within the tactic section - help students put
their tools into proper context. Each tool must relate to an objective, thus teaching
students how to make proper connections between the development and execution of a
tool and its ability help the client reach its objectives. Further, students must complete a
“writing assignment assessment sheet” for each completed assignment forcing them to
look critically at their work by identifying which PR theory or concept drove the
development of or content within the tool as well as outline the strengths and weakness in
their writing.
Overall, a student’s final project is the submission of a strategic plan with the PR
tools, which could include blogs, website text, press releases, media advisories, pitch
letters and more. In essence, this course acts as the training ground for students to ensure
they are able to meet the expectations of their real clients when they reach our Capstone
Course their senior year.
* The plan is based on the one outlined by Dennis L. Wilcox in the 5 th Edition of Public
Relations: Writing and Media Techniques published by Allyn and Bacon.
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