2010 - Public Relations Society of America
2010 - Public Relations Society of America
2010 - Public Relations Society of America
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
2 0 1 0<br />
P R O C E E D I N G S<br />
W A S H I N G T O N , D . C .<br />
O C T O B E R 2 0 1 0<br />
E D I T E D B Y :<br />
T I N A M C C O R K I N D A L E<br />
A P P A L A C H I A N S TA T E U N I V E R S I T Y<br />
M C C O R K I N D A L E T M @ A P P S TA T E . E D U
Introduction<br />
On Saturday, October 15, <strong>2010</strong>, academics and practitioners attended the pedagogical poster<br />
sessions and research roundtable presentations at the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong><br />
Educators Academy Research Session. During the two-hour event, 20 scholars displayed and<br />
discussed their tips for successful public relations teaching in a poster session while 13 educators<br />
presented competitive research presentations in a roundtable format. Marcia Watson DiStaso <strong>of</strong><br />
The Pennsylvania State University and Tina McCorkindale <strong>of</strong> Appalachian State University<br />
served as moderators for the session.<br />
The top faculty paper was “Intersections and Overlaps: Building Leader-Employee <strong>Relations</strong>hips<br />
through Internal <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>, Leadership Style, and Workplace Spirituality” by Nance<br />
McCown <strong>of</strong> Messiah College. The Betsy Plank Research Competition Student Award Winner<br />
was Rowena Briones <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Maryland, who presented “Mentoring 2.0: How PR<br />
Educators Use Social Media to Create and Maintain <strong>Relations</strong>hips with Students.”<br />
In all, 21 peer-reviewed papers were submitted, and 13 were accepted for a 62% acceptance rate.<br />
All poster abstracts submitted were accepted.<br />
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
Research Papers ___________________________________________________ 5<br />
Millennial Students <strong>Relations</strong>hip with 2008 Top 10 Social Media Brands via Social Media Tools<br />
Alisa Lynn Agozzino, Ohio Northern University ___________________________________ 7<br />
Mentoring 2.0: How PR Educators Use Social Media to Create and Maintain <strong>Relations</strong>hips with<br />
Students*<br />
* Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Student Award Winner<br />
Rowena Briones, University <strong>of</strong> Maryland _______________________________________ 31<br />
Toward the Greening <strong>of</strong> Nuclear Energy: A Content Analysis <strong>of</strong> Nuclear Energy Frames from 1991 to<br />
2008<br />
Sonya DiPalma, The Pennsylvania State University _____________________________ 42<br />
Reputation Matters: Impact <strong>of</strong> Organizational Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions<br />
Alan R. Freitag, University <strong>of</strong> North Carolina at Charlotte __________________________ 55<br />
Investigating Multiplier Effects <strong>of</strong> Implied Third-Party Endorsements in Independent Media: A<br />
Qualitative Study<br />
Pauline A. Howes, Kennesaw State University, and Lynne M. Sallot, University <strong>of</strong><br />
Georgia __________________________________________________________________ 65<br />
Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Product Blogs in Taiwan: The Impact <strong>of</strong> User Motivation, Blogger Affiliation and<br />
Language Valence<br />
Chen-Yi (Joyce) Huang and Kirk Hallahan, Colorado State University _______________ 77<br />
Shifting Gears and Changing Paradigms: Shifting Crisis Research To Focus on Controlling Fear and<br />
Preventing Panic<br />
Dean C. Kazoleas, California State University Fullerton ____________________________ 98<br />
Excellence in an Activist Organization: A Case Study <strong>of</strong> Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids<br />
Beth Kuch, University <strong>of</strong> Maryland ___________________________________________ 107<br />
Analyzing Student Writing Pr<strong>of</strong>iciency and Assessment Measures in Programs <strong>of</strong> Mass Communication<br />
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University <strong>of</strong> Pennsylvania ____________________________ 120<br />
How <strong>Public</strong>s Use Social Media to Communicate During Crises: Proposing the Social-Mediated Crisis<br />
Communication Model<br />
Brooke Liu and Lucinda Austin, University <strong>of</strong> Maryland College Park and Yan Jin, Virginia<br />
Commonwealth University __________________________________________________ 142<br />
Practitioner Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Organizational Factors Impacting Web-based <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Strategies<br />
Sheila M. McAllister-Spooner, Monmouth University ____________________________ 158<br />
Intersections and Overlaps: Building Leader-Employee <strong>Relations</strong>hips through Internal <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>,<br />
Leadership Style, and Workplace Spirituality*<br />
* PRSA Top Faculty Paper Award<br />
Nance McCown, Messiah College ____________________________________________ 171<br />
3
Prioritizing Stakeholders for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>: A Case Study <strong>of</strong> Envirocare<br />
Kenneth D. Plowman and Brad L. Rawlins, Brigham Young University _____________ 195<br />
,<br />
Pedagogical Posters _____________________________________________ 213<br />
Information Gathering as a Form <strong>of</strong> Experiential Learning for Corporate Communications<br />
Suzanne Berman, H<strong>of</strong>stra University __________________________________________ 214<br />
Story: A Powerful Tool <strong>of</strong> Influence for PR<br />
Patrick Bishop, Ferris State University ________________________________________ 218<br />
Pitching on Your Feet: Using the Mock Press Conference as a Teaching Tool<br />
Denise Marcella Casey, Appalachian State University ____________________________ 225<br />
Connecting the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Writing Course with the Community through AmeriCorps*VISTA<br />
Jane Dailey, Marietta College ________________________________________________ 228<br />
Take it to the Extreme: Using Immersive Service-Learning to Build Students’ Multimedia Skills and<br />
Cross-Discipline Understanding<br />
Kelly B. Everling and Lori Blachford, Drake University __________________________ 232<br />
What’s All the Hype about Skype? Re-Invigorating the Introductory <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Course through the<br />
Implementation <strong>of</strong> Global Speaker Series<br />
Kelly B. Everling and Ronda Menke, Drake University __________________________ 237<br />
Using a Gaming Scenario in Reputation Management<br />
Gregg Feistman, Temple University __________________________________________ 238<br />
Best Practices in <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>: A Practical Analysis <strong>of</strong> Training Students to Prepare and Present<br />
Proposals for Real-World Clients<br />
Arhlene Flowers, Ithaca College _____________________________________________ 241<br />
The Facilitation and Evaluation <strong>of</strong> Meaningful International Internships<br />
James M. Haney, University <strong>of</strong> Wisconsin – Stevens Point ________________________ 246<br />
Using the Case Study Approach to Analyze Crisis Communication Practices by Emergency<br />
Management Association Volunteers in a Small Community: An Engaged Learning Experience<br />
Ann D. Jabro, Robert Morris University _______________________________________ 251<br />
Harnessing the Web for Teaching Writing for the Web: A New Media Makeover <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Writing Course Pedagogy<br />
Beth A. Kuch and Abbey Blake Levenshus, University <strong>of</strong> Maryland ________________ 255<br />
The Causal <strong>Relations</strong>hip between Math Apprehension and Curricular Choices among <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Students: An Experiment<br />
Alexander Laskin and Hilary Fussell-Sisco, Quinnipiac University _________________ 260<br />
Crisis in the Classroom: A Cross-Departmental Approach Prepares PR Students as Spokespeople<br />
Colleen Pope Lemza, State University <strong>of</strong> New York at Plattsburgh __________________ 265<br />
4
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Leadership through Social Networking: An Analysis <strong>of</strong> Undergraduate Use and<br />
Attitudes<br />
Bonita Dostal Neff and Jennifer Halbert, Valparaiso University ____________________ 271<br />
Poetry: A Surprisingly Powerful Teaching Tool for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Robert J. Petrausch, Iona College ___________________________________________ 276<br />
Hope for Uganda: How a PR Portfolio Honors Class Gave “Hope” to Children in Rural Uganda—<br />
Thirteen Students Work to Bring Education and Sustainability to a Small Village<br />
Gemma Puglisi, <strong>America</strong>n University _________________________________________ 280<br />
Best Practices in Teaching Client-Based Courses<br />
Donna Simmons and Jean Jaymes West, California State University, Bakersfield ______ 284<br />
Integrating Ethics into the Undergraduate <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Curriculum<br />
Jonathan R. Slater, SUNY College at Plattsburgh, and Deborah Silverman, Buffalo State<br />
College __________________________________________________________________ 289<br />
PR Pedagogy to Practice: Preparing Future Practitioners Through Knowledge-Centered, Skills-Driven<br />
Pedagogy<br />
Natalie T. J. Tindall, Georgia State University, and Trayce Leak, Clark Atlanta<br />
University ________________________________________________________________ 292<br />
Putting Theory, Research and Strategic Thinking to Practice in Writing Courses<br />
Tia C. M. Tyree, Howard University __________________________________________ 293<br />
5
RESEARCH<br />
PAPERS<br />
6
Millennial Students <strong>Relations</strong>hip with 2008 Top 10 Social Media Brands<br />
via Social Media Tools<br />
Alisa Lynn Agozzino, Ph.D.<br />
Ohio Northern University<br />
a-agozzino@onu.edu,<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> this study was to examine links between organization-public relationships and<br />
Millennial students’ active social media behavior. The Millennial Generation is a key target<br />
audience who many public relations practitioners are certainly trying to reach. Social media<br />
tools are emerging as technology medium must-haves for public relations practitioners. This<br />
study looked at the collision <strong>of</strong> the new social media tools and the Millennial audience within the<br />
four models <strong>of</strong> public relations (Grunig and Hunt, 1984) through the relationship management<br />
framework lens. Four research questions and hypotheses were posed. Millennial students from<br />
two Midwestern universities were randomly selected to complete a survey on their relationship<br />
with the top 10 most social companies/brands as named by Ad Age, as well as the engagement<br />
with social media tools in general and specifically with those top 10 companies/brands. A total<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1,062 participants completed the survey. The breakdown <strong>of</strong> gender for the sample was<br />
consistent with the demographic makeup <strong>of</strong> both campuses as a whole with 43.6% male (n= 463)<br />
and 56.4% female (n= 599) completing the survey. Findings highlighted that Millennials engage<br />
with e-mail and social networking (e.g., MySpace/Facebook) more than other social media tools.<br />
For all companies/brands except CNN and Dell, as participants’ general use <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
tools increased, their wanting to continue a relationship with the company/brand also increased.<br />
However, when Millennials were exposed to a variety <strong>of</strong> social media tools by each<br />
company/brand, no significant correlations were found for wanting their relationship to continue<br />
with that particular company/brand. No significant differences were found between gender and<br />
interaction with social media tools.<br />
The Internet has become a major player in the public relations field within the last<br />
decade. The World Wide Web has served as a key contributor in how organizations and their<br />
publics develop mutually beneficial relationships, an important characteristic for public relations.<br />
With emerging social media tools such as Web 2.0, blogs, podcasts, wikis, and RSS technologies<br />
becoming more highly discussed topics within the field, the Internet itself has become a public<br />
relations toolbox that holds all the newest social media tools for every public relations<br />
practitioner. Celsi (2008) encouraged public relations (PR) pr<strong>of</strong>essionals to begin thinking <strong>of</strong><br />
ways to lead their agencies and organizations toward the future. Celsi pointed out that “the tools<br />
in the social media arsenal can promote our companies and employees as experts” (p. 12).<br />
Furthermore, social media tools could make or break hiring <strong>of</strong> public relations firms in the<br />
future. For example, Hitachi Data System’s (HDS) recent hiring <strong>of</strong> the PR firm Ogilvy rather<br />
than Hill & Knowlton was based on social media. According to Shah’s (2007) cover story in<br />
PRWeek, HDS spokesperson Steve Zivanic was adamant about public relations agencies<br />
adopting more social media practices, an opinion which led to his decision in choosing Ogilvy<br />
over its competitor.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners are not the only people who need an understanding <strong>of</strong> social<br />
media within the field. PR educators in the United States are being advised by public relations<br />
practitioners to consider adopting social media into the curriculum. <strong>Public</strong> relations students<br />
7
around the country are seeking guidance on understanding this new media behavior and its<br />
application to the wider public relations world. Hood (2007) commented on the increasing need<br />
for a more consistent social media presence in academia. In her article in PRWeek, Hood<br />
explained that educators need to begin making changes to the traditional programs in order to<br />
accommodate the growing trend <strong>of</strong> social media within the PR field. Hood challenges those<br />
teaching in the public relations field. “We all need to be much more active about making sure<br />
that it [better understanding for students <strong>of</strong> new social media] happens, so that the industry<br />
continues to attract the best, and they [students] are equipped with the tools they need to do the<br />
job as it continually changes” (Hood, 2007, p. 11).<br />
Social media are changing public relations careers, whether the field is ready or not. Scott<br />
(2007) pointed out how social media have changed the look <strong>of</strong> public relations, beginning with<br />
the rise <strong>of</strong> the Web:<br />
PR is no longer just an esoteric discipline where great efforts are spent by companies to<br />
communicate exclusively to a handful <strong>of</strong> reporters who then tell the company’s story,<br />
generating a clip for the PR people to show their bosses. Now, great PR includes<br />
programs to reach buyers directly. The Web allows direct access to information about<br />
your products, and smart companies understand and use this phenomenal resource to<br />
great advantage. (p. 11)<br />
Literature on how practitioners are using social media is scarce at this point, primarily<br />
because social media is in its infancy. It is helpful to further analyze the existing public relations<br />
literature to support the thought structure concerning how these emerging communication<br />
technologies fit alongside and/or within existing traditional communication tools. For decades,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and scholars alike in the field <strong>of</strong> public relations have turned to the foundational<br />
block <strong>of</strong> relationship building in order to establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships<br />
between the public and the organization. Hallahan (2008) asserted that one way to demonstrate a<br />
company/brand commitment to key publics was to make technology-based access available. In<br />
an effort to expand the knowledge in building key relationships, the current study looks at a<br />
particular technology-based medium, namely social media, to understand better what effect these<br />
social media tools have in establishing relationships. Because <strong>of</strong> its extensive use <strong>of</strong> technology,<br />
the Millennial Generation was chosen as the target public. Although others have looked at key<br />
publics through the relationship management lens (Yang, 2005; Banning & Schoen 2007; Brønn,<br />
2008; O’Neil, 2007; Ristino, 2007; Hong, 2008; Vorvoreanu, 2008), none have looked<br />
specifically within a generational demographic. Hence, the current study contributes to a<br />
theoretical body <strong>of</strong> knowledge in the public relations field by providing acute in-depth<br />
understanding into the personal commitment relationship dimension, specifically with a younger<br />
demographic, the Millennial Generation.<br />
Social media tools have provided new ways for key publics to build and maintain<br />
relationships with companies/brands. Much work remains to be done in the academic realm to<br />
further examine the variety <strong>of</strong> relationship dimensions that may be able to work to the<br />
organizations’ advantage in building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with key<br />
publics. However, the current study hopes to uncover how public relations practitioners are using<br />
social media tools to effectively reach the Millennial audiences.<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hip and <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
The study <strong>of</strong> the relationship between the organization and its public within the public<br />
relations field is a growing area <strong>of</strong> research (Yang, 2005; Banning & Schoen 2007; Brønn, 2008;<br />
O’Neil, 2007; Ristino, 2007; Hong, 2008; Vorvoreanu, 2008). The organization-public<br />
8
elationship approach to PR provides fruitful insights concerning the concept <strong>of</strong> building and<br />
maintaining organization-public relationships. The linkage <strong>of</strong> the organization-public<br />
relationship approach to public relations is natural as most scholars agree that in the definition <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations, relationship is key. Broom (2009) defines public relations as “the management<br />
function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization<br />
and the publics on whom its success or failure depends” (p. 3). Ristino (2007), in his article<br />
pertaining to public relations within the health services, speaks <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> managing<br />
and enhancing relationships with those they serve. “The communication activities are based on a<br />
two-way symmetrical communication process that ensures that publics served and the<br />
organizations serving them build long lasting, mutually beneficial relationships” (p. 79).<br />
Beneficial relationships with the public are important for the survival <strong>of</strong> an organization.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners must build and maintain strong relationships between the<br />
organization and its public to lead to a desired behavior by the public for the organization and<br />
vice-versa. In O’Neil’s (2007) study examining the association between relationship factors and<br />
strength and duration <strong>of</strong> donor support for a local food bank, she found that although strong<br />
public relationships were not associated with the amount donated, they were associated with<br />
years <strong>of</strong> support, happiness to continue donating, and willingness to recommend others to donate.<br />
O’Neil (2007) stated, “The findings <strong>of</strong> this study are useful in that they demonstrate that longterm,<br />
successful public relationships impact behavior” (p. 102).<br />
Whether internal or external, relationships are needed in order to get key audiences to act<br />
in a desirable way. In order to communicate successfully with target publics, public relations<br />
practitioners must revert to communication basics. According to Newsom and Haynes (2008) the<br />
basics include “message, public, and medium” (p. 109). Of particular interest to this study is the<br />
medium. Whether traditional or social, the medium a public relations practitioner uses is key to<br />
effectively building and maintaining public-organization relationships. One study that has been<br />
conducted is Vorvoreanu’s (2008) Web site experience analysis. In her analysis <strong>of</strong> nine corporate<br />
Web sites, she examined student-public relationship beyond usability, but actual experiences as<br />
interpreted by the key public. In other words, was the relationship, in the way the student-public<br />
viewed it, how the organization intended to be perceived? Vorvoreanu’s study <strong>of</strong>fered readers<br />
suggestions on how to improve the public’s Web site experience. This study is one that aims to<br />
confirm that the student-public and organizational relationship is the same and not one that is<br />
misconstrued through the medium.<br />
Throughout studies that focus on public-organization relationships, all contain<br />
multidimensional factors that contribute to the understanding <strong>of</strong> those relationships. Of particular<br />
interest to this study is personal commitment. In one study conducted by Banning and Schoen<br />
(2007) on a museum’s relationship with its key publics, the researchers found that the<br />
relationships could help determine both those who were likely to continue membership with the<br />
museum, as well as those who would not. “The information gained in the use <strong>of</strong> the three<br />
relationship sub-scales can help practitioners reinforce successful programs or change ineffective<br />
public relations initiatives, rather than simply measure the amount <strong>of</strong> communication produced<br />
in a newspaper or magazine” (p. 439). Personal commitment to the museum was a vital part <strong>of</strong><br />
this study to discover those who would continue their relationship with the museum.<br />
Social Media Tools Defined<br />
Eyrich, Padman, and Sweetser (2008) gathered information from practicing public<br />
relations practitioners and discovered that “overall, practitioners have adopted nearly six<br />
different social media tools pr<strong>of</strong>essionally” (p. 413). These six tools included e-mail, intranet,<br />
9
logs, videoconferencing, podcasts, video sharing, and personal digital assistants (PDA’s).<br />
McLaughlin (2009) argued that Facebook and Twitter needed to be added to the social media<br />
must-have list. As mentioned in McLaughlin’s article, Telindus, an IT services firm, suggested<br />
that denying access to Facebook and Twitter could be the deal breaker for 18 to 24 year olds<br />
seeking employment. Both Facebook and Twitter are also important to an organization trying to<br />
reach its niche public. In an article on why to use these powerful social media tools, Williams<br />
(2009) stated, “Remember, social media outlets like Facebook and Twitter are all about building<br />
relationships. The key to your success is creating value-added content that will connect you more<br />
deeply to your existing customers and create new relationships as well” (p. 25).<br />
Gender Differences within Technology/Social Media<br />
With most new technology, a period <strong>of</strong> adaptation and apprehension exists initially as it<br />
takes flight. Considerable attention has been given to the influence <strong>of</strong> gender with new<br />
technology adoption. Studies have shown that females have lagged behind in many aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
new technology from their use to their confidence or ability to use the technology (Dempsey,<br />
2009; Spotts, Bowman, & Mertz, 1997; Wood & Li, 2005). Yet recently, scholars in a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
fields have gathered evidence to show how that gap is narrowing, or in some cases, disappearing<br />
altogether (Dresang, Gross, & Holt, 2007; Li, Glass, & Records, 2008; Rainer, Laosethakul, &<br />
Astone, 2003).<br />
Looking specifically at the Millennial market for gender differences is especially relevant<br />
within the current study. Dresang, Gross and Holt (2007) found in their study <strong>of</strong> computers and<br />
what they called net-generation children very few differences among gender. Although their<br />
study points at a closing gap for gender differences within computer use, the scholars do not<br />
provide concrete reasons for this closing. They suggest further studies are needed in order to<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer more conclusive direction.<br />
Social Media Shaping <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Field<br />
At the annual International <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong> (PRSA) conference in<br />
October <strong>of</strong> 2008, it was apparent that the public relations field is evolving and social media is at<br />
the heart <strong>of</strong> the movement. In an interview conducted with Bill Balderaz (personal<br />
communication, June 24, 2008), President <strong>of</strong> Webbed Marketing, he shared some very important<br />
qualities that are currently beginning to shape the field <strong>of</strong> public relations. First he shared how<br />
difficult it is becoming to reach consumers through the traditional media channels <strong>of</strong> newspapers,<br />
television, and telemarketing. Social media is the way <strong>of</strong> the future, he claimed, and predicted<br />
that by 2012 more money will be allocated to online budgeting items (social media tools) than<br />
more traditional (television, newspaper, radio, etc.) PR mediums. He commented on the ease <strong>of</strong><br />
using social networking sites and starting a blog, but noted that if not properly maintained that<br />
the media site can quickly lose credibility, a point that is supported in the literature (e.g.,<br />
Breakenridge, 2008; Li & Bern<strong>of</strong>f, 2008; Scott, 2007).<br />
Brian Solis, Principal <strong>of</strong> Future Works PR, was quoted in Breakenridge (2008) giving<br />
hope and encouragement for utilizing the social media tools in the PR industry.<br />
Social media is an opportunity to break the stereotype, to become experts, and create<br />
conversations directly and indirectly. This is our chance to evolve public relations into a<br />
more valuable branch <strong>of</strong> marketing, making everyone smarter and hopefully more<br />
passionate in the process. (p. 266)<br />
Solis is not alone with this thinking. MarketingSherpa (2009) surveyed social media marketers<br />
and public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals about their opinions <strong>of</strong> their social media effectiveness. Their<br />
research concluded that over half <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>essionals who completed the survey believed that<br />
10
social media marketing is effective at influencing brand reputation, increasing awareness,<br />
improving search rankings, and increasing Web site traffic. These components are all valuable<br />
assets to any public relations practice. Vocus (2009) reiterates some <strong>of</strong> MarketingSherpa’s points<br />
in its whitepaper highlighting the impact <strong>of</strong> social media. Vocus’s study provides indicators <strong>of</strong><br />
impact, sharing points <strong>of</strong> influence between social media and public relations. Highlighted points<br />
include: reaching further with a message, generating sale leads, gauging customer satisfaction<br />
and increasing brand recognition. Vocus (2009) stressed, “Social media has removed the filters<br />
between your company and the public” (p. 1).<br />
It is doubtful that public relations will completely step back into its traditional roots, but<br />
instead will look forward to moving ahead with the new social media tools. Gillin (2007) points<br />
out that “mainstream media has become so dependent on social media, in fact, that is hard to<br />
imagine that pr<strong>of</strong>essional news organizations would let this channel go away” (p. 198). Social<br />
media is going to be here for the long run, so public relations practitioners are charged to<br />
capitalize on this emerging and growing trend <strong>of</strong> reaching target audiences.<br />
Tying Social Media and <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> to Millennials<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the key components to this study is tying public relations social media tools to<br />
youth, or more specifically, the Millennial Generation or Generation Y. In order to gain a deeper<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the literature that has been produced on the subject, the following section<br />
provides some facts from the most comprehensive study <strong>of</strong> the Millennial Generation and social<br />
media.<br />
Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project team <strong>of</strong> Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, and Smith<br />
(2007), released a comprehensive study <strong>of</strong> teens and social media. The 36-page document is full<br />
<strong>of</strong> statistical support for why this younger audience is grabbing hold and increasingly utilizing<br />
social media tools. In a previous study the researchers noted that they sensed a trend emerging.<br />
Teens were leading the way into the Web 2.0 era. “Online teens have access to tools that can<br />
gain them widespread attention and notoriety in ways that simply were not possible under the<br />
traditional mass media model” (Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, & Smith, 2007, p. 1). In January <strong>of</strong><br />
2009, Jones and Fox extended the Pew study by looking specifically at the generations that are<br />
online. Although Jones and Fox’s definition <strong>of</strong> Gen Y or the Millennial Generation is broader<br />
than many others’ definition (born between 1977 to 1990, ages 18 to 32 in 2009), the study<br />
provided an array <strong>of</strong> salient information.<br />
First and foremost, Jones and Fox (2009) provided statistics which confirmed that 87% <strong>of</strong><br />
the Millennial Generation is indeed online. Furthermore, not only is this demographic on the<br />
Internet, they are creating content and participating with the social media tools in place. Social<br />
networking within this demographic is phenomenal when taking into consideration the<br />
Millennial Generation as compared to all online adult users. Jones and Fox (2009) found that<br />
over half (67%) <strong>of</strong> Millennial users had a pr<strong>of</strong>ile on a social network, a striking increase over<br />
what the overall adult users (35%) report.<br />
Although blogging can be a significant part <strong>of</strong> social networking, it is not always<br />
synonymous with it. Jones and Fox (2009) found that 20% <strong>of</strong> Millennials blog separately from<br />
social networking. This percentage is double their Gen X (ages 33 to 44) counterparts, 10% <strong>of</strong><br />
whom report ever having created a blog. Creating a blog is one thing, but reading is another.<br />
Forty-three percent <strong>of</strong> all Millennials have read others’ online blogs. Again this is a 9% jump<br />
from Generation X, who has reported only 34% reading <strong>of</strong> others’ blogs.<br />
Videos are popular for this demographic as well. Although only 52% <strong>of</strong> online adults<br />
reported having watched a video online, Jones and Fox (2009) reported that 72% <strong>of</strong> online<br />
11
Millennials say they have done so. Statistics in this study provide a glimpse <strong>of</strong> the opportunities<br />
that exist for public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals to target this engaged audience.<br />
Current Investigation<br />
When research came to a point <strong>of</strong> engagement with studying different practices <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations, Grunig and Hunt’s four models <strong>of</strong> public relations were developed to help practitioners<br />
become better equipped with the when and how to use their communications skills to solve<br />
public relations problems. The current study is being presented within Grunig and Hunt’s (1984)<br />
four models <strong>of</strong> public relations through the relationship management framework lens. The<br />
question <strong>of</strong> how public relations practitioners are using social media tools to effectively reach<br />
Millennial audiences will be addressed through these guiding foundational blocks.<br />
The following research questions and hypotheses are advanced:<br />
RQ 1 : Do Millennial students interact with one particular social media tool over another?<br />
H 1 :<br />
Millennial students who indicate they interact with company/brand e-mail will generate<br />
the most committed relationship over all other company/brand social media tools.<br />
RQ 2 : What is the relationship between a Millennial student’s commitment to maintaining a<br />
relationship with one <strong>of</strong> the top 10 most social company/brand and the interaction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Millennial student with a social media tool <strong>of</strong> that company/brand?<br />
H 2 :<br />
Those Millennial students who have had a relationship with the top 10 social brands via<br />
social media tools will be more likely to have a favorable perception <strong>of</strong> that<br />
company/brand.<br />
RQ 3 : To what extent is a Millennial students’ favorable perception <strong>of</strong> the organization<br />
positively associated with his or her active social media behavior?<br />
H 3 : Millennial students’ satisfaction with the relationship they have with one <strong>of</strong> the top 10<br />
social brands will be positively associated with the company/brand through a social<br />
media outlet.<br />
RQ 4 : To what extent, if any, is there a difference between gender and each social media tool?<br />
H 4 :<br />
Millennial males will be more likely to interact with social media tools than Millennial<br />
females.<br />
Methodology<br />
In selecting companies or brands to be investigated in targeting Millennials from a public<br />
relations perspective in this study, no list with this exact criteria emerged. However, one list<br />
dubbed by Advertising Age as the “Most Social Brands <strong>of</strong> 2008,” rose to the top. This list is<br />
intriguing and relevant because it outlines the brand or branded company product that is<br />
mentioned most <strong>of</strong>ten in social media. Brands were chosen based on the conversation volume on<br />
a variety <strong>of</strong> social networking, blogging and microblogging sites according to Klaasen’s (2009)<br />
article. “This survey stuck to a pretty rudimentary metric—it measures mentions, not the<br />
sentiment <strong>of</strong> those mentions or the word parings” (Klaasen, 2009, p. 1). Sheer volume <strong>of</strong><br />
conversations on social media tools is what caused each <strong>of</strong> these top 10 companies/brands rise to<br />
the top <strong>of</strong> the list. The top 10 list includes: iPhone, CNN, Apple, Disney, Xbox, Starbucks, iPod,<br />
MTV, Sony, and Dell.<br />
Participants<br />
Students from two Midwestern universities were selected to complete the survey.<br />
Location, proximity <strong>of</strong> universities, and similar demographics <strong>of</strong> the student body at both<br />
universities provided an opportunity for a larger number <strong>of</strong> Millennial students to be surveyed.<br />
The population <strong>of</strong> this study consisted <strong>of</strong> Millennial students from both Midwest<br />
universities. Participants were selected because most fit the Millennial demographic. Those<br />
12
students who noted they were 17 or younger (n=1) or 25 or over (n=3) in the demographic<br />
section <strong>of</strong> the survey were eliminated from study. A total <strong>of</strong> 1,062 participants completed the<br />
survey. The breakdown <strong>of</strong> gender for the sample was consistent with the demographic makeup <strong>of</strong><br />
both campuses as a whole with 43.6% male (n= 463) and 56.4% female (n= 599) completing the<br />
survey. At both universities, participation was elicited through a cluster sample <strong>of</strong> classes that<br />
had enrollments greater than 25 students. Because <strong>of</strong> the large number <strong>of</strong> participants needed to<br />
have strong sample size, only classes with enrollments greater than 25 were used to draw from<br />
for the cluster sample. A self-administered paper survey was utilized. For this particular study,<br />
Bruning and Galloway’s organization-public relationship scale was selected. Bruning and<br />
Galloway’s (2003) 24-question scale aims to measure the respondent’s relationship with a<br />
particular organization, in this case the relationship between the Millennial college student<br />
demographic with the top 10 social media brand organizations. The scale is composed <strong>of</strong> five<br />
dimensions. Although all dimensions provide useful information, the personal commitment<br />
dimension was the focus for this particular study. Respondents were asked to specify their level<br />
<strong>of</strong> agreement with each <strong>of</strong> the 24 questions on the scale by indicating their preferences on a 7-<br />
point Likert scale anchored from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Bruning and<br />
Galloway’s (2003) scale was selected because <strong>of</strong> its ability to measure the relationship between<br />
an organization and each organization’s public or target audience. In addition to Bruning’s 24<br />
questions, six additional questions were asked to help address the research questions and<br />
hypotheses. Two questions were asked in order to gain insight from students regarding their<br />
familiarity with social media tools in general and the top 10 organizations in general. One<br />
question was asked to discover student familiarity with one or more <strong>of</strong> the top 10 organizations’<br />
interactions with themselves as Millennial students via social media tools. The final three<br />
questions were asked in order to collect demographic information about the Millennial students<br />
who completed the survey. Questions about sex, age, and race were asked in an effort to provide<br />
the study with demographic statistics.<br />
Findings and Discussion<br />
Research Question #1. The first research question posed aimed to answer with what, if<br />
any, social media tools Millennial students interact. The responses to this close-ended question<br />
were categorized and the frequencies <strong>of</strong> the responses were aggregated. The percentages for each<br />
<strong>of</strong> the categories were calculated relative to the total set <strong>of</strong> responses generated. As indicated in<br />
Table 1 (Appendix A), the most popular response was e-mail (97.2%), followed closely by social<br />
networking sites (94.1%). Other social media tools which participants reported for interacting<br />
included personal digital assistants (79.1%), video sharing (69.0%), blogs (21.1%), micro blogs<br />
(15.4%), and podcasts (11.2%). Only 0.5% <strong>of</strong> participants reported never using any <strong>of</strong> the social<br />
media tools listed. A list emerged by asking Millennial students to select all social media tools<br />
with which he or she would interact. Because students were allowed to select more than one type<br />
<strong>of</strong> social media, the question did not force participants to select one tool over another, allowing<br />
for multiple social media tools to emerge as highly interacted with by Millennial students.<br />
Relatively consistent with Lenhart and Fox’s (2009) study for the Pew Internet data, which<br />
reported that 94% <strong>of</strong> those from age 18 to 32 use e-mail, this social media tool was also selected<br />
as the most highly interacted social media tool by participants at 97.2%. Closely following at<br />
94.1%, social networking as a social media tool was also reported as highly interacted with by<br />
Millennial students. The popularity <strong>of</strong> the social networking social media tool did not come as a<br />
surprise, especially after recent research on social networking sites such as Facebook has<br />
proclaimed its rising popularity (Outlaw, 2009; Vasquez, 2008). Knowing that Millennials are<br />
13
using social networking tools is encouraging to those public relations practitioners who are<br />
considering or are beginning to reach out to this key audience through this social media tool.<br />
Most interesting, inconsistent with what others have found, is the interaction Millennials<br />
reported with both blogs and podcasts. Jones and Fox (2009) report that 43% <strong>of</strong> this generation<br />
engage with blogs. In this study, only 21.1% <strong>of</strong> Millennial students reported interacting with<br />
blogs. Because this percentage is rather low, the finding raises several questions. One significant<br />
question is whether blogs are becoming less popular within this Millennial Generation. This<br />
finding suggests that blogs are not as popular as others have reported. Another question is what<br />
characteristics make blogs more or less engaging? Possibly because <strong>of</strong> the recent growth <strong>of</strong> blogs<br />
as reported by Technorati (2009), information is becoming not only overwhelming but also<br />
difficult to trust. Although some research has found that Millennials are suited for blogging<br />
because <strong>of</strong> its unique capability <strong>of</strong> allowing for content contribution, being leery <strong>of</strong> where their<br />
information is being posted and who is accessing that information is becoming more <strong>of</strong> an issue<br />
(McConnell & Hubba, 2007).<br />
Another noteworthy finding that emerged in the study is the 11.2% <strong>of</strong> Millennial students<br />
who reported interacting with podcasts. Recent studies suggest that the audio podcast is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the rising social media tools that is expected to have exponential growth in upcoming years.<br />
Indeed research says that 25% <strong>of</strong> Millennials are already using podcast, which contradicts the<br />
finding <strong>of</strong> this study. (EMarketer, 2008; Jones & Fox, 2009). Similar to blogs, questions arise<br />
about this significant decline <strong>of</strong> Millennials who report interacting with podcast. Findings<br />
suggest that podcasts as a social tool are not the best way to target this generation. Besides the<br />
0.5% <strong>of</strong> participants who reported not interacting with any social media tool, podcasts were<br />
reported as the least interacted with social media tool.<br />
One note <strong>of</strong> interest pertaining to the first research question regards those participants<br />
who selected interacting with no social media tool. Only five <strong>of</strong> 1093 students who participated<br />
in the study reported that they did not engage with any social media tool. This finding supports<br />
the idea that Millennial students are indeed interacting with a variety <strong>of</strong> social media tools.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners should find this result encouraging while thinking strategically for<br />
ways to reach this target audience through these different social media tools. Although all social<br />
media tools did not register with above-average percentages <strong>of</strong> interaction, most Millennials<br />
reported interacting with a variety <strong>of</strong> tools.<br />
Hypothesis #1. The first hypothesis states, “Millennial students who indicate they<br />
interact with company/brand e-mail will generate the most committed relationship over all other<br />
company/brand social media tools.” First, an independent samples t-test was run for each social<br />
media tool with a usage response over 50% <strong>of</strong> the sample who had been engaging with social<br />
media tools (yes/no) and wanting their relationship to continue with each company/brand (1 =<br />
strongly wanting the relationship to continue, 7 = strongly not wanting the relationship to<br />
continue). Results in Table 2 (Appendix B) indicated that hypothesis one is partially supported.<br />
Secondly, in order to determine if having contact via social networking tools had varying effects<br />
on wanting the relationship with each company to continue, a series <strong>of</strong> factorial analyses <strong>of</strong><br />
variance (factorial ANOVA) were run. As indicated in Table 3 (Appendix C), all other top 10<br />
social media companies/brands (Xbox, Starbucks, MTV, Sony and Dell) resulted in no<br />
significant interaction effect for any <strong>of</strong> the comparisons between the social media tools and<br />
strongly wanting the relationship with the company to continue.<br />
Millennials are using social media tools, some more than others as supported by research<br />
question and hypothesis one, to receive messages from companies and organizations. As<br />
14
discussed previously, Millennial students are bombarded with millions <strong>of</strong> messages. Targeting<br />
those messages through the appropriate tool is essential to the success <strong>of</strong> a positive relationship.<br />
Windahl, Signitzer and Olson (2009) stated, “When a sub-audience is defined as a segment, the<br />
communication planner must find channels and messages that fit it. But not all segments can be<br />
reached through matching channels, that is, through channels whose audience equals the<br />
planner’s target group” (p. 231). In order to investigate further if Millennials were gravitating<br />
more to e-mail than other social media tools <strong>of</strong> the particular company/brand while also staying<br />
strongly committed to a particular company/brand, hypothesis one was advanced. To find a<br />
thorough answer, both t-tests and a factorial ANOVA were run. T-tests were run to find if there<br />
were significant differences between each <strong>of</strong> the top social media tools as discovered in research<br />
question one. The four social media tools (e-mail, video, PDA, social networking) that were<br />
investigated all had over 50% <strong>of</strong> participants report that they had interacted with the social media<br />
tool. Apple, Disney, and Xbox reported significant differences for all four social media tools<br />
between those Millennials who had interacted with the company/brand’s social media tool and<br />
wanted their relationship to continue and those who had not interacted. CNN reported<br />
significance for all but PDA. Sony and Starbucks reported significance for only e-mail. MTV<br />
and Dell reported no significant difference between any <strong>of</strong> the four social media tools.<br />
Only guesses can be made at this time as to why some companies/brands reported<br />
significant differences between those Millennials who had wanted their relationship to continue<br />
and those who had not. One guess could be that perhaps some may do better than others at being<br />
authentic. Authenticity is crucial within social media. Another guess, the issue <strong>of</strong> transparency<br />
and authenticity continues to be a relevant issue in social media. As Scott (2007) discussed<br />
previously in the literature review, some companies attempt to pull <strong>of</strong>f corporate generated<br />
material as consumer generated material. Millennials can detect this issue <strong>of</strong> authenticity and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten feel betrayed and belittled when companies or brands try to blur the social media<br />
authenticity lines. Before the emergence <strong>of</strong> social media tools, the brand had to build itself. Yet<br />
another guess as to why some companies/brands reported significant differences between those<br />
Millennials who had wanted their relationship to continue and those who had not could revolve<br />
around the issue <strong>of</strong> the differences between traditional and social media tools. Millennials may<br />
prefer to see more traditional communication (television or radio) instead <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
communication from particular companies/brands. MTV was one <strong>of</strong> the companies in which no<br />
significant difference between any <strong>of</strong> the social media tools was found and Millennials wanting<br />
to continue their relationship with MTV for a long time. This could be due to the fact that MTV,<br />
as it states in its name, is known for its more traditional form <strong>of</strong> communication—television.<br />
Millennials may prefer building their relationship with MTV through more traditional means<br />
rather than social means. This is not to say that Millennials are not interacting with the social<br />
media tools, but rather that their preference for this particular company may still lie in more<br />
traditional tools.<br />
Although a variety <strong>of</strong> the social media tools reported main effects between tools (the<br />
significant t-test results), a factorial ANOVA was run in the current study to explore those tools<br />
that were considered highly engaged in by Millennials (e-mail, video, PDA, social networking)<br />
and their wanting the relationship to continue with each <strong>of</strong> the top 10 most social<br />
companies/brands. In looking at each social media tool individually compared to the<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> two <strong>of</strong> the top four social media tools, results indicated that only in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
Apple, CNN, and Disney did the combination <strong>of</strong> multiple tools have significant interaction<br />
effects between e-mail and social networking, social media tools, and wanting their relationship<br />
15
to continue with Apple, CNN, and Disney. After examining the data, the researcher went back to<br />
the t-test means to compare each individual tool mean with the combined mean to determine<br />
which was the lowest. This helped determine which tool, or combination <strong>of</strong> the tools, provided<br />
the strongest relationship. Interestingly, Apple, CNN and Disney all reported different results for<br />
the strongest relationship. Yet, because e-mail (97.2%) was advanced as the social media tool to<br />
generate the most committed relationship between the company/brand and the Millennial<br />
student, hypothesis one is partially supported. Even though the Apple, CNN, and Disney results<br />
<strong>of</strong> the current study all reported different preference <strong>of</strong> company/brand social media tool(s) for<br />
Millennials, <strong>of</strong> the tools that were significant, e-mail was part <strong>of</strong> those that Millennials responded<br />
to as interacting with the most while remaining the most committed to the company/brand.<br />
Furthermore, the t-test serves as a guide for both the companies/brands and public relations<br />
practitioners who question using social media tools to attract Millennial students. E-mail showed<br />
a significant difference between Millennials who had received an e-mail and those who had not<br />
and wanting their relationship to continue with each company/brand in six out <strong>of</strong> the eight<br />
companies/brands. PDA showed the least promise to commitment to the company/brand <strong>of</strong> the<br />
four social media tools looked at in this hypothesis, having only three <strong>of</strong> eight companies/brands<br />
show significance between those who had interacted with PDA and those who had not.<br />
Research Question #2. Research question two asked, “What is the relationship between<br />
a Millennial student’s commitment to maintaining a relationship with one <strong>of</strong> the top 10 most<br />
social company/brand and the interaction <strong>of</strong> the Millennial student with a social media tool <strong>of</strong><br />
that company/brand?” A chi-square test was run for exposure to company/brand social media<br />
outlet (yes/no) and commitment to that social media company/brand. Results indicated out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
eight social media companies/brands, six had significant differences between the participants<br />
who had and those who had not been exposed to the company/brand social media outlet and his<br />
or her level <strong>of</strong> commitment to that particular social media company/brand.<br />
The current study reports Apple, Disney, Xbox, Starbucks, MTV, and Sony all having<br />
significant difference in the commitment level between those who had been exposed to<br />
company/brand social media tool and those who had not. Results support the argument that those<br />
Millennial students who had indicated that they had personally interacted with a company/brand<br />
via a social media tool(s) were more committed to maintaining a relationship with that particular<br />
company/brand than those Millennials who reported never having interacted with the<br />
company/brand via social media. Those Millennials who had actually interacted with the<br />
company/brand by using the social media tools most likely had some type <strong>of</strong> vested interest with<br />
the company/brand, thereby already establishing some type <strong>of</strong> relationship with the<br />
company/brand. It would suggest that if Millennials are interacting with companies, these users<br />
desire some type <strong>of</strong> relationship, usually positive, with that particular company/brand.<br />
Interestingly, this study found that for CNN and Dell the reverse proved to be true in<br />
exploring the relationship between a Millennial student’s commitment to maintaining a<br />
relationship with one <strong>of</strong> the top 10 most social company/brands and the interaction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Millennial student with a social media tool <strong>of</strong> that company/brand. Commitment to maintaining a<br />
relationship with CNN and Dell was not different for those participants who had been exposed to<br />
social media and those who had not. The researcher can only speculate why this finding emerges.<br />
CNN is a company that supplies news to millions worldwide. Millennials may interact with<br />
CNN’s social media tools, but not be committed to maintaining a relationship with the company<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> news and how it can be communicated in a variety <strong>of</strong> ways. For<br />
example, although the researcher in this study follows CNN on Twitter, the researcher is not<br />
16
strongly committed to maintaining a relationship with CNN because <strong>of</strong> the preference to get<br />
news through the local television news channel for a local angle or national news from the NPR<br />
podcast so one can run while listening (multi-tasking Millennial).<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> this study raise additional questions about why Dell and CNN have<br />
different experiences with Millennials than other top companies/brands. This is very interesting<br />
data for public relations practitioners who work for both CNN and Dell, two widely respected<br />
companies. These top companies are reaching this Millennial market via social media tools, but<br />
questions addressing why there is no commitment to some companies with whom Millennials are<br />
engaged via social media tools needs to be further examined.<br />
Hypothesis #2. The second hypothesis in the current study states, “Those Millennial<br />
students who have had a relationship with the top 10 social brands via social media tools will be<br />
more likely to have a favorable perception <strong>of</strong> that company/brand.” An independent samples t-<br />
test was run for interaction with a brand/company through social media tools (yes/no) and<br />
wanting a relationship with the brand/company to continue for a long time. Results indicated that<br />
there were significant differences for six <strong>of</strong> the eight media brands/companies for exposure to the<br />
brand/company social media tool and wanting the relationship to continue with the company<br />
(Table 4, Appendix D). For all companies/brands except CNN and Dell, results indicated that as<br />
participants’ usage <strong>of</strong> social media tools increased, their wanting to continue a relationship with<br />
the company/brand also increased. Millennials indicating that they somewhat agreed to strongly<br />
agreed that they wanted to continue their relationship with the company/brand for a long time<br />
was used to determine if they had a favorable perception <strong>of</strong> the company/brand. Apparently,<br />
according to the data, those students who have had a relationship with CNN and Dell via that<br />
particular company’s/brand’s social media tools do not have a favorable perception <strong>of</strong> CNN or<br />
Dell. Even after interacting with CNN and Dell via social media tools, it is surprising that those<br />
Millennials did not have a favorable perception. Reasons for this disconnect are unknown;<br />
however, the data clearly indicate a lack <strong>of</strong> relationship with Millennials for these two<br />
companies. What makes CNN and Dell the anomaly to the list <strong>of</strong> top 10 most social brands is<br />
unknown and intriguing. The support for hypothesis one is especially positive news for public<br />
relations practitioners who aim to engage this niche market <strong>of</strong> Millennials via social media tools.<br />
If, for the most part, Millennials have favorable perceptions <strong>of</strong> those companies/brands with<br />
which they interact via social media tools, public relations practitioners need to look at ways to<br />
interact with the Millennial target audience in order to build stronger, more favorable<br />
relationships.<br />
Research Question #3. The third research question asked is, “To what extent is a<br />
Millennial student’s favorable perception <strong>of</strong> the organization positively associated with his or her<br />
active social media behavior?” Pearson’s product-moment correlations were used to analyze this<br />
research question. Pearson’s product-moment correlations are used in situations were the<br />
independent and dependent variables are interval or ratio level measures (Reinard, 2008). In this<br />
study a correlation was run for active social media behavior (number <strong>of</strong> tools used: no tools = 0<br />
to all tools listed selected = 7) and wanting a relationship with a brand/company to continue for a<br />
long time (strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 7). Results indicate that there are significant<br />
correlations for all eight media brands/companies between active social media behavior and<br />
wanting the relationship to continue with the company/brand. Table 5 (Appendix E) presents the<br />
correlations between active social media behavior and Millennial students wanting their<br />
relationships with each company/brand to continue for a long time. Correlations were significant<br />
at the .001 level.<br />
17
This question did not look at the social media usage from each particular brand as in<br />
research question two, but instead Millennials’ social media usage in general. The significant<br />
correlations support the idea that the more these technological Millennials interact with social<br />
media, the more they tend to favor the top 10 social companies/brands. Based on the results from<br />
research question two, this positive correlation was somewhat expected. The companies/brands<br />
that were selected as the top 10 most social brands were selected because <strong>of</strong> their innate use <strong>of</strong><br />
engaging audiences with social media. Those Millennials who use social media should<br />
seemingly positively correlate with these brands based on the simple fact that they are engaging<br />
with tools that have made these companies/brands rise to the top <strong>of</strong> the list. The more tools with<br />
which Millennials engage, the more opportunity they have to exposure to one or more <strong>of</strong> these<br />
companies. Furthermore, the more social media tools that Millennials use, the more comfortable<br />
they likely are with interacting with each company/brand because <strong>of</strong> the company’s/brand’s<br />
extensive use <strong>of</strong> the social media.<br />
Hypothesis #3. The third hypothesis in the current study states, “Millennial students’<br />
satisfaction with the relationship they have with one <strong>of</strong> the top 10 social brands will be positively<br />
associated with the company/brand through a social media outlet.” A correlation analysis was<br />
run for the number <strong>of</strong> social media tools (e.g., 0 = no tools, 1 = 1 social media tool contact, etc.)<br />
to which participants were exposed by each company/brand and wanting their relationship to<br />
continue for a long time (1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree) with each respective<br />
company/brand. Results indicated no significant correlations for the number <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
tools that participants were exposed to by each company/brand and wanting their relationship to<br />
continue with that company/brand for a long time. As indicated from the results in Table 6<br />
(Appendix F), the number <strong>of</strong> social media tools Millennials were exposed to by each <strong>of</strong> these<br />
companies did not relate to those same Millennials wanting to maintain a relationship with the<br />
company/brand for a long time.<br />
Although the results for Sony reached significance, none <strong>of</strong> the other companies/brands<br />
indicated a significant correlation between the number <strong>of</strong> social media tools that participants<br />
were exposed to by each company/brand and a desire for their relationship to continue with that<br />
company/brand for a long time. This finding supports the literature (Flanagin and Metzger, 2008:<br />
Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, & Smith, 2007; Mazzarella, 2006) on the Millennials in regard to<br />
finding the fine line between engaging and tuning out completely. Attracting and maintaining<br />
their attention continues to be a challenge for public relations practitioners who are desperately<br />
trying to reach this key market. While Millennial students have a more favorable perception <strong>of</strong><br />
most <strong>of</strong> the top 10 social companies/brands if they have had relationship with them through a<br />
social media tool, as borne out by hypothesis two, as those social media tool interactions<br />
increase, it does not necessarily increase their satisfaction with that particular company/brand.<br />
Data from the current study support the idea that more types <strong>of</strong> social media usage does not<br />
increase user satisfaction with the relationship with a company/brand. These results are<br />
consistent with existing research that encourages public relations practitioners to engage in only<br />
those social media tools that they are willing to devote the time, resources and effort into making<br />
succeed (Gillin, 2007; Li and Bern<strong>of</strong>f, 2008; Scott, 2007). This study further supports the<br />
recommendation <strong>of</strong> engaging in only those social media for which public relations practitioners<br />
are ready because engaging in multiple social media tools does not seem to increase the chances<br />
<strong>of</strong> successfully establishing a mutually beneficial relationship with the Millennial Generation.<br />
Research Question #4. Research question number four asked, “To what extent, if any, is<br />
there a difference between gender and each social media tool?” A chi-square test was run for<br />
18
gender (male/female) and each <strong>of</strong> the seven media tools. As shown in Table 7 (Appendix G),<br />
results indicated that out <strong>of</strong> the seven social media tools, none had significant differences<br />
between the gender and each particular social media tool that was explored in the study.<br />
This supports other scholars (Dresang, Gross, & Holt, 2007; Li, Glass, & Records, 2008;<br />
Rainer, Laosethakul, & Astone, 2003) who argue that this gap has drastically narrowed over time<br />
and is in some cases non-existent. This is good news for public relations practitioners who are<br />
trying to target the Millennial market with social media tools and have concerns about gender<br />
differences. Each <strong>of</strong> the seven social media tools was examined for gender differences, and all<br />
data gathered indicate no difference between gender for any <strong>of</strong> the seven social media tools.<br />
Hypothesis #4. In looking at communication technologies, specifically social media,<br />
very few studies have been conducted for each tool individually in regards to gender preference.<br />
Many studies have shown that females have lagged behind in many aspects <strong>of</strong> new technology<br />
from their use to their confidence or ability to use the technology (Dempsey, 2009; Spotts,<br />
Bowman, & Mertz, 1997; Wood & Li, 2005). Based on previous research, hypothesis four was<br />
advanced, “Millennial males will be more likely to interact with social media tools than<br />
Millennial females.” Results found that Millennial males were not necessarily more likely to<br />
interact with any <strong>of</strong> the seven social media tools set forth by the study than Millennial females.<br />
Although this finding is surprising, it should be also promising to public relations practitioners<br />
that are trying to reach the Millennial demographic. Constructing key messages to send through<br />
the best social media channels can be difficult enough, let alone trying to utilize different<br />
channels to reach different genders. Results from the current study support others (Dresang,<br />
Gross, & Holt, 2007; Li, Glass, & Records, 2008; Rainer, Laosethakul, & Astone, 2003) who<br />
argue that the gender/technology gap is narrowing, or in some cases, disappearing. Millennials<br />
are known for their tech savvy ways, and these findings assert that gender does not make a<br />
difference on which social media tools Millennials will use and not use.<br />
Future Research Directions<br />
Although the current findings respond to a need to conduct original research in the area<br />
<strong>of</strong> public relations, this study only begins to address the void in the communication and<br />
marketing literature. At the annual International <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong> (PRSA)<br />
conference in October <strong>of</strong> 2008, it was apparent that the public relations field is evolving and that<br />
social media is at the heart <strong>of</strong> the movement. In an attempt to assist public relations practitioners,<br />
specifically those who are or thinking <strong>of</strong> using social media tools, this study intended to both add<br />
to the communication and marketing literature as well as assist current practitioners in the field.<br />
The current investigation looked at only one dimension—personal commitment—<strong>of</strong><br />
Bruning and Galloway’s (2003) public-organization relationship scale. However, as previously<br />
mentioned, the scale is composed <strong>of</strong> five dimensions: anthropomorphic, personal commitment,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional benefit/expectation, community improvement, and comparison <strong>of</strong> alternatives that<br />
could be further examined. Solid findings from the current study <strong>of</strong>fer a more complete<br />
understanding into an individual’s personal commitment with a company/brand, yet much more<br />
information can be gleaned from looking at each <strong>of</strong> the different dimensions individually and<br />
collaboratively.<br />
In addition to Millennials, several other generations exist. A follow-up study examining<br />
the personal commitment <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the other generations could <strong>of</strong>fer public relations<br />
practitioners insight into building relationships with not only the Millennial Generation, but also<br />
how those relationships with Millennials differ from the other generations via use <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
19
tools. By comparing and contrasting the behaviors <strong>of</strong> all generations, future studies could help<br />
answer this compelling question.<br />
This particular study looked intently on channel usage related to indentifying social<br />
media use and the way that this relates to brand loyalty and continued interest in continuing<br />
relationships. What it doesn’t look at is message content that is disseminated through those<br />
channels. Additional research should be conducted in order to analyze messages that are sent<br />
through these social media channels and how those messages relate to Millennials wanting to<br />
continue their relationship with the organization.<br />
Finally, while this study allowed the researcher to investigate Millennials’ interaction<br />
with social media tools <strong>of</strong> specific companies, research is also needed to investigate what makes<br />
Millennials engage with one particular social media tool over another. The current study found<br />
that Millennials heavily engage with social networking sites (e.g., MySpace and Facebook).<br />
What makes Millennials engage with social networking sites more than other social media tools<br />
such as blogs, micro-blogs, or podcasts? To extend the current study, a future qualitative study<br />
could divulge a better understanding through open-ended questions as to why Millennials prefer<br />
social networking sites and e-mail to microblogging and podcasts. Likewise, researchers might<br />
also examine the various social media tools that Millennial engage with the most and how those<br />
tools change over time.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Beneficial relationships with the public are important for the survival <strong>of</strong> an organization.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners must build and maintain strong relationships between the<br />
organization and its public to lead to a desired behavior <strong>of</strong> the public for the organization and<br />
vice-versa. Rather than focusing on all dimensions <strong>of</strong> the organization-public relationship<br />
(anthropomorphic, personal commitment, pr<strong>of</strong>essional benefit/expectation, community<br />
improvement, and comparison <strong>of</strong> alternatives), this study specifically concentrated on the<br />
personal commitment relationship to the company/brand. Hence, the current study contributes to<br />
a theoretical body <strong>of</strong> knowledge in the public relations field by providing acute in-depth<br />
understanding into the personal commitment relationship dimension, specifically with a younger<br />
demographic, the Millennial Generation.<br />
In addition, this study is important to the field <strong>of</strong> public relations because <strong>of</strong> its<br />
contribution to the body <strong>of</strong> literature focusing on social media tools and contribution to the<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> public relations practitioners. The literature review for this study sufficiently<br />
exemplifies the growth <strong>of</strong> social media within the field. The current study enhances that body <strong>of</strong><br />
literature by supporting other’s testimonies (Gillin, 2007; Hallahan, 2008; Li and Bern<strong>of</strong>f, 2008;<br />
Scott, 2007) <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> a social media presence for organizations to build relationships<br />
with key publics. Currently, the literature supports organizations being familiar with and using<br />
many social media tools, but current findings indicate that organizations that utilize one tool well<br />
is more essential than using several social media tools. As this study showed, Millennial<br />
satisfaction does not increase with the variety <strong>of</strong> tools, yet for most companies/brands a social<br />
media presence did matter with Millennials’ favorable perceptions <strong>of</strong> that particular<br />
company/brand.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners are yearning for in-depth knowledge <strong>of</strong> social media tools<br />
and how they can best play into their relationship building with key markets. In October, the<br />
cover <strong>of</strong> PRWeek, a monthly magazine targeted to practitioners, read Social Media Survey 2009.<br />
The seven-page article by Maul (2009) outlined important issues in social media such as what<br />
was being used most frequently industry-wide (social networking) to ethical issues <strong>of</strong> using<br />
20
social media. One focus <strong>of</strong> the article discussed the importance <strong>of</strong> being able to accurately<br />
measure how social media impacts an organization. This study helps practitioners fulfill some <strong>of</strong><br />
this need, particularly within the Millennial market. Findings from this study can help public<br />
relations practitioners allocate resources to social media tools that are most frequently being<br />
interacted with by Millennials. For the companies/brands that were emphasized in the study,<br />
further knowledge can be gleaned from public relations practitioners from those particular<br />
organizations in regard to social media tool usage and their company/brand. Lessons in which<br />
social media tools are being used and even which combination <strong>of</strong> tools is strongest for each<br />
company/brand can be gathered and used for future allocation <strong>of</strong> time and resources.<br />
Communication scholars <strong>of</strong> the early 1900s remember the days <strong>of</strong> media effects with<br />
terms as “magic bullet theory” or the “hypodermic needle theory” to describe the times when<br />
mass communication was assumed to have great effects on the public through one message<br />
through one medium to the entire public (Windahl, Signitzer & Olson, 2009). Findings in this<br />
study suggest that Millennials demand specific mediums to have their messages arrive to them.<br />
When public relations practitioners do not take into consideration targeting their messages, those<br />
messages fall upon the mass society as a blanket with only hopes <strong>of</strong> the targeting audience being<br />
able to pick up the message. Millennials are unlike any other generation in the way they that they<br />
have surrounded themselves with new ways to build relationships: through a communications<br />
medium (Tapscott, 1996). Social media tools have provided new ways for key publics to build<br />
and maintain relationships with companies/brands. Much work remains to be done in the<br />
academic realm to further examine the variety <strong>of</strong> relationship dimensions that can all work to the<br />
organizations’ advantage in building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with key<br />
publics. However, the current study helps shed some light on how public relations practitioners<br />
are using social media tools to effectively reach the Millennial audiences.<br />
References<br />
Banning, S., & Schoen, M. (2007, November). Maximizing public relations with the<br />
organization–public relationship scale: Measuring a public's perception <strong>of</strong> an art museum.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33, 437-439. doi: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2007.08.001<br />
Breakenridge, D. (2008). PR 2.0. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.<br />
Brønn, P. (2008, January/February). Why aren't we measuring relationships? Communication<br />
World, 25(1), 32-34.<br />
Broom, G. M. (2009). Effective <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-<br />
Hall.<br />
Bruning, S. D., & Galloway, T. (2003). Expanding the organization-public relationship scale:<br />
Exploring the role that structural and personal commitment play in organization-public<br />
relationships. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 29, 309-319.<br />
Celsi, C. (2008, January). Starting a social media group. Tactics, 12.<br />
Dempsey. (2009). The increasing technology divide. Feminist Media Studies, 9, 37-55. doi:<br />
10.1080/14680770802619482<br />
Eyrich, N., Padman, M. L., & Sweetser, K. D. (2008). PR practitioners’ use <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
tools and communication technology. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 34, 412-414. doi:<br />
10.1016/j.pubrev.2008.09.010<br />
EMarketer. (2008, March 5). Student noses buried in Facebook. Retrieved from<br />
www.adnotas.com/cgi-bin/news/newsarticle.cgi?article_id=25789<br />
Gillin, P. (2007). The new influencers. Sanger, CA: Word Dancer Press, Inc.<br />
21
Grunig, J. E., & Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York: CBS College<br />
Publishing.<br />
Hallahan, K. (2008). Organizational-<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>hips in Cyberspace In T. L. Hansen-Horn<br />
and B. D. Neff (Ed.), <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>: From theory to practice (pp. 46-73) Boston, MA:<br />
Pearson.<br />
Hong, S. (2008). The effects <strong>of</strong> relational satisfaction, organizational reputation, and<br />
identification with company on customers' communication behaviors. (Doctoral<br />
dissertation). Received from author July 2009.<br />
Hood, J. (2007, June 18). Student population’s role key in shaping new-media landscape.<br />
PRWeek, 11.<br />
Jones, S., & Fox, S. (2009, January 28). Generations Online in 2009. Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n<br />
Life Project. Washington, D.C.: Pew Internet.<br />
Klaasen, A. (2009, January 29). The most social brands <strong>of</strong> 2008. Advertising Age. Retrieved<br />
from http://adage.com/digitalnext/article?article_id=134180<br />
Lenhart, A., Madden, M., Macgill, A., & Smith, A. (2007). Teens and social media. Pew Internet<br />
& <strong>America</strong>n Life Project. Washington, D.C.: Pew Internet.<br />
Li, C., & Bern<strong>of</strong>f, J. (2008). Groundswell. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.<br />
Li, S., Glass, R., & Records, H. (2008). The influence <strong>of</strong> gender on new technology adoption and<br />
use-mobile commerce. Journal <strong>of</strong> Internet Commerce, 7, 270-289. doi:<br />
10.1080/15332860802067748<br />
MarketingSherpa. (2009, April 6). Social media marketing and PR: Benchmarks and best<br />
practices. Retrieved from http://www.marketingsherpa.com<br />
Maul, K. (2009, October). Social media survey. PRWeek, 22.<br />
Mazzarella, S. R. (2006). Constructing Youth: Media, youth, and the politics <strong>of</strong> representation.<br />
In A. N. Valdivia (Ed.), A companion to media studies (pp. 227-247). Malden, MA:<br />
Blackwell Publishing.<br />
McConnell, B., & Hubba, J. (2007). Citizen marketers: When people are the message. Chicago,<br />
IL: Kaplan Publishing.<br />
McLaughlin, S. (2009, Spring). Facing the Facebook nation: Will social networking sites help or<br />
hinder good business communications? The Strategist, 17-19.<br />
Newsom, D., & Haynes, J. (2008). <strong>Public</strong> relations writing: Form & style (8 th ed.). Belmont,<br />
CA: Wadsworth.<br />
O’Neil, J. (2007). The link between strong public relationships and donor support. <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33, 99-102. doi: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.11.021<br />
Outlaw (2009). Top 15 Gen Y web sites. (Issue 7). Retrieved from<br />
http://www.outlawnewsletter.com/newsletters/website-issue<br />
Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project. (2008, May). Online activities [data file]. Retrieved from<br />
Pew Internet: http://www.pewinternet/trends.asp<br />
Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project. (2008, May). Who's online [data file]. Retrieved from<br />
Pew Internet: http://www.pewinternet.org/trends.asp<br />
Rainer Jr., R., Laosethakul, K., & Astone, M. (2003). Are gender perceptions <strong>of</strong> computing<br />
changing over time? Journal <strong>of</strong> Computer Information Systems, 43, 108.<br />
Ristino, R. J. (2007). Communicating with external publics: Managing public opinion and<br />
behavior. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> in Health Services, 24, 55-80. doi:<br />
10.1080/07359680802119025<br />
Scott, D. M. (2007). The new rules <strong>of</strong> marketing & pr. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.<br />
22
Shah, A. (2007, June 18). Social media factor in Hitachi hiring Ogilvy. PRWeek, 1.<br />
Spotts, T., Bowman, M., & Mertz, C. (1997). Gender and use <strong>of</strong> instructional technologies: A<br />
study <strong>of</strong> university faculty. Higher Education, 34, 421-436.<br />
Tapscott, D. (1996). The rise <strong>of</strong> the Net-Generation. Advertising Age, 67, 31-32.<br />
Technorati. (2009). State <strong>of</strong> the blogosphere. Retrieved from http://technorati.com/<br />
blogging/state-<strong>of</strong>-the-blogosphere/<br />
Vasquez, D. (2008, March 6). Media’s so very social for college kids. Media Life. Retrieved<br />
from www.medialifemagazine.com/.../Media_s_so_very_social_for_college_kids. asp<br />
Vorvoreanu, M. (2008). Website experience analysis: A new research protocol for studying<br />
relationship building on corporate websites. Journal <strong>of</strong> Website Promotion, 3, 222-249.<br />
doi: 10.1080/15533610802077313<br />
Williams, M. (2009, Summer/Fall). How can social media work for me? Columbus Marketplace,<br />
24-25.<br />
Windahl, S., Signitzer, B., & Olson, J. (2009). Using Communication Theory (2 nd ed). Thousand<br />
Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Wood, W., & Li, S. (2005). The empirical analysis <strong>of</strong> technology camel. Issues in Information<br />
Systems 6, 154-160.<br />
Yang, S. (2005). The effects <strong>of</strong> organization-public relationships on organizational reputation<br />
from the perspective <strong>of</strong> publics. (Doctoral dissertation). Received from author July 2009.<br />
23
Appendix A<br />
Table 1<br />
Response Frequency <strong>of</strong> Millennial Interaction with Social Media Tools<br />
Social Media Tool f % <strong>of</strong> Total<br />
E-mail 1063 97.2<br />
Social Networking Site (e.g., MySpace/Facebook) 1030 94.1<br />
Personal Digital Assistants (e.g., mobile phone) 865 79.1<br />
Video Sharing (e.g., YouTube) 755 69.0<br />
Blogs 231 21.1<br />
Micro Blog (e.g., Twitter) 169 15.4<br />
Podcasts 122 11.2<br />
None 5 0.5<br />
Note. Participants were asked to select all social media tools with which they interact. Several<br />
could have been selected by one participant. n=1094<br />
24
Appendix B<br />
Table 2<br />
Differences Between Millennial Interaction With and Without a Social Media Tool and Wanting<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hip With Brand/Company to Continue for a Long Time<br />
Brand Social Media Tools Used No Social Media Tool Used<br />
Social Media tool n M SD n M SD t<br />
Apple<br />
E-mail 416 2.30 1.28 660 3.18 1.48 -10.058***<br />
Video 231 2.41 1.38 846 2.96 1.48 -5.123***<br />
PDA 230 2.47 1.42 847 2.94 1.47 .477***<br />
Social Networking 282 2.35 1.29 795 3.02 1.50 -6.692***<br />
CNN<br />
E-mail 62 3.39 1.42 1015 4.01 1.46 -3.292**<br />
Video 129 3.60 1.54 948 4.03 1.44 -3.164*<br />
PDA 27 3.74 1.61 1050 3.98 1.46 .561<br />
Social Networking 48 3.33 1.59 1029 4.01 1.45 .033*<br />
Disney<br />
E-mail 77 1.18 2.30 1000 1.39 3.33 -6.346***<br />
Video 169 2.67 1.34 908 3.37 1.39 -6.052***<br />
PDA 20 2.55 1.76 1057 3.27 1.39 -2.285***<br />
Social Networking 82 2.46 1.29 995 3.32 1.39 -5.411*<br />
Xbox<br />
E-mail 150 2.47 1.37 927 3.76 1.33 -10.987***<br />
Video 121 2.44 1.28 956 3.73 1.36 -9.869***<br />
PDA 43 2.28 1.24 1034 3.64 1.39 -6.282***<br />
Social Networking 84 2.31 1.24 993 3.69 1.37 -8.905***<br />
Starbucks<br />
E-mail 87 2.84 1.45 990 3.59 1.44 -4.651***<br />
Video 19 3.11 1.63 1058 3.58 1.45 -1.276<br />
PDA 14 2.86 1.29 1063 3.53 1.45 .-1.738<br />
Social Networking 86 3.66 1.47 991 3.51 1.45 .915<br />
MTV<br />
E-mail 55 4.16 1.62 1022 3.97 1.49 .955<br />
Video 161 3.91 1.51 916 3.99 1.50 -.577<br />
PDA 30 4.03 1.77 1047 3.97 1.49 .213<br />
Social Networking 101 4.01 1.76 976 3.97 1.47 .240<br />
Sony<br />
E-mail 151 3.18 1.20 926 3.47 1.32 -2.533*<br />
Video 98 3.21 1.39 979 3.45 1.29 -1.698<br />
PDA 63 3.33 1.27 1014 3.43 1.31 -.589<br />
Social Networking 69 3.33 1.46 1008 3.43 1.29 -.618<br />
Dell<br />
E-mail 378 3.60 1.61 699 3.55 1.50 .496<br />
Video 156 3.63 1.57 921 3.55 1.54 .623<br />
PDA 80 3.55 1.58 977 3.56 1.54 -.082<br />
Social Networking 202 3.70 1.62 875 3.53 1.52 1.428<br />
Note. Lower numbers in mean category indicate wanting the relationship to continue more. ***p < .000 **p < .01 *p < .05<br />
25
Appendix C<br />
Table 3<br />
Factor Loadings for Millennial Interaction with E-mail, Video, PDA, and Social Networking for<br />
Wanting <strong>Relations</strong>hip With Company/Brand to Continue for a Long Time<br />
Brand<br />
Factor Loadings<br />
Social Media tool E-mail Video PDA Social Networking<br />
Apple<br />
E-mail .074 .612 .029*<br />
Video .074 .575 .140<br />
PDA .612 .575 .282<br />
Social Networking .029* .140 .282<br />
CNN<br />
E-mail .168 .656 .017*<br />
Video .168 .133 .140<br />
PDA .656 .133 .808<br />
Social Networking .017* .140 .808<br />
Disney<br />
E-mail .553 .501 .011*<br />
Video .553 .901 .222<br />
PDA .501 .901 .124<br />
Social Networking .011* .222 .124<br />
Xbox<br />
E-mail .054 .359 .132<br />
Video .054 .398 .720<br />
PDA .359 .398 .356<br />
Social Networking .132 .720 .356<br />
Starbucks<br />
E-mail .504 .766 .365<br />
Video .504 n/a .627<br />
PDA .766 n/a .880<br />
Social Networking .365 .627 .880<br />
MTV<br />
E-mail .109 .401 .334<br />
Video .109 .202 .919<br />
PDA .401 .202 .063<br />
Social Networking .334 .919 .063<br />
Sony<br />
E-mail .924 .368 .541<br />
Video .924 .207 .934<br />
PDA .368 .207 .738<br />
Social Networking .541 .934 .738<br />
Dell<br />
E-mail .245 .481 .365<br />
Video .245 .227 .644<br />
PDA .481 .227 .919<br />
Social Networking .365 .644 .919<br />
Note. n/a = SPSS not having enough participants to run test *p < .05<br />
26
Appendix D<br />
Table 4<br />
Differences Between Interaction With Brand/Company Through Social Media Tool(s) and<br />
Wanting <strong>Relations</strong>hip With Brand/Company to Continue for a Long Time<br />
Brand<br />
Social Media Tools Used No Social Media Tool Used<br />
M SD M SD t<br />
Apple 2.40 1.394 3.42 1.453 11.479**<br />
CNN 4.00 1.633 3.89 1.494 1.96<br />
Disney 2.46 1.389 3.46 1.377 10.483**<br />
Xbox 2.46 1.469 3.87 1.300 14.831**<br />
Starbucks 2.55 1.567 3.66 1.419 9.473**<br />
MTV 3.74 1.634 3.98 1.533 2.178*<br />
Sony 3.18 1.384 3.44 1.346 2.832**<br />
Dell 3.49 1.676 3.53 1.517 .449<br />
Note. n = 1091 **p < .01 *p < .05<br />
27
Appendix E<br />
Table 5<br />
Pearson Correlation Matrix for Millennials Favorable Perception and Active Social Media<br />
Behavior<br />
(r)<br />
Apple .032<br />
CNN .036<br />
Disney .009<br />
Xbox .063*<br />
Starbucks .019<br />
MTV .074*<br />
Sony .061*<br />
Dell .057*<br />
Note. n = 1094 *p ≥ .05 (one-tailed)<br />
28
Appendix F<br />
Table 6<br />
Pearson Correlation Matrix for Personal Interaction with Social Media Tools <strong>of</strong><br />
Company/Brand and Millennial Students’ Desire to Continue a <strong>Relations</strong>hip with Each<br />
Company/Brand<br />
Social Media Tools Interaction<br />
Brand r p<br />
Apple .524 ns<br />
CNN .125 ns<br />
Disney .077 ns<br />
Xbox .541 ns<br />
Starbucks .911 ns<br />
MTV .125 ns<br />
Sony .055 reached significance<br />
Dell .464 ns<br />
Note. n = 1091<br />
29
Appendix G<br />
Table 7<br />
Differences Between Engagement <strong>of</strong> Social Media Tools Among Male and Female Millennial<br />
Students<br />
Social Media Tool χ 2 p<br />
Blogs 1.002 ns<br />
E-mail 1.120 ns<br />
Micro Blog (e.g., Twitter) 1.431 ns<br />
Podcasts .000 ns<br />
Personal Digital Assistants (e.g., mobile phone) .838 ns<br />
Social Networking Site (e.g., MySapce/Facebook) .312 ns<br />
Video Sharing (e.g., YouTube) .483 ns<br />
Note. Female: n = 598, Male: n = 463<br />
30
Mentoring 2.0: How PR Educators Use Social Media to Create and Maintain <strong>Relations</strong>hips<br />
with Students<br />
Rowena Briones<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Maryland<br />
rbriones@umd.edu<br />
*Recipient <strong>of</strong> Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Student Award<br />
Abstract<br />
This qualitative study consists <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> in-depth interviews with public relations educators<br />
to explore their perceptions <strong>of</strong> mentoring and how they use social media channels to build<br />
relationships with students. Findings revealed that educators believed that social media help<br />
enhance their mentorships with students, allowing for deeper, more informal relationships that<br />
makes keeping in touch, charting progress, and sharing resources easier and more efficient.<br />
Practical suggestions for utilizing social media channels in mentoring relationships is discussed,<br />
along with theoretical propositions that can help move public relations scholarship towards<br />
theories in mentoring and new technology.<br />
As a vehicle for personal and pr<strong>of</strong>essional development, advice, and guidance, mentoring<br />
can be seen as crucial to the practice <strong>of</strong> public relations, helping affect career development and<br />
advancement opportunities for young practitioners. Many PR agencies are beginning to utilize<br />
mentorship programs, as Janice Rotchstein, chief knowledge <strong>of</strong>ficer at Edelman <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Worldwide argues, “Mentoring says, ‘we’re with you for your career’” (Applebaum, 2000). The<br />
value <strong>of</strong> these programs has begun to become realized among public relations agencies and<br />
multinational organizations as a way to promote individual growth and personalized attention.<br />
However, these mentoring relationships do not necessarily need to start in the workplace – they<br />
start in the PR classroom. As students go through their collegiate careers, many PR students<br />
develop mentoring relationships with their pr<strong>of</strong>essors in order to learn more about the public<br />
relations industry and to be provided with guidance and connections that can help them when<br />
they graduate.<br />
However, with the rise <strong>of</strong> new technologies and social media quickly changing the public<br />
relations landscape, so too has the concept <strong>of</strong> relationships between educators and students,<br />
leading to the development <strong>of</strong> electronic mentoring. Though there have been a number <strong>of</strong> studies<br />
on e-mentorships, the majority <strong>of</strong> extant research has focused on specific programs that have<br />
used an electronic component to link students and teachers with experts or databases (e.g.,<br />
Harris, O’Bryan, & Rotenberg, 1996; O’Neill, Wagner, & Gomez, 1996) and not on the actual<br />
mentoring relationships built in higher education through social media channels. In addition, few<br />
studies have been conducted on mentorship in public relations (e.g., Tam et al., 1995; Pompper<br />
& Adams 2006) but have mainly focused on gender differences between the mentor and the<br />
mentee. Thus, the purpose <strong>of</strong> this study is to determine how social media and e-mentoring plays<br />
a role in mentoring relationships between PR faculty and students.<br />
Literature Review<br />
Mentoring and <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Based on extant research, mentoring is crucial for the practice <strong>of</strong> public relations and<br />
could ultimately affect career development and advancement opportunities for practitioners.<br />
According to the Excellence Study, “mentoring plays a critical role in the advancement <strong>of</strong><br />
women and individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds,” as mentors help women and<br />
31
minorities break the glass ceiling into upper management positions (Dozier, L. Grunig, & J.<br />
Grunig, 1995, p. 150). Grunig, Toth and Hon (2001) found that mentoring also helps women rise<br />
on the organizational ladder, as it provides a confidence in their personal power and legitimacy<br />
within the public relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
However, little research has been done on mentoring relationships in the field <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations. A study by Tam et al. (1995) examined the gender difference in public relations by<br />
analyzing superior-subordinate gender pairings through role enactment, career advancement, and<br />
salary differences (p. 263). Their findings showed that same-sex relationships have a more<br />
intense and active mentorship; particularly female practitioners <strong>of</strong>fered the most support for<br />
female protégés. However, the findings also showed that since the majority <strong>of</strong> managers are men,<br />
women are less likely to <strong>of</strong>fer career advancement to protégés.<br />
Pompper and Adams (2006) extended Tam et al.’s study by exploring how mentoring<br />
reflects and perpetuates the social construction <strong>of</strong> gender in public relations mentorships. Their<br />
findings suggest the public relations mentors help protégés in five important ways:<br />
(1) Mentors supplement protégés’ college classroom training by <strong>of</strong>fering<br />
contextual skill-enhancement opportunities; (2) mentors validate and empower protégés<br />
as they grow into counselors charged to lead others and to fulfill public relations’<br />
management function; (3) mentors point out protégés’ image and behavior detractors that<br />
could stunt assimilation or status growth; (4) mentors open their networks to protégés;<br />
and (5) protégés experience substantial benefits from mentoring and later reciprocate by<br />
mentoring others (Pompper & Adams, 2006, p. 314).<br />
The authors also call for practitioners (both male and female) to <strong>of</strong>fer career and<br />
psychosocial support to all protégés, and to <strong>of</strong>fer more formal mentoring guidelines that will<br />
enhance the quality <strong>of</strong> the relationships. Somerick (2007) also <strong>of</strong>fers suggestions to practitioners<br />
considering mentorship. Some <strong>of</strong> her main points include (1) <strong>of</strong>fer participation to pr<strong>of</strong>essionals<br />
with both academic and pr<strong>of</strong>essional know-how; (2) match mentors to mentees with similar<br />
career aspirations; (3) the mentorship should supplement, not replace classroom learning; and (4)<br />
practitioners should insist on honest, legal and ethical interaction with their protégés. Somerick<br />
posited that “as in any real-world endeavor, a mentoring program that is well thought out should<br />
have more <strong>of</strong> an opportunity to be socially responsible and effective than one that is informal and<br />
unplanned” (p. 21).<br />
E-mentoring<br />
Though research on mentoring relationships has been conducted for over 40 years, there<br />
is little known about computer-mediated mentorship, otherwise known as electronic mentoring,<br />
telementoring, online mentoring, or e-mentoring. According to Single and Muller (2001), e-<br />
mentoring can be defined as:<br />
A relationship that is established between a more senior individual (mentor) and a lesser<br />
skilled or experienced individual (protégé), primarily using electronic communications,<br />
that is intended to develop and grow the skills, knowledge, confidence, and cultural<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the protégé to help him or her succeed, while also assisting in the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the mentor. (p. 108)<br />
There have been a few studies conducted on e-mentoring, but overall little research has<br />
been done to prove the value <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> mentoring relationship. As was previously<br />
mentioned, the majority <strong>of</strong> these studies simply describe programs where students or teachers are<br />
linked to some sort <strong>of</strong> expert or database via a computer-mediated channel (Bierema & Merriam,<br />
2002).<br />
32
Despite this, however, studies have found a number <strong>of</strong> benefits for both the mentor and<br />
the mentee in terms <strong>of</strong> e-mentoring. Because the power differential is not as easily visible in an<br />
online mentorship, mentees may not feel as intimidated or uncomfortable because they are able<br />
to interact with their mentor on the same level (Harasim et al., 1998; Pall<strong>of</strong>f & Pratt, 1999). Past<br />
research has shown that in these types <strong>of</strong> relationships, the status or position <strong>of</strong> the mentor and<br />
mentee is not as salient as would be in a face-to-face interaction (Ensher et al., 2002), allowing<br />
for the relationship to consist <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>essional and a student, a group <strong>of</strong> students, or even a<br />
student and a student. In addition, because the interaction is not necessarily immediate, both<br />
parties can have time to think <strong>of</strong> appropriate responses, allowing both the mentor and mentee to<br />
be more reflective in the relationship (Ravet & Latte, 1997). E-mentoring also allows for<br />
extended geographical and temporal boundaries, allowing for more flexibility by reaching those<br />
who have otherwise would not have been able to be mentored (Hamilton & Scandura, 2003;<br />
Shrestha et al., 2009).<br />
Though e-mentoring has many positive outcomes and effects, Bierema and Merriam<br />
(2002) pose some challenges to the e-mentoring relationship as well. The digital divide may<br />
cause some individuals to not have easy access to a computer, and even so, they might not<br />
possess the online literacy to conduct a fulfilling online relationship. In addition, mentors and<br />
mentees may find it difficult to gain trust and intimacy through the Internet, especially if the<br />
parties have never formally met in person. The nature <strong>of</strong> the online relationship can also cause<br />
individuals to flake out on the relationship and easily end their commitment to making progress.<br />
And lastly, miscommunication can occur much more easily in an online mentorship, as<br />
electronic communication can easily be misunderstood and misconstrued, as opposed to reading<br />
body language and tone in a face-to-face interaction.<br />
Lastly, though social media can be used to facilitate an e-mentoring relationship, to this<br />
date there have been no studies conducted to explore this particular phenomenon. Therefore, as<br />
previously mentioned, the facilitation <strong>of</strong> e-mentoring relationships through the use <strong>of</strong> social<br />
media channels will be the focus <strong>of</strong> this study.<br />
Research Questions<br />
Based on the literature on mentoring in public relations and e-mentoring, the following<br />
research questions were asked in this study:<br />
RQ1: How do PR educators use social media in their mentoring relationships?<br />
RQ2: Why do PR educators use social media to enhance their mentoring relationships?<br />
RQ3: What challenges do PR educators face in using social media for their mentoring<br />
relationships?<br />
Method<br />
This study consisted <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> in-depth interviews with PR educators across the<br />
United States. The qualitative method was the best approach for this study, as it allows me to<br />
explore mentoring relationships and social media from my participants’ various perspectives<br />
(Berg, 2009) and lets them guide the results. Additionally, a smaller sample size was used in<br />
order to fully delve into the participants’ experiences within a limited time frame.<br />
Data Collection Methods<br />
I used a purposive sample for this study, recruiting participants through contacts made on<br />
various social media channels, including Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn. I then used a<br />
snowball sampling method by asking participants to recommend others to interview. I conducted<br />
10 in-depth interviews, mostly over the phone but some over Skype, which lasted an average <strong>of</strong><br />
30 to 45 minutes. Every participant has given consent to be audio recorded. Five <strong>of</strong> the<br />
33
participants taught in universities on the East coast, two educators were from the Midwest, and<br />
the remaining two were from universities in the Western region <strong>of</strong> the US. The educators ranged<br />
in how long they have been mentoring students, from one year to 25 years. Number <strong>of</strong> mentees<br />
over the course <strong>of</strong> the educators’ lifetimes ranged from 10 protégés to over 1,000.<br />
An interview guide was crafted to help guide the discussion and to answer the research<br />
questions. Each interview began with a discussion about mentoring relationships in general, with<br />
a transition into how mentoring is unique in the field <strong>of</strong> public relations through the use <strong>of</strong> social<br />
media. Although these topics were the main foci <strong>of</strong> the interviews, there existed some flexibility<br />
in which I allowed participants to discuss any additional issues or topics that seemed relevant.<br />
Data Analysis<br />
Audio recordings <strong>of</strong> the interviews were transcribed to fully capture the speech style <strong>of</strong><br />
the participants. After completing the transcripts, I analyzed them using Pardun and Krugman’s<br />
(1994) procedure and the grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Open-coding<br />
procedures were first used to examine the transcripts line-by-line to locate emerging themes and<br />
potential categories. Axial coding was then used to find how the data identified in the first step<br />
fit into discrete categorical themes, along with whether it described any <strong>of</strong> the concepts found in<br />
the literature review. According to Lindl<strong>of</strong> and Taylor (2002), axial coding is a part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
integration process <strong>of</strong> the grounded theory approach that narrows down the number <strong>of</strong> categories<br />
by finding similarities across data in order to make the data clearer and more understandable.<br />
However, though single statements were combined to create various concepts, stand-alone<br />
statements that were unique or exceptional were also coded, in an effort to avoid too much<br />
coherency in the data (van Zoonen, 1994).<br />
Results<br />
RQ1: How Do PR Educators Use Social Media in their Mentoring <strong>Relations</strong>hips?<br />
Knowing the purpose. With a large variety <strong>of</strong> different social media channels, the<br />
educators believed that it was important to know the purpose <strong>of</strong> each medium in order to make<br />
their mentoring relationships more effective. As one pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US university<br />
stated:<br />
That’s what you have to remember about social media. It’s not about the technology, it’s<br />
about what it does. The pedagogy behind it. What are you using it for, what are you going<br />
to do, how will it enhance teaching and learning – that’s really the important thing. The<br />
venue itself? You can learn about what is in fashion, but you need to learn how to use it<br />
for what it’s worth.<br />
Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor mentioned the importance <strong>of</strong> “knowing which channel you’re going to use –<br />
who are your audiences you’re trying to reach, what is your message, and what are you<br />
ultimately trying to gain.”<br />
Maintaining a conversation. Educators also used social media in order to maintain a<br />
conversation with their students. As one pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US university put it: “More<br />
people are reaching through social media to continue the conversation. That’s what it is. They<br />
are able to asynchronously continue the conversation,” while another pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the<br />
Midwest US stated that “mentoring is more <strong>of</strong> a conversation” which can be enhanced through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> social media.<br />
Doing what’s comfortable. One pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Eastern region <strong>of</strong> the US discussed<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> choosing the best social media channel that is the most comfortable for both<br />
the mentor and the mentee:<br />
34
Sometimes using Facebook to IM is a good platform for a particular student. You can<br />
share an article, gain advice from it, and instantaneously give feedback. Real-life, realtime.<br />
Same thing with Twitter. They like it, they like to follow and have discussions. It<br />
depends on the audience and what’s comfortable for the mentor and mentee.<br />
Charting progress. A pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US university mentioned how using<br />
social media can be helpful in charting the progress and growth <strong>of</strong> a mentoring relationship:<br />
It allows you to go back and see the growth…charting your progress by seeing maybe a<br />
reflections blog, or a Ning discussion, or just a Facebook – saving the information and<br />
reflecting on it, I think it helps you reflect on your growth. Your practice essentially –<br />
where was I, where am I going, and how do I get there. I think it saves that so you can go<br />
back and review, some <strong>of</strong> the commentary that went back and forth without it going out<br />
into space. It allows you to remember and recall instances <strong>of</strong> discussion that you<br />
wouldn’t have remembered otherwise. Creates a transcript <strong>of</strong> your mentorship and your<br />
discussions.<br />
Checking in. Some educators liked social media because it allowed them to check-in<br />
with mentees that they have not spoken to in a while. As one pr<strong>of</strong>essor from a Western US<br />
university described: “I might see a tweet from a former student that I haven’t talked to in a<br />
while or I wonder if they found a job and need help so I will send them a direct message.<br />
Sometimes I’ll send a message to ask them how they are doing. Just periodic check-ins.”<br />
Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Western region <strong>of</strong> the US felt that social media has “helped a lot with<br />
keeping up, it really has. A quick message on Twitter, or watching people’s updates on LinkedIn,<br />
stuff like that has really helped a lot with being able to keep with people. It’s no longer a year<br />
after your out and we lose touch, I’m in touch with students who graduated five years ago.”<br />
Supplementing face-to-face interactions. Many <strong>of</strong> the educators felt that a mentoring<br />
relationship should not exist solely on social media, as it is “there to augment the relationship,<br />
it’s not there to replace it,” as one pr<strong>of</strong>essor stated. One pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US university<br />
decided that she “would not want my mentoring relationships to exist solely on social media. I<br />
desire that face-to-face interaction with my students. Though you could still connect through<br />
social media, you still need that face-to-face time to see how things are going.” Another<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Western US agreed, stating that “Social media is good at keeping those ties<br />
and connections current, but when it’s really something that someone needs advice about, we<br />
need to meet and see each other face-to-face and do something – you can’t answer and really be<br />
helpful when it comes to serious questions on Twitter.”<br />
RQ2: Why Do PR Educators Use Social Media to Enhance Their Mentoring <strong>Relations</strong>hips?<br />
Instantaneous communication. As one pr<strong>of</strong>essor mentioned, social media is helpful for<br />
mentoring relationships because you can “instantaneously give feedback. Real-life, real-time.”<br />
Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US university agreed, stating that “Social media helps<br />
establish that sense <strong>of</strong> sharedness, that connection that it’s genuine. And because <strong>of</strong> that presence<br />
that social media affords, that two-way connection. It’s not just a stale e-mail, or they have to<br />
call my <strong>of</strong>fice phone, or have to check my <strong>of</strong>fice hours, it’s kind <strong>of</strong> instantaneous, it’s<br />
shared…that’s been helpful.” She also mentioned that through social media she gains an “entry<br />
point into the community.”<br />
Connecting more informally. One pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Western region <strong>of</strong> the US<br />
described how social media allows for a more casual, informal relationship with students,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fering a chance for them to be open with each other:<br />
35
It gives me a window into their world. It’s a much less formal kind <strong>of</strong> relationship with<br />
social media. I get to listen in, and if I hear or see something, or if somebody asks me a<br />
specific question I can answer. It’s much more passive and more personal. I’m pretty<br />
much an open book – on Twitter and on Facebook. And so students are that way with me.<br />
And I sort <strong>of</strong> role modeled that – to use social media in that way – and so they’re<br />
comfortable with being open appropriately so – being able to share their life and who<br />
they are. And that gives me a window into their world and being there without having to<br />
set up a c<strong>of</strong>fee date or meet on a regular basis. It can be a quick thing.<br />
Offering resources. Educators felt positively about using social media in their<br />
mentorships because it also allowed them to share resources easily with students. As one<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Midwest US mentioned:<br />
I’m finding it to be really helpful because a part <strong>of</strong> mentoring is to help students find jobs<br />
and on Twitter there are all these accounts for PR jobs. It’s definitely useful for<br />
mentoring because these are great resources that I can easily direct them to. That’s one <strong>of</strong><br />
the greatest things about social media, and online media – I can read up on it and study it<br />
and share that with my students.<br />
Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Eastern region <strong>of</strong> the US enjoyed using Twitter in particular<br />
because it allows her to “learn some new strategies or events in my community that I can share<br />
with my network <strong>of</strong> people.”<br />
Allowing students to choose their own mentors. One pr<strong>of</strong>essor brought up the very<br />
salient point that social media allows students to dive into the field and choose their own mentors<br />
if they so desire:<br />
There are so much more mentoring opportunities because <strong>of</strong> social media and there is a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> mentoring opportunities. Because from the academic standpoint, students are<br />
not just limited to their teachers. They can cultivate relationships and choose mentors by<br />
really developing relationships with them through social media. It’s changed mentoring –<br />
in the sense that if you follow certain blogs and you comment on those blogs, you can<br />
choose mentors and build relationships with them. By commenting on their blogs,<br />
retweeting tweets, you can build and nurture relationships with leaders in public relations.<br />
And that ability to broadly choose mentors is greatly influenced by social media. You<br />
don’t need to be at a cocktail hour to meet someone. It’s really opened doors and that’s<br />
exciting.<br />
Showing the value <strong>of</strong> social media. Lastly, educators use social media in the hopes that<br />
it can show students its intrinsic value. One pr<strong>of</strong>essor felt her efforts have been successful, as she<br />
stated that “implementing Twitter in the classroom, that’s when I felt the shared mentoring<br />
developed. When they’re seeking out assistance, or career advice or just somebody to listen to.”<br />
Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor in the Midwest US felt that she is still working on this issue, but making<br />
progress:<br />
I’m hoping that in following my lists they see the value <strong>of</strong> Twitter and to me that is<br />
something as a mentor I can do because I can’t force my students to open an account. But<br />
if I can at least encourage them to check out what’s available and see how others are<br />
using it then I’m hoping that will help them when they get their first job that they can<br />
speak intelligently about Twitter.<br />
RQ3: What Challenges Do PR Educators Face in Using Social Media for Their Mentoring<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hips?<br />
36
Investing time. As with any relationship, one <strong>of</strong> the biggest challenges facing educators<br />
is the amount <strong>of</strong> time needed to invest into a mentorship. As one pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US<br />
university described:<br />
It really takes a lot <strong>of</strong> time to be able to work with someone and you have to commit to<br />
working with that person, and it’s hard when you have several mentees that you are<br />
working with. The constraints <strong>of</strong> a job, what you have to get done. You can’t lose<br />
yourself in the mentorship, to a point where you would regret giving so much into the<br />
relationship.<br />
Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor felt the same way, stating that “there’s definitely different layers or<br />
mentoring, but the ones that I see as a two-way process who we’re both engaged, you want more<br />
time to be able to develop that, but there’s just not enough <strong>of</strong> it.” One pr<strong>of</strong>essor in particular felt<br />
that there was only one downside to mentoring: “I get 100-200 e-mails a day from students and<br />
former students, and there is just not enough hours in the day. So it’s really all about balance.”<br />
However, almost all <strong>of</strong> the educators interviewed felt that despite taking up a lot <strong>of</strong> time, it is<br />
definitely worth it.<br />
Resistance. Another challenge facing educators is having resistance from mentees who<br />
are opposed to conducting the mentoring relationship over social media channels. As one<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Midwest US described: “I was surprised at the resistance students were<br />
having to creating a Twitter account.” Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor discussed the digital divide, stating that<br />
having differences in comfort regarding technology can “inhibit the relationship.” She went on<br />
stating that “for those who embrace it, it can be exciting, but for those who are afraid <strong>of</strong> it, it can<br />
become overwhelming, and would not allow them to accept the mentorship.”<br />
Blending the personal with the pr<strong>of</strong>essional. Finally, educators discussed the challenge<br />
<strong>of</strong> posting personal information on the Internet through social media for both mentors and<br />
mentees. As one pr<strong>of</strong>essor from an Eastern US university described: “Some students (and<br />
faculty) that are using Twitter can over share. Sometimes the filter hasn’t developed. It can<br />
hinder their networking if they over share or share inappropriately and haven’t learned the social<br />
media etiquette.” Another pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Western region <strong>of</strong> the US stated that “I’m really<br />
careful with my content. Nothing is private really – I don’t treat any social media as private and<br />
it’s not because I mentor, but that is one <strong>of</strong> the components. Which is why I won’t share private<br />
information on my social networks.” And lastly, one pr<strong>of</strong>essor from the Midwest US said that<br />
“privacy is an issue. Not only for myself but for my students. You have to think about what<br />
you’re putting out there that people can see.”<br />
Discussion and Conclusion<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> the interviews conducted with PR educators, the findings <strong>of</strong> this study <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
both practical implications to public relations educators as well as propose new theoretical areas<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> public relations education and e-mentoring.<br />
Practical Applications<br />
As social media channels are increasingly becoming another venue in which educators<br />
can communicate with their students, it is growing evident that measures should be taken to<br />
increase online literacy and train educators on how to use various tools such as Twitter,<br />
Facebook, LinkedIn, and YouTube. Though most <strong>of</strong> the educators interviewed were either very<br />
active on social media channels or are starting to becoming more engaged, the educators also<br />
discussed some <strong>of</strong> the resistance that has occurred from other educators, administrators, and even<br />
students. With social networking sites growing even larger by the minute (Facebook currently<br />
has an excess <strong>of</strong> 350 million active users on a global basis [Hird, <strong>2010</strong>]), universities should<br />
37
consider <strong>of</strong>fering training seminars or workshops in which educators can learn the basics <strong>of</strong> these<br />
networking tools. These training events, over time, can then develop into open forums where<br />
educators can share tips and advice with each other on how they manage their online<br />
relationships with students and alumni.<br />
Furthermore, an opportunity that social media <strong>of</strong>fers are the vast amount <strong>of</strong> resources that<br />
is basically available at the pr<strong>of</strong>essor’s fingertips. Educators can easily access and share articles,<br />
video clips, reports, and blog posts with their students that are both timely and relevant to the<br />
current state <strong>of</strong> the public relations field. In addition, one <strong>of</strong> the educators mentioned having<br />
students choose their own mentors through social media channels. <strong>Public</strong> relations pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />
should strongly encourage their students to communicate with leading public relations<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and social media experts, opening more doors to students in terms <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
development and exposure to the online arena. However, not only should students engage in<br />
these online relationships, but educators should as well, taking advantage <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
channels to communicate with public relations leaders to maintain a pulse on the industry and to<br />
keep PR issues fresh for students.<br />
Finally, one <strong>of</strong> the biggest challenges educators face in maintaining their mentoring<br />
relationships is having enough time to do so. Though social media channels help in this regard<br />
by being succinct, concise, and to the point (and in some instances, only 140 characters, as with<br />
Twitter), educators find it difficult to keep up with the numerous social media networks currently<br />
available, all the while juggling teaching, research, and personal responsibilities. One suggestion<br />
that was <strong>of</strong>fered by the educators is to focus only on the channels that are comfortable for the<br />
mentor and mentee, and in doing so, learn to utilize the one channel to the best <strong>of</strong> their ability.<br />
Moreover, another practical suggestion to help with time management is to meet with groups <strong>of</strong><br />
students over the online space. Educators can create a Facebook event to discuss progress with<br />
current mentees, or host a university-sponsored Tweetup to reunite with alumni.<br />
Theoretical Implications<br />
This study contributes to the scholarship <strong>of</strong> public relations by exploring mentoring<br />
relationships in two aspects never previously studied: (a) in an educator-student context, as past<br />
studies have focused on the public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essional in a mentor-mentee relationship; and (b)<br />
in an online context, as past studies have focused on face-to-face interaction in the workplace.<br />
As compared to Pompper and Adam’s (2006) study on mentoring and public relations,<br />
this study supports many <strong>of</strong> the claims made about mentorships between a senior public relations<br />
executive and a junior employee, including having compatible interests as the mentee, feeling a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> validation and empowerment as a result <strong>of</strong> the mentoring, and opening networking<br />
opportunities for the protégé (p. 312). However, this particular study adds to the potential<br />
outcomes <strong>of</strong> the mentor-mentee relationship by <strong>of</strong>fering the educators’ perspective. Additional<br />
benefits <strong>of</strong> a mentoring relationship for an educator as compared to a PR pr<strong>of</strong>essional include<br />
moving past the student-teacher roles, helping deserving students, <strong>of</strong>fering advice about the job<br />
market and the work place, and being able to keep track <strong>of</strong> a student’s needs on a consistent and<br />
ongoing basis.<br />
Additionally, this study is one <strong>of</strong> the first in exploring public relations mentorship<br />
through social media and the online space. Ensher, Heun, and Blanchard’s (2002) review <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mentorship literature in the context <strong>of</strong> computer-mediated communication (CMC) <strong>of</strong>fered a<br />
series <strong>of</strong> research propositions to further research in this particular context. Several <strong>of</strong> these<br />
suggestions would equally apply to the public relations educator-student mentorship. First <strong>of</strong> all,<br />
Ensher et al. (2002) proposed that online mentoring programs help increase self-confidence in<br />
38
pursuing chosen fields. For public relations in particular, conducting a mentorship via social<br />
media not only helps students feel more confident about applying for certain jobs, but it also<br />
increases their skill set with new technology, an growing qualification in the public relations<br />
field. Secondly, another research proposition was that online mentoring helps increase a<br />
protégé’s network <strong>of</strong> contacts – a finding that could not be more evident with the relationship<br />
building aspect <strong>of</strong> both social media and public relations. And finally, Ensher et al. (2002) state<br />
that online mentorships make it easier to maintain records <strong>of</strong> the relationship, a finding that was<br />
supported by this particular study in that social media can help chart a student’s progress.<br />
Several additional research propositions could be added to develop a theoretical<br />
framework for online public relations mentorships. These propositions include (a) online<br />
mentoring relationships allow students to gain industry experience from leading public relations<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in an easy and efficient manner; (b) online mentoring relationships allow educators<br />
to disseminate resources to students quickly and more easily; (c) online mentoring relationships<br />
blur the lines between what is personal and what is pr<strong>of</strong>essional; and (d) online mentoring<br />
relationships allows educators to have deeper, more informal relationships with their students.<br />
Future research could test these propositions to explore whether they hold true in e-mentoring<br />
relationships between educators and students.<br />
Limitations and Future Research<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> limitations that should be considered in the undertaking <strong>of</strong> this<br />
study. First <strong>of</strong> all, because only 10 in-depth interviews were conducted, these findings would not<br />
be generalizable to the entire population <strong>of</strong> public relations educators; however, they do <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
incredible insight into how these particular individuals perceive their mentoring relationships<br />
with their students. Secondly, because participants were recruited primarily via social media<br />
channels, the educators interviewed were fairly involved with social media, resulting in a<br />
response bias towards e-mentoring. Future research could interview other public relations<br />
educators who are not as adept on social media to gain their perspectives <strong>of</strong> these channels and<br />
their reasons for not using it.<br />
As a next step, I will be conducting interviews with public relations students to gain<br />
insight into the mentee’s point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> mentorships, a perspective not readily as studied, as<br />
well as to get a sense <strong>of</strong> their social media usage in developing relationships with their mentors.<br />
As this age group is more involved with new technology and computer mediated communication,<br />
it will be interesting to learn their perspective on how they feel social media channels should be<br />
used in building relationships. With the increasing rise <strong>of</strong> social media usage, both in the<br />
classroom and in the workplace, more research needs to be conducted to explore this<br />
phenomenon, and more attention should be given to the quickly evolving online space, which is<br />
rapidly changing not only the field <strong>of</strong> public relations – but also changing lives.<br />
References<br />
Applebaum, L. (2000). Mentoring: A strategy to recruit and retain top PR pr<strong>of</strong>essionals.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Strategies, 6(3).<br />
Berg, B. L. (2009). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (7 th ed.). Boston:<br />
Allyn & Bacon.<br />
Bierema, L. L., & Merriam, S. B. (2002). E-mentoring: Using computer mediated<br />
communication to enhance the mentoring process. Innovative Higher Education, 26(3),<br />
211-227.<br />
Dozier, D., Grunig, L., & Grunig, J. (1995). Manager’s guide to excellence in public<br />
relations and communication management. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
39
Eby, L. T., McManus, S. E., Simon, S. A., & Russell, J. E. A. (2000). The protégé’s<br />
perspective regarding negative mentoring experiences: The development <strong>of</strong> a taxonomy.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Vocational Behavior, 57(1), 1-21.<br />
Ensher, E. A., Heun, C., & Blanchard, A. (2003). Online mentoring and computermediated<br />
communication: New directions in research. Journal <strong>of</strong> Vocational<br />
Behavior, 63(2), 264-288.<br />
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery <strong>of</strong> grounded theory: Strategies for<br />
qualitative research. New York: de Gruyter.<br />
Grunig, L .A. , Toth, E. L. , & Hon, L. C. (2001). Women in public relations: How<br />
gender influences practice. New York: NY: The Guilford Press.<br />
Hamilton, B. A., & Scandura, T. A. (2002). E-mentoring: Implications for organizational<br />
learning and development in a wired world. Organizational Dynamics, 31(4), 388-402.<br />
Harasim, L., Starr, R. H., TEles, L., & Tur<strong>of</strong>f, M. (1998). Learning networks. Cambridge,<br />
MA: MIT Press.<br />
Harris, J., with O’Bryan, E., & Rotenberg, L. (1996). Practical lessons in telementoring.<br />
Learning and Leading with Technology, 24(2), 53-57.<br />
Hird, J. (<strong>2010</strong>, January 29). 20+ mind-blowing social media statistics. Retrieved March<br />
25, <strong>2010</strong> from http://econsultancy.com/blog/5324-20+-mind-blowing-social-mediastatistics-revisited<br />
Kasprisin, C. A., Single, P. B., Single, R. M., & Muller, C. (2003). Building a better<br />
bridge: Testing e-training to improve e-mentoring programmes in higher education.<br />
Mentoring & Tutoring, 11(1), 67-78.<br />
Lindl<strong>of</strong>, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualitative communication research methods (2 nd<br />
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
O’Neill, D. K., Wagner, R., & Gomez, L. M. (1996). Online mentors: Experimenting in<br />
science class. Educational Leadership, 54(3), 39-42.<br />
Pall<strong>of</strong>f, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace. San<br />
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.<br />
Pardun, C. J., & Krugman, D. M. (1994). How the architectural style <strong>of</strong> the home relates<br />
to family television viewing. Journal <strong>of</strong> Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 38,<br />
145-162.<br />
Pompper, D., & Adams, J. (2006). Under the microscope: Gender and mentor-protégé<br />
relationships. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 32, 309-315.<br />
Ravet, S., & Layte, M. (1997). Technology-based training. Houston, TX: Gulf<br />
Publishing.<br />
Shrestha, C. H., May, S., Edirisingha, P., Burke, L., & Linsey, T. (2009). From face-t<strong>of</strong>ace<br />
to e-mentoring: Does the “e” add any value for mentors? International Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Teaching and Leaning in Higher Education, 20(2), 116-124.<br />
Single, P. B., & Single, R. M. (2005). E-mentoring for social equity: A review <strong>of</strong><br />
research to inform program development. Mentoring and Tutoring, 13(2), 301-320.<br />
Single, P. B., & Muller, C. B. (2001). When email and mentoring unite: The<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> a nationwide electronic mentoring program. In L. Stromei (Ed.),<br />
Implementing successful coaching and mentoring programs (pp. 107-122). Cambridge,<br />
MA: <strong>America</strong>n <strong>Society</strong> for Training & Development.<br />
Somerick, N. M. (2007). Strategies for avoiding mentoring myths in the public relations<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Quarterly, 52(2), 20-21.<br />
40
Tam, S. Y., Dozier, D. M., Lauzen, M. M., & Real, M. R. (1995). The impact <strong>of</strong> superiorsubordinate<br />
gender on the career advancement <strong>of</strong> public relations practitioners. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 7(4), 259-272.<br />
van Zoonen, L. (1994). Feminist media studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
41
Toward the Greening <strong>of</strong> Nuclear Energy: A Content Analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nuclear Energy Frames from 1991 to 2008<br />
Sonya R. Miller DiPalma<br />
The Pennsylvania State University<br />
srm287@psu.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
Framing theory has emerged as one <strong>of</strong> the predominant theories employed in mass<br />
communications research in the 21 st century. While framing effects studies appear plentiful,<br />
longitudinal studies assessing trends in dominant framing packages and story elements for an<br />
issue appear to be less understood. Through content analysis, this study examined dominant<br />
frame packages and story elements for nuclear energy from 1991-2008 in the New York Times,<br />
USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post. Findings revealed a commonality<br />
among newspapers in the types <strong>of</strong> dominant frames packages employed. Significant dominant<br />
frame packages include human/health, proliferation, procedural, and marketplace. While the<br />
procedural frame package was more likely to appear prior to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the<br />
proliferation frame packaged was more likely to appear after the Kyoto Protol. Over time, the<br />
sustainable frame package demonstrated increased significance. This study is part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
growing literature regarding the function <strong>of</strong> frames over time.<br />
Introduction<br />
Planetary stewardship invites us to envision our collective human footprint on the earth –<br />
globally, nationally, and locally. Environmental sustainability, the United States’ increasing<br />
dependence on foreign oil, and the effects <strong>of</strong> global warming have aroused renewed interest in<br />
nuclear energy as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels (Nuclear Power, 2007). Alternative<br />
energy sources are defined as emissions-free energy sources that do not emit sulfur dioxide,<br />
nitrogen oxide, and mercury (Nuclear Energy Institute, 2008). As policies are enacted to lower<br />
greenhouse gas emissions associated with global warming, media coverage on nuclear energy<br />
can be expected to increase since nuclear energy represents 73 percent <strong>of</strong> all U.S. emissions-free<br />
generation (Nuclear Energy Institute, 2008). With future generation energy demands projected to<br />
increase from 40 to 45 percent by 2030, nuclear energy is the single most effective strategy for<br />
meeting those demands while decreasing greenhouse gas emissions (Nuclear Energy, 2007).<br />
<strong>Public</strong> discussions on nuclear energy in the United States decreased in the 1990s as funding<br />
disappeared. However, restored interest in nuclear energy in the United States became evident<br />
with passage <strong>of</strong> the Energy Policy Act <strong>of</strong> 2005, the first energy policy to collectively recognize<br />
nuclear energy’s contribution to electricity generation, the nation’s energy security, and zero<br />
contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2008, 46.59 percent <strong>of</strong> the public was more likely to<br />
vote for a political candidate who supported building more nuclear power plants while 40.9<br />
percent were not (Gallup, 2009).<br />
Historically, the public has been divided on whether the benefits <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy<br />
exceed possible risks. Some people have cited insurmountable health risks from a terroristsinduced<br />
nuclear meltdown, or long-term nuclear waste disposal. Others have cited the costeffectiveness<br />
and zero greenhouse gas emissions, particularly as demand for electricity<br />
generation increases and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions also increases. Such a<br />
dichotomy presents competing framing packages for nuclear energy that are either anti-nuclear<br />
or pro-nuclear.<br />
42
While favor towards nuclear energy may be increasing in the United States, support for<br />
nuclear plants within individual communities remains significantly lower than in other countries.<br />
For instance, a 2007 Gallup poll found 62.59 percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>ns do not want a nuclear energy<br />
plant constructed within 20 miles <strong>of</strong> their home. However, a 2007 UPI international poll found<br />
63.1 percent would support the construction <strong>of</strong> a nuclear plant in their community (Lando, 2007).<br />
Using Gallup public opinion polls as a baseline, favorable opinion regarding the<br />
proximity <strong>of</strong> nuclear plants to a residence has only increased 7.29 percent since 1986. <strong>Public</strong><br />
trust for nuclear energy as a viable solution to the United States’ energy demands has been<br />
affected by both TMI and Chernobyl (Wahlstrom, 2005). Unlike the Chernobyl disaster in the<br />
Ukraine, many in the United States do not realize that throughout the TMI crisis no lives were<br />
lost, no physical injuries occurred, and radiation exposure was about one millirem, or 1/6 <strong>of</strong> the<br />
radiation a person receives from a full set <strong>of</strong> chest x-rays (Walker, 2000). TMI media coverage<br />
focused more on what could have happened, or the worst case scenario, instead <strong>of</strong> on the facts <strong>of</strong><br />
the crisis (Walker, 2000). Because <strong>of</strong> the way the media highlighted – or framed – nuclear<br />
energy throughout the TMI incident, many sensational and incorrect attributes were transferred<br />
from the media agenda to the public agenda. Some <strong>of</strong> the negative attributes transferred include<br />
nuclear energy’s harm to the environment, human safety, vulnerability to terrorists’ attack, waste<br />
problems, expensive construction, and stagnant technology (Herbst & Hopley, 2007).<br />
The last and perhaps the only longitudinal study on nuclear energy and public opinion<br />
appeared in 1994. Rosa and Dunlap’s (1994) Nuclear Power: Three Decades <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> Opinion,<br />
an analysis <strong>of</strong> polling trends from 1975-1990, demonstrated declining public support for nuclear<br />
power with increasing opposition. The most recent Gallup opinion poll found 59 percent in<br />
favor <strong>of</strong> using nuclear energy as one <strong>of</strong> the ways to provide electricity in the United States, a 3.1<br />
percent increase from 2006 (Gallup, 2009). In the last decade, pro-nuclear energy editorials have<br />
appeared in the Baltimore Sun, the Chicago Sun-Times, the Boston Globe, the New York Times,<br />
the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post (NEI, 2005).<br />
This study is significant given that the last analyses <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy frames occurred<br />
with Gamson and Modigliani’s (1989) study, which focused on the culture <strong>of</strong> nuclear power<br />
across mediums – television, news magazines, editorial cartoons, and syndicated opinion<br />
columns.<br />
Literature Review<br />
Agenda Setting<br />
McCombs and Shaw (1972) defined agenda setting as the transfer <strong>of</strong> salience from the<br />
media agenda to the public agenda. Salience is the relevance given to an issue through repeated<br />
media coverage, thereby influencing the perceived importance <strong>of</strong> the issue by the public as the<br />
information is readily accessible (Dearing & Rogers, 1996; Funkhouser, 1973; Iyengar &<br />
Kinder, 1987; McLeod, Kosicki, & McLeod, 2002; Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002).<br />
<strong>Public</strong> information <strong>of</strong>ficers and public relations practitioners <strong>of</strong>ten fill the role <strong>of</strong> first<br />
source for media accounts and therefore help to shape the media’s agenda setting process.<br />
Intermediate agenda setting occurs when media outlets influence one another. National news<br />
agencies, particularly the wire services, influence one another to the point <strong>of</strong> standardizing how<br />
an issue is reported (Roberts, 1997).<br />
Individual interest and regular exposure to media coverage facilitate the agenda setting<br />
process (Schoenbach, 1982). The stronger the individual preference for the issue, the more the<br />
message reinforces individual intent in regard to the issue. On the other hand, the weaker or more<br />
uncertain the individual is about the issue, the stronger the effect <strong>of</strong> the media’s role.<br />
43
Framing<br />
Frames are defined as interpretive packages for content that supplies a context and<br />
suggests the importance <strong>of</strong> an issue through selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration<br />
(Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). Gamson and Lasch (1983) defined framing as “the central<br />
organizing idea for understanding events related to the issue in question” (p. 398). Frames<br />
organize information in order to perpetuate understanding through the use <strong>of</strong> narratives and may<br />
be identified through the headline, lead, quotes, and paragraph within the body <strong>of</strong> a news story<br />
(Entman, 2007; Gamson, & Modigliani, 1989). Through framing, the media influence how<br />
individuals think about an issue by highlighting certain issue aspects over other aspects<br />
(Ghanem, 1997; Kim et al., 2002; McCombs, 2004; McCombs & Ghanem, 2003; Scheufele,<br />
2004).<br />
The type <strong>of</strong> frame used in conjunction with the issue is a main factor in generating<br />
framing effect outcomes. Major frame types include equivalency framing, emphasis framing,<br />
advocacy framing, and responsibility framing. Equivalency framing effects focus on either gains<br />
or losses with equal outcomes (Kahnemann & Tversky, 1984). Loss frames produce greater<br />
effects when individual issue involvement is high, and gain frames can be more effective when<br />
individual issue involvement is low. However, counter-effects result when the level <strong>of</strong> source<br />
credibility is too high. Messages with low efficacy cause the individual to process the message<br />
more so than messages with high efficacy since the higher the efficacy the less the individual<br />
questions the information within the message. Individuals are greatly influenced by perceptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> risk, even when the outcomes <strong>of</strong> either risk aversion or risk-seeking frames are identical.<br />
Frames that provide certainty and mitigate risk are favored over risk-seeking frames. In the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> certainty, individuals favor frames with positive outcomes over negative outcomes as<br />
exhibited in Tversky and Kahneman’s (1981, 1987) studies in which groups chose the riskaversion<br />
scenario over the risk-seeking one, even though the potential outcomes were equivalent.<br />
Emphasis framing effects alter individual consideration by directing focus to specific<br />
issue attributes, such as framing low-income housing as assistance to the economically<br />
disadvantaged instead <strong>of</strong> higher taxes (Druckman 2001b). Stories favoring individual values cue<br />
conservative preferences; conversely, egalitarian frames cue liberal preferences (Kellstedt,<br />
2000). Emphasis framing effects lack consistency because individuals may agree with the<br />
principle, but later oppose policies to implement the principle, as experienced with equal<br />
employment opportunity (Fine, 1992). Direct framing effects are moderated through the<br />
perceived level <strong>of</strong> credibility attributed to the media source, such as the Wall Street Journal or<br />
People Magazine (Druckman, 2001b). Indirectly, individuals seek credible sources to guide<br />
their opinions.<br />
Other frame types include substantive and procedural frames, and conflict-reinforcing<br />
and conflict-displacing frames (Entman, 1993, 2004, 2007; Dardis et al., 2008). Substantive<br />
frames define effects or conditions, identify causes, convey a moral judgment, and endorse<br />
remedies or improvements (Entman, 2004). Procedural frames, also referred to as the horseracing<br />
frame, focus on evaluation <strong>of</strong> political actors (Entman, 2004). In later research, Entman<br />
(2007) distinguished three types <strong>of</strong> bias within frames: distortion bias – falsifying reality; content<br />
bias – lack <strong>of</strong> equal treatment to both sides <strong>of</strong> the argument; and decision-making bias –<br />
motivations <strong>of</strong> the media.<br />
Conflict-reinforcing frames bolster the status quo by presenting the same opposing<br />
considerations that have occurred over time (Dardis et al., 2008). In fact, conflict-reinforcing<br />
frames may be also thought <strong>of</strong> as the common frame amplified over time. Conflict-displacing<br />
44
frames present new considerations without the intent <strong>of</strong> challenging the common frame (Dardis<br />
et al., 2008).<br />
Successful frames are described as having salience, resonance, and persistence. Salience<br />
refers to the frequency <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the frame, resonance corresponds to the number <strong>of</strong> individual<br />
arguments represented, and persistence is the endurance or amplification <strong>of</strong> the frame throughout<br />
media outlets (Entman, 1993; Baumgartner, De Boef, Boydstun, 2008).<br />
Frames define the problem and suggest a remedy. Individuals then construct their own<br />
counter-frames even when elites impose their influence over media outlets. Effects are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
confounded by frame parity, which occurs when a counter-frame with a complete alternative<br />
narrative receives equal play in the media (Entman, 2004). Framing effects are dependent upon<br />
the reach <strong>of</strong> the medium delivering the frame (Fan et al., 2002).<br />
Journalists incorporate frames into accounts for efficiency <strong>of</strong> comprehension (Luther &<br />
Miller, 2005). Eventually dominant frames push weaker frames aside, indirectly promoting<br />
content bias (Entman, 2007). Frame strength is a result <strong>of</strong> how frequently a frame is used within<br />
the media and the level <strong>of</strong> source credibility (Cappella & Jamieson, 1997; Chong, 1996; Chong,<br />
2000; Domke, Shah, & Wackman, 1998; Druckman, 2001A; Edy & Meirick, 2007; Iyengar,<br />
1991). Amplified frames, frames that survive the test <strong>of</strong> time, become part <strong>of</strong> the public<br />
vernacular once shared by political elites and journalists (Shah, Watts, Domke, & Fan, 2002).<br />
Using four major U.S. newspapers, the New York Times, USA Today, the Wall Street<br />
Journal, and the Washington Post, this study seek to find:<br />
RQ1: How does the framing <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy differ in the news coverage <strong>of</strong> nuclear<br />
energy from 1991 to 2008 in use <strong>of</strong> story elements and dominant frame packages?<br />
RQ2: What is the dominant frame package over time?<br />
Methods<br />
Content Analysis<br />
Quantitative content analysis provides a formal system for examination <strong>of</strong> content<br />
through the use <strong>of</strong> systematic, replicable, and reductionistic procedures (Riffe, Lacy & Fico,<br />
2005). Content analysis not only allows for inferences to be made about relationships between<br />
important variables within this study, but also for the identification <strong>of</strong> primary dimensions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nuclear energy debate.<br />
Sampling<br />
USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times were selected for this study<br />
based upon their daily circulation.<br />
Using the search engine ProQuest, a search for news articles containing content on either<br />
nuclear energy or nuclear power was conducted separately for each newspaper beginning with<br />
1991 through 2008. The search resulted in a total <strong>of</strong> 4095 news articles with news articles<br />
peaking in 1991, and then again in 2006. When examining the trend <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy news<br />
articles among the four newspapers, the New York Times leads with the most news articles with<br />
the exception <strong>of</strong> 1996, 1997 and 2005 (Figure 1).<br />
45
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
WS J<br />
60<br />
NY T<br />
40<br />
WP<br />
US A<br />
20<br />
0<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008<br />
Figure 1: The Population <strong>of</strong> Nuclear Energy Articles by Newspaper Per Year<br />
The better a sample represents the population <strong>of</strong> units studied, the higher the validity <strong>of</strong><br />
the study (Long, Slater, Bolarsky, Stapel & Keefe, 2005). This study randomly analyzed 599<br />
news articles exceeding the recommended random sample size <strong>of</strong> 351 from a finite population <strong>of</strong><br />
4095 (Isaac & Michael, 1997). The news article, including the headline, served as the unit <strong>of</strong><br />
analysis.<br />
Three undergraduate students from a northeastern university were trained to code the<br />
sample <strong>of</strong> 599 news articles for story elements, story elements defined and dominant frame<br />
package. Story elements included: Chernobyl, The China Syndrome, the movie, global warming,<br />
the Marshall Plan, nuclear weapons, the Price Anderson Act, the Tennessee Valley Authority<br />
(TVA), Three Mile Island (TMI),Yucca mountain, The Energy Policy Act <strong>of</strong> 2005, Nuclear<br />
Waste Policy Act. Story elements defined included: Energy or less dependent upon oil and/or<br />
natural gas, perceived health risks, catastrophic incident, plant financing, licensing process,<br />
safety/security, negative economic consequence, positive economic consequence, global<br />
comparison between the United States use <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy with other countries, inspection or<br />
investigation <strong>of</strong> a nuclear plant, nuclear waste, parts, and delaying nuclear plant expansion within<br />
the United States.<br />
Dominant framing packages were defined as follows:<br />
Technology –Research or technology such as improved safety, efficiency,<br />
improved design, and/or international comparison<br />
Human/Health – Negative consequences to life or health from a meltdown due to<br />
human error, terrorist attack, technical malfunction, leaks, exposure to radiation,<br />
waste disposal or reluctance to have a nuclear plant in the area.<br />
Sustainable – Lowering carbon emissions, alternative energy sources, carbon<br />
footprint, cleaner air, the environment, pollution control, or pollution reduction.<br />
46
Procedural –Licensing and application process for nuclear energy plants,<br />
construction time, anticipated start date for a plant, or delay (moratorium) in<br />
operating a plant.<br />
Necessity – Nuclear energy as a necessity for energy independence, energy<br />
sustainability or meeting energy demands.<br />
Marketplace –Nuclear energy as a cost effective, viable investment, and/or f<br />
inancial struggles <strong>of</strong> the industry or a nuclear plant.<br />
Choice – Nuclear energy as a negotiation between the positive and negative<br />
attributes <strong>of</strong> this energy source.<br />
Proliferation – The expansion <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy technology leading to an<br />
increase/enhancement in nuclear weapons, and/or enrichment <strong>of</strong> plutonium for<br />
nuclear weapons<br />
Intercoder Reliability<br />
This study utilized proportional reduction <strong>of</strong> loss (PRL) to assess intercoder reliability for<br />
the common sample <strong>of</strong> 99 randomly chosen articles. (Cooil & Rust, 1995). Proportional<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> loss calculates for chance agreement within multiple choice categories by “assuming<br />
that the ratio <strong>of</strong> chance agreements to the total number <strong>of</strong> judgments will be proportionate to the<br />
ratio <strong>of</strong> possible ways in which they could agree to the possible number <strong>of</strong> combinations”<br />
(Taylor and Watkinson, p. 60, 2007). The critical value average for story elements was .99;<br />
defined story elements .90, and dominant frame packages .80.<br />
Results<br />
Cross tabulations were run between the appropriate categorical variables. The strength <strong>of</strong><br />
the relationship between the categorical variables was statistically analyzed using Pearson’s Chisquare<br />
and Cramer’s V. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to assess changes<br />
among category variables over time. To identify changes within the categories over time, three<br />
databases were created using year as a variable. For one database the years <strong>of</strong> the study years<br />
were organized as two variables, Before the Kyoto Protocol (1991-1997) and After the Kyoto<br />
Protocol (1998-2008); for the next database trends among categories were compared between the<br />
separate years <strong>of</strong> 1991 and 2008; and for the final database, year was organized as one variable<br />
with the proportion <strong>of</strong> a particular category identified for each year as the second variable.<br />
Research Question 1<br />
Story elements. Before the Kyoto Protocol, two story elements, global warming (r(599)<br />
= .146, p < .001; x 2 (2) = 12.76, p < .001) and nuclear weapons (r(599) = .128, p = .002; x 2 (2) =<br />
9.75, p = .002) were more prevalent than after the Kyoto Protocol. A positive correlation was<br />
found between year and global warming (r(18) = .638, p = .004).<br />
Story elements defined. After the Kyoto Protocol, negative economic impact (r(599) = .165, p <<br />
.001; x 2 (2) = 16.25, p < .001) and parts (r(599) = .097, p = .018; x 2 (2) = 5.58, p = .018) were<br />
more prevalent in news articles than before the Kyoto Protocol. None <strong>of</strong> the defined story<br />
elements was more prevalent in the years before the Kyoto Protocol. For 2008 references to<br />
safety and security were more prevalent than in 1991 (r(87) = .243, p = .023; x 2 (2) = 5.15, p =<br />
.023). Correlating the variable <strong>of</strong> year, 1991-2008, with each defined story element revealed a<br />
47
positive correlation between year and energy (r(18) = .527, p = .025). A negative correlation was<br />
revealed for negative economic impact, r(18) = -.499, p = .035, and parts, r(18) = -.618, p = .006<br />
(Figure 6).<br />
Dominant frame package. The procedural frame package was more likely than expected<br />
to be present before the Kyoto Protocol, and the sustainable or proliferation frame package was<br />
more likely than expected to be present after the Kyoto Protocol. In 1991 the procedural frame<br />
package was more likely than expected to be the dominant frame package, and in 2008<br />
sustainable and proliferation frames were more likely than expected to be the dominant frame<br />
package.<br />
Pearson correlations between year and the proportion <strong>of</strong> news stories with each particular<br />
dominant frame package revealed significant changes over time in the proportion <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
frames. Sustainable frames increased over time (r(18) = .59, p = .01) as did proliferation frames<br />
(r(18) = .46, p = .055). Procedural frames decreased over time (r(18) = -.728, p = .001). No<br />
significant relationships were found for any other dominant frame packages. Headlines from<br />
stories with the sustainable dominant frame package include: “U.S. News: Carbon Caps May<br />
Give Nuclear Power a Lift,” “Working to Reactivate Indian Point 2,” and “In S.C., Rethinking an<br />
Atomic Waste Welcome Mat: Task Force Plan Worries a Town.”<br />
Comparing frame packages with the four newspapers revealed four significant frame<br />
packages: human/health, r(561) = .154, p = .004; x 2 (2) = 13.299, p = .004; procedural, r(561) =<br />
.119, p = .046; x 2 (2) = 7.988, p = .046; marketplace, r(561) = .330, p < .001; x 2 (2) = 61.211, p <<br />
.001; and proliferation, r(561) = .249, p < .001; x 2 (2) = 34.686, p < .001.<br />
Figure 2: Comparison <strong>of</strong> Significant Dominant Frame Packages from 1991-2008<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> stories identified as exhibiting attributes from one <strong>of</strong> the four significant<br />
dominant frame packages provide additional insight. For instance, a story from USA Today<br />
coded as a human/health frame package had the following quote “. . .(anti-radiation pill)<br />
distribution could undermine public confidence in the safety <strong>of</strong> the nation’s nuclear plants.”<br />
Stories coded as procedural and marketplace frame packages included the New York Times’<br />
48
“Shoreham Board Begins a Hunt for Alternatives” and the Wall Street Journal’s “GE Sees $100<br />
Billion in 1998 Revenue Due to Quality Control, Asia investment.” Lastly, a Wall Street Journal<br />
story coded as a proliferation frame package relates to more recent political activity – “Leading<br />
the news: Bush spells out reasons Iraq is still a threat . . .has yet proven it has given up its quest<br />
for nuclear power”.<br />
Discussion<br />
The thrust <strong>of</strong> this study focuses on whether or not the newspapers in question employ<br />
some dominant frame packages over other dominant frame packages when reporting on nuclear<br />
energy. Although differing in frequency <strong>of</strong> utilization, the newspapers represented in this study<br />
possess a commonality in the types <strong>of</strong> dominant frames packages employed. Significant<br />
dominant frame packages among the four newspapers include human/health, proliferation,<br />
procedural, and marketplace. While the procedural frame package was more likely to appear<br />
prior to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the proliferation frame packaged was more likely to appear<br />
after the Kyoto Protol. Over time, the sustainable frame package demonstrated increased<br />
significance.<br />
Stories identified as having either the human/health or proliferation frame packages were<br />
more likely to have an anti-nuclear tone. Stories identified as having either the sustainable or<br />
marketplace frame packages were more likely than expected to be pro-nuclear in tone.<br />
This study found only 6.8% <strong>of</strong> the news articles referenced alternative energy sources<br />
when reporting on nuclear energy. A significant relationship was not found in reporting nuclear<br />
energy in conjunction with alternative energy sources, which most <strong>of</strong>ten are referred to as<br />
“green” energy sources. However, significance was demonstrated for the sustainable frame<br />
package overtime as well as the story element global energy.<br />
While the use <strong>of</strong> framing as a news reporting tool is acknowledged, the amplification <strong>of</strong><br />
frames and subsequent creation <strong>of</strong> dominant frames packages within the news over time is<br />
perhaps less understood. This study empirically demonstrates the amplification <strong>of</strong> frames and<br />
subsequent creation <strong>of</strong> dominant frame packages over time. The findings show that newspapers<br />
employ the same types <strong>of</strong> frames packages, but to varying degrees. This illustrates the<br />
pervasiveness <strong>of</strong> framing packages within the news and strengthens the argument for framing<br />
effects. Furthermore, framing packages for an issue appear to co-exists, creating a rank order <strong>of</strong><br />
important frames, instead <strong>of</strong> only one dominant framing package. The significant dominant<br />
frame packages revealed in this study reflect objective analysis <strong>of</strong> news reporting techniques.<br />
Theoretical implications<br />
Successful frames are defined by salience, resonance, and persistence. The dominant<br />
frame packages revealed within this study – proliferation, health, procedural, and marketplace –<br />
may be deemed successful because <strong>of</strong> the salience, and endurance or amplification <strong>of</strong> these<br />
frames over 18 years within four media outlets. The theoretical underpinnings <strong>of</strong> framing are<br />
reinforced through the identification <strong>of</strong> dominant frame packages which occurred independently<br />
yet simultaneously among the four newspapers. The majority <strong>of</strong> news articles originated with<br />
the respective reporter’s newspaper. Had the majority <strong>of</strong> news articles been identified as<br />
Associated Press wire stories, then presumably it could be argued that the wire service had<br />
standardized reporting for nuclear energy. However, given that the four newspapers in this study<br />
employ the same dominant frame packages does substantiate the function <strong>of</strong> intermediate agenda<br />
setting, where media outlets influence one another (Roberts, 1997).<br />
The results indicate that any framing effects stemming from the four dominant frame<br />
packages may be confounded by frame parity (Entman, 2004). As the sustainable frame package<br />
49
(lower carbon emissions and concern for the environment) increased, so did the proliferation<br />
frame package (nuclear energy technology leading to nuclear weapons). The increase in the<br />
proliferation frame package appears as a counter-frame or alternative narrative to the sustainable<br />
frame package (Entman, 2004).<br />
As Fan (2002) posited, framing effects are dependent upon the reach <strong>of</strong> the medium<br />
delivering the frame. With a combined circulation <strong>of</strong> more than 5.9 million, the New York Times,<br />
USA Today, the Wall Street Journal and the Washington Post are at a minimum directing public<br />
attention to proliferation, health, procedural and marketplace aspects <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy over<br />
other issue aspects and thereby increasing the perceived importance <strong>of</strong> these issue aspects.<br />
In this respect, the dominant frame packages may be thought <strong>of</strong> as emphasis frames;<br />
directing attention to specific issue attributes (Fine, 1992; Druckman, 2001b). However,<br />
emphasis frames do not equate to direct framing effects. As demonstrated through numerous<br />
Gallup polls, individuals may agree with the benefits <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy, but later oppose efforts<br />
to construct a nuclear energy plant within their community.<br />
With amplification <strong>of</strong> the proliferation, health, procedural, and marketplace frames, other<br />
issue aspects that may be arguably more positive and depict current trends within the nuclear<br />
industry are not explored. In this respect, these dominant frame packages function as conflictreinforcing<br />
frames (Dardis et al., 2008). Technology, sustainability, necessity, and nuclear<br />
energy as an energy choice receive dramatically less attention within news articles. The<br />
sustainable frame package exhibits the most potential for serving as a conflict-displacing frame<br />
because this frame package increased over time and was positive in story tone.<br />
Practical implications<br />
The findings <strong>of</strong> this study parallel nuclear energy trends. The procedural frame package,<br />
which focuses on the licensing, application and construction process for nuclear energy plants,<br />
decreased over time as the construction <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy plants declined. The use <strong>of</strong> defined<br />
story elements such as negative economic consequence and parts also declined; perhaps because<br />
the decline in construction lessened the focus on the need for plant financing, and therefore the<br />
demand for parts. Interestingly, references to two widely known nuclear energy incidents,<br />
Chernobyl and TMI, were not found to be prevalent. This should be interpreted as good news for<br />
the nuclear energy industry as well as to quell speculation that the media unduly focus on these<br />
incidents. Internationally, the Kyoto Protocol seems to have brought the environmental benefits<br />
<strong>of</strong> nuclear energy in vogue.<br />
The proliferation dominant frame package lends credence to the argument that media do<br />
not distinguish the nuclear energy process from nuclear proliferation or uranium enrichment for<br />
nuclear weapons. Therefore the fear factor associated with anything nuclear may possibly be<br />
perpetuated by this dominant frame package.<br />
Keeping in mind that advocacy within any industry should be conducted in an ethical<br />
manner and through open communication, the findings <strong>of</strong> this study suggest the nuclear energy<br />
industry should consider a strategic public relations campaign incorporating the sustainable<br />
energy attributes <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy. The increase in the use <strong>of</strong> the sustainable dominant frame<br />
package demonstrates that stories focusing on nuclear energy in regards to lower carbon<br />
emissions, alternative energy source, carbon footprint, and the environment are generating<br />
greater interest among reporters. Furthermore, a positive correlation between year and the story<br />
element energy, defined as the United States becoming less dependent upon oil and/or natural<br />
gas and future energy needs, suggests increasing attention to the role <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy for<br />
meeting future electric generation needs.<br />
50
While the story element “positive economic consequences” <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy was not<br />
significant over time, the story element “negative economic consequences” declined over time.<br />
Therefore, it is advisable for the nuclear energy industry to focus on the positive economic<br />
consequences in conjunction with nuclear energy as a sustainable energy. Upgrading and<br />
expanding the United States nuclear energy infrastructure has been delayed by the current<br />
recession, specifically by limitations in the credit and equity markets. Present economic<br />
conditions may indicate an opportunity for advocating the positive economic consequences <strong>of</strong><br />
nuclear energy, namely increased employment and additional tax revenue.<br />
Weaver (1977) noted that the media have a stronger influence upon individuals who lack<br />
information on an issue or on those who remain uncertain about an issue. Undoubtedly, Gallup<br />
polls demonstrate both a lack <strong>of</strong> public information on nuclear energy safety and uncertainty<br />
about the safety <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy facilities within close proximity <strong>of</strong> an individual’s residence.<br />
The significant dominant frame packages identified within this study appear to coincide with<br />
public opinion. The sustainable frame package supports expansion <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy, but is less<br />
prevalent than either the human/health or proliferation frame packages, which align with the<br />
expressed reluctance to having a nuclear facility within close proximity.<br />
The influence these dominant frame packages have on public opinion, and subsequently<br />
public policy regarding nuclear energy, cannot be determined from this study. Based upon the<br />
research <strong>of</strong> Dearings and Rogers (1996) and Takeshita (2006), we realize the existence <strong>of</strong><br />
symbiotic interrelationships between policymakers and the media. Therefore, given the<br />
prevalence <strong>of</strong> the dominant frame packages among the four newspapers, it might be prudent to<br />
acknowledge that these frames have become to some extent embedded within the public policy<br />
discourse for nuclear energy.<br />
Finally, the credibility <strong>of</strong> the news reporting within the four newspapers cited within this<br />
study should not be overlooked. Kahnemann and Tversky (1984) posited that messages with high<br />
efficacy are less likely to be questioned. Nelson (1997) and Druckman (2001c) demonstrated that<br />
source credibility influences framing effects directly and indirectly. Given these findings, we<br />
can reasonably wonder how many readers dare to question the efficacy <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy<br />
reporting within the highest circulating newspapers in the United States – the New York Times,<br />
USA Today, and the Wall Street Journal – as well as the newspaper <strong>of</strong> our nation’s capital, the<br />
Washington Post.<br />
Limitations. When conducting framing studies the recommended size <strong>of</strong> the sample <strong>of</strong><br />
news articles can be challenging. Lacking any empirically proven method for sampling news<br />
articles for a framing study, this study erred on the side <strong>of</strong> caution by over-sampling. While a<br />
larger sample size may enhance the credibility <strong>of</strong> a framing study, it also increases the common<br />
sample required for assessment <strong>of</strong> intercoder reliability and increase coder fatigue.<br />
Directions for Future Research. To extend framing research within the area <strong>of</strong> nuclear<br />
energy, future studies may assess the degree <strong>of</strong> individual knowledge on nuclear energy and how<br />
the level <strong>of</strong> individual knowledge translates into the interpretation <strong>of</strong> nuclear energy frames.<br />
Lastly, a framing effects study incorporating the use <strong>of</strong> equivalency frames for global warming<br />
and the sustainable frame packages would provide identify how individuals attribute gains and<br />
losses to these variables.<br />
51
References<br />
Baumgartner, F., De Boef, S., & Boydstun, A. (2008). The decline <strong>of</strong> the death penalty and the<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> innocence. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.<br />
Bostdorff, D. M., & Vibbert, S. L. (1994). Values advocacy: Enhancing organizational images,<br />
deflecting public criticism, and grounding future arguments. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review,<br />
20(2), 141-158.<br />
Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral <strong>of</strong> cynicism: The press and the public good.<br />
New York: Oxford Press.<br />
Chong, D. (1996). Creating common frames <strong>of</strong> reference on political issues. In D. C. Mutz, P. M.<br />
Sniderman, & R. A. Brody (Eds.), Political persuasion and attitude change (pp. 195-<br />
224). Ann Arbor: University <strong>of</strong> Michigan Press.<br />
Chong, D. (2000). Rational lives: Norms and values in politics and society. Chicago: University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Cooil, B. & Rust, R. (1995), General estimators for the reliability <strong>of</strong> qualitative data.<br />
Psychometrika 60(2), 199-220.<br />
Dardis, F. E., Baumgartner, F. R., Boydstun, A. E., De Boef, S., & Shen, F. (2008). Media<br />
Framing <strong>of</strong> Capital Punishment and Its Impact on Individuals’ Cognitive Responses.<br />
Mass Communication and <strong>Society</strong>, 11(2).<br />
Dearing, J. W., & Rogers, E. (1996). Communication concepts 6: Agenda setting. Thousand<br />
Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Druckman, J. N. (2001a). Evaluating framing effects. Journal <strong>of</strong> Economic Psychology, 22(1),<br />
91-101.<br />
Druckman, J. N. (2001b). The implications <strong>of</strong> framing effects for citizen competence. Political<br />
Behavior, 23(3), 225-256.<br />
Druckman, J. N. (2001c). On the limits <strong>of</strong> framing effects: Who can frame. The Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Politics, 63(4), 1041-1066.<br />
Edy, J. A., & Meirick, P. C. (2007). Wanted, dead or alive: Media frames, frame adoption, and<br />
support for the war in Afghanistan. Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication, 57(1), 119-141.<br />
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification <strong>of</strong> a fractured paradigm. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Communication, 43(4), 51-58.<br />
Entman, R. M. (2004). Projections <strong>of</strong> power: Framing news, public opinion, and U.S. foreign<br />
policy. Chicago: The University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Entman, R. M. (2007). Framing bias: Media in the distribution <strong>of</strong> power. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Communication, 57(1), 163-173.<br />
Fine, T. (1992). The impact <strong>of</strong> issue framing on public opinion toward affirmative action<br />
programs. Social Science Journal, 29, 323-334.<br />
Funkhouser, G. R. (1973). The issues <strong>of</strong> the sixties: An exploratory study in the dynamics <strong>of</strong><br />
public opinion. <strong>Public</strong> Opinion Quarterly, 37(1), 62-75.<br />
Gallup. (2009). Gallup Brain Database. October 18, 2009. University Park: PA: The<br />
Pennsylvania State University.<br />
Ghanem, S. (1997). Filling in the tapestry: The second level <strong>of</strong> agenda setting. In M. McCombs,<br />
D. L. Shaw, & D. Weaver (Eds.), Communication in democracy: Exploring the<br />
intellectual frontiers <strong>of</strong> agenda-setting theory (pp. 3-14). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum.<br />
52
Gamson, W. & Lasch, K. (1983). The political culture <strong>of</strong> social welfare policy. In S. E. Sprio and<br />
E. Yuchtman-Yaar (Eds.), Evaluating the welfare state: Social and political perspectives<br />
(pp. 397-415). New York: Academic.<br />
Gamson, W., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A<br />
constructionist approach. <strong>America</strong>n Journal <strong>of</strong> Sociology, 95(1), 1-37.<br />
Herbst, A. M., & Hopley, G. W. (2007). Nuclear energy now. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.<br />
Isaac, M. & Michael, W. (1997). Handbook in research and evaluation, 2 nd edition, San Diego:<br />
Educational and Industrial Testing Services<br />
Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago: The<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Jasperson, A. E., Shah, D. V., Watts, M., Faber, R. J., & Fan, D. P. (1998). Framing and the<br />
public agenda: Media effects on the importance <strong>of</strong> the federal budget deficit. Political<br />
Communication, 15(2), 205-224.<br />
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. <strong>America</strong>n<br />
Psychologist, 39(April), 341-350.<br />
Kellstedt, P. M. (2000). Media framing and the dynamics <strong>of</strong> racial policy preferences. <strong>America</strong>n<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Political Science, 44(2), 245-260.<br />
Kim, S., Scheufele, D. A., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Think about it this way: Attribute agendasetting<br />
function <strong>of</strong> the press and the public’s evaluation <strong>of</strong> local issues. Journalism &<br />
Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(1), 7-25.<br />
Lando, B. (2007). Analysis: <strong>America</strong>n favor nuclear energy. United Press International.<br />
Retrieved April 22, 2008, from http://www.upi.com<br />
Lasorsa, D. L. (1997). Media agenda setting and press performance: A social system approach<br />
for building theory. In D. Shaw. M. McCombs, & D. Weaver (Eds.), Communication and<br />
democracy: Exploring the intellectual frontiers in agenda-setting theory (pp. 155-167).<br />
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Long, M., Slater, M., Bolarsky, G., Stapel, L. & Keefe, T. (2005). Obtaining nationally<br />
representative samples <strong>of</strong> local news media outlets. Mass Communication & <strong>Society</strong>,<br />
8(4), 299-322.<br />
McCombs, M. (1997). Building consensus: The news media’s agenda-setting roles. Political<br />
Communication, 14(4), 433-443.<br />
McCombs, M. (2004). Setting the agenda. Malden, MA: Blackwell.<br />
McLeod, D. M., Kosicki, G. M., & McLeod, J. M. (2002). Resurveying the boundaries <strong>of</strong><br />
political communication effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects:<br />
Advances in theory and research (pp. 215-267). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Nelson, B. (1984). Making an issue <strong>of</strong> child abuse. Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Nuclear Energy Institute (2007). Environment: Emission prevented. Washington, D.C.: Author.<br />
Nuclear energy: Powering <strong>America</strong>’s future [Brochure]. (2007). Washington, D. C.: Author.<br />
Nuclear power’s new age. (2007, September 8-14). The Economist, 384(8545), 13.<br />
Petty, R. E., Priester, J. R., & Brinol, P. (2002). Mass media attitude change: Implications <strong>of</strong> the<br />
elaboration likelihood model <strong>of</strong> persuasion. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media<br />
effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 155-198). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum.<br />
Reese, S. (2003) Prologue. In S. Reese, O. Gandy, & A. Grant (Eds.), Framing public life (7-31).<br />
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
53
Riffe, D., Lacy, S., & Fico, F. (2005) Analyzing media messages. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum.<br />
Roberts, M. (1997). Political advertising's influence on news, the public and their behavior. In<br />
M. McCombs, D. L. Shaw, & D. Weaver (Eds.), Communication and democracy:<br />
Exploring the intellectual frontiers in agenda-setting theory (pp. 85-96). Mahwah, NJ:<br />
Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Rosa, E., & Dunlap, R. (1994). Nuclear power: Three decades <strong>of</strong> public opinion. <strong>Public</strong> Opinion<br />
Quarterly, 58(2), 295-324.<br />
Scheufele, D. A. (2004). Framing-effects approach: A theoretical and methodological critique.<br />
Communications, 29(4), 401-428.<br />
Schoenbach, K. (1982). The issues <strong>of</strong> the seventies: Electronic content analysis and the orange<br />
observation <strong>of</strong> agenda-setting effects <strong>of</strong> the mass media. Publizistik, 27(1) 129-140.<br />
Shah, D. V., Watts, M. D., Domke, D., & Fan, D. P. (2002). News framing and cueing <strong>of</strong> issue<br />
regimes: Explaining Clinton’s public approval in spite <strong>of</strong> scandal. <strong>Public</strong> Opinion<br />
Quarterly, 66(37), 339-370.<br />
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing <strong>of</strong> decisions and the psychology <strong>of</strong> choice.<br />
Science 211(4481), 453-458.<br />
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1987). Rational choice and the framing <strong>of</strong> decisions. In Robin M.<br />
Hogarth and Melvin W. Reder (Eds.), Rational choice: The contrast between economics<br />
and psychology (pp. 67-94). Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Taylor, J. & Watkinson, D. (2007). Indexing reliability for condition survey data. The<br />
Conservator, 40, 49-62.<br />
Top media outlets 2009: Newspapers, blogs, consumer magazines & social networks. (2009).<br />
Retrieved April 11, 2009, from Burrelles Luce Web site:<br />
http://www.burrellesluce.com/top100/?cid=tpm_PR_A172XK3W<br />
Wahkstrom, B. (2005). Challenges in the nuclear industry: Perspectives from senior managers<br />
and safety experts. In B. Wilpert. N. Itoigawa & B. Fahlbruch (Eds.), Emerging demands<br />
for the safety <strong>of</strong> nuclear power operations (pp. 17-30). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.<br />
Walker, J. S. (2000). Permissible dose. Los Angeles: University <strong>of</strong> California Press.<br />
Weaver, D. (1977). Political issues and voter need for orientation. In D. Shaw & M. McCombs<br />
(Eds.), The emergence <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>n political issues: The agenda-setting function <strong>of</strong> the<br />
press (pp. 107-120). St. Paul, MN: West.<br />
54
Reputation Matters:<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> Organizational Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions<br />
Alan R. Freitag<br />
University <strong>of</strong> North Carolina at Charlotte<br />
arfreita@email.uncc.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
The researcher placed two questions in an omnibus telephone survey <strong>of</strong> 850 respondents in a<br />
major U.S. metropolitan area. The questions sought respondents’ expression <strong>of</strong> intention to<br />
purchase goods and services or invest in the stock <strong>of</strong> a company based upon that company’s<br />
reputation for socially responsible behavior. Reponses were analyzed based on demographic<br />
categories including income level, education level, age, ethnic identity and gender. Results<br />
indicate that consumers and investors do clearly factor organizational reputation into their<br />
purchase and investment decisions, with no consequential variations across demographic strata.<br />
The data suggest linkages between corporate reputation and pr<strong>of</strong>itability, bolstering the<br />
economic value <strong>of</strong> public relations counsel in matters <strong>of</strong> corporate policy vis-à-vis responsible<br />
business practices.<br />
Introducing the topic <strong>of</strong> corporate social responsibility to a pr<strong>of</strong>essional or academic<br />
conversation is certain to generate lively, even animated discussion and debate among<br />
interlocutors and certainly among scholars, business leaders and activists. Questions these<br />
discussions might center on include: whether CSR is an appropriate role for pr<strong>of</strong>it-focused<br />
businesses at all; if it is, whether justification for CSR efforts stems from economic or altruistic<br />
motivations; what sorts <strong>of</strong> activities constitute CSR; whether a company’s promotion <strong>of</strong> its CSR<br />
activities constitutes “greenwashing;” and who within the organization should exercise authority<br />
over and administer CSR efforts. There are certainly additional central questions, and several<br />
recent books have tried to address these broad issues in depth (Werther & Chandler, 2006; Kotler<br />
& Lee, 2005). In addition, a growing literature is rapidly emerging, and this paper adds to that<br />
literature with a small project aimed at benchmarking one aspect <strong>of</strong> the CSR issue: whether<br />
consumers and investors are consciously making purchase and investment decisions based at<br />
least in part on a company’s reputation for responsible behavior.<br />
This paper is submitted in a public relations context; consequently, readers may argue<br />
that public relations scholars should not be making a business case for CSR, but should rather<br />
stress the ethical imperative <strong>of</strong> responsible community engagement on the part <strong>of</strong> corporations as<br />
a reasonable exchange for implicit permission from the community to function pr<strong>of</strong>itably. That’s<br />
a fair point, and, in fact, this author has argued that it is disturbing to find that the preponderance<br />
<strong>of</strong> CSR literature is found in business-oriented texts and journals and that the public relations<br />
community <strong>of</strong> scholars has a conspicuously limited pr<strong>of</strong>ile in this arena (reference withheld to<br />
protect anonymity during review). Realistically, however, we in public relations should<br />
recognize the value in triangulating the argument – addressing both the rational/business and the<br />
moral/ideological aspects favoring CSR-driven practices. The bridging premise <strong>of</strong> this project is<br />
that corporations should consider the business/rational merits <strong>of</strong> CSR because consumers and<br />
investors are including moral/ideological factors in their purchase and investment calculations.<br />
That the question <strong>of</strong> the appropriateness and wisdom <strong>of</strong> CSR activities needs to be<br />
increasingly and continually addressed is made clear by current events and circumstances. On<br />
one hand, we have a string <strong>of</strong> episodes <strong>of</strong> corporate corruption and exploitation, especially over<br />
55
the past decade. Despite the preponderance <strong>of</strong> companies conducting business ethically and<br />
responsibly, these episodes contribute to growing public distrust. On the other hand, the current<br />
economic conditions create a conundrum: businesses struggling to survive may not see<br />
themselves as capable, in these circumstances, to contribute financially or even in kind to the<br />
community welfare, though many in those communities stand in greater need than ever.<br />
The current economic situation notwithstanding, the challenge remains <strong>of</strong> defining the<br />
proper relationship between an organization, particularly a pr<strong>of</strong>it-making organization, and the<br />
society within which it operates. To varying degrees depending on the role <strong>of</strong> the free market,<br />
businesses play an essential role in societal functions: creating jobs; generating revenue; etc.; and<br />
those businesses depend upon society, largely through government structures, for services and<br />
infrastructure such as a skilled and educated workforce, transportation conduits, utilities, and so<br />
forth. Yet the struggle to strike and maintain the right balance, including between self-regulation<br />
and imposed regulation, is an ongoing one.<br />
Questions pertaining to CSR are daunting and expanding. No single study or even a<br />
stream <strong>of</strong> studies can hope to exhaust or settle the issues. This paper describes the result <strong>of</strong> a<br />
focused project aimed at revealing, within one geographic sector, the extent to which CSR<br />
matters in a measurable way, and suggests this rational measure is a reasonable gauge <strong>of</strong> moral<br />
impact.<br />
Literature Review<br />
We could begin this section with a lengthy discussion <strong>of</strong> how CSR should be defined, but<br />
the space would be better used to frame this project more narrowly. This author agrees with<br />
Werther and Chandler’s (2006) observation: “Businesses operate against an ever changing<br />
background <strong>of</strong> what is considered socially responsible. CSR is not a stagnant concept. It<br />
continues to evolve as cultural expectations change, both here (in the U.S.) and abroad” (p.12).<br />
Consequently, it is wise to describe CSR in more general, elastic terms than to define it<br />
succinctly so as to prevent the concept from responding to changing circumstances, expectations<br />
and opportunities. For the purpose <strong>of</strong> this study, it will do to acknowledge, as does Joseph<br />
(2001), that CSR embraces areas such as treatment <strong>of</strong> the workforce, impact on the marketplace,<br />
impact on the environment, support for the community and commitment to human rights. Smith<br />
(2003) <strong>of</strong>fers an equally broad approach, maintaining, “CSR refers to the obligations <strong>of</strong> the firm<br />
to society or, more specifically, the firm’s stakeholders – those affected by corporate policies and<br />
practices” (p.53). He uses the term “paternalistic capitalism” to convey the sentiment.<br />
As CSR issues continue to generate academic and pr<strong>of</strong>essional discussion, most<br />
representatives <strong>of</strong> both those sectors are familiar with the central arguments <strong>of</strong> whether CSR is<br />
an appropriate concern <strong>of</strong> business and, if it is, whether the motivation for it is to be found in<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>its or moral imperative. Berkhout (2005) summarizes the face-<strong>of</strong>f well, citing Milton<br />
Friedman’s familiar claim that the only responsibility <strong>of</strong> business is to make pr<strong>of</strong>its while acting<br />
within regulatory constraints. Berkhout says the contrasting position is that CSR actually<br />
reinforces rather than undermines pr<strong>of</strong>it-making potential. Still, he concludes that, “Both sides<br />
agree that a company should only adopt practices that are deemed pr<strong>of</strong>itable” (p.16).<br />
Significantly though, Smith (2003) notes that the call for socially responsible behavior by<br />
business is becoming more urgent, driven, he says, by globalization and the expanding power<br />
businesses exert. He points out that demands for responsibility are coming from “mainstream<br />
quarters <strong>of</strong> society” (p.55) as well as activists. Handy (2002), even well before the recent<br />
economic downturn, passionately but reasonably noted and lamented the prevailing business<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> merit – shareholder value as gauged by share price. He acknowledged that corporate<br />
56
leadership had at hand a number <strong>of</strong> approaches to increasing share price but asserted that most<br />
were short-term, even immediate. None was as important as trust in the long term, he said, and<br />
“[C]ompanies are mortgaging their futures in return for a higher stock price in the present…”<br />
(p.50). It seems remarkably prescient that in the Harvard Business Review, Handy said, “More<br />
corporate democracy and better corporate behavior will go a long way to improve the current<br />
business culture in the eyes <strong>of</strong> the public” (p.54).<br />
So the argument appears to be tipping away from Friedman’s position. Windsor (2001),<br />
for example, cites the emergence <strong>of</strong> responsible and “green” investment funds – still a small<br />
sector, but their existence suggests growing sentiment favoring CSR, though clearly within a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>it orientation. Palacios (2004) agrees that expectations <strong>of</strong> responsible corporate citizenship<br />
are accelerating and posits a “caring capitalism doctrine” (p.391) that compels CSR activities<br />
beyond regulatory requirements in order to be pr<strong>of</strong>itable. Again, though, the argument is rooted<br />
in pr<strong>of</strong>itability. Hatcher (2002) similarly stresses the pr<strong>of</strong>it motive for CSR but even more<br />
emphatically, observing that global public sentiment is demanding greater corporate<br />
transparency, stating boldly, “In the new global economy, ethical behavior that consists <strong>of</strong> doing<br />
well (financially) by doing good (socially) is not only compatible with modern capitalism (as<br />
evidenced by the success <strong>of</strong> ethical funds), it represents a competitive advantage by meeting<br />
market demands” p.34.<br />
In contrast to the pr<strong>of</strong>it motivation for CSR, the moral argument is a faintly expressed<br />
one, though occasionally a forceful voice is heard. Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001), for example,<br />
emphatically state, “…true social responsibility is taking actions and instituting policies that are<br />
morally right for that reason alone, without an ulterior self-interested motive” p.198. Clark<br />
(2000) argued that this dimension <strong>of</strong> public relations – its role in ethical reputation management<br />
for its own sake – secures public relations managers’ leadership role in CSR activities. CSR and<br />
public relations, she says, share similar objectives: “[B]oth disciplines are seeking to enhance the<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> the relationship <strong>of</strong> an organization among key stakeholder groups” p.376. Measuring<br />
that quality in the context <strong>of</strong> CSR is the challenge. Grossman (2005) tackles the concept <strong>of</strong><br />
shareholder primacy theory – the Friedman position -- calling it outdated as it fails to recognize<br />
the business case for socially responsible corporate behavior. He cautions that the focus on<br />
shareholder returns alone, rooted in a legal, fiduciary-only paradigm, is no longer viable as the<br />
court <strong>of</strong> public opinion increasingly plays a role in organizational success. “The rise <strong>of</strong> the<br />
culture <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it at any cost,” Grossman notes, “Has been significant in shaping public opinion<br />
against big business” (p.577).<br />
So long as the debate continues between advocates <strong>of</strong> the moral/ideological motive for<br />
CSR and those who stress the pr<strong>of</strong>it motive, it seems public relations managers will likely need<br />
to resign themselves to accepting organizational leadership commitment to CSR primarily<br />
ins<strong>of</strong>ar as the case can be made that there is a correlation between responsible behavior and<br />
reputation and, in turn, between reputation and pr<strong>of</strong>it. There is some literature to build that case.<br />
Paek and Nelson (2009) found strong support for the hypothesis that consumers with a tendency<br />
toward altruism consider companies’ reputation for social responsibility when making purchases.<br />
Importantly, the researchers found this to be especially true for opinion leaders. In an ongoing,<br />
exploratory research effort, Villamizar, Restrepo and Alfaro (<strong>2010</strong>) have achieved preliminary<br />
results indicating that engaging in CSR efforts positively affects an organization’s reputation in<br />
the factors <strong>of</strong> credibility, trust and a factor they call “closeness,” or the level <strong>of</strong> communication<br />
sustained after a particular CSR effort has ended. Moreover, Gilfeather and Carroll (2005)<br />
conducted research that clearly established a link between approving attitudes among consumers<br />
57
toward companies (based on those companies’ reputations for giving to the community, being<br />
honest and open, <strong>of</strong>fering quality products and services, and caring about their employees) and<br />
those consumers’ behavioral intentions regarding recommending those products and services as<br />
well as recommending investment in those companies. Further, in a news release issued by<br />
Burson-Marsteller in March <strong>2010</strong>, the PR firm reports their recent survey finds that “more than<br />
75 percent <strong>of</strong> consumers say that it is important for companies in each <strong>of</strong> the industries tested to<br />
be socially responsible” (Burson-Marsteller, <strong>2010</strong>). The survey also revealed that 75% <strong>of</strong><br />
respondents who read on a company’s Web site about the company’s CSR activities are more<br />
likely to purchase that company’s products.<br />
Realistically, without pr<strong>of</strong>it the company will soon cease to exist, so perhaps the<br />
argument over the proper motivation for CSR policies and practices is an intriguing academic<br />
exercise but one that doesn’t lend itself easily to empirical research or resolution. Nevertheless,<br />
intuitively and with the aid <strong>of</strong> recent studies we are beginning to articulate more clearly and<br />
provide data that describe the relationship among CSR efforts, organizational reputation and<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itability. This study continues that trajectory by asking the following questions:<br />
RQ1: Do consumers report considering a company’s reputation for responsible behavior<br />
before purchasing that company’s goods or services?<br />
RQ2: Do investors report considering a company’s reputation for responsible behavior<br />
before investing in that company’s stock?<br />
RQ3: Do demographic factors such as income, age, education, ethnic identify or gender<br />
appear to affect responses to RQ1 and RQ2?<br />
Method<br />
For nearly 30 years, the Urban Institute <strong>of</strong> our university has conducted an annual survey<br />
to gauge community needs. Clients may share the cost <strong>of</strong> administering this omnibus survey by<br />
placing questions on the survey instrument. This report reflects the placement <strong>of</strong> two questions<br />
on a recent version <strong>of</strong> that survey during which 850 residents <strong>of</strong> this southeastern United States<br />
metropolitan area were questioned. Responses to those two questions were then analyzed in the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> demographic data also generated by the survey. The methodological description that<br />
follows reflects language contained in the Technical Report <strong>of</strong> that survey.<br />
Sampling<br />
To ensure each household in the county had an equal chance <strong>of</strong> being contacted, a<br />
random digit dial sample <strong>of</strong> residential telephone numbers was called. A random selection<br />
procedure, a modified Troldahl-Carter method (Lavrakas, 1993), then identified one adult in<br />
each household reached, ensuring that age and gender groups would be appropriately<br />
represented; if the target respondent was not available, a callback was arranged. Interviews<br />
averaged 17.01 minutes. Discounting non-residential phone numbers reached, 19% <strong>of</strong> those<br />
contacted completed the survey.<br />
Among survey respondents, 24.5% identified themselves as African-<strong>America</strong>n, 66.7%<br />
Caucasian, and 2.8% Latino/Hispanic (total = 94%). For analysis purposes, ethnic identity is<br />
collapsed to African-<strong>America</strong>n, Caucasian, and Other. It’s important to note that African-<br />
<strong>America</strong>ns and Latinos are somewhat underrepresented according to 2000 Census data for this<br />
county; those data report a population that is 27.9% African-<strong>America</strong>n and 6.5% Latino.<br />
Language issues may have played a role in the underrepresentation <strong>of</strong> the Latino population<br />
(bilingual capability was not a requirement for students administering the survey).<br />
By gender, 48% <strong>of</strong> respondents were male and 52% female. Age stratification was<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> the population: 18-34 (16.4%); 35-44 (25.9%); 45-54 (23.2%); 55-64 (18.2%);<br />
58
and 65+ (15.4%). More than half were married (54%), and 45% were separated, no longer<br />
married or never married (1% refused). All but 1.9% had earned at least a high school diploma,<br />
with 27.9% having some college, 33.4% a bachelor’s degree, and 24.9% having completed some<br />
schooling beyond a bachelor’s degree. Household income <strong>of</strong> respondents covered a wide<br />
spectrum – not surprising in an urban county with a strong presence <strong>of</strong> banking and other<br />
financial institutions. Among respondents, 12.2% earned $20,000-$39,999 annually; 15.4%<br />
earned $40,000-$59,999; 12.4% earned $60,000-$79,000; 10.6% earned $80,000-$99,999;<br />
16.2% earned $100,000-$149,000; and 10.6% earned $150,000+ (18% refused). Length <strong>of</strong><br />
county residency also covered a wide spectrum: five years or less (25.3%); 6-20 years (35.3%);<br />
20+ years (39.3%). Respondents were preponderantly homeowners (80.7%) as opposed to<br />
renters (17.4%) or other/refused (1.9%).<br />
Interviewing and Data Processing<br />
Undergraduate students employed by the Urban Institute conducted interviews following<br />
specialized training by Institute staff. Interviews were conducted via a Computer Aided<br />
Telephone Interviewing (CATI) system from the Institute’s own campus facility. Surveys were<br />
completed from 5-9 p.m., Monday through Thursday, and 4-7 p.m. on Fridays over the course <strong>of</strong><br />
roughly six weeks. Data were imported from the CATI system into the Statistical Package for<br />
the Social Sciences (SPSS) for cleaning and analysis.<br />
The following two questions were placed in the survey instrument and constitute the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> results and discussion to follow:<br />
1. Before I would purchase a product or service from a company, I would consider that<br />
company’s reputation in terms <strong>of</strong> responsible business practices and the company’s<br />
contributions to community improvement.<br />
Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never<br />
2. Before I would invest in a company’s stock, I would consider that company’s<br />
reputation in terms <strong>of</strong> responsible business practices and the company’s contributions to<br />
community improvement.<br />
Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never<br />
Sampling Error<br />
The full sample size <strong>of</strong> 850 yields a potential sampling error <strong>of</strong> ±4.14% at the 95%<br />
confidence level. Usable surveys for the analysis related to this report were sometimes as low as<br />
821, which would indicate a slightly but not consequentially lower confidence level.<br />
Additionally, the assumption was made that roughly 95% <strong>of</strong> county households have telephones,<br />
with the 5% <strong>of</strong> households lacking phones likely found among lower economic strata.<br />
Results<br />
The tables that follow depict results to the two survey questions regarding respondents’<br />
purchase and investment decisions. In each case, responses were recorded using a 5-point<br />
Likert-type scale with 1 indicating “always,” 2 indicating “frequently,” 3 indicating<br />
“occasionally,” 4 indicating “rarely,” and 5 indicating “never.” Table 1 shows a mean between<br />
“frequently” and “occasionally” for both decision categories, with little variation among income<br />
levels. Overall means were 2.61 for purchase decisions (sd = 1.22) and 2.57 for investment<br />
decisions (sd = 1.71). Responses by income level were compared using a one-way ANOVA. No<br />
significant difference was found for intent to purchase (F(6, 684) = 1.065, p = .382) or for intent<br />
to invest (F(6, 682) = 1.232, p = .288). Tukey’s HSD was used to draw multiple post-hoc<br />
comparisons among income levels, and once again, no significant differences emerged.<br />
59
Table 1<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Income<br />
Response mean for income levels<br />
Survey<br />
question < $20k<br />
$20k-<br />
$39,000<br />
$40k-<br />
$59,999<br />
$60k-<br />
$79,999<br />
$80k-<br />
$99,999<br />
$100k-<br />
149,999 $150k+<br />
Decision to<br />
purchase<br />
2.24 2.47 2.73 2.63 2.63 2.68 2.61<br />
Decision to<br />
invest<br />
3.00 2.77 2.65 2.43 2.56 2.34 2.56<br />
Note. N=691 for purchase question, 689 for investment question.<br />
As with income level, age category does not appear to reveal significant variation. Table<br />
2 depicts responses segmented by age. Mean responses for each age category rest between<br />
“occasionally” and “frequently,” as they did by income level. Cumulative means for all age<br />
categories were 2.61 for purchase decisions (sd = 1.24) and 2.59 for investment decisions (sd =<br />
1.74). Again responses by age were compared using a one-way ANOVA. No significant<br />
difference was found for intent to purchase (F(4, 828) = 1.369, p = .243) or for intent to invest<br />
(F(4, 827) = 1.232, p = .169). Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test revealed no significant differences<br />
across the entire range <strong>of</strong> comparisons by age segment.<br />
Table 2<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Age<br />
Response mean for age segments<br />
Survey<br />
question 18-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+<br />
Decision to<br />
purchase<br />
2.65 2.60 2.65 2.72 2.39<br />
Decision to<br />
invest<br />
2.42 2.44 2.79 2.61 2.72<br />
Note. N=833 for purchase question, 832 for investment question.<br />
Continuing the pattern <strong>of</strong> examining demographically segmented respondent groups,<br />
level <strong>of</strong> education also fails to produce significant differences for purchase decisions, but<br />
education level does appear to matter in regard to investment decisions. Table 3 shows that<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> education level, mean response levels again fall between “occasionally” and<br />
“frequently” for goods and services purchase decisions. For investment decisions, though,<br />
respondents with only a high school diploma or less education appear to be affected less by a<br />
company’s reputation, reporting means between “occasionally” and “rarely” to describe<br />
reputation’s impact on their investment calculations. Cumulative means for all education levels<br />
were 2.60 for purchase decisions (sd = 1.24) and 2.59 for investment decisions (sd = 1.74).<br />
When responses by education level were compared using a one-way ANOVA, no significant<br />
difference was found for intent to purchase (F(4, 832) = 1.861, p = .115), and Tukey’s HSD<br />
post-hoc test confirms that this is true for all cross-comparisons among education levels.<br />
Differences are significant, however, for intent to invest (F(4, 831) = 5.381, p = .000). To<br />
determine specific comparisons among education level segments, Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test<br />
60
evealed significant differences for respondents with only a high school diploma when compared<br />
to respondents with some college (p = .003), with a college degree (p = .004), and with education<br />
beyond a bachelor’s degree (p = .006). No other comparisons resulted in significance, indicating<br />
that level <strong>of</strong> education is positively correlated to the impact <strong>of</strong> company reputation on consumer<br />
decisions to invest. The number <strong>of</strong> respondents not having earned a high school diploma was<br />
extremely small (15), rendering statistical analysis <strong>of</strong> that cell inappropriate.<br />
Table 3<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Education Level<br />
Response means for level <strong>of</strong> education<br />
Survey<br />
question 0-11 years<br />
High school<br />
graduate Some college<br />
College<br />
graduate<br />
Decision to<br />
purchase<br />
2.92 2.88 2.51 2.63 2.54<br />
Decision to<br />
invest<br />
3.67 3.22 2.46 2.50 2.49<br />
Note. N=837 for purchase question, 836 for investment question.<br />
Beyond<br />
college degree<br />
Table 4 reveals a similar pattern for ethnic identity: results suggest a significant<br />
difference among categories for investment decisions, but not for purchase <strong>of</strong> goods and<br />
services. For goods and services purchase decisions, all groups within this variable reflect mean<br />
responses between “occasionally” and “frequently” when asked whether company reputation<br />
impacts those decisions. The same is true for investment decisions with one exception:<br />
respondents in the “other” category (dominated by Latinos) reflect a mean between “always” and<br />
“frequently,” pointing to an even more pronounced reputation impact for this segment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sample. When responses by ethnic identity were compared using a one-way ANOVA, no<br />
significant difference was found for intent to purchase (F(2, 819) = 1.166, p = .312), and Tukey’s<br />
HSD post-hoc test confirms that this is true for all cross-comparisons among ethnic identity<br />
groups. Differences within this variable are significant, though, for intent to invest (F(2, 818) =<br />
5.070, p = .006). To identify specific differences between groups, a Tukey HSD post hoc test<br />
showed significant differences when Latino respondents were compared both to African<br />
<strong>America</strong>n respondents (p = .014) and to Caucasian respondents (p = .004).<br />
Table 4<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> Corporate Reputation on Purchase and Investment Decisions as Affected by Ethnic Identify<br />
Response means for level <strong>of</strong> education<br />
Survey question African <strong>America</strong>n Caucasian Other<br />
Decision to<br />
purchase<br />
2.63 2.36 2.61<br />
Decision to<br />
invest<br />
2.61 2.65 1.87<br />
Note. N=822 for purchase question, 821 for investment question.<br />
The final demographic comparison reported is gender. Means for goods and services<br />
purchase decisions for both male and female respondents fell between “occasionally” and<br />
“frequently,” with females (m = 2.71, sd = 1.26) reporting a less pronounced reputation impact<br />
61
than males (m = 2.51, sd = 1.23). Statistical significance emerging from an independent-samples<br />
t test (t(839) = 2.355, p = .019) highlights the difference between genders. However, to gauge<br />
the relative importance <strong>of</strong> the difference, a Cohen’s d calculation was conducted that revealed an<br />
effect size <strong>of</strong> 0.16; this result can be categorized as a “very small effect,” suggesting that the<br />
difference between genders for this question, while statistically significant, is not a strong one.<br />
The pattern is repeated for investment decisions, with males (m = 2.54, sd = 1.61) reporting<br />
slightly greater consideration for reputation than females (m = 2.63, sd = 1.85). This time,<br />
though, an independent-samples t test reveals no significance between genders (t(838) = -.793, p<br />
= .428).<br />
Discussion<br />
In 1993, following PepsiCo’s successful navigation <strong>of</strong> the familiar case that began with a<br />
syringe reportedly found in one <strong>of</strong> its soda cans, the company placed advertisements with the<br />
following headline in many newspapers: “Pepsi is pleased to announce……nothing” (Hendrix,<br />
2001, p.441). That could, in a sense, describe the result <strong>of</strong> this research: there was a pronounced<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> statistical significance between and among the various demographic groups surveyed.<br />
However, those results are quite significant for public relations managers and leaders because<br />
they suggest that concern for responsible corporate behavior is firmly established and spans all<br />
categories <strong>of</strong> consumers and investors.<br />
Income level, education level, age, gender and ethnic identity all revealed pronounced<br />
indications <strong>of</strong> a link between organizational reputation and both consumers’ intent to purchase<br />
and investors’ intent to invest. An exception occurs when comparing investment intentions by<br />
education level; those with the least education appear to be least affected by organizational<br />
reputation when making investment decisions. Realistically, though, respondents with only a<br />
high school diploma or less are among the least likely to be investing in the stock market, so the<br />
finding may not be so consequential.<br />
Two other significant findings occur when comparing investment intentions. First, the<br />
group comprising mainly Latino respondents appears to consider particularly strongly a<br />
company’s reputation for responsible behavior when making investment decisions. It would be<br />
useful to explore the cultural dimension <strong>of</strong> this response. Likewise, males report a somewhat<br />
sharper consideration for reputation when making investment decisions than do females, but the<br />
difference is weak enough to warrant further research before drawing conclusive inferences.<br />
Both males and females clearly reported factoring reputation in their decisions.<br />
The most useful application <strong>of</strong> these data is as a benchmark for future iterations <strong>of</strong> this<br />
project. Embedding these same questions in versions <strong>of</strong> this omnibus survey every 2-3 years<br />
would provide a useful barometer by which to gauge public sentiment as regards socially<br />
responsible behavior on the part <strong>of</strong> companies. For example, it would be useful to know whether<br />
gradual changes in investment patterns in recent years affect the degree to which investors<br />
consider corporate reputation for CSR in their investment calculus; the average length <strong>of</strong> time<br />
individual stocks are held has fallen sharply from years to months as investors might now be<br />
subdivided into two groups: true shareholders and speculators.<br />
As additional research explores linkages between reputation for responsible corporate<br />
behavior vis-à-vis purchase and investment behavior, tracking the level <strong>of</strong> consumer and investor<br />
intent may well enable public relations managers to strengthen their argument in support <strong>of</strong> CSR<br />
policies and programs. Of course, relying on the pr<strong>of</strong>it motive for CSR may rankle some<br />
scholars and practitioners who hope to retain the primacy <strong>of</strong> the altruistic/moral argument. This<br />
author would suggest the two arguments are inseparable – that socially responsible performance<br />
62
will be rewarded in the marketplace. Additionally, such behavior will likely have favorable<br />
results beyond consumers and investors: Quality employees will be more easily recruited,<br />
retained and motivated, therefore productive; regulatory agencies and legislative bodies may well<br />
be more favorably disposed; and media coverage is more likely to be balanced, even favorable.<br />
An important question is whether public relations managers should take a leading role in<br />
guiding an organization’s CSR activities. This project says they should because investors and<br />
consumers are taking into account their perceptions <strong>of</strong> companies’ responsible behavior, which is<br />
a measure <strong>of</strong> trust, and trust is the purview <strong>of</strong> public relations advice and counsel. <strong>Public</strong><br />
relations managers, for example, can use research to demonstrate to organizational leaders the<br />
impact <strong>of</strong> CSR activities on investment and consumer purchase decisions and then help the<br />
organizations develop policies that reflect high ethical standards and contribute to community<br />
wellbeing. Cafasso (<strong>2010</strong>) agrees. Reporting the results <strong>of</strong> interviews with top PR executives,<br />
he says, “Each [executive] lauded the unequaled value <strong>of</strong> public relations as the best vehicle to<br />
build, maintain and advance the credibility and trust that organizations need to succeed” (p.14).<br />
He particularly notes comments by Jim Tsokanos <strong>of</strong> MS&L who observes, “The cunsumer is<br />
now in charge” (p.15), and consumers are taking advantage <strong>of</strong> interpersonal and on-line social<br />
networks to “share information, make recommendations and ultimately purchase products”<br />
(p.15).<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations managers can further argue, as does Joseph (2002), that self regulation in<br />
the area <strong>of</strong> CSR is preferable to imposed regulation because it will be viewed more favorably by<br />
stakeholders. “Companies take voluntary action when market forces reward them for doing so,”<br />
(p.96), she says, adding that less trust is to be gained by merely complying with legal<br />
frameworks. <strong>Public</strong> relations managers, in their capacity as “horizon scanners,” must constantly<br />
monitor emerging developments <strong>of</strong> this nature and gauge public sentiment, advising<br />
organizational leadership on courses <strong>of</strong> action, including communication efforts that anticipate<br />
and benefit from developing trends.<br />
This study is limited, <strong>of</strong> course, in its geographic scope, having included respondents in<br />
just one metropolitan area, though the primary city in that area is among the 20 most populous<br />
cities in the U.S. and includes a population fairly representative <strong>of</strong> the greater national population<br />
in the demographic categories employed. The project is also limited in having placed just two<br />
questions on an omnibus survey, comparing responses using demographically delineated data<br />
also included in the survey. As is always the case with surveys, data are self-reported and suffer<br />
the potential bias <strong>of</strong> socially desirable responses; anonymity mitigates that to some extent but not<br />
entirely.<br />
References<br />
Berkhout, T. (2005). Corporate gains. Alternatives Journal, 31(1), 15-18.<br />
Burson-Marsteller (<strong>2010</strong>). Consumers continue to prioritize social responsibility across<br />
business sectors, despite recession (news release, March 29). Retrieved from<br />
http://www.burson-marsteller.com/Newsroom/Lists/PressReleases.<br />
Cafasso, E. (<strong>2010</strong>). Measurable impact: Agency leaders on why PR matters. The <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Strategist, 15(4), 14-18.<br />
Clark, C.E. (2000). Differences between public relations and corporate social responsibility: An<br />
analysis. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 26(3), 363-380.<br />
Fitzpatrick, K., & Gauthier, C. (2001). Toward a pr<strong>of</strong>essional responsibility theory <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations ethics. Journal <strong>of</strong> Mass Media Ethics, 16(2&3), 193-212.<br />
63
Gilfeather, J., & Carroll, T. (2005). “Understanding is the beginning <strong>of</strong> approving:” Vapid<br />
platitude or cornerstone <strong>of</strong> public relations? Paper presented at the 8 th International<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research Conference, Miami, FL. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.instituteforpr.org/files/ uploads/Understanding_05IPRRC.pdf.<br />
Grossman, A.H. (2005). Refining the role <strong>of</strong> the corporation: The impact <strong>of</strong> corporate social<br />
responsibility on shareholder primacy theory. Deakin Law Review, 10(2), 572-596.<br />
Handy, C. (2002, December). What’s a business for? Harvard Business Review, 80(12), 49-55.<br />
Hatcher, M. (2002). New corporate agendas. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> Affairs, 3(1), 32-38.<br />
Hendrix, J.A. (2001). <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Cases (5 th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadwworth.<br />
Joseph, E. (2001). Corporate social responsibility: delivering the new agenda. New Economy,<br />
8(2), 121-123.<br />
Joseph, E. (2002). Promoting corporate social responsibility: Is market-based regulation<br />
sufficient? New Economy, 8(2), 121-123.<br />
Kotler, P., & Lee, N. (2005). Corporate social responsibility: Doing the most good for your<br />
company and your cause. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.<br />
Lavrakas, P. J. (1993). Telephone survey methods: Sampling, selection, and supervision (2 nd<br />
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.<br />
Paek, H-J, & Nelson, M.R. (2009). To buy or not to buy: Determinants <strong>of</strong> socially responsible<br />
consumer behavior and consumer reactions to cause-related and boycotting ads. Journal<br />
<strong>of</strong> Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 31(2), 75-90.<br />
Palacios, J.J. (2004). Corporate citizenship and social responsibility in a globalized world.<br />
Citizenship Studies, 8(4), 383-402.<br />
Smith, N.C. (2003). Corporate social responsibility: whether or how? California Management<br />
Review, 45(4), 52-76.<br />
Villamizar, C., Restrepo, M., & Alfaro, A. (<strong>2010</strong>). Formulation <strong>of</strong> a measurement scale from the<br />
perceptions a community has <strong>of</strong> a corporate brand based on the implementation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
corporate social responsibility program. Institute for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.instituteforpr.org/files/uploads/MeasureScaleCSR_IPRRC.pdf.<br />
Werther, Jr., W.B., & Chandler, D. (2006). Strategic corporate social responsibility:<br />
Stakeholders in a global environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Windsor, D. (2001). The future <strong>of</strong> corporate social responsibility. The International Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Organizational Analysis, 9(3), 225-256.<br />
64
Investigating Multiplier Effects <strong>of</strong> Implied Third-Party Endorsements<br />
in Independent Media: A Qualitative Study<br />
Pauline A. Howes<br />
Kennesaw State University<br />
Lynne M. Sallot, Ph.D., APR, Fellow PRSA<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Georgia<br />
sallot@uga.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
Measuring and validating the communications value <strong>of</strong> public relations activities over<br />
advertising or other controlled communications is an ongoing challenge for public relations<br />
practitioners and scholars. This qualitative study investigated one commonly assumed advantage<br />
<strong>of</strong> public relations – the implied third-party endorsement or multiplier effect <strong>of</strong> PR-generated<br />
news coverage in independent media. Interviews were conducted with 10 public relations<br />
practitioners and 10 business people about their beliefs and attitudes toward implied third-party<br />
endorsement effects <strong>of</strong> independent media stemming from perceived increased credibility <strong>of</strong><br />
independent media compared to controlled media, including advertising. The existence <strong>of</strong> such<br />
implied third-party endorsement or multiplier effects was supported overall to some degree.<br />
Each group also projected some acceptance <strong>of</strong> the effect by the other, and both groups indicated<br />
they believe that the public is even more accepting <strong>of</strong> the effect. Both groups expressed some<br />
confidence in the use <strong>of</strong> quotations by corporate spokespersons and customer testimonials to<br />
enhance the multiplier effect, and reported believing the public is even more accepting <strong>of</strong> these<br />
strategies. PR practitioners also said their clients and bosses are susceptible to implied thirdparty<br />
endorsements <strong>of</strong> news media coverage.<br />
An ongoing challenge facing public relations practitioners and scholars is measuring and<br />
validating the communications value <strong>of</strong> public relations activities (Cameron, Wilcox, Reber, &<br />
Shin, 2008). Beyond statistical tabulations, a potentially more powerful – yet more difficult to<br />
quantify – value <strong>of</strong> public relations is the assumed enhanced credibility <strong>of</strong> a message delivered<br />
through independent traditional news media compared with organization-sponsored controlled<br />
communications, including paid advertising (Harris, 1998).<br />
While a number <strong>of</strong> studies have used experiment and survey methodologies to test for<br />
multiplier effects, <strong>of</strong>ten using student-subject pools, no studies to date are believed to have used<br />
qualitative methods to gauge effects among public relations or business pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, as this<br />
study does.<br />
Literature Review<br />
Belief in this implied third-party endorsement effect <strong>of</strong> news media coverage has its roots<br />
in early theoretical studies that examined the impact and role <strong>of</strong> media on society (Hallahan,<br />
1999a, 1999b). The perceived power <strong>of</strong> news media to set agendas and influence opinion led to<br />
comparisons <strong>of</strong> credibility between news content and advertising, although later studies based on<br />
limited-effects theories have raised doubts about the influential impact <strong>of</strong> the media on the<br />
actions <strong>of</strong> individuals (Baran & Davis, 2006).<br />
Michelson and Stacks (2007) contended “it has long been held by public relations<br />
practitioners that public relations media placements have a relative value advantage over<br />
advertising when the message is employed by both or similar" (p. 3) in a multiplier effect. This<br />
multiplier or implied third-party endorsement effect is considered advantageous because<br />
65
information conveyed through the media filter is thought to be perceived by consumers as more<br />
fact-based and credible and less-biased than information provided in a paid advertisement or<br />
other information that is prepared, funded and distributed by a self-interested party (Grunig &<br />
Grunig, 2000; Guth & Marsh, 2007; Hallahan, 1999a, 1999b; Harris, 1998; Smith, 2009.)<br />
The term derives from applying a “multiplier” to public relations-generated media<br />
coverage compared with advertising to reflect an added value. However, there are different<br />
views on exactly what the multiplier, or added value, is. Some calculate the multiplier effect by<br />
multiplying the advertising value (dollar cost <strong>of</strong> placing an ad <strong>of</strong> identical size or length) by a<br />
factor <strong>of</strong> 3, 5 or 7 (Grunig & Grunig, 2000). A “multiplier” factor also may be applied to actual<br />
circulation figures to estimate a total number <strong>of</strong> media impressions, taking into account passalong<br />
readers. Estimates <strong>of</strong> these multipliers vary, but their use results in a higher measurement<br />
<strong>of</strong> total reach (Weiner & Bartholomew, 2006).<br />
Value enhancements also are <strong>of</strong>ten attributed to an audience’s perception <strong>of</strong> greater<br />
credibility because gatekeeper (reporter or editor) <strong>of</strong> the information provider (the news media)<br />
is not directly beholden to the originating source. In contrast, the originating source <strong>of</strong><br />
information in paid advertising or other “controlled” media (such as newsletters produced by<br />
organizations) is seen to have a vested interest in the effects on an audience; the information is<br />
thought to reflect bias and carry diminished credibility (Grunig & Grunig, 2000; Guth & Marsh,<br />
2007; Hallahan, 1999b).<br />
The implied third-party endorsement effect <strong>of</strong> published or broadcast information has<br />
been studied from multiple perspectives, <strong>of</strong>ten focusing on comparing perceptions <strong>of</strong> credibility<br />
and impact <strong>of</strong> information conveyed through mock “published” editorial news stories versus<br />
mock paid advertisements (Cameron, 1994; Hallahan, 1999a; Hallahan, 1999b; Jo, 2004;<br />
Michaelson & Stacks, 2007; Stacks & Michaelson, 2009). These studies’ results provide little-tono<br />
support for the conventional wisdom among public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals that media<br />
coverage has enhanced value to organizations (Cameron, 1994; Hallahan, 1999a,1999b).<br />
Hallahan (1999b) even titled one article, “No Virginia, It’s Not True What They Say About<br />
<strong>Public</strong>ity’s ‘Implied Third-Party Endorsement’ Effect,” a review and analysis <strong>of</strong> 11 studies<br />
comparing the effects <strong>of</strong> news and advertising which yielded only mild overall support for the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> third-party added value for news articles.<br />
Typically these studies have used between-subjects or within subjects experimental or<br />
survey methodology; limitations have <strong>of</strong>ten included small sample sizes and reliance on collegestudent<br />
participants, absence <strong>of</strong> reliability and validity measurements, lack <strong>of</strong> theoretical<br />
grounding and insufficient differentiation among the various test materials (Stacks &<br />
Michaelson, 2009). Additionally, surveys showing declining trust and confidence in the news<br />
media by the public (Geary, 2005; Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, 2009),<br />
further call into question implied third-party endorsement effects.<br />
Yet anecdotal evidence suggests the widely held belief persists in PR practice that<br />
information published or broadcast in news media takes on added value or “multiplier” effect<br />
because it has been approved by an independent third-party gatekeeper and conveyed by an<br />
independent, supposedly unbiased news medium.<br />
Up to now, no qualitative studies are believed to have probed the multiplier effect nor<br />
compared perceptions and attitudes <strong>of</strong> editorial endorsement values held by PR practitioners and<br />
business people; this study was conducted to address these gaps in the literature.<br />
Research Questions<br />
The following research questions were explored:<br />
66
RQ1: Do PR practitioners and business people differ in their assessments <strong>of</strong> the presence<br />
and value <strong>of</strong> implied third-party endorsement effects <strong>of</strong> independent news media (such as<br />
newspapers) versus controlled media (such as advertisements)?<br />
RQ2: How do PR practitioners and business people assess each others’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
presence and value <strong>of</strong> implied third-party endorsement effects <strong>of</strong> independent news<br />
media (such as newspapers) versus controlled media (such as advertisements)?<br />
RQ3: How do PR practitioners and business people assess the publics’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
presence and value <strong>of</strong> implied third-party endorsement effects <strong>of</strong> independent news<br />
media (such as newspapers) versus controlled media (such as advertisements)?<br />
Method<br />
Interviews consisting <strong>of</strong> guided, open-ended questions were conducted with 10 public<br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and 10 business people by the first author between March 1 and May 1,<br />
2009. A purposive selection process was used to secure input representative <strong>of</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> types<br />
<strong>of</strong> public relations practices, organization sizes and industries. Fourteen public relations<br />
practitioners and 15 business people were invited, with 10 <strong>of</strong> each group agreeing to participate.<br />
Seventeen interviews were conducted by telephone and three in person. The interviews were<br />
recorded and transcribed. Participants were assured confidentiality under guidelines <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Institutional Review Board <strong>of</strong> (name <strong>of</strong> university).<br />
Four <strong>of</strong> the public relations practitioners worked for corporations, three for PR agencies<br />
(including a large firm with diversified clientele, a mid-sized regional firm and a small boutique<br />
agency), two worked for nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organizations, and one was a sole practitioner. Their roles<br />
included media relations, marketing communications, internal communications, strategic<br />
communication and planning for commercial banking, consumer products, financial management<br />
and telecommunications, a major national nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organization and a small educational<br />
foundation. Organization size varied from fewer than 50 employees to more than 20,000<br />
employees. Experience ranged from less than a year to more than 16 years; five were male and<br />
five were female; seven held bachelor’s degrees and three received master’s degrees in<br />
communications-related studies.<br />
Business people interviewed represented industrial machinery manufacturing,<br />
entertainment, consumer services, metals manufacturing, business consulting, electric power<br />
utilities, consumer products, construction engineering, chemical manufacturing, and advertising.<br />
Eight <strong>of</strong> the companies were public and two were privately held; they ranged from fewer than<br />
500 employees to more than 20,000 employees. Participants were mid-level to senior<br />
management (member <strong>of</strong> board <strong>of</strong> directors, vice president and director) with 11-25+ years <strong>of</strong><br />
experience. Five participants were male and five were female; five had bachelor's degrees, two<br />
had MBA degrees, one had a master’s degree in human resources; two had J.D. degrees.<br />
The analysis entailed listening to the audio recordings <strong>of</strong> all interviews twice.<br />
Transcriptions and notes taken during the interviews were read a minimum <strong>of</strong> two times and<br />
cross-checked for accuracy against the actual recordings. Following qualitative data analysis<br />
protocol suggested by Bogdan and Biklin (1998), transcripts were organized by specific question<br />
responses grouped by the two respondent groups. In initial coding, responses were categorized<br />
and labeled line-by-line. Focused coding then eliminated, combined or further refined categories<br />
to identify repeating concepts and broader themes. Guidelines detailed by Berkowitz (1997)<br />
identified common themes and presence or absence <strong>of</strong> patterns and repetition in the answers, any<br />
deviations from identified patterns and possible explanatory factors, considered the influence <strong>of</strong><br />
participants’ background and experience on their responses, sought illuminating stories and<br />
67
examples to add depth and understanding, and compared responses to expectations based on<br />
other studies. Pseudonyms were assigned to all participants quoted in the study.<br />
Results<br />
Credibility <strong>of</strong> Independent Media vs. Controlled Media<br />
The existence <strong>of</strong> implied third-party endorsement effects <strong>of</strong> independent media stemming<br />
from perceived credibility <strong>of</strong> independent media compared to controlled media was supported<br />
overall by the interviews conducted with both public relations practitioners and business people.<br />
Nine <strong>of</strong> the 10 public relations practitioners interviewed said they definitely perceive<br />
independent media to be more credible than controlled media, and one person found independent<br />
media somewhat more credible than controlled media. Seven said that they thought business<br />
people definitely perceive independent media as more credible than controlled media, and three<br />
said that business people view independent media somewhat more credible than controlled<br />
media. PR practitioners said the general public does not feel as strongly about the credibility <strong>of</strong><br />
independent media compare to controlled media. Four said that the public definitely views<br />
independent media as more credible than controlled media; four said the public sees independent<br />
media somewhat more credible than controlled media; and two said the public does not<br />
distinguish any difference in credibility <strong>of</strong> independent media and controlled media.<br />
Eight <strong>of</strong> the 10 business people interviewed said they definitely perceive independent<br />
media as more credible than controlled media, while two found independent media somewhat<br />
more credible than controlled media. Six <strong>of</strong> the business people said that other business people<br />
definitely perceive independent media as more credible than controlled media, three said that<br />
business people view independent media somewhat more credible than controlled media, and<br />
one said that business people do not distinguish any difference in credibility <strong>of</strong> independent<br />
media and controlled media. Seven <strong>of</strong> the business people said the general public definitely or<br />
somewhat views independent media as more credible than controlled media, and three said that<br />
the public perceives independent media and controlled media as having the same level <strong>of</strong><br />
credibility.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Practitioners’ Views on Credibility <strong>of</strong> Independent and Controlled Media<br />
Interestingly, some PR pr<strong>of</strong>essionals perceived greater credibility <strong>of</strong> independent sources<br />
because they recognized the advocacy role they play in their own work. Independent PR<br />
practitioner Barbara said,<br />
Part <strong>of</strong> my job is to put people in the best possible light. Not being dishonest, but just<br />
playing up their strengths. Ideally a good newspaper or radio, television and other media<br />
outlets are digging to get at the actual facts <strong>of</strong> the situation. So that gives more credibility.<br />
An assumption that editors and reporters are unbiased whereas companies are biased was another<br />
explanation for perceiving higher credibility <strong>of</strong> media. Marketing communications pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
Jill observed that reporters are considered to have no bias, while a company that puts out an<br />
advertisement obviously has a self-interested perspective it wishes to advance. Because the<br />
controlled message is "scripted and approved," it lacks the credibility conveyed by a message<br />
communicated through an independent third-party channel, said strategic communications<br />
consultant Greg.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals noted a cynicism toward and resistance to<br />
messages designed to “sell” or “persuade.” Wayne, a corporate communications executive,<br />
observed, “It makes sense that when people see advertising over the course <strong>of</strong> their lives, they<br />
become more cynical about it… and they think about the fact that they are being sold to.” He<br />
added that people consume news media and advertising differently and are less cynical about<br />
68
accepting information they receive through the news media. "They have a fundamental belief<br />
that the news media is more objective, generally, and certainly more objective than advertising."<br />
Having an educational and/or pr<strong>of</strong>essional background in journalism was a factor for<br />
some public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals’ views that independent media channels are more credible<br />
than controlled channels. One corporate media relations expert with a journalism education<br />
background, Perry, said that “being trained that way, you want to believe that what you read and<br />
see in the news media is relatively unbiased and well-researched."<br />
Several public relations practitioners, while acknowledging the greater perceived<br />
credibility <strong>of</strong> the news media, still expressed some skepticism. A PR pr<strong>of</strong>essional with extensive<br />
corporate and nonpr<strong>of</strong>it experience, Ellen, said that coverage by independent media has greater<br />
credibility because “there is the possibility that it has been vetted and screened, and the fact that<br />
it is not paid for allows for some balance and for other voices in the story.” Nevertheless, she<br />
said she had worked with reporters who “never let the facts get in the way <strong>of</strong> the story,”<br />
selectively including or excluding information or failing to check facts.<br />
While agreeing that independent sources, such as the news media, are more credible than<br />
controlled sources, such as advertising, public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essional Tim emphasized that<br />
independent sources did not guarantee credibility. Information that is conveyed through<br />
independent sources is not inherently credible, he said, but it is perceived as more credible than<br />
information coming from a controlled source, giving an example: “If company X puts out a press<br />
release, I am going to be more skeptical about that release versus a story about company X that<br />
was published in the New York Times.” Despite this view, Tim raised a concern shared by<br />
several practitioners about the declining credibility <strong>of</strong> the news media. “These days I’m going to<br />
be much more suspicious about that newspaper article in the Times than I might have been 10 or<br />
20 years ago," he said.<br />
High-pr<strong>of</strong>ile situations that call into question the veracity <strong>of</strong> certain mainstream media<br />
also have influenced practitioners’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> credibility, such as circumstances <strong>of</strong> plagiarism<br />
and inaccurate reporting, and retractions from lack <strong>of</strong> fact checking, have diminished the<br />
perceived believability <strong>of</strong> media in general. "That said," agency practitioner Tim commented, "I<br />
still think people will say, if you read it in the newspaper, there is some degree <strong>of</strong> credibility to it<br />
versus the company or the organization saying it.”<br />
PR Practitioners’ Views on Business People’s Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Credibility <strong>of</strong> Independent<br />
and Controlled Media<br />
Business people may have a slightly different perspective in viewing the credibility <strong>of</strong><br />
media versus companies as a source <strong>of</strong> information, observed several public relations<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. Agency practitioner Tim called it a "peer-to-peer type thing." He explained,<br />
There might be a certain level <strong>of</strong> camaraderie in business, where everyone knows that the<br />
media is going to interpret the way they want to interpret something. So it is sort <strong>of</strong> an<br />
‘us’ and ‘them’ type <strong>of</strong> thing. If company A were to put out a press release, company B<br />
would probably think that basically everything that company A has said is more likely on<br />
the up-and-up only because they have been through that process themselves. Unless it is<br />
just someone notorious such as the Enron situation, which is totally tainted, I think that<br />
businesses are probably less suspect <strong>of</strong> each other because they know that the media can<br />
take things and twist and turn it to get the story that they want.<br />
"I think that business people would have a degree <strong>of</strong> cynicism about advertising or at<br />
least understand that they are being marketed to,” observed Kirk, a public relations executive.<br />
“Ironically, in my experience some <strong>of</strong> the most gullible tend to be marketers themselves because<br />
69
when they see advertising they view it through the eyes <strong>of</strong> the advertiser because they create<br />
advertising themselves.” He said some business people are more cynical about coverage <strong>of</strong> their<br />
own business, but consider news coverage <strong>of</strong> other businesses as objective and believable, Kirk<br />
said.<br />
Working for a nonpr<strong>of</strong>it group, public relations practitioner Ellen echoed that sentiment<br />
<strong>of</strong> value when talking about the impact <strong>of</strong> newspaper articles on business people who serve on<br />
her organization’s board <strong>of</strong> directors:<br />
We have put out messages that are paid versus editorial. When some <strong>of</strong> the businessfocused<br />
members <strong>of</strong> our board see a story, editorially, in the newspaper or hear<br />
something on NPR about us or on CNN, it completely boosts the credibility <strong>of</strong> what they<br />
think about us versus what we tell them about us.”<br />
In a contrasting view, this sense <strong>of</strong> insider knowledge or understanding may add to<br />
business people's cynicism about information disseminated by other companies. <strong>Public</strong> relations<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional Ellen summed it up:<br />
It’s kind <strong>of</strong> like people who are sausage makers, looking at other people’s sausage<br />
thinking, yeah, but what is really in it? I think that business people know how earnings<br />
statements and stories are crafted and presented and positioned. At least the people that I<br />
know in business are pretty cynical or skeptical about formal quotes and pronouncements<br />
and statements <strong>of</strong> other companies.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Practitioners’ Views on <strong>Public</strong> Perception <strong>of</strong> Credibility <strong>of</strong> Independent<br />
and Controlled Media<br />
The general public is likely to be less critical and more accepting <strong>of</strong> news media content,<br />
the public relations practitioners said. People "read the headlines and the first three paragraphs,<br />
and basically, given human nature, believe what was said,” commented PR agency practitioner<br />
Tim. “There is probably a certain trust the public feels that companies are going to put out<br />
correct things, but then I also think that people are just as gullible as the next person. In a lot <strong>of</strong><br />
cases, perceptions <strong>of</strong> credibility probably depend on the media that is delivering the news.”<br />
Another corporate public relations practitioner, Kirk, expressed it this way:<br />
As a general statement, I think that John Q. <strong>Public</strong> is still very trusting <strong>of</strong> media and<br />
editorial content and much more cynical about advertising. Which is not to say that<br />
advertising does not work; it just means that advertising has to overcome a higher hurdle<br />
to resonate with consumers than news editorial messages. I just think that, intuitively, if<br />
it looks, smells or in any way resembles advertising John Q. <strong>Public</strong> is going to be more<br />
cynical than if it looks and smells and appears to be editorial content.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioner Barbara expressed concern about young people taking<br />
information from Internet sources that are not peer reviewed. "I think it may be generational.<br />
The generation coming up now is so accustomed to getting and believing things <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Internet that they do not discriminate between sources the way others might,” she said.<br />
In contrast, however, some PR practitioners agreed with their colleagues who noted that<br />
the public has “cynicism about anything they read anymore." For example, public relations<br />
practitioner Ellen said,<br />
I think people know when they are being sold something when they hear it in a paid or<br />
controlled context. People have been sold such a bill <strong>of</strong> goods over the past 20 years.<br />
There has been a big shift in the level <strong>of</strong> trust that is placed in pronouncements by<br />
commercial or nonpr<strong>of</strong>it voices, whether it is the Red Cross or Enron. I think the first<br />
question people ask <strong>of</strong> paid advertising is ‘is it true, is it trusted’ versus something that<br />
70
still smacks <strong>of</strong> news. News coverage still carries the perception <strong>of</strong> being more likely to<br />
report facts.<br />
Business Peoples’ Views on Credibility <strong>of</strong> Independent and Controlled Media<br />
Business people interviewed agreed with public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals that independent<br />
news sources are viewed as more credible and accurate than controlled sources, such as paid<br />
advertisements. For many <strong>of</strong> the business people, advertisements or controlled sources represent<br />
a selling tactic designed to influence individuals to purchase something or think a certain way.<br />
In contrast, an independent source has no vested interest in influencing people one way or the<br />
other, they commented. Rather, its intent is simply to report or record news and information from<br />
an unbiased perspective.<br />
An attorney, Karen, experienced in working with consumer products companies, said, "If<br />
it is a paid advertisement, you generally think that advertisers are slanting or interpreting the<br />
facts to suit their desires to show their product or services in a more favorable light."<br />
Advertising executive Rick, who also acknowledged the perceived bias, said, "In an<br />
advertisement, obviously, the message is slanted – not so much slanted, but the message is more<br />
controlled as opposed to something that comes from new source that is from an independent<br />
thinker, or somebody who <strong>of</strong>fers an opinion. So I think that, you know, a newspaper article, even<br />
though it usually comes from only one person, has less bias."<br />
One business executive who holds an MBA degree took an economic perspective in<br />
saying that he generally accepts data that appears in the news item, compared to information<br />
coming from a controlled source. "If you called me up and asked me the best way to make your<br />
building more efficient, I am more likely to give you our press release or, typically, say what we<br />
do is the best way to accomplish that,” Wayne said. In materials they control, businesses “would<br />
tend to stress those things that support their case versus an independent news item," he added.<br />
Reflecting some skepticism about the media, however, Wayne suggested that news sources and<br />
their content may be impacted by their advertisers.<br />
The perception <strong>of</strong> third-party objectivity <strong>of</strong> independent media was cited by several <strong>of</strong> the<br />
business people interviewed. A human resource manager Kelly explained, "At least in theory<br />
you think the third-party media is trying to be objective and is not trying to position a product or<br />
situation or spin it in a certain way, versus a company. I think companies do a lot <strong>of</strong> spin." She<br />
extended the concept <strong>of</strong> spin to companies that use product placement in television shows. "If I<br />
read about a product in a newspaper article, I would hope the media would be concerned about<br />
other things such as objectivity versus the sole focus being on the product.”<br />
Business Peoples’ Views on How Other Business People and <strong>Public</strong> Perceive Credibility <strong>of</strong><br />
Independent and Controlled Media<br />
The business people interviewed generally believed that other business people considered<br />
independent media sources as more credible than controlled sources. At least one person Greg,<br />
however, thought that others may be less critical <strong>of</strong> controlled source information than he<br />
himself was. “Well, my experience is, I am a little more jaded than most people,” he said.<br />
Business people, overall, gave less credit to the general public than themselves or other<br />
business people as being discerning consumers <strong>of</strong> information. Business people suggest the<br />
average person doesn't perceive a difference between information presented by an independent<br />
source or a controlled source.<br />
Credibility <strong>of</strong> Quotations and Customer Testimonials<br />
As a further measure <strong>of</strong> perceptions <strong>of</strong> credibility in news media, interviewees were<br />
asked about attitudes towards quotations and customer testimonials used in media coverage.<br />
71
Both the public relations and business interview subjects perceived quotations in<br />
newspaper or magazine articles as having limited credibility, and thought the other group would<br />
agree. However, both public relations practitioners and business people said that the public, in<br />
general, considers quotations in articles as having credibility.<br />
The knowledge <strong>of</strong> how quotations are crafted by public relations people made many<br />
practitioners skeptical <strong>of</strong> quotes they read in articles. “First, you can always tell if it was written<br />
for someone. That is pretty easy to sniff out simply because a lot <strong>of</strong> them are just very canned,”<br />
said public relations agency practitioner Tim. “The quotes that are more believable are the ones<br />
that are fresher and more real, and it’s nice to see one <strong>of</strong> those. The more realistic it is, the more<br />
credible it is to me.”<br />
“Right now I think corporate <strong>America</strong> is at an all-time low for credibility,” said sole<br />
public relations practitioner Barbara.<br />
On the flip side, public relations agency practitioner Tim said, “I think the public<br />
probably take quotes at face value because they don’t understand in most cases what goes on to<br />
create those quotes.” Expressing a similar view, corporate communications pr<strong>of</strong>essional Christa<br />
commented, “The public would view quotes as real.”<br />
Michelle, a human resources executive at a large manufacturer, said, “I think quotes are<br />
relatively credible, but I think that anybody who works for a company knows that those<br />
company’s spokespeople are well-versed and know exactly what to say.”<br />
Overall, both the public relations and business interview subjects perceived customer<br />
testimonials as at least somewhat credible. Similarly, public relations practitioners believed that<br />
business people view customer testimonials as being at least somewhat credible. Both public<br />
relations practitioners and business people said that the public, in general, considers customer<br />
testimonials to be credible.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners are utilizing customer testimonials as part <strong>of</strong> their<br />
communications outreach, based on the feedback from several <strong>of</strong> those interviewed. The context<br />
<strong>of</strong> the testimonial may affect its believability. “I guess it depends on how testimonials are<br />
presented. If it is part <strong>of</strong> an info commercial and people are doing testimonials, then I am like,<br />
‘nah, I don’t believe those,’” said communications pr<strong>of</strong>essional Christa. Yet she does find herself<br />
using testimonials when making personal purchase decisions. Christa said she likes “to hear<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the feedback <strong>of</strong> customers about their experiences with a product” she is considering to<br />
purchase. While she may not “totally believe” a testimonial is on a company-sponsored Web site,<br />
Christa said it would give her “a good sense <strong>of</strong> what the product is about.”<br />
“I think business people would take a look at testimonials with a grain <strong>of</strong> salt,” said<br />
corporate public relations practitioner John.<br />
“Business people, I think, see customer testimonials as a tool to spark interest,” said<br />
marketing communications pr<strong>of</strong>essional Jill. “All in all, I think business people like testimonials<br />
and believe in them for the most part.”<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the public relations practitioners interviewed felt that the general public found<br />
customer testimonials more credible than they or business people did because “the idea that<br />
hearing from a ‘real’ person carries more credibility,” said Ellen, public relations practitioner for<br />
a nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organization.<br />
Having some prior knowledge <strong>of</strong> the individual making the testimonial plays a major role<br />
in determining its credibility, said some business people interviewed. "I tend to give more<br />
credibility if I know the person or if I have spoken to the person versus seeing the words on a<br />
page,” said Michael, a corporate manufacturing executive.<br />
72
Even when testimonials do not withstand scrutiny, business executive Wayne found that<br />
his colleagues paid close attention to what others said about various products. He commented,<br />
I hear some <strong>of</strong> my coworkers saying “Well, look here this client likes that competitive<br />
product” and then I'll say let's just call them and see. And once I asked them what they<br />
really think, sometimes people will say “yeah, that was a long time ago and I got<br />
something free to put my name on the document.” But generally, I know my coworkers<br />
place tremendous value on seeing a name like Micros<strong>of</strong>t or another major company in a<br />
testimonial about a specific product. They think, “Gee, that product must be good.”<br />
Members <strong>of</strong> the general public are inclined to be easily swayed by consumer-targeted<br />
testimonials, most business people said. Corporate executive Michael explained,<br />
You have a lot <strong>of</strong> people who are very gullible, whether they're elderly or maybe not the<br />
sharpest tack in the box. I think that people will sometimes buy into, for example,<br />
infomercials. If infomercials weren't successful, you wouldn't see them on TV. I think the<br />
more education a person has, the less effective some <strong>of</strong> those claims would be in<br />
persuading them.<br />
Client-Perceived Value in Independent Media Coverage<br />
When asked about how their clients or bosses perceive the value in PR-driven<br />
independent media coverage, all PR practitioners interviewed said that their clients/bosses<br />
believe it exceeds the value <strong>of</strong> paid placements, such as advertisements. The perception <strong>of</strong> media<br />
credibility was a key factor in that value assessment. “I think there is the perception that media<br />
coverage is just more credible. You know, clients feel ‘they have made the news,’” said public<br />
relations agency executive Tim. Using information attributable to independent media sources<br />
strengthens the impact <strong>of</strong> client strategy sessions, which to Tim, is somewhat surprising:<br />
The funny thing about it is that, in those presentations, the media quotations are viewed<br />
as a very credible source. I do a lot <strong>of</strong> strategy sessions, a lot <strong>of</strong> facilitating, a lot <strong>of</strong> brainstorming<br />
sessions around positioning and marketing. As part <strong>of</strong> those presentations that<br />
we customize for each client there is a section that we call “the industry overview” and<br />
there is one that we call a “competitive landscape,” so I will study news stories to find out<br />
what are the latest trends, what is the environment that we are living in at the moment.<br />
You assess the company, what does its world look like, and what does the competition<br />
say, and just not with their ads, but what are they saying out there in the media about<br />
themselves and about others.<br />
In general, clients see value in independent media coverage, but how they view a<br />
particular media outlet affects the degree <strong>of</strong> value they see in coverage, said corporate public<br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>essional Kirk. He explained,<br />
Even more valuable in their minds is a third-party media outlet that they personally<br />
respect. So in other words, it’s that you can generate all kinds <strong>of</strong> really good quality<br />
third-party publicity in small-town newspapers around <strong>America</strong> that speak daily to<br />
consumers and present that stack <strong>of</strong> press clippings that represent real value-adding<br />
publicity to brand managers and they will go, “that’s good.” But if you happen to get the<br />
same story on slate.com, which is sort <strong>of</strong> a political intelligentsia, white-collar, highly<br />
educated demographic Web site, they will think it is absolutely wonderful, even if only<br />
10 consumers ever see it.<br />
The comparatively lower cost <strong>of</strong> public relations versus advertising also was mentioned<br />
as a reason for clients seeing value in independent media coverage. The dollar-factor can<br />
especially come into play when the client’s funds are tight, said sole practitioner Barbara. “It’s<br />
73
cheaper for them to pay a PR person, not just because that it’s cheap, but because the costs <strong>of</strong><br />
advertising are very high,” she said. She recalled a sleep-disorder doctor who sought public<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> his work but had a very limited budget. “We got him some TV coverage and he<br />
was pleased with that,” she said.<br />
Discussion<br />
The primary purpose <strong>of</strong> this qualitative research was to determine the implied third-party<br />
endorsement or multiplier effect was perceived by public relations practitioners and business<br />
people and what levels <strong>of</strong> acceptance each group projected <strong>of</strong> the other and <strong>of</strong> the public. Indeed,<br />
the idea that information conveyed through independent news media channels was perceived as<br />
somewhat more credible than information conveyed through controlled channels was supported<br />
by both public relations and business pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. That said, individuals in both groups<br />
observed that the credibility <strong>of</strong> the news media, in general, is declining and this moderated their<br />
belief in the strength <strong>of</strong> the third-party endorsement effect.<br />
At the same time, public relations and business pr<strong>of</strong>essionals are skeptical <strong>of</strong> quotations<br />
attributed to company <strong>of</strong>ficials that appear in press releases and published articles. The inside<br />
knowledge that press releases, including quotes, are typically written by public relations<br />
practitioners and extensively reviewed and edited prior to distribution raised doubts about<br />
credibility. Despite their personal views, most public relations practitioners and business people<br />
felt that the public viewed such quotations in a more positive, believable light. This view might<br />
be based partly on the belief that the general public is less knowledgeable and discerning about<br />
the news media and also due to the desire to validate their own ability to present believable<br />
statements through company-prepared materials.<br />
In considering the credibility <strong>of</strong> customer testimonials, another type <strong>of</strong> third-party<br />
endorsement, most public relations practitioners and business people felt they were somewhat<br />
credible. Both groups generally believed, however, that the public finds customer testimonials<br />
quite credible and valuable as a communication strategy. Several <strong>of</strong> the public relations and<br />
business pr<strong>of</strong>essionals noted they use customer testimonials in their own communications with<br />
target audiences, clients and customers.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> the public relations practitioners interviewed said they believed their clients<br />
generally saw value in media coverage in independent media channels. However, this belief was<br />
not consistent across the board. For example, one corporate public relations practitioner noted<br />
that while his company’s new chief executive <strong>of</strong>ficer recognized value in media coverage, not all<br />
<strong>of</strong> the company managers in the organization shared that view. Consequently, the public<br />
relations practitioner spent a good amount <strong>of</strong> time attempting to educate company managers<br />
about and demonstrate to them the potential value <strong>of</strong> media coverage, including the multiplier<br />
effect. For some practitioners, the reality <strong>of</strong> their jobs remains all about getting their stories<br />
placed in the independent news media. As one practitioner noted, “I think that you can consider<br />
any good hit a victory. At the end <strong>of</strong> the day, you take what you can get.”<br />
Limitations <strong>of</strong> This Study<br />
As with all qualitative research, the findings from this study are not generalizable to<br />
populations <strong>of</strong> public relations practitioners and business people.<br />
Conclusions and Implications for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Practitioners<br />
The implied third-party endorsement effect remains a somewhat elusive “holy grail” <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations practitioners and scholars. Yet communicating messages via independent news<br />
media that go through an editorial process <strong>of</strong> review and selection <strong>of</strong> content continues to be<br />
74
viewed to some degree as a valuable public relations practice by practitioners and business<br />
people because <strong>of</strong> perceived multiplier effects.<br />
The commonly held belief in implied third-party endorsement effect <strong>of</strong> news media may<br />
well be merited despite mixed results <strong>of</strong> academic experiments and surveys. Perhaps the<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> “media” needs to be reconsidered beyond “news media” when analyzing<br />
endorsement effects. In today’s communication landscape, more media formats and forums exist<br />
– many <strong>of</strong> them online – and many may <strong>of</strong>fer an implied an endorsement effect to different<br />
audiences. The “a-ha” realization may be that the endorsement effect actually comes from<br />
multiple media types, not just the news media. Consequently, a multifaceted approach to<br />
communication may, ultimately, produce the most successful and effective results for public<br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and their clients. Rather than limiting or diminishing the role and value <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations, this expanded idea <strong>of</strong> third-party endorsement may require practitioners to<br />
develop new, more sophisticated communication strategies using a variety <strong>of</strong> media channels.<br />
Certainly these notions warrant future research.<br />
In conclusion, the long-time role <strong>of</strong> public relations to pitch and secure story placements<br />
in independent media channels such as newspapers, magazines and trade journals, is likely to<br />
continue based on the perceived value <strong>of</strong> these stories by PR practitioners, their clients and<br />
business people.<br />
References<br />
Baran, S.J. & Davis, D.K. (2006). Mass communication theory: Foundations,<br />
ferment, and future. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.<br />
Berkowitz, S. (1997). Analyzing qualitative data. In J. Frechtling and L. Sharp (Eds.), User-<br />
Friendly Handbook for Mixed Method Evaluations. Arlington, VA: Division <strong>of</strong> Research,<br />
Evaluation and Communication, National Science Foundation.<br />
Bogdan, R.C., & Biklin, S.K. (1998). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to<br />
theory and methods. 3 rd ed.. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.<br />
Cameron, G.T. (1994). Does publicity outperform advertising? An experimental test <strong>of</strong> third<br />
-party endorsement. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research. 6(3), 185-207.<br />
Cameron, G.T., Wilcox, D.L., Reber, B.H., & Shin, J.A. (2008). <strong>Public</strong> relations<br />
today: managing competition and conflict. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.<br />
Geary, D.L. (2005). The decline <strong>of</strong> media credibility and its impact on public relations. <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Quarterly, 50, 3, 8-12.<br />
Grunig, J.E., & Grunig, L.A. (2000). When conventional wisdom meets research: The myth<br />
<strong>of</strong> implied third-party endorsement. Research: A supplement <strong>of</strong> pr reporter, 8, 1-4.<br />
Guth, D.W., & Marsh, C.M. (2007). <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>: A values-driven approach. Boston:<br />
Pearson Education, Inc.<br />
Hallahan, K. (1999 a). Content class as a contextual cue in the cognitive processing <strong>of</strong> publicity<br />
versus advertising. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 11(4), 293-320.<br />
Hallahan, K. (1999 b). No Virginia, it’s not true what they say about publicity’s<br />
“Implied Third-Party Endorsement” effect. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 25, 331-350.<br />
Jo, S. (2004). Effect <strong>of</strong> content type on impact: Editorial vs. advertising. <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Review, 30, 503-512.<br />
Michaelson, D., & Stacks, D.W. (2007). Exploring the comparative communications<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> advertising and public relations: An experimental study <strong>of</strong> initial<br />
branding advantage. Institute for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>. www.instituteforpr.org<br />
Pew Research Center for the People & the Press. (2009, September 13). Press Accuracy Rating<br />
75
Hits Two Decade Low; <strong>Public</strong> Evaluations <strong>of</strong> the News Media: 1985-2009. Retrieved<br />
October 1, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://people-press.org/report/543/<br />
Smith, R.D. (2009). Strategic planning for public relations. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.<br />
Stacks, D.W, & Michaelson, D. (2009). Exploring the comparative communications<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> advertising and public relations: A replication and extension <strong>of</strong> prior<br />
experiments. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal, 3(3), 2-22.<br />
76
Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Product Blogs in Taiwan: The Impact <strong>of</strong> User Motivation, Blogger<br />
Affiliation and Language Valence<br />
Chen-Yi (Joyce) Huang and Kirk Hallahan<br />
Colorado State University<br />
kirk.hallahan@colostate.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
A survey among college students in Taiwan (n=314) found that readers <strong>of</strong> product blogs were<br />
primarily motivated by knowledge/information seeking rather than social utility/entertainment.<br />
Attitudinal assessments <strong>of</strong> credibility and value were positively related to bloggers being<br />
independent and using balanced (versus all-positive) language. However, no statistically<br />
significant main effects were discerned based on these variables for purchase intent or for the<br />
likelihood <strong>of</strong> sharing information with others. Notably, respondents were more likely to respond<br />
<strong>of</strong>fline than online, and females were more likely than males to engage in information sharing.<br />
Participants also assess product blogs are more credible than reading product information in<br />
the form <strong>of</strong> ads or news.<br />
Introduction<br />
Blogs (also known as web logs) are personal diaries or journals that enable blog<br />
producers (bloggers) to comment on a wide range <strong>of</strong> topics (Kaye, 2005; Yang & Lim, 2009).<br />
Although the popularity <strong>of</strong> consumer blogs has waned somewhat in the United States since 2004-<br />
2005, blogs remain viable marketing public relations tool despite the inroads <strong>of</strong> social<br />
networking sites such as Facebook in the West and in Asia (CheckFacebook.com; Lenhart,<br />
Purcell, Smith, & Zickuhr, <strong>2010</strong>.<br />
This is especially true in Taiwan where blogging is particularly popular and one-quarter<br />
<strong>of</strong> Internet users maintain their own blogs, compared to 4% <strong>of</strong> Internet users in the United States<br />
(Institute for Information Industry, 2008; Lenhart & Fox 2006). Although blogging initially was<br />
most popular among young adults, the average age <strong>of</strong> bloggers in Taiwan has steadily increased.<br />
Today the age distribution <strong>of</strong> bloggers in the country roughly corresponds to that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population as a whole (Zhang, 2007).<br />
Major marketers in Taiwan, such as McDonald’s, routinely invite bloggers to write<br />
reviews about new products. Numerous bloggers in Taiwan recommend electronic devices,<br />
travel tours, cosmetics, foods and other products or services on their blogs—anything that people<br />
can imagine. Several famous bloggers even assemble their blog articles into books (Queen,<br />
2009; Wan-Wan, 2005). Most bloggers are conspicuously positive in terms <strong>of</strong> their<br />
recommendations, but others are not (Christabelle, 2008).<br />
In Taiwan, the ethics <strong>of</strong> blog marketing are not clearly delineated (Huang, Guo & He,<br />
2008), and bloggers are not required to disclosure how they obtain the products that they review<br />
or whether they receive any form <strong>of</strong> compensation for writing reviews. In Taiwan’s<br />
blogosphere, there are many “pr<strong>of</strong>essional bloggers” who write about new products on their<br />
blogs, such as 艾 瑪 隨 處 走 走 , I am Queen, and 美 食 摩 人 , and it is not easy for blog readers to<br />
differentiate whether these blogs are merely advertisements or authentic descriptions <strong>of</strong> a real<br />
user’s experience (“News finds,” 2009). Yet, most major marketers views bloggers as valuable<br />
sources <strong>of</strong> third-party endorsements.<br />
Cheng, a leading marketing practitioner, describes two types <strong>of</strong> marketing blogs (cited in<br />
He, 2007). One type includes company-sponsored blogs that promote product visibility and<br />
reader engagement. The second, more common type involves seeking exposure on independently<br />
77
produced blogs <strong>of</strong> famous bloggers who write commentaries about products. Cheng explains<br />
that marketers <strong>of</strong>ten target the top one or two most popular Taiwan bloggers because they want<br />
to see instant effects. These “A-list” bloggers are perceived by blog readers as ordinary<br />
consumers and more trustworthy than product marketers, media or celebrity endorsers (Shi,<br />
2008). Moreover, product recommendations by A-list bloggers are interesting to read and do<br />
not look or read like an advertisement.<br />
As in the United States, blog marketing has become a controversial marketing practice<br />
that has prompted extensive arguments in Taiwan’s blogosphere. Some bloggers and blog users<br />
believe that bloggers need to disclose possible conflicts <strong>of</strong> interest (Huang et al., 2008; Kates,<br />
2008; PipperL, 2008; Rickyli, 2005). Others argue that a blog is the blogger’s private space, not<br />
commercial speech, and that bloggers can and should write anything they wish. Defenders argue<br />
that blog readers do not pay for the information they obtain free from bloggers, and can choose<br />
which blogs to read and believe (DearJohn, 2008; Huang et al., 2008).<br />
In United States, the Federal Trade Commission now requires bloggers to disclose<br />
freebies (free merchandise provided for evaluation, which the blogger can keep or sell) as well as<br />
payments (cash compensation from a company) received in exchange for writing a product<br />
recommendation) (FTC News, 2009). FTC commissioners think transparent and conspicuous<br />
disclosure is good and necessary (Yao, 2009). Mass media in the U.S. have followed similar<br />
procedures for decades—and affirmatively guard against possible conflicts <strong>of</strong> interest related to<br />
cross-industry ownership <strong>of</strong> media and the industrial firms they cover (Choney, 2009). Freebies<br />
are discouraged in the code <strong>of</strong> ethics promulgated by organizations such as the <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Journalists (1996) and the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong> (2009). However,<br />
such protections are virtually non-existent in Taiwan (Qiu, 2009).<br />
Theoretical Foundations<br />
Again this backdrop, this study sought to examine perceptions <strong>of</strong> product blogs as an<br />
influential source <strong>of</strong> product information for consumers in Taiwan. In particular, this study drew<br />
upon three key concepts as its theoretical foundation: uses and gratifications theory as a basis for<br />
understanding the motivation <strong>of</strong> blog readers, the affiliation or independence <strong>of</strong> the bloggers as a<br />
means for assessing the credibility <strong>of</strong> blogs, and language expectancy theory as a way to<br />
understand the content blog readers expect to find. The study then measured the effect <strong>of</strong> these<br />
independent or predictor variables on four key criterion or dependent measures: readership <strong>of</strong><br />
blogs, attitudes, behavioral (purchase) intent and the likelihood readers will share information<br />
with others.<br />
Motivations for Blog Use<br />
Uses and gratifications theory (U&G) posits that people purposefully choose appropriate<br />
media to satisfy their needs and goals (Li, 2007). Prior research suggests that blog readers are<br />
quite intentional (Kaye, 2007; Li, 2007; Meadows, 2008; Swanson, 1979), and the interactive<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> blogs demands that users engage in selecting, responding to, forwarding and actively<br />
processing blog messages using a computer keyboard or the touchpad on a wireless device<br />
(Cowels, 1989).<br />
In general, uses and gratifications theory identifies four broad motivations for media use.<br />
These involve the satisfaction <strong>of</strong> cognitive needs (surveillance <strong>of</strong> the environment, need for<br />
cognition, problem solving), the development <strong>of</strong> self-identity, social utility (advantageous use <strong>of</strong><br />
information for social purposes), and diversion/entertainment (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973;<br />
Rubin, 1984, 1994; 2002).<br />
78
Uses and gratifications theory has provided a well-grounded perspective for studying<br />
motivations <strong>of</strong> blog readers (Kaye, 2005; Nardi, Schiano, Gumbrecht, & Swartz, 2004;<br />
Papacharissi, 2004; Trammell, Tarkowski, H<strong>of</strong>mokl, & Sapp, 2006). Kaye (2005), for example,<br />
identifies as motivations for blog use as: entertainment, communicating with friends who have<br />
blogs, knowledge seeking and serving as an information maven.<br />
This study elected to focus on three possible explanations for reading product blogs.<br />
Knowledge seeking involves users looking to blogs for specific information that might facilitate a<br />
purchase decision, reduce risk (Schiffman & Kanuk, cited in Henning-Thurau & Walsh, 2004),<br />
and/or provide information that is more up to date than information available in traditional media<br />
(Hamilton, 2003; Hastings, 2003; Kaye, 2005; Levy, 2002b; Ryan, 2003). Social utility refers to<br />
the idea that blog readers seek some sort <strong>of</strong> social advantage from the information obtained,<br />
based on the desire to be influential, to be affiliated with others, or to help others, to be socially<br />
accepted or to be recognized as an expert. This idea is consistent with the argument that<br />
maintaining personal relationships are primary factors why people want to use media (McQuail,<br />
Blumler & Brown, 1972). Diversion and entertainment refers to reading a blog simply for fun,<br />
relaxation, and enjoyment. Like other forms <strong>of</strong> Internet communication, such as e-mail or<br />
surfing the Web, reading blogs <strong>of</strong>fers an escape from boredom and work (Kaye, 2007).<br />
Affiliation/Independence <strong>of</strong> the Blogger<br />
The effectiveness <strong>of</strong> product messages in blogs were posited to be moderated by readers’<br />
perceptions about whether the blog author was a paid agent or employee <strong>of</strong> a product producer<br />
who received payments, gifts (including valuable product samples or freebies), or a salary from a<br />
marketer. These non-independent bloggers can be differentiated from independent bloggers,<br />
who are unaffiliated with product producers in any way and thus have nothing to gain or lose<br />
from making either positive or negative comments.<br />
Independence is an important dimension <strong>of</strong> source credibility, which has been shown in<br />
more than six decades <strong>of</strong> research to bias processing <strong>of</strong> persuasive messages. The greater the<br />
perceived source independence and credibility, the more likely the information will be accepted<br />
as accurate, believable, reliable and trustworthy (Hovland &Weiss, 1951; Ibelema & Powell,<br />
2001; Fogg & Tseng, 1999; Stanford, Tauber, Fogg & Marable, 2002). Similarly, greater source<br />
independence creates greater positive attitude change and behavioral intention (Hass, 1981;<br />
Milburn, 1991).<br />
Assessments about the credibility <strong>of</strong> blogs and bloggers vary widely, from general<br />
negative perceptions (Princeton Survey Research Associates International, 2005) to quite<br />
positive assessments among actual blog users (Banning, Bradley & Trammell, 2006; Johnson &<br />
Kaye, 2004). Research suggests that consumers look at a variety <strong>of</strong> cues when determining the<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> the online information, including disclosures about how information was obtained<br />
(Greer, 2003; Hong Nana, 2009; Lee & Youn, 2009).<br />
Positive v. Balanced Language Valence<br />
Finally, this study examined the consequences <strong>of</strong> language use, particularly in the<br />
inclusion <strong>of</strong> only positive comments about products (such as might be expected from a<br />
nonindependent blogger) versus more varied language where a combination <strong>of</strong> positive, neutral<br />
and negative comments might be included (such as might be expected from an independent<br />
blogger).<br />
Language expectancy theory (LET) assumes that people have specific expectations about<br />
the language and message strategies used by mass media and in other persuasive contexts<br />
(Burgoon, 1995; Burgoon et al., 2002). When words or the valence <strong>of</strong> ideas fall outside the<br />
79
ounds <strong>of</strong> expectations, cognitive conflicts results and message recipients scrutinize the message<br />
more critically and might either accept or reject the message. Positive violations occur when 1)<br />
the enacted behavior is preferred over what was expected, or (2) when a communicator is<br />
initially negatively evaluated by the receiver but the source then conforms to the expected<br />
behavior.<br />
Although the expectations <strong>of</strong> blog readers are not fully understood, if a blogger is<br />
presumed to be independent (similar to a journalist), the expectation <strong>of</strong> readers would be for the<br />
blogger to comment on products in a balanced manner. For a marketer, a blog post that is<br />
predominantly positive assessment should be sufficient, and the inclusion <strong>of</strong> incidental or<br />
nonmaterial negative comments might actually enhance the message’s credibility (Heath &<br />
Waymer, 2009). Importantly, most product blog commentaries in Taiwan are overwhelming<br />
positive, especially in situations where a blogger accepts a gift, because it would be considered<br />
culturally impolite to talk negatively about a gift.<br />
To explain the effects <strong>of</strong> motivation, affiliation and language expectations, this study<br />
focused on four dependent or criterion variables:<br />
Readership<br />
Perhaps the most fundamental measure is simply the extent to which people actually use<br />
blogs, specifically online web logs that address product information. Little research about actual<br />
readership among Taiwan blog users was conducted previously, but readership can be measured<br />
by observing blog use, tracking patterns on the computer, asking people to report the number <strong>of</strong><br />
blogs they view, measuring time spent with blogs, and/or asking people to assess their reliance<br />
on blogs (Eveland & Dylko, 2007; Kaye, 2007; Lenhart & Fox, 2006; Li, 2007; Sweetser et al,<br />
2008).<br />
Attitudes<br />
The impact <strong>of</strong> blogs can also be measured by focusing on people’s attitudes toward them.<br />
Fishbein and Ajzen (<strong>2010</strong>) defined attitude as a “latent disposition or tendency to respond with<br />
some degree <strong>of</strong> favorableness or unfavorableness to a psychological object” (p. 76 & p. 125).<br />
People are thus posited to demonstrate different predispositions toward product blogs based on<br />
their motivations, expectancies, and social norms about product blogs and its bloggers. Johnson<br />
and Kaye (2004, p. 63) found that higher use, in fact, results in higher assessments <strong>of</strong> credibility.<br />
Behavioral (Purchase) Intent<br />
Purchase intent is a form <strong>of</strong> behavioral intent dealing with the probability that a person<br />
would actually take an action (such as purchase a product or service) after being exposed to a<br />
persuasive message. According to Fishbein & Azjen (<strong>2010</strong>, p. 48) asking people about their<br />
intention to take a particular action is a reasonably reliable method to predict an individual’s<br />
plans to act, presuming that they are not impaired from taking the focal action and their personal<br />
goals or needs do not change. Purchase intent is thus a higher-order measure <strong>of</strong> potential effects<br />
than merely attitudes and is the self-reported probability that the stated action will be undertaken<br />
(Hallahan, 1999).<br />
Information Sharing<br />
Blogs are fundamentally a form <strong>of</strong> information sharing that take places at two levels.<br />
First the blogger shares information with blog readers. In turn, readers then are encouraged to<br />
share what they read with friends and family through word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth (Arndt, 1967). Information<br />
sharers have alternatively been termed opinion leaders (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955), market<br />
mavens (Feick & Price, 1987; Goody & East, 2008), and product advocates/evangelists or citizen<br />
marketers (Kawasaki, 2004; McConnel & Huba, 2007a, b; Thorn, 2008).<br />
80
Thus the degree to which blog readers might share information is a potential outcome<br />
important to marketers. Importantly, information sharing is the opposite <strong>of</strong> information seeking<br />
and predominantly involves <strong>of</strong>fline activities (Brown, Broderick & Lee, 2007; Keller & Berry,<br />
2006). However, the importance <strong>of</strong> online activities or electronic word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth (eWOM) has<br />
been the focus <strong>of</strong> marketers in recent years (Dellarocas, 2003; Goldsmith & Horowitz, 2006; Lee<br />
& Youn, 2009; Sen & Lerman, 2007; WOMMA 2009). Such activities are especially important<br />
for Asians, who trust information heard via word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth to a far greater extent than their<br />
<strong>America</strong>n or European counterparts (Lee & Youn, 2009; Nielsen, 2007).<br />
Hypotheses and Method<br />
Hypotheses<br />
Based on the literature review, this study investigated five hypotheses:<br />
H1. Blog readers motivated by the information seeking are more likely to a) read product<br />
blogs, b) think that independence <strong>of</strong> the blogger is important and c) favor a combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> positive and negative comments (balanced language in a blog).<br />
H2. Blogs written by bloggers that readers believe are independent, i.e., not affiliated<br />
with a marketer a) are perceived by readers as more credible, b) are perceived by readers<br />
as most valuable, and c) lead to higher purchase intent.<br />
H3. Blogs that present a combination <strong>of</strong> balanced comments (positive and negative<br />
versus all-positive) are a) perceived by readers as more credible, b) perceived by readers<br />
as more valuable, and c) lead to higher purchase intent.<br />
H4. Blog readers motivated by social utility are more likely to share product information<br />
or engage in word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth than those motivated by knowledge/information seeking.<br />
H5. People with positive attitudes toward blogs a) pay more attention to product blogs<br />
than advertisements, b) believe that blog endorsements are more trustworthy than<br />
advertisements, and c) believe that blog endorsements are more trustworthy than reading<br />
about products in news.<br />
Participants and Procedure<br />
To investigate these issues a survey was conducted in December 2009 among a<br />
convenient sample <strong>of</strong> college students at the National Changhua University <strong>of</strong> Education in<br />
Taiwan (n=314). The upper-classmen were mostly between the ages <strong>of</strong> 20 and 23, participated in<br />
the study was part <strong>of</strong> a class, and were eligible to participate in a prize raffle in exchange for<br />
their participation.<br />
Participants completed a four-page paper-and-pencil questionnaire in Chinese. The first<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the questionnaire collected information about participants’ blog and Internet experience,<br />
demographic information and motivations to read blogs. The second and third sections asked<br />
about participants’ attitudes and opinions regarding bloggers’ endorsements, which included<br />
bloggers’ affiliation with companies, and perceptions about the positive and negative valences <strong>of</strong><br />
blog messages. The final section <strong>of</strong> the questionnaire examined participants’ purchase intention<br />
after reading product blogs and how readers compared blogs to advertising and news as sources<br />
<strong>of</strong> product information.<br />
Operationalizations<br />
Motivation to use blogs was addressed using 15 items that focused on three types <strong>of</strong><br />
needs addressed in users and gratifications theory: knowledge seeking, social utility and<br />
diversion/entertainment. Participants were be asked about the reasons they read blogs using an<br />
8-point Likert scale where 0 = never and 7 = a lot.<br />
81
Affiliation/independence <strong>of</strong> bloggers was examined by asking participants to assume<br />
three different situations and then express their opinions about the blogs they might read in each<br />
situation. The situations assumed the blogger is (1) an employee <strong>of</strong> a company selling the<br />
product, i.e. he/she works for the company; (2) an independent blogger, i.e. does not work for a<br />
company and does not accept compensation from a company; and (3) an independent blogger<br />
who was paid for writing about marketers’ products. Participants responded on a 10-item, 7-<br />
point semantic differential scale that used randomly reversed scale items previously used by<br />
Hallahan (1999), Beltramini (1988) and Meyer (1988). Separately, the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
independence was corroborated by asking participants to respond to 7 statements designed to<br />
provide insights.<br />
Positive v. balanced language was measured by presenting participants with two<br />
hypothetical situations where the comments in the blog were described as being either all<br />
positive or a balanced combination <strong>of</strong> both positive and negative comments were then asked their<br />
probable assessments <strong>of</strong> the blog postings using the same 10-item, 7-point semantic differential<br />
randomly reversed scale items used to assess the independence <strong>of</strong> the bloggers (see above).<br />
Blog readership was assessed using a single 8-point Likert scale in which participants<br />
indicate the extent to which they read blogs, were 0=never, 1=very little and 7=a lot. This<br />
measure was validated by comparing responses to participants’ estimation <strong>of</strong> the amount <strong>of</strong> time<br />
they spending reading blogs.<br />
Attitudes toward blogs were measured using a 4-item 7-point semantic differential scale<br />
using the antonymal pairs not appealing/appealing, dislike/like, good/bad and positive/negative.<br />
Purchase intention was analyzed using a 4-item, 7-point Likert scale. Participants were<br />
asked the degree to which they were likely to, were willing to, would plan to, or definitely would<br />
purchase a product they read about in a blog.<br />
Information sharing was measured by with a list <strong>of</strong> 9 possible behaviors and asking<br />
participants on a 7-point Likert scale how likely they were to engage in each activity.<br />
Comparative assessments: To assess respondents’ opinions about blogs compared to<br />
advertising or news, participants were be asked 5 questions to which they responded using a 7-<br />
point Likert scale, where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree.<br />
Other confounds or explanatory variables were measured. Participants were asked to<br />
indicate their sex and age using check-<strong>of</strong>f boxes. Participants were asked to estimate in hours<br />
and/or minutes their time spent on 7 Internet-related activities in a typical day. Experience<br />
reading, writing and commenting on blogs was measured using an 8-point Likert scale where<br />
0=no experience at all, 1=a little and 7=a lot. The three items included: reading blogs, writing<br />
your own blog(s), and posting comments on blogs.<br />
Statistical Analysis<br />
Potential scale items were factor analyzed and tested for reliability using the Cronbach<br />
(1951) alpha statistic. All proved sufficiently reliable (alpha >.70), except as noted, and<br />
descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were compiled for each index. Findings<br />
for statistical tests were deemed significant at the p≤.05 level.<br />
Findings<br />
Participants and Their Blog/Internet Use<br />
Among the 314 participants, 104 (33.3%) were males and 208 (66.6%) were females,<br />
with two participants not reporting their sex. Most participants (n=283, 91.3%) were 23 and<br />
under. Participants reported spending an average <strong>of</strong> about 45 minutes a day reading blogs<br />
(M=.74; SD=.85 hours) and about 20 minutes a day reading product blogs (M=.36; SD=.59<br />
82
hours). Blog reading was dwarfed by looking at websites (M=1.58, SD=1.54 hours) and instant<br />
messaging/texting (M=3.52, SD=4.41 hours) and fell just short <strong>of</strong> engagement in social<br />
networking (M=.88; SD=1.29 hours). Blog reading exceeded reading e-mail (M=.46, SD=.73<br />
hours) and posting messages on their own Web site (M=.48, SD=.82). Overall, using a 7-point<br />
scale (7=strongly agree. 1=strongly disagree), participants reported having a lot <strong>of</strong> experience in<br />
reading blogs (M=4.46, SD=1.75), but less experience writing their own blog (M=3.68,<br />
SD=1.96) and posting comments on blogs (M=3.31, SD=1.69).<br />
Descriptions <strong>of</strong> Scales<br />
Motivation indexes. Table 1 summarizes results for the 13 items used to measure<br />
motivations to read blogs. When items were factory analyzed, two factors emerged (instead <strong>of</strong><br />
the original three) and were used in the analysis. Together, these factors accounted for 71.9% <strong>of</strong><br />
the variance among the items. One factor was labeled knowledge-seeking motivation and<br />
included the six items related to seeking information, chatting with others about products,<br />
reducing risk, saving time, becoming knowledgeable and obtaining expert opinions. The second<br />
factor combined the seven remaining items related to the social utility/entertainment value <strong>of</strong> the<br />
information. Items in the second factor included connecting with friends, passing time, sharing<br />
information, helping friends solve problems, having fun, being influential and relaxation. Table<br />
1 suggests that both knowledge seeking and social utility/entertainment were relatively<br />
comparable in terms <strong>of</strong> their importance (M=3.79 v. M=3.62), but that seeking information is the<br />
single most popular motivation that explained why people read product blogs (M = 4.42).<br />
Table 1<br />
Motivations to Read Product Blogs<br />
People are motivated to read blogs that talk about products for various reasons. To what degree<br />
do you use blogs for each <strong>of</strong> the following purposes?<br />
7 = frequently, 0 = never use.<br />
M<br />
SD<br />
Knowledge-seeking factor (α=.92) 3.79 1.648<br />
Seek information 4.42 1.939<br />
Being able to chat with others about products 3.05 1.856<br />
Reduce risk <strong>of</strong> making a bad purchasing decision 3.66 2.054<br />
Save time gathering information 3.94 1.935<br />
Make me knowledgeable 3.99 1.864<br />
Obtain experts’ opinions about products 3.78 1.947<br />
Eigenvalue=8.23 (62% <strong>of</strong> variance)<br />
Social utility/ Entertainment factor (α=.92) 3.62 1.561<br />
Connect with friends 3.50 2.024<br />
Pass time 3.69 1.878<br />
Share information with others 3.88 1.866<br />
Help friends solve problems 3.41 1.757<br />
Have fun 3.97 1.882<br />
Want to be influential 2.94 1.812<br />
For relaxation 4.05 1.932<br />
Eigenvalue=1.11 (8.52% <strong>of</strong> the variance)<br />
83
Assessments <strong>of</strong> Bloggers Independence. Table 2 shows participants’ assessments <strong>of</strong><br />
blogger credibility to the three categories <strong>of</strong> bloggers in the study: independent bloggers,<br />
employee bloggers, and paid bloggers. Three separate factor analyses based on blogger<br />
affiliation, and these accounted for 71.5%, 68.2% and 73.9% <strong>of</strong> the variance. Although the 10-<br />
item index showed high levels <strong>of</strong> reliability, the a 5-item shortened scale that emerged from the<br />
first factor (incorporating convincing, valuable, trustworthy and accurate) proved to a shorter,<br />
more efficient and accounted for half <strong>of</strong> the total variance. Thus the items in the weaker factor<br />
(composed <strong>of</strong> believable, reputable, persuasive, useful and truthful) were dropped from the<br />
analysis. Regardless <strong>of</strong> which measure is considered, Table 2 suggests that participants view<br />
independent bloggers more favorably than either employee bloggers or paid bloggers.<br />
Table 2<br />
Effects <strong>of</strong> Perceived Affiliations between Marketers and Bloggers<br />
Independent Employee Paid a fee<br />
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)<br />
Credibility Index 4.40 (1.030) 3.80 (1.033) 3.23 (1.109)<br />
Credible 4.53 (1.276) 3.57 (1.305) 3.02 (1.286)<br />
Convincing 4.39 (1.218) 3.71 (1.193) 3.18 (1.324)<br />
Valuable 4.52 (1.265) 4.07 (1.276) 3.45 (1.366)<br />
Trustworthy 4.29 (1.161) 3.75 (1.184) 3.15 (1.214)<br />
Accurate 4.32 (1.115) 3.95 (1.173) 3.40 (1.250)<br />
Eigenvalues 5.09 4.89 5.75<br />
Variance explained 50.2% 48.9% 57.%<br />
α= .906 .896 .912<br />
Other Items Excluded from Analysis<br />
Believable 4.21 (1.223) 3.91 (1.159) 3.54 (1.402)<br />
Reputable 4.09 (1.181) 3.97 (1.208) 3.51 (1.408)<br />
Persuasive 4.18 (1.315) 3.84 (1.261) 3.50 (1.386)<br />
Useful 4.34 (1.235) 3.95 (1.176) 3.67 (1.345)<br />
Truthful 4.31 (1.289) 3.87 (1.315) 3.46 (1.489)<br />
All-Positive v. Balanced Language. Table 3 summarizes participants’ assessments <strong>of</strong><br />
blogs based on the use <strong>of</strong> all-positive versus balanced language using the same 10-item scale.<br />
Similar to the analysis for blogger affiliation, factor analysis revealed two parallel dimensions,<br />
which together accounted for 78.1% and 77.6% <strong>of</strong> the variance, respectively. Again, the first<br />
factor (credible, convincing, valuable, trustworthy and accurate) again accounted for an<br />
overwhelming proportion <strong>of</strong> the total variance and the other items were dropped for analysis<br />
purposes.<br />
Table 3<br />
84
Effects <strong>of</strong> Language on Responses<br />
Balanced<br />
Language<br />
M (SD)<br />
Positive<br />
Language<br />
M (SD)<br />
Credibility Index 4.82 (1.084) 3.99 (1.206)<br />
Credible 4.92 (1.226) 3.91 (1.459)<br />
Convincing 4.83 (1.267) 3.93 (1.383)<br />
Valuable 4.96 (1.245) 4.07 (1.381)<br />
Trustworthy 4.77 (1.225) 3.99 (1.301)<br />
Accurate 4.69 (1.176) 4.02 (1.257)<br />
Eigenvalues 6.46 6.29<br />
Percent Variance 64.6% 62.9%<br />
α= .932 .935<br />
Other Items Omitted from Index<br />
Believable 4.77 (1.309) 4.01 (1.378)<br />
Reputable 4.61 (1.299) 4.01 (1.375)<br />
Persuasive 4.68 (1.338) 4.00 (1.411)<br />
Useful 4.74 (1.302) 4.07 (1.361)<br />
Truthful 4.76 (1.334) 3.89 (1.432)<br />
Participants’ Opinions About Bloggers' <strong>Relations</strong>hips to Sources. Table 4<br />
summarizes findings from the series <strong>of</strong> statements to which respondents were asked to respond<br />
regarding their perceptions about bloggers and the relationship between bloggers and sources.<br />
The data suggest that the biggest concern for participants was that the blogger does not receive<br />
money from the marketer or the company (M = 4.94). The second most important issue is that<br />
the blogger states clearly if he/she receives free samples (M = 4.72). The third most important<br />
issue is that the blogger does not receive free samples (M = 4.69). Interestingly, participants<br />
appeared to be considerably less wary about bloggers who might be an employee <strong>of</strong> a company.<br />
Presumably this is acceptable as long as the relationship is disclosed.<br />
Table 4<br />
Participants Opinions About Bloggers <strong>Relations</strong>hips to Sources<br />
In reading product blogs, how important would each <strong>of</strong> the following be to you in making your<br />
purchasing decision?<br />
7 = important to me, 1 = not important<br />
M (SD)<br />
The blogger does not receive money from the marketer or the company 4.94 (1.625)<br />
the marketer or the company.<br />
The blogger states clearly that he/she receives free samples, e.g. a cell 4.72 (1.505)<br />
85
phone, from the marketer or the company.<br />
The blogger does not receive free samples, e.g. a cell phone from the 4.69 (1.613)<br />
e.g., a cell phone, from the marketer or the company.<br />
The blogger states clearly that he/she receives money from the marketer. 4.64 (1.614)<br />
receives money from the marketer or the company<br />
Blogger is independent. 4.48 (1.549)<br />
Blogger is an employee <strong>of</strong> the company 4.08 (1.635)<br />
Attitudes and Purchase Intent. Table 5a reveals that participants’ are moderately<br />
favorable in their attitudes (M=3.96) but their attitudes toward blogs vary widely (SD=1.52)<br />
based on the 4-item index used to measure general predispositions toward blogs. As expected<br />
and shown in Table 5b, the scores for purchase intent were lower than for the attitudes index<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the commitment implied (M=3.58; SD=1.252).<br />
Table 5<br />
Attitudes Toward Blogs and Purchase Intent<br />
a) Attitudes Toward Blogs<br />
Which <strong>of</strong> the following best describes how you feel about with blogs that discuss products and<br />
services.<br />
7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree<br />
M SD<br />
Attitudes Index 3.96 1.521<br />
Appealing 3.84 1.703<br />
Like 3.95 1.534<br />
Good (reversed item) 4.06 1.429<br />
Positive 4.00 1.402<br />
b) Purchase Intent<br />
Now take a moment to think about how likely are you to actually purchase a product after<br />
reading it in a blog. For each statement, indicate the degree you disagree to agree.<br />
7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree<br />
M (SD)<br />
Purchase Intent Index (α = .850) 3.58 (1.252)<br />
I am likely to purchase a product I read about 4.15 (1.562)<br />
I would be willing to purchase a product I read about 4.05 (1.497)<br />
I would plan to purchase a product I read about 3.46 (1.532)<br />
I definitely would purchase a product I read about 2.69 (1.435)<br />
Information Sharing. Table 6 summarizes participants’ reported communication<br />
behaviors after reading blogs that discuss products or services. Factor analysis suggested that the<br />
9 activities neatly grouped into factors representing <strong>of</strong>fline and online activities—and the model<br />
accounted for 74% <strong>of</strong> the variance. Participants said they were more likely to engage in <strong>of</strong>fline<br />
activities (M = 3.93) than online activities (M = 2.81; paired t-test: t = 15.946, df = 300, p <<br />
.000). For <strong>of</strong>fline activities, sharing the information with others <strong>of</strong>fline is the most likely<br />
86
esponse (M = 4.13). For online activities, participants were most likely to forward the blog to<br />
friends (M = 3.32).<br />
Table 6<br />
Participants’ Information Activities<br />
After reading a blog that talks about products, how likely would you engage in each <strong>of</strong> the<br />
following activities?<br />
7 = very likely, 1 = not likely<br />
M (SD)<br />
Index – Offline Activities (α = .907) 3.93 (1.397)<br />
Share the information with others <strong>of</strong>fline 4.13 (1.604)<br />
Tell friends 4.05 (1.549)<br />
Share the product information with families or friends 3.88 (1.576)<br />
Talk to families or friends about the information I learned 3.65 (1.600)<br />
Eigenvalue = 5.26 (58.5% <strong>of</strong> variance)<br />
Index—Online Activities (α = .884) 2.81 (1.283)<br />
Forward the blog to friends 3.32 (1.620)<br />
Leave a comment and post on the blog 2.92 (1.621)<br />
Post comments or add links on your social networking site(s), 2.74 (1.563)<br />
such as Facebook<br />
Post a comment or trackback on your own blog 2.66 (1.500)<br />
Text messages or email to friends or families 2.56 (1.517)<br />
Eigenvalue = 1.44 (16.0% <strong>of</strong> variance)<br />
Participants’ Assessments <strong>of</strong> Blogs. Table 7 summarizes participants’ responses to the 5<br />
questions intended to probe their perceptions <strong>of</strong> blogs. A blogger’s reputation is a criterion, and<br />
participants believe a blogger with a bad reputation attracts fewer readers (M = 4.39). Meanwhile<br />
a blogger with a large following is more believable. Although participants opined that product<br />
blogs are more trustworthy than product information appearing in either advertising (M = 4.36)<br />
or news (M = 4.23), participants reported they were not more likely to pay attention to a blogger<br />
than an advertisement by a marketer (M = 3.96).<br />
Table 7<br />
Participants Preferences<br />
Finally, please respond to the follow statements.<br />
7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree<br />
M (SD)<br />
A blogger with a bad reputation attracts fewer readers 4.39 (1.712)<br />
A blogger who has a large <strong>of</strong> followers is more believable to me 4.39 (1.516)<br />
Bloggers’ endorsements are more trustworthy than 4.36 (1.433)<br />
marketers’ advertisements<br />
87
Bloggers’ endorsements are more trustworthy than reading 4.23 (1.355)<br />
about the same product at the news<br />
For new products, I would pay more attention on looking at 3.96 (1.467)<br />
bloggers’ blogs than advertisements<br />
Hypothesis Tests<br />
H1 – Effects <strong>of</strong> Motivation. Hypothesis1 predicted that blog readers motivated by the<br />
knowledge seeking (versus social or entertainment value) are more likely to a) read product<br />
blogs frequently, b) think that the independence <strong>of</strong> the blogger is important, and c) favor<br />
balanced language (a combination <strong>of</strong> positive and negative comments) in a blog.<br />
H1a was supported, suggesting that knowledge seeking and frequency <strong>of</strong> blog use are<br />
positively related (R 2 = .569, F(2, 286) = 188.40, p < .000). Knowledge seeking was significant<br />
(β = .777, p < .000), while social and entertainment value was not (β = -.030, p
5-item Index 4.41(1.030) 3.80(1.033) 3.23(1.109) .61 2.85*** .57 8.47***<br />
Differences are means between two <strong>of</strong> the assessments based on affiliation. Credible and<br />
valuable are separate items within the 5-item index that also included convincing, trustworthy and<br />
accurate. ***p=.000 (dfs=302-310).<br />
By contrast, H2c predicted that purchase intent and identification <strong>of</strong> the blogger as<br />
dependent were positively related. This was not supported. Regression analysis showed no<br />
difference when scores for the 5-item Index for the three categories were regressed onto each<br />
participants’ purchase intent score (R 2 = .140, F (3,297) = 16.114, p ≤ .000). Regression results<br />
showed positive effects for independent bloggers (β = .281, p ≤ .000), employee bloggers (β =<br />
.117, p ≤ .047), and paid bloggers (β = .122, p ≤ .040).<br />
H3 – Effects <strong>of</strong> Language. Hypothesis 3 predicted that blogs that present balanced<br />
comments (a combination <strong>of</strong> positive and negative assessments versus all-positive comments)<br />
are a) perceived by readers as more credible, b) perceived by readers as more valuable, and c) are<br />
more likely to increase purchase intent. Similar to Hypothesis 2 regarding the effects <strong>of</strong> blogger<br />
affiliation, H3a and H3b were supported based on the single-item measures for “credible” and<br />
“valuable” as well as the 5-item Index measuring participants’ assessments. Table 9 shows that<br />
blogs that presented balanced language were perceived more favorably than those that used allpositive<br />
language. Also similar to H2, no differences were found in purchase intent based on<br />
language use (R 2 = .093, F(2,299) = 15.30, p ≤ .000; Positive language β = .163, p ≤ .004;<br />
Balanced language β = .236, p ≤ .000).<br />
Table 9<br />
Paired t-test Comparison <strong>of</strong> Assessments Based on Language Use<br />
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations (7 = positive, 1 = negative)<br />
Balanced Language All-positive Difference<br />
M (SD) M (SD) M t<br />
Credible 4.92(1.226) 3.91(1.460) 1.016 10.06***<br />
Valuable 4.96(1.245) 4.06(1.379) .899 9.02***<br />
5-item index 4.82(1.083) 3.98(1.210) -.835 9.62***<br />
Credible and valuable are separate items within the 5-item index score, which also included<br />
convincing, trustworthy and accurate. ***p=.000 (dfs=301-310).<br />
H4 – Information Sharing/Word <strong>of</strong> Mouth. Hypothesis 4 predicted blog readers<br />
motivated by social utility and entertainment value are more likely to share product information<br />
or engage in word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth (WOM) compared to those motivated by the knowledge-seeking.<br />
H4 was partially supported, but only in the case <strong>of</strong> engaging in online information sharing<br />
(eWOM). Table 6 reported that <strong>of</strong>fline information sharing (M = 3.92) was more frequent than<br />
online activities (M = 2.81). A further analysis revealed a sex effect where females indicated a<br />
higher likelihood <strong>of</strong> engaging in <strong>of</strong>fline WOM than males (Females M = 4.06, SD = 1.418; Males<br />
M = 3.66, SD = 1.327, t = 2.362, df = 302, p ≤ .019). Notably, gender-based differences were not<br />
significant in the case <strong>of</strong> online responses, although males appeared to be more likely to respond<br />
89
online WOM (Males M = 2.99, SD = 1.232; Females M = 2.725, SD = 1.308, t = 1.685, df = 299,<br />
p ≤ .093)<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> online WOM, regression analysis showed that social utility/entertainment<br />
was positively related to sharing information with others (R 2 = .199, F(2,290) = 35.942, p ≤<br />
.000). The effect for social utility/entertainment was not significant (β = .398, p = .000) while<br />
the effect for knowledge seeking was not significant (β = .059, p ≤ .491). This suggests that<br />
when the motivation is social or entertainment, participants are willing to share information<br />
online. Stated another way, their motivation and actions are compatible, both involving social<br />
activity.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fline WOM, a regression analysis took into account the possible effects<br />
<strong>of</strong> sex as well as both knowledge seeking and social utility/entertainment motivations (R 2 = .308,<br />
F(3,289) = 42.82, p = .000). The effect <strong>of</strong> sex was non-significant (β = .049, p ≤ .325), while the<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> both forms <strong>of</strong> motivation were significant (Knowledge Seeking β = .403, p = .000;<br />
Social Utility/Entertainment β = .167, p ≤ .037).<br />
H5 – Effects <strong>of</strong> Blog Attitudes. Hypothesis 5 predicted people with positive attitudes<br />
toward blogs a) pay more attention to product blogs than advertisements, b) believe that blog<br />
endorsements are more trustworthy than advertisements, and c) believe that blog endorsements<br />
are more trustworthy than reading product information in the news. H5a-H5c were all supported,<br />
based on positive correlations with attention paid to blogs compared to advertisements (r = .334,<br />
p = .000), assessments <strong>of</strong> the trustworthiness <strong>of</strong> blogs versus ads (r = .294, p = .000), and<br />
assessments <strong>of</strong> the trustworthiness <strong>of</strong> blogs versus news (r = .278, p = .000). Although the<br />
finding was not hypothesized, the study also found a positive relationship between attitudes<br />
toward blogs and whether the participant felt a larger following <strong>of</strong> blog readers made bloggers<br />
more believable (r = .332, p = .000) and whether the participant believed a bad reputation led to<br />
fewer readers (r = .179, p ≤ .001).<br />
Discussion<br />
This study points to the need to better understand the impact <strong>of</strong> blogs and other online<br />
promotional tools in the context <strong>of</strong> marketing public relations. The findings suggest that even<br />
students are largely attracted to blogs when seeking knowledge/information about products,<br />
although blogs might also provide social utility/entertainment gratifications. This finding is<br />
consistent with research that suggests people like the anonymity associated with searching for<br />
product information online vis-à-vis dealing with a salesperson (Thorne, 2008).<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> motivation was corroborated in supplementary hierarchical regression<br />
where a series <strong>of</strong> variables positively related to attitudes were analyzed together by entering them<br />
to the equation in four steps. In the first two steps <strong>of</strong> the model, both sex and independent<br />
affiliation proved to be statistically significant, while the addition <strong>of</strong> balanced language in the<br />
third step was not statistically significant and added little understanding. However, the effects <strong>of</strong><br />
sex and affiliation became nonsignificant when knowledge seeking was added in the fourth step.<br />
This suggests that being motivated to seek knowledge is the best (only significant) predictor <strong>of</strong><br />
positive attitudes toward blogs (R 2= . 44, R 2 change = .294, p = .000; β = .578, p = .000). Similar<br />
results were obtained for purchase intent, using a somewhat different combination <strong>of</strong> positively<br />
correlated variables. Knowledge/information seeking proved to be the only significant predictor<br />
<strong>of</strong> purchase intent (R 2 = .362, β = .355, p = .000).<br />
The findings also demonstrate that all blogs are not the same. The young Taiwan adults<br />
in this study reacted more positively when they perceived the blogger was independent (versus<br />
being an employee or receiving compensation from a marketer) and when they perceived that<br />
90
ecommendations were more objective (based on the use <strong>of</strong> balanced versus all-positive<br />
language). In this vein, it was noteworthy had the young adults in the study considered blogs<br />
more trustworthy than either advertisements or news – a finding that might be explained by the<br />
fact that many people considered bloggers to similar to themselves vis-à-vis staff journalists<br />
(Mackay & Lowrey, 2007). Participants seemed to indicate that while independent bloggers<br />
were a preferred source, it is acceptable for employee bloggers to write about their company’s<br />
products as long as they disclose their employee relationship. Deception occurs when bloggers<br />
are paid but the relationship is not disclosed.<br />
This study has several limitations. Most notably, findings are based on a survey involving<br />
a convenient sample <strong>of</strong> college students in a particular Asian country and thus might not be<br />
generalizable to all blog users globally. Different results might have been obtained in a critical<br />
experiment that focused on particular products and controlled for both product knowledge and<br />
involvement among participants and thus might producer clearer results related to purchase<br />
intent.<br />
Nonetheless, the evidence supports previous findings about the importance <strong>of</strong> source<br />
credibility in an online environment (Fogg & Tseng, 1999; Johnson & Kaye, 2004; Kaye, 2007;<br />
Stanford, Tauber, Fogg & Marable, 2002) and suggests that marketers and PR practitioners<br />
consider carefully the value <strong>of</strong> balanced product reviews that incorporate neutral or even<br />
negative comments sufficient in enhance the credibility <strong>of</strong> a blog (and other) commentators in<br />
what might still be an overall positive commentary.<br />
Interestingly, these findings contradict expectations that might otherwise be expected in a<br />
collectivist culture that emphasizes saving face (Ito, 1992, p. Hsu, 2006); respect for gift givers,<br />
and maintaining reciprocal relationships (guanxi) in society (Hsu, 2006; Luo, 2007). However,<br />
writing only positive comments is a practice not limited to Taiwan. One famous <strong>America</strong>n<br />
“mommy blogger” observes that if she does not like a product, she simply doesn’t write anything<br />
about it (Colleen Padilla, cited in Joshi, 2009).<br />
For public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and marketers interested in the deployment <strong>of</strong> blogs<br />
and related online tools, perhaps the most interesting findings relate to how participants respond<br />
by sharing the product information they read with others.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> responding online, hierarchical regression analyses suggested that sharing<br />
information online was related to being male, greater self-reported experience reading blogs,<br />
greater use <strong>of</strong> e-mail, greater frequency <strong>of</strong> using blogs, motivation for social/entertainment<br />
purposes, and the nonindependence <strong>of</strong> the blogger (being en employee or receiving a fee). The<br />
final step in the analysis (R 2 = .312) suggested that sharing information was unrelated to reading<br />
blogs or frequency <strong>of</strong> use, but was related to being male (β = -.170, p < .002), e-mail use in hours<br />
(β = .112, p < .035), motivation based on social utility/entertainment purposes (β = .358, p =<br />
.000), and affiliation <strong>of</strong> the bloggers as an employee (β = .149, p < .014) or affiliation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
blogger as a paid agent (β = .172, p < .002). Although a definitive explanation is difficult, one<br />
explanation would be that males who are more frequent online users and who said they read<br />
blogs for social or entertainment purposes are more likely than females to respond online—<br />
particularly to counterargue about postings from employee or paid bloggers that they questioned.<br />
Thus, electronic word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth can be negative, not necessarily positive (Sen & Lerman, 2007).<br />
However, such a conclusion would need to be tested in subsequent research.<br />
By contrast, quite different results were obtained in parallel hierarchical regression<br />
analysis that focusing on sharing information <strong>of</strong>fline. Preliminary findings showed that<br />
responding <strong>of</strong>fline was positively related to being female, greater reading <strong>of</strong> blogs, greater<br />
91
frequency <strong>of</strong> blog uses, both forms <strong>of</strong> motivation, the nonindependence <strong>of</strong> bloggers, and the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> balanced language. The hierarchical regressions shows that although females ostensibly were<br />
more likely to share information <strong>of</strong>fline, the effect <strong>of</strong> sex was negated by time spent reading<br />
blogs, which in turn was negated by frequency <strong>of</strong> blog use. In the final step, blogger affiliation<br />
also had no effect, while the best (only significant) predictors <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fline information sharing (R 2=<br />
.388) appeared to be the two forms <strong>of</strong> user motivation (knowledge seeking: β = .415, p = .000;<br />
social/entertainment: β = .169, p < .040). Thus, users might be motivated to share information<br />
for different reasons.<br />
In conclusion, this study suggests that blogs can be powerful communications tools that<br />
help organizations advance their causes by providing valuable third-party endorsements<br />
(Hallahan, 1999a, b) <strong>of</strong> products and service, both by bloggers and by the individuals who share<br />
the information they read with others. Yet, blogs are not advertising, and it appears blogs have<br />
the potential be most effective when they appear to be an independent, authoritative source <strong>of</strong><br />
information and that perception is confirmed by the use <strong>of</strong> balanced language that enhances the<br />
credibility <strong>of</strong> the source and makes product announcements and reviews more authentic.<br />
When incorporating third-party blog endorsements in a PR program, practitioners must<br />
keep bear in mind that blog reading is a user-driven activity, and that readers are eager to derive<br />
either knowledge- or social/entertainment-based gratifications. Readers also care about the<br />
affiliation <strong>of</strong> bloggers and scrutinize the information that bloggers disclose about themselves.<br />
Finally, they use cues such as the use <strong>of</strong> balanced versus all-positive language to distinguish<br />
between ingenuine advertisements versus authentic recommendations.<br />
References<br />
Arndt, J (1967). Role <strong>of</strong> product-related conversations in the diffusion <strong>of</strong> a new product. Journal<br />
<strong>of</strong> Marketing Research, 4(3), 291-295.<br />
Babbie, E. (1990). Survey research methods. Belmont: Wadsworth.<br />
Banning, S. & Trammell, K.D. (2006, August). Revisiting the issue <strong>of</strong> blog credibility: A<br />
national survey. Paper presented at the annual conference at the Association for<br />
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, San Francisco, CA.<br />
Beltramini, R. F. (1988). Perceived believability <strong>of</strong> warning label information presented in<br />
cigarette advertising. Journal <strong>of</strong> Advertising, 17(1), 26–32.<br />
Brown, J., Broderick, A. J., & Lee, N. (2007). Word <strong>of</strong> mouth communication within online<br />
communities: Conceptualizing the online social network. Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive<br />
Marketing, 21(3), 2-20. Retrieved from<br />
http://apgsweden.typepad.com/apgsweden/files/viralzzz.pdf<br />
Burgoon, M. (1995). Language expectancy theory: Elaboration, explication, and extension. In C.<br />
R. Berger & M. Burgoon (Eds.), Communication and social influence processes (pp. 29-<br />
51). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.<br />
Burgoon, M., Denning, V. P., & Roberts, L. (2002). Language expectancy theory. In J. P. Dillard<br />
& M. Pfau (Eds.), The persuasion handbook: developments in theory and practice (pp.<br />
117-136). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
CheckFacebook. (2009). 10 fastest growing over past week. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.checkfacebook.com/<br />
Christabelle. (2008, November 1). 你 在 期 待 什 麼 : 麥 當 勞 田 園 培 根 雙 牛 堡 [What did you<br />
expect: McDonalds’ bacon beef deluxe] Christabelle 的 藝 想 世 界 . Retrieved from<br />
http://www.christabelle.idv.tw/archives/1313<br />
92
Choney, B. (2009, September 29). Micros<strong>of</strong>t releases free anti-virus s<strong>of</strong>tware. msnbc.com.<br />
Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.msn.com<br />
Cowles, D. (1989). Consumer perceptions <strong>of</strong> interactive media. Journal <strong>of</strong> Broadcasting &<br />
Electronic Media, 33(1), 83-89.<br />
DearJohn. (2008, July 16). 別 人 的 部 落 格 文 章 廣 告 化 , 究 竟 關 你 什 麼 事 [Do other people’s<br />
blogs being advertised affect you?] [ 逍 遙 天 地 任 我 行 ]. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.dearjohn.idv.tw/1630<br />
Dellarocas, C. (2003). The digitization <strong>of</strong> word <strong>of</strong> mouth: Promise and challenges <strong>of</strong> online<br />
feedback mechanisms. Management Science, 49(10), pp. 1407-1424.<br />
Eveland, P., Jr., & Dylko, I. (2007). Reading political blogs during the 2004 election campaign.<br />
In M. Tremayne, Blogging, citizenship, and the future <strong>of</strong> media (pp. 105-126). New York,<br />
NY: Routledge.<br />
Feick, L. F., & Price, L. L. (1987). The market maven: A diffuser <strong>of</strong> marketplace information.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Marketing, 51(1), 83-97.<br />
Fishbein, M. & Azjen, I. (<strong>2010</strong>). Predicting and changing behavior: the reasoned action<br />
approach. New York: Psychology Press.<br />
Fogg, B. J., & Tseng, H. (1999). The elements <strong>of</strong> computer credibility. Paper presented at the<br />
Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the SIGCHI Conference on Human factors in Computing Systems: The<br />
CHI is the Limit, Pittsburgh, PA.<br />
FTC publishes final guides governing endorsements, testimonials. (2009, October). FTC News.<br />
Retrieved from http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2009/10/endortest.shtm<br />
Goldsmith, R. E., & Horowitz, D. (2006). Measuring motivations for online opinion seeking.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive Advertising, 6(2), 1-16.<br />
Goody, C., & East, R. (2008). Testing the market maven concept. Journal <strong>of</strong> Marketing<br />
Management, 24, 265-282. doi: 10.1362/026725708X306095<br />
Greer, J. D. (2003). Evaluating the credibility <strong>of</strong> online information: A test <strong>of</strong> source and<br />
advertising influence. Mass Communication and <strong>Society</strong>, 6(1), 11 - 28.<br />
Hallahan, K. (1999). Content class a heuristic cue in the processing <strong>of</strong> publicity versus<br />
advertising. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 11(4), 293-320.<br />
Hallahan, K. (1999). No, Virginia, It's not true what they say about publicity's third-party<br />
endorsement effect. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 25(4), 331-350.<br />
Hamilton, A. (2003, April 7). Best <strong>of</strong> the war blogs. Time,161, 91.<br />
Hastings, M. (2003, April 7). Bloggers over Baghdad. Newsweek, 141, 48–49.<br />
Hass, R. G. (1981). Effects <strong>of</strong> source characteristics on cognitive responses and persuasion. In R.<br />
E. Petty, T. M. Ostrom, & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Cognitive responses in persuasion (pp. 44-<br />
72). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.<br />
He, D. C. ( 何 定 照 ) (2007, September 5). 部 落 客 在 跟 你 博 感 情 還 是 拚 業 績 ?[Do bloggers<br />
share real experiences or help marketers sell products?]. 聯 合 新 聞 網 [Udn]. Retrieved<br />
from http://mag.udn.com.<br />
Heath, R.L. & Waymer, D. (2009). Activist public relations and the paradox <strong>of</strong> the positive. In<br />
R.L. Heath, E.L. Toth & D. Waymer (Eds.), Rhetorical and critical approaches to public<br />
relations II (pp. 194-215). New York: Routledge.<br />
Hennig-Thurau, T. & Walsh, G. (2004). Electronic word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth: Motives for and<br />
consequences <strong>of</strong> reading customer articulations on the Internet. International Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Electronic Commerce, 8(2), 51-74.<br />
Hong Nana ( 洪 娜 娜 ). (2009). 部 落 格 行 銷 得 也 太 明 顯 了 吧 [Blog marketing is too obvious]<br />
93
[u911105’s blog] Retrieved from http://u911105.pixnet.net/blog/post/25464205<br />
Hovland, C. I., & Weiss, W. (1951). The influence <strong>of</strong> source credibility on communication<br />
effectiveness. <strong>Public</strong> Opinion Quarterly, 15(4), 635-650.<br />
Huang, Z. B. ( 黃 哲 斌 ), Guo, S. C. ( 郭 石 城 ), & He, R. X. ( 何 榮 幸 ) (2008, December 6). 部 落 格<br />
經 濟 滑 鼠 點 出 大 生 意 [Blogs economy, clicking mouse can make huge sell volume]. 中<br />
國 時 報 [China Times]. Retrieved from http://news.chinatimes.com<br />
Hsu, T (2006). The uses <strong>of</strong> guanxi strategy in media relations among corporate public relations<br />
practitioners in Taiwan (Master’s thesis). Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.<br />
Ibelema, M., & Powell, L. (2001). Cable television news viewed as most credible. Newspaper<br />
Research Journal, 22(1), 41.<br />
Institute for Information Industry, 2007 我 我 我 我 我 我 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 行 查 [The current<br />
situation and needs on broadband, mobile and wireless research]. (2008). Report <strong>of</strong> the III<br />
The current situation and needs on broadband, mobile and wireless research. Retrieved<br />
from http://www.find.org.tw/find/home.aspx?page=many&id=190<br />
International News Center ( 國 際 中 心 ). (2009, October 7). 心 得 文 還 是 廣 告 文 ?<br />
美 FTC 將 對 部 落 格 進 行 管 制 [Is this a user experience or a advertisement? U.S. FTC<br />
will regulate bloggers]. NOWnews. Retrieved from http://www.nownews.com<br />
Ito, Y. (1992). Theories on interpersonal communication styles from a Japanese perspective: A<br />
sociological approach. In Blumler, J. G., McLeod, J.M., & Rosengren, K. E. (Eds.).<br />
Comparatively speaking: Communication and culture across space and time, (pp. 238-<br />
267). Newbury Park, CA: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2004). Wag the blog: How reliance on traditional media and the<br />
Internet influence credibility perceptions <strong>of</strong> weblogs among blog users. Journalism &<br />
Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(3), 622–642.<br />
Joshi, P. (2009, July 12). Approval by a blogger may please a sponsor. The New York Times.<br />
Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com<br />
Kates. (2008, November 5). 部 落 格 廣 告 文 作 為 一 個 讀 者 [A reader’s viewpoint toward<br />
advertising on blogs] [ 凱 絲 的 樂 活 美 學 ][Kates’ lohas aesthetics]. Retrieved from<br />
http://kates.pixnet.net/blog/post/22256480<br />
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. <strong>Public</strong><br />
Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.<br />
Katz, E. & Lazarsfeld, P. (1955). Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow <strong>of</strong><br />
mass communications. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.<br />
Kawasaki, G. (2004). The art <strong>of</strong> the start: The time-tested, battle-hardened guide for anyone<br />
starting anything. New York, NY: Penguin Group.<br />
Kaye, B. K. (2005). It's a blog, blog, blog, blog world. Atlantic Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication,<br />
13(2), 73~95.<br />
Kaye, B. K. (2007). Blog use motivations: An exploratory study. In M. Tremayne (Ed.)<br />
Blogging, citizenship, and the future <strong>of</strong> media (pp. 127-148). New York: Routledge.<br />
Keller, E., & Berry, J. (2006, December). Word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth: The real action is <strong>of</strong>fline. Advertising<br />
Age, 77(49). Retrieved from http://www.kellerfay.com/news/Ad%20Age%2012-4-06.pdf<br />
Lee, M., & Youn, S. (2009). Electronic word <strong>of</strong> mouth (eWOM). International Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Advertising, 28(3), 473-499.<br />
Levy, S. (2002b, May 20). Will the blogs kill old media? Newsweek, 139, 52.<br />
Lenhart, A., & Fox, S. (2006). Bloggers. Washington DC: Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life<br />
Project. Retrieved from: http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2006/Bloggers.aspx<br />
94
Lenhart, A., Purecell, K., Smith, A., & Zickuhr, K. (<strong>2010</strong>). Social media and young adult.<br />
Washington DC: Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/<strong>2010</strong>/Social-Media-and-Young-Adults.aspx<br />
Li, D. (2007, May). Why do you blog: A uses-and-gratifications inquiry into bloggers’<br />
motivations. Paper presented at the annual meeting <strong>of</strong> the International Communication<br />
Association, San Francisco, CA.<br />
Luo, Y. (2007). Guanxi and business. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishing.<br />
Mackay, J. B. & Lowrey, W. H. (2007, May). The Credibility Divide: Reader Trust <strong>of</strong> Online<br />
Newspapers and Blogs. Paper presented at the annual meeting <strong>of</strong> the International<br />
Communication Association, San Francisco, CA. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p173266_index.html<br />
McConnell, B., & Huba, J. (2007a). Citizen marketers. Chicago, IL: Kaplan Publishing.<br />
McConnell, B. & Huba, J. (2007b). Creating customer evangelists. How loyal customers<br />
become a volunteer sales force. New York: Kaplan.<br />
McQuail, D., Blumler, J.G., & Brown, J. R. (1972). The television audience: A revised<br />
perspective. In P. Marris, & S. Thornham (Eds.), Media studies (pp. 438-454). New<br />
York: New York University Press.<br />
Meadows, J. H. (2008). Understanding communication technologies. In A. E. Grant & J. H.<br />
Meadows (Eds.), Communication technology update and fundamentals (pp. 41-51).<br />
Burlington, MA: Elsevier Inc.<br />
Meyer, P. (1988). Defining and measuring credibility <strong>of</strong> newspapers: Developing an index.<br />
Journalism Quarterly, 65, 567–574.<br />
Milburn, M. A. (1991). Persuasion and politics: The social psychology <strong>of</strong> public opinion. Pacific<br />
Grove, CA: Baker & Taylor Books.<br />
Nardi, B., Schiano, D. J., Gumbrecht, M., & Swartz, L. (2004). Why we blog. Communications<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ACM, 47(12), 41-46.<br />
Nielsen Company Task Force on Trust in Advertising (2007). Report <strong>of</strong> the Task Force on Trust<br />
in Advertising. A global Nielsen consumer report. Retrieved from<br />
http://asiapacific.acnielsen.com/site/documents/TrustinAdvertisingOct07.pdf<br />
Papacharissi, Z. (2004). The blogger revolution? Audiences as media producers. Paper presented<br />
to Communication and Technology Division, International Communication Association.<br />
New Orleans, LA.<br />
PipperL. (2008, July 16). 對 於 廣 告 文 , 讀 者 在 意 的 是 什 麼 ? [What do readers care about<br />
product blogs?] [ 終 極 邊 疆 ] [Ultimate frontier]. Retrieved from<br />
http://blog.serv.idv.tw/2008/07/16/850/<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>-PRSA. (2009). <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong> Code<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.prsa.org/AboutPRSA/Ethics/<br />
Princeton Survey Research Associates International Task Force on Leap <strong>of</strong> Faith (2005). Using<br />
the Internet despite the dangers. Report <strong>of</strong> the PSRAI Task Force on Leap <strong>of</strong> faith: Using<br />
the Internet despite the dangers. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.consumerwebwatch.org/pdfs/princeton.pdf<br />
Qiu, W. M. ( 邱 雯 敏 ). (2009, November 14). 台 北 新 菜 色 - 小 神 旺 砂 鍋 料 理 吃 到 寶 [Taipei<br />
new dishes, San Want hotel's hot pot all you can eat]. China Times. Retrieved from<br />
http://life.chinatimes.com<br />
95
Queen. ( 女 王 ) (2009). 女 王 i 曼 谷 [Queen loves Bangkok]. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.books.com.tw/exep/prod/booksfile.php?item=0010442228<br />
Rickyli ( 李 怡 志 ). (2005, November 30). 誠 實 是 好 生 意 [Honesty can make pr<strong>of</strong>it in business]<br />
[by 李 怡 志 ] [by Li Yi-Zhi]. Retrieved from http://www.richyli.com/blog/2005/11/blogpost_30.html<br />
Rubin, A. M. (1984). Ritualized and instrumental television viewing. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Communication, 34(3), 67-77.<br />
Rubin, A. M. (1994). Media uses and effects: A uses-and-gratifications perspective. In J. Bryant<br />
and D. Zillman (Eds.) Mass effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 417-436).<br />
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Rubin, A. M. (2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective <strong>of</strong> media effects. In J. Bryant & D.<br />
Zillman (Eds.) Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 525-548). Mahwah,<br />
NJ: Lawrence Elbaum Associates.<br />
Ryan, M. (2003, April 17). Blogs’ rise stymies old media. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.chicagotribune.com<br />
Schiffman, L. G., & Kanuk, L. L. (1987). Consumer behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice<br />
Hall.<br />
Sen, S., & Lerman, D. (2007). Why are you telling me this? An examination into negative<br />
consumer reviews on the Web. Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive Marketing, 21(4), 76-94.<br />
Shi, S. H. ( 史 書 華 ) (2008, February). 用 部 落 格 口 碑 贏 業 績 [Sell products by blog’s word-<strong>of</strong>mouth]<br />
. Cheers 快 樂 工 作 人 [Cheers happy worker], 116-119.<br />
<strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Journalists-SPJ code <strong>of</strong> Ethics (1996). Code <strong>of</strong> ethics. Retrieved from:<br />
http://www.spj.org/pdf/ethicscode.pdf<br />
SPSS, Inc. (2009). Statistical package for the social sciences (ver. 17.0). Chicago, IL: Author.<br />
Stanford, J., Tauber, E., Fogg, B. J., & Marable, L. (2002). Experts vs. online consumers: A<br />
comparative credibility study <strong>of</strong> health and finance web sites. Retrieved from:<br />
http://www.consumerwebwatch.org/news/report3_credibilityre- search/slicedbread.pdf<br />
Swanson, D. L. (1979). The continuing evolution <strong>of</strong> the uses and gratifications approach.<br />
Communication Research, 6(1), 3-7.<br />
Sweetser, K. D., Porter, L.V., Chung, D. S., & Kim, E. (2008). Credibility and the use <strong>of</strong> blogs<br />
among pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in the communication industry. Journalism & Mass Communication<br />
Quarterly, 85(1), 169-185.<br />
Thorne, L. (2008). Word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth advertising online & <strong>of</strong>f: How to spark buzz, excitement, &<br />
free publicity for your business or organization with little or no money. Ocala, FL:<br />
Atlantic Publishing Group, Inc.<br />
Trammell, K. D., Tarkowski, A., H<strong>of</strong>mokl, J., & Sapp, A. M. (2006). Rzeczpospolita blogów<br />
[Republic <strong>of</strong> Blog]: Examining Polish bloggers through content analysis. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(3), article 2.<br />
Wan-Wan. ( 彎 彎 ) (2005). 可 不 可 以 不 要 上 班 - 彎 彎 塗 鴉 日 記 [I hate to work, but enjoying my<br />
life]. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.books.com.tw/exep/prod/booksfile.php?item=0010314946<br />
Word <strong>of</strong> Mouth Marketing Association--WOMMA. (2009). Word <strong>of</strong> mouth marketing 101.<br />
Retrieved from http://womma.org/wom101/<br />
Yao, D. (2009, October 5). FTC: Bloggers must disclose payments for reviews. USA Today.<br />
Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com<br />
Yang, S.U. & Lim, J. S. (2009). The effects <strong>of</strong> blog-mediated public relations (BMPR) on<br />
96
elational trust. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 21(3), 341~359.<br />
ZDNet. (2006 October 20). 報 告 : 部 落 格 使 用 者 年 齡 成 熟 化 [Report: blog users have become<br />
mature]. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.zdnet.com.tw/news/s<strong>of</strong>tware/0,2000085678,20110755,00.htm<br />
Zhang, T.C. ( 張 祖 傑 ) (2007, August 14). 2007 年 Blog 使 用 調 查 : 個 人 部 落 格 已 成 網 民 新 運<br />
動 [2007 Blog use survey: Using blogs have become a new campaign]. Taiwanpage.<br />
Retrieved from http://www.taiwanpage.com.tw/news.html<br />
Zhang, Y. Q. ( 張 雅 喬 ) (2008, July 30). 大 學 生 新 寵 兒 BBS 正 流 行 [College students' pop<br />
culture: BBS is popular]. People Post. Retrieved from http://www.peopo.org/<br />
97
Shifting Gears and Changing Paradigms: Shifting Crisis Research To Focus on Controlling<br />
Fear and Preventing Panic<br />
Dean C. Kazoleas, Ph.D., APR<br />
California State University Fullerton<br />
dkazoleas@fullerton.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
This research paper forwards a call for a shift in the focus <strong>of</strong> current crisis research from<br />
focusing on protecting and repairing organizational image to one that protects the<br />
public/stakeholders by controlling fear, preventing panic, and communicating effective adaptive<br />
responses. Research is presented which demonstrates that much <strong>of</strong> today’s crisis oriented<br />
research focuses on case studies detailing organizational actions that are <strong>of</strong>ten designed to<br />
restore organizational image and reputation, or forwards models and strategy to rebuild<br />
organizational image and reputation in the aftermath <strong>of</strong> a crisis. In sum, past research heavily<br />
focuses on protecting the reputation <strong>of</strong> the organization, but not necessarily on the safety <strong>of</strong> the<br />
public or the stakeholder. In contrast, this paper forwards the suggestion that public relations<br />
scholarship in the area <strong>of</strong> crisis communication and crisis management shift gears and focus on<br />
controlling stakeholder fear and preventing panic in the face <strong>of</strong> persistent disasters such as<br />
terrorist attacks using chemical/nuclear weapons, or large-scale epidemics. Second this paper<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers a theoretical approach built on empirical research in the areas <strong>of</strong> health and risk<br />
communication namely Witte’s Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) to build better<br />
response strategy and adaptive messages, which in turn can act to reduce fear and promote more<br />
adaptive protective behaviors. Finally, this paper also suggests that public relations scholars<br />
can significantly add to the conceptual understanding <strong>of</strong> fear, fear control, and danger control<br />
processes, and that public relations research can assist to create and empirically test crisis<br />
response strategies that are built on Witte’s Extended Parallel Process Model.<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> this paper is two fold. First, the goal <strong>of</strong> this research is to forward a call<br />
for public relations scholars to shift a portion <strong>of</strong> crisis related research from a focus on protecting<br />
organizational image to a focus on identifying mechanisms to protect the public by controlling<br />
fear and panic in the face <strong>of</strong> large scale persistent disasters such as a terrorist attack using<br />
radiological/nuclear weapons or a large scale pandemic. Second, this paper also suggests the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> theoretical framework developed in the health and risk communication arenas to help control<br />
those fears and prevent panic, as well as to help create messages that better communicate<br />
effective adaptive responses to such crises.<br />
A Need for Research On Fear, Panic, and Risk Communication<br />
At the conclusion <strong>of</strong> the recent <strong>2010</strong> United States Presidential Nuclear Summit President<br />
Barack Obama delivered a stern and important warning to citizens <strong>of</strong> the United States. The<br />
warning was produced out <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> reports, which suggested that a terrorist or criminal<br />
nuclear incident in the continental United States is almost inevitable. More troubling was the<br />
statement which suggested that local, state, and regional authorities need to be prepared to handle<br />
an initial response on their own because it would take approximately 72 hours for federal<br />
resources to mobilize and to begin an effective response (Stern <strong>2010</strong>, USA Today). Along with<br />
these comments came a discussion <strong>of</strong> a suggested response, which involved calming public fears,<br />
preventing panic and the urge to take flight, which in the end would expose potentially millions<br />
to dangerous radiation. In the USA Today article Stern notes that President Obama stated “one<br />
98
challenge will be to persuade survivors to stay indoors, shielded from dangerous radiation until<br />
they're given the all-clear or told to evacuate.” President Obama added, "In all likelihood,<br />
families will be separated," and also concluded this topic by noting that "It's going to be scary to<br />
sit tight, though it's the right thing to do."<br />
In sum, given the attacks <strong>of</strong> 911, the recent attempt to bomb Times Square in New York,<br />
and the recent government reports regarding the likelihood <strong>of</strong> a terrorist attack using chemical,<br />
biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) weapons there is a clear need for increased research<br />
in the public relations and communications disciplines on how to calm fears, prevent panic,<br />
effectively communicate risk to a frightened and nervous public, and to communicate<br />
information that conveys effective adaptive response mechanisms.<br />
While the need to prevent fear and panic may appear to be an obvious and necessary goal<br />
in the face <strong>of</strong> crises some researchers argue that panic in the face <strong>of</strong> crises, and even terroristic<br />
attacks does not occur (Auf der Heide, 2004: Guilleman 2006; Norwood, 2005: Sheppard, Rubin,<br />
Wardman, & Wessely, 2006). Several underlying definitional issues drive this discussion as do<br />
the presence <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> moderating factors that in are present in the nature <strong>of</strong> potential<br />
crises.<br />
From a definitional perspective some <strong>of</strong> the debate over the impact or occurrence <strong>of</strong> panic<br />
may be semantic. For example, Sheppard, et.al. (2006) note that many scholars define panic as<br />
being irrational behavior or as a maladaptive behavior. Similarly, Auf der Heide (2004) provides<br />
an extensive discussion <strong>of</strong> the definition <strong>of</strong> panic and makes it clear that while the term “panic”<br />
commonly is used to describe any type <strong>of</strong> fear or flight, that technically it describes irrational<br />
behavior, hysteria, and a complete disregard for others. These authors as well as Norwood<br />
(2005) note that in many natural and terroristic crises fleeing may have been a rational response,<br />
and that there were frequent reports <strong>of</strong> collaborative activity such as victims assisting others,<br />
which would make the definition <strong>of</strong> panic difficult to apply, even though fear and flight were<br />
present. In sum, while on the surface there appears to be a body <strong>of</strong> literature which suggests that<br />
preventing panic should not be a concern for those planning emergency management and crisis<br />
response and efforts, a closer inspection <strong>of</strong> this body <strong>of</strong> research suggests that panic could occur<br />
and increase morbidity and mortality in a crisis such as a terrorist CBRN attack or a large scale<br />
pandemic.<br />
A key moderating variable in the ability <strong>of</strong> a crisis to create panic which could lead to<br />
increased mortality is the persistence <strong>of</strong> the crisis and the availability <strong>of</strong> an adaptive response<br />
and/or assistance. For example Sheppard et.al. (2006) and Auf der Heide (2004) note that the<br />
perceived persistence <strong>of</strong> a crisis is a moderating factor. In other words in the aftermath <strong>of</strong> a<br />
tsunami or a major earthquake most individuals will tend to believe that the immediate threat has<br />
passed and thus may not panic (or begin to flee). However, this may not be true if victims<br />
perceive the threat to still be present or persistent and/or they believe that there is a lack <strong>of</strong><br />
control and/or a lack <strong>of</strong> assistance. A crisis such as an epidemic or a terrorist attack using CBRN<br />
weapons could create such conditions. Interestingly, while Sheppard et.al. (2006) do argue that<br />
the term panic is perhaps overused they do see a crisis such as a CBRN attack on the US as able<br />
to create the conditions for mass panic which could increase the impact <strong>of</strong> such a crisis. The<br />
note that:<br />
“Following a CBR attack, fear <strong>of</strong> the unknown and a high degree <strong>of</strong><br />
uncertainty about the lethality <strong>of</strong> the agent will combine with a lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> public understanding to complicate greatly effective response,<br />
recovery, and advice on what actions the public should take.<br />
99
Understanding and respecting the ways people make risk judgments<br />
as well as appreciating their fear and anxiety can help governments<br />
assist their populace frame risk perceptions (and ultimately<br />
behaviours and attitudes). Such perceptions, behaviours, and<br />
attitudes are critical for effective communication and engagement<br />
with the public following a major attack.” (Sheppard, et. al., 2006, p. 241).<br />
Rogers et. al. (2007) also note the increased possibility <strong>of</strong> panic in the aftermath <strong>of</strong> terrorist<br />
attack or an epidemic. Moreover they also claim that ineffective governmental or organizational<br />
response may add to that panic and increase morbidity and mortality. In sum, there is a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
urgency for more research in the arena <strong>of</strong> fear; fear control, and panic, and public relations<br />
scholars have the ability to greatly contribute.<br />
Recent Trends in <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Crisis Oriented Research<br />
The roots <strong>of</strong> crisis oriented research in the field <strong>of</strong> public relations are founded on<br />
rhetorical theory and models <strong>of</strong> organizational apologia such as those first organized by Benoit<br />
(1995, 1997) and later modified and synthesized by others such as Coombs (Situational Crisis<br />
Communication Theory- SCCT: Coombs 1999; 2007; 2009). The goal <strong>of</strong> these lines <strong>of</strong> research<br />
was to categorize organizational communicative response in the face <strong>of</strong> crisis with the hope <strong>of</strong><br />
better identifying and/or differentiating effective communication techniques to protect and<br />
rebuild organizational image in the face <strong>of</strong> an emerging, active, or receding crisis.<br />
For example an examination <strong>of</strong> recent research in the area <strong>of</strong> crisis communication and<br />
management has focused on topics such as an analysis <strong>of</strong> red cross crisis strategies based on<br />
situational crisis communication theory (Zoch, Collins, Sisco, <strong>2010</strong>), image repair in politics<br />
(Sheldon & Salllot, 2009), in the Chinese Governments efforts in the aftermath <strong>of</strong> the “Made in<br />
China crisis” (Cai, Lee, & Pang, 2009), in the Chinese governments efforts in the aftermath<br />
earthquake (Chen 2009), in the Chinese governments handling <strong>of</strong> SARS (Zhang & Benoit,<br />
2009) and in fraud crises ( Caldiero, Taylor, & Ungureanu, 2009), as well as many others.<br />
In the past 20 years, crisis oriented public relations research has heavily focused on these<br />
two theoretical and conceptual models that focus on protecting and repairing organizational<br />
image. Avery, Lariscy, Kim, & Hocke (<strong>2010</strong>) report the results <strong>of</strong> a quantitative content analysis<br />
and review <strong>of</strong> public relations crisis communication literature from 1991 to 2009. The authors<br />
note that an analysis <strong>of</strong> the existing research in the field finds that the majority <strong>of</strong> research in the<br />
public relations crisis literature focused on or was performed using either Benoit’s Image<br />
Restoration typology or Coombs Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT). This metaanalysis<br />
examined 66 published articles across the 18 year time period and found that most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the research (86%) focused on organizations/individual response and image restoration<br />
or repair. Avery, Lariscy, Kim, & Hocke, conclude by calling for more diversity in public<br />
relations research into the areas <strong>of</strong> crisis communication and management and note that more <strong>of</strong><br />
it should be prescriptive as opposed to descriptive. Coombs (2009) makes a similar call for more<br />
research, but also notes that such research should <strong>of</strong>fer empirical research oriented support for<br />
response recommendations.<br />
While recent public relations research that examines multiple factors that would reduce<br />
fear or panic in the event <strong>of</strong> a disaster such as a terrorist CBRN (Chemical, Biological,<br />
Radiological, Nuclear) attack is not common, some research has been undertaken in this<br />
direction. For example, Avery and Kim (2009) examined the practices and media releases <strong>of</strong><br />
health organizations such as the CDC (Centers for Disease Control), DHHS (Department <strong>of</strong><br />
Health and Human Services) and the WHO (World Health Organization) in response to the threat<br />
100
<strong>of</strong> Avian Flu. It is important to note that this research examined the structure, format, terms, and<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the messages contained in 72 releases and communications, but did not identify impacts,<br />
or factors that would either cause or reduce fear and panic.<br />
Avery and Kim report that inconsistencies across releases, materials and organizations,<br />
could make response efforts less effective. Inconsistencies for example in the terms used to<br />
describe Avian Flu, and localization <strong>of</strong> possible threats. Moreover, they also raise the issue <strong>of</strong><br />
credibility and trust, especially in the context <strong>of</strong> partner health organizations. They found that<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the releases did not include additional scientific information to support claims, and that<br />
a high number <strong>of</strong> releases did not contain an outlet that the public could contact for further<br />
information (37%). Avery & Kim, did however, assess the degree to which information about<br />
timeliness/urgency were communicated and found that 65% <strong>of</strong> the releases contained some<br />
element <strong>of</strong> timeliness/urgency/ or haste. Unfortunately that also meant that approximately 35%<br />
did not. More related to the communication <strong>of</strong> risk, threat and fear, was an analysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mention <strong>of</strong> information about the transmission <strong>of</strong> Avian Flu, which would be key in driving<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> public threat and risk. Avery and Kim report that none <strong>of</strong> the 72 releases<br />
contained information about transmission, and that only 10% contained information on<br />
safeguards, protection, and preparation, which are key to the publics perception <strong>of</strong> trust in the<br />
ability <strong>of</strong> governmental health organizations to protect the public and manage the crisis, and in<br />
turn could lead to increased levels <strong>of</strong> fear and eventual panic.<br />
A second recent study was undertaken by Heath, Lee, and Ni (2009), who examine the<br />
need for a more community based approach to effective crisis and emergency preparedness.<br />
Moreover, while this article forwards a brief suggestion <strong>of</strong> the need to better understand risk<br />
communication and fear control processes and does include a brief discussion <strong>of</strong> Witte’s (1992;<br />
1994) work on the inclusion <strong>of</strong> efficacy to drive adaptive response, the focus <strong>of</strong> the article is<br />
more on the need for the development <strong>of</strong> community based responses, specifically those that<br />
include diverse populations represented in emergency preparedness and in communicative<br />
response.<br />
Overall, while the aforementioned research does approach the study <strong>of</strong> fear, the control <strong>of</strong><br />
fear, and adaptive response in the face <strong>of</strong> emergencies and crises it does not examine it directly.<br />
This paper suggests that scholars directly examine fear in the face or crisis, fear control<br />
processes, panic, and danger control/protection processes.<br />
Research in Psychology, Psychiatry, and Healthcare<br />
While scholarship in the public relations and communications discipline has not focused<br />
on the impact <strong>of</strong> fear and techniques to control fear and panic, other disciplines such as<br />
psychology, psychiatry, and health care have lines <strong>of</strong> research that examine fear.<br />
For example researchers in the field <strong>of</strong> psychology has focused on the psychological<br />
impact <strong>of</strong> disaster and post disaster intervention (Allen 1993), the role <strong>of</strong> personality and prior<br />
experience on distress during crisis (Sattler, Kaiser, and Hittner, 2006), and scholars in the field<br />
<strong>of</strong> psychiatry have begun to examine the impacts <strong>of</strong> fear and risk induced stress on populations.<br />
For example, Rogers, Almot, Rubin, Wessely, and Krieger (2007) examine the role <strong>of</strong> effective<br />
communication and the perception <strong>of</strong> risk in mediating the social and psychological impacts <strong>of</strong> a<br />
terrorist CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) attack. They stress the importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> effective governmental communication to accurately communicate risk, reduce perceptions <strong>of</strong><br />
risk, reduce fear and alleviate the risk <strong>of</strong> panic. Using case examples <strong>of</strong> radiological accidents,<br />
the anthrax attack and other crises Rogers et al. also discuss the role <strong>of</strong> fear as a health risk and<br />
discuss the factors that can lead to panic, and those that can reduce mortality and morbidity in the<br />
101
event <strong>of</strong> a terrorist attack. Of particular interest is their examination <strong>of</strong> the role <strong>of</strong> organizational<br />
trust and credibility <strong>of</strong> the governmental unit or organization in reducing perceptions <strong>of</strong> risk,<br />
fear, and related behaviors. They suggest that organizations assess levels <strong>of</strong> public trust and<br />
build levels <strong>of</strong> public trust as a preventative measure in crisis preparedness. Finally they call for<br />
more research into factors that can impact perceptions <strong>of</strong> risk, the role <strong>of</strong> trust in the crisis risk<br />
communication process, and that can reduce fear.<br />
Researchers in the field <strong>of</strong> health promotion also are conducting research in the area <strong>of</strong><br />
risk communication, disaster preparedness, and the possibility <strong>of</strong> an epidemic. Elledge, Brand,<br />
Regens, and Boatright (2008) examined the role <strong>of</strong> knowledge and understanding on community<br />
preparedness for the Avian. They found that communities in Oklahoma were not prepared, did<br />
not believe it would occur, and if it did that the government would take care <strong>of</strong> it. Elledge et.al.<br />
conclude by calling for more research into effective risk communication messages in the face <strong>of</strong><br />
a crisis such as the Avian Flu. In sum, while other disciplines are conducting research, all agree<br />
on the need for research on the effective communication <strong>of</strong> risk and adaptive response in the face<br />
<strong>of</strong> crisis. Research that public relations scholars are well equipped to develop, conduct, and<br />
deliver.<br />
Fear, Fear Control and Danger Control,<br />
"Fear is not necessarily related to any sort <strong>of</strong> physical modification <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
environment, either internal or external. In other words, it may be created, sustained, or<br />
terminated by purely psychological means." (George N. Gordon 1971, p. 255)<br />
In the quotation above George Gordon (1971) notes the perceptual affective nature <strong>of</strong> fear,<br />
stressing that fear is psychological and can be created or diffused through surrounding stimuli<br />
including communication. Gordon suggests that fear is an emotion or feeling, is a frequently<br />
visible function <strong>of</strong> behavior, is a learned reaction, is aroused differently in different people, and<br />
is unpleasant. From a communications and public relations perspective what is important is that<br />
he notes that it “may be created, sustained, or terminated by purely psychological means.” which<br />
implies that effective communication management has the ability to diffuse fear and prevent<br />
panic. Moreover, these statements also imply that ineffective communication in the face <strong>of</strong> crisis<br />
can also lead to increased fear and panic.<br />
A large portion <strong>of</strong> the communication research focusing on fear and the control <strong>of</strong> fear is<br />
rooted in the work <strong>of</strong> Levethal’s parallel response model (Leventhal, 1970). This model suggests<br />
that when faced with a fear arousing stimulus (fear is defined as an emotion that leads to an<br />
unpleasant state) that individuals pursue one <strong>of</strong> two different cognitive processes; fear control or<br />
danger control. To control fear individuals can practice such mental techniques as defensive<br />
avoidance (they don’t think about the threat, or minimize the risk <strong>of</strong> the threat). In contrast, the<br />
danger control processes involves the individual changing their attitudes and/or behavior to avoid<br />
the threat. In a review <strong>of</strong> the fear and fear appeal literature Dillard (1994) notes an important<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> this model which posits that fear and danger control are two separate processes, which<br />
means that they can facilitate each other, (e.g. If the individual takes action to control the threat,<br />
they may also experience less fear) or disrupt each other (e.g. not believing that the individual is<br />
at risk, may lessen the probability <strong>of</strong> taking action). Finally, Dillard notes that while Leventhal<br />
specifies these processes, that he does not clearly identify factors that drive or impact these<br />
processes and calls for more research into the fear control/danger control process.<br />
The Extended Parallel Processing Model (EPP)<br />
Witte’s (1992; 1994) Extended Parallel Processing model is based on the works <strong>of</strong><br />
Leventhal’s Fear Control/Danger Control Model, which suggests that when individuals are faced<br />
102
with an arousing stimulus or message they are motivated to either control their fear by<br />
controlling their fear (by perhaps avoiding the issue or attacking the credibility <strong>of</strong> the message or<br />
source), or to control the danger by taking action to protect themselves. Witte’s (1994) Extended<br />
Parallel Process Model (EPPM) (1994) modernizes Leventhal’s Parallel Response Model, by<br />
adding components that minimize the probability <strong>of</strong> fear control (defensive avoidance, reactance<br />
against the message or messenger) and maximizes the likelihood <strong>of</strong> danger control. Witte does<br />
this by combining elements <strong>of</strong> Leventhal’s parallel response model (Danger Control, Fear<br />
Control) and Rogers (1978; 1983) protection motivation model which suggests that to motivate<br />
individuals to take appropriate adaptive protective behavior, messages should contain four<br />
components: A severe threat, information about susceptibility, certainty, or vulnerability,<br />
information regarding a response, and information about the efficacy <strong>of</strong> the response. EPPM<br />
predicts that by including message components that provide information on the risk <strong>of</strong> the threat,<br />
an adaptive response, and that information for self efficacy (the individual can do it) and<br />
response efficacy (the response averts the threat) the individual is better equipped to pursue<br />
danger control or protection motivation processes.<br />
An important component <strong>of</strong> this model is the notion that the inclusion <strong>of</strong> factors such as<br />
efficacy eliminates that need to pursue the defensive avoidance or fear control mechanisms to<br />
reduce fear. For example, in the face <strong>of</strong> a threat an individual without an option to avert the<br />
threat may try to rationalize that it won’t affect them, or to believe that because they have no<br />
control. In other words, by providing an efficacious response component in a message the<br />
motivation and/or the need for fear control is reduced. Finally, the key to an understanding <strong>of</strong> the<br />
role <strong>of</strong> fear, cognitive and emotional responses and the importance <strong>of</strong> effective message strategy<br />
is the understanding that “adaptive behavior results from the danger control process, not from<br />
fear or the desire for fear reduction” (Witte 1994,). Which means that effective communication<br />
strategy that provides the information needed for danger control helps to first reduce the<br />
probability <strong>of</strong> maladaptive fear control behavior, and increases the probability that effective<br />
adaptive behaviors would be undertaken in the event <strong>of</strong> a large-scale crisis.<br />
The EPPM has received extensive empirical support. Recent examples <strong>of</strong> the applications<br />
<strong>of</strong> the EPPM include protecting farm, landscape, and mining workers from hearing loss (Smith et<br />
al., 2008; Murray-Johnson et al., 2004; Patel et al., 2001), terror management (Shehryar & Hunt,<br />
2005), health promotion (Dutta-Bergman, 2005), and the prevention <strong>of</strong> cardiovascular disease<br />
(McKay, Berkowitz, Blumberg, & Goldberg, 2004).<br />
Merging Disciplines and Literatures<br />
An in-depth analysis <strong>of</strong> the literatures cited in this manuscript would identify common<br />
themes across disciplines and approaches. For example, Leventhal (1970), Witte (1994) and<br />
Dillard (1994), Heath, Lee, and Ni (2009), and Rogers et. al., (2007) all note that there is a need<br />
to further examine fear and fear control processes from a cognitive and affective perspective.<br />
Additionally, the works <strong>of</strong> Rogers et.al. (2007), Avery and Kim (2009), and Heath, Lee, and Ni<br />
(2009) all note the importance <strong>of</strong> community response, relationships among community and<br />
organizational partners, and perceptions <strong>of</strong> credibility by the community in the development <strong>of</strong><br />
effective crisis response. These are all areas that public relations scholars can contribute by<br />
applying existing theory and applying empirical research.<br />
A third intersection <strong>of</strong> these works lies in the need to study the factors that impact the<br />
credibility <strong>of</strong> sources communicating risk during a crisis. Dillard (1994) and Witte (1992:1994)<br />
note that when individuals feel threatened they may cognitively question the credibility <strong>of</strong> the<br />
communicator or the communications (defensive avoidance) as a mechanism to control fear,<br />
103
especially if an efficacious response is not readily present. These ideas are echoed by Rogers et.<br />
al. (2007), who notes that the public may doubt the credibility <strong>of</strong> governmental response<br />
organizations, especially if they have been critical <strong>of</strong> past failures, and Heath, Lee, and Ni (2009)<br />
who note that credibility may be questioned if stakeholders appear dissimilar to or less sensitive<br />
to diverse populations.<br />
Additionally, as noted above a consistent theme across all studies and disciplines is the<br />
need for more research into specific empirically tested communication strategies that can be<br />
effective in the face <strong>of</strong> a large-scale persistent crisis. All in all public relations as a discipline is<br />
well suited to scientifically pursue the study <strong>of</strong> fear and the way that individuals seek to<br />
minimize it, examine communicative mechanisms to help the public and/or stakeholders control<br />
fear, prevent panic and to maximize the probability <strong>of</strong> a positive adaptive response.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This paper has forwarded a call for a shift in the focus <strong>of</strong> public relations research from<br />
organizational crisis response that protects and repairs organizational image to a focus on<br />
protecting the public by managing fear, preventing panic, and better communicating effective<br />
adaptive response mechanisms in the face <strong>of</strong> persistent crises. To be clear this manuscript in no<br />
way suggests that public relations scholars should abandon the lines <strong>of</strong> research that have<br />
evolved from Benoit’s and Coomb’s models. Rather, given the recent governmental warnings<br />
regarding threats such as a terrorist incident using a CBRN, or perhaps a deadly pandemic, this<br />
paper suggests that public relations scholarship needs to diversify and to better balance research<br />
efforts on protecting the image and reputation <strong>of</strong> organizations as well as on the needs <strong>of</strong> public<br />
safety. Finally, this paper also forwarded a theoretical model which has received a large amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> empirical support (Witte’s EPPM) that can first assist in better communicating more effective<br />
adaptive responses in the face <strong>of</strong> crises, and second helps to control fear and prevent panic.<br />
References<br />
Allen, R.D. (1993). Special Issue: Handbook <strong>of</strong> Post Disaster Interventions. Journal <strong>of</strong> Social<br />
Behavior and Personality, 8, 5.<br />
Auf der Heide (2004). Common Misconceptions about Disasters: Panics, the “Disaster<br />
Syndrome”, and Looting. In M. Oleary (Ed.). The First 72 Hours: A community<br />
approach to disaster planning. iUniverse Publishing: Lincoln, NE.<br />
Avery, E.J., Lariscy, R.W., Kim, S., & T. Hocke. (<strong>2010</strong>). A quantitative review <strong>of</strong> the crisis<br />
communication research in public relations from 1991 to 2009. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review,<br />
36, 28-34.<br />
Avery, E. J., & Kim, S. (2009). Anticipating or precipitating crisis? Health agencies may not be<br />
heeding best practice advice in avian flu press releases. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Research, 21 (2) 187-197.<br />
Benoit. W. L. (1995). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: A theory <strong>of</strong> image restoration<br />
strategies. Albany, NY: State University <strong>of</strong> New York Press.<br />
Benoit. W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, 23, 177-186.<br />
Cai, P., Lee, P.T., & A. Pang. (2009). Managing a nations image during a crisis: A study <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Chinese Governments image repair efforts in the “Made in China” controversy. <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, 213-218.<br />
Caldiero, C.T., Taylor, M., & L. Ungureanu. (2009). Image repair tactics and information<br />
subsidies during fraud crises. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 21 (2), 218-228.<br />
104
Chen, N. (2009). Institutionalizing public relations: A case study <strong>of</strong> Chinese government crisis<br />
communication on the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review 35 187-198.<br />
Coombs, W. T. ( 1995). Choosing the right words: The development <strong>of</strong> guidelines for the<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> the "appropriate" crisis-response strategies. Management<br />
Communication, 8, 447-476.<br />
Coombs, W. T. (1999). Ongoing crisis communication: Planning, managing, and responding.<br />
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Coombs, W. T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and<br />
application <strong>of</strong> situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10,<br />
163–176.<br />
Coombs. W. T. (2009). Conceptualizing crisis communication. In R. L Health. & H. D. O’Hair<br />
(Eds.). Handbook <strong>of</strong> risk and crisis communication (pp. 99-118).<br />
New York: Taylor & Francis.<br />
Dillard, J.P. (1994). Rethinking the study <strong>of</strong> fear appeals: An emotional perspective.<br />
Communication Theory, 4 (4), 295-323.<br />
Elledge, B., Brand, M., Regens, J.L., & D. Boatright. (2008). Avian Influenza for fostering<br />
effective risk communication. Health Promotion Practice, 9, 54-59.<br />
Gordon, G.N. (1971). Persuasion: The theory and practice <strong>of</strong> manipulative communication.<br />
Hastings House, NY:NY.<br />
Guillemin, J. (2006) Commentary: Terrorism and dispelling the myth <strong>of</strong> a panic prone public.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> Health Policy, 27, 246–249.<br />
Heath, R. L., Lee, J., & L. Ni (2009). Crisis and risk approaches to emergency management<br />
planning and communication: The role <strong>of</strong> similarity and sensitivity. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 21 (2), 123-141.<br />
Leventhal, H. (1970). Findings and theory in the study <strong>of</strong> fear communication. In L. Berkowitz<br />
(Ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 5, (pp. 119-186). Academic Press:<br />
New York.<br />
Liu, Brooke. (<strong>2010</strong>). Distinguishing how elite papers and A-List Blogs cover crises: Insights for<br />
managing crises on-line. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 36, 28-34.<br />
Norwood, A.E. (2005). Commentary on understanding mass panic and collective responses to<br />
threat and disaster. Psychiatry, 68 (2) 114-115.<br />
Rogers, M.B., Amlot, R. Rubin, G.J., Wessely, S., & K. Krieger. (2007). Mediating the social<br />
and psychological impacts <strong>of</strong> terrorist attacks: The role <strong>of</strong> risk perception and risk<br />
communication. International Review <strong>of</strong> Psychiatry, 19 (3), 279-288.<br />
Rogers, R.W. (1975). A protection motivation theory <strong>of</strong> fear appeals and attitude change.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Psychology, 91, 93-114.<br />
Rogers, R.W. (1983). Cognitive and psychological processes in fear appeals and attitude change.<br />
A revised theory <strong>of</strong> protection motivation. In J.Cacioppo & R. Petty (Eds.) Social<br />
Psychophysiology. Guileford: New York.<br />
Sattler, D.N., Kaiser, C.F., & J.B. Hittner (2006). Disaster preparedness: <strong>Relations</strong>hips among<br />
prior experience, personal characteristics, and distress. Journal <strong>of</strong> Applied Social<br />
Psychology, 30(7), 1396-1420.<br />
Sheldon, C.& L. Sallot. (2009). Image repair in politics: Testing effects <strong>of</strong> communication<br />
strategy and performance history in a faux pas. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 21<br />
(1) 25-50.<br />
Sheppard, B., G.J. Rubin, Wardman, J.K., & Wessely, S. (2006). Terrorism and dispelling the<br />
105
myth <strong>of</strong> a terror prone public. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> Health Policy, 27, 219–245.<br />
Sisco, H.F, Collins, E.L., & L. Zoch, L.M. (<strong>2010</strong>). Through the looking glass: A decade <strong>of</strong> Red<br />
Cross crisis response and Situational Crisis Communication Theory. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, 36, 21-27.<br />
Sternberg, S. ( <strong>2010</strong>, April 13). Nuclear blast victims would have to wait. USA Today. Retrieved<br />
June 1, <strong>2010</strong> from http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/<strong>2010</strong>-04-13-nukeplans_N.htm<br />
Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model.<br />
Communication Monographs, 59, 329-349.<br />
Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test <strong>of</strong> the extended parallel process model<br />
(EPPM). Communication Monographs, 61, 113-134.<br />
Zhang, E., & Benoit, W. L. (2009). Former Minister Zhang’s Discourse on SARS: Image<br />
Restoration or Destruction? <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, 240-246.<br />
106
Excellence in an Activist Organization: A Case Study <strong>of</strong> Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids<br />
Beth A. Kuch<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Maryland<br />
bkuch@umd.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
In response to a call to develop more research on the public relation activities <strong>of</strong> activist<br />
organizations, this study uses case study methodology to evaluate the practices <strong>of</strong> the Campaign<br />
for Tobacco-Free Kids (CTFK). In addition to the theoretical understanding, this case study<br />
presents valuable lessons for other activist organization in how to develop a successful<br />
communication campaign to accomplish changing policies and social norms. It utilizes six<br />
interviews with executive level management and content analysis <strong>of</strong> 61 organizational documents<br />
and 124 media stories. The study finds that CTFK demonstrates many concepts <strong>of</strong> the excellence<br />
theory, while also providing unique insights into an activist organization such as the usage <strong>of</strong><br />
advocate versus activist and having an organization solely focused on communicating<br />
information instead <strong>of</strong> providing services or selling a product. This leads to the determination<br />
that additional theory building needs to be developed around activist organizations and how they<br />
accomplish their goals and relate to other organizations.<br />
Each year thousands <strong>of</strong> laws are passed at the federal, state, and local levels. Activists<br />
play a large role in working to create policy and social norm changes through influencing others<br />
(Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002). Yet the concept <strong>of</strong> activists in public relations literature is<br />
relatively limited to activists creating conflict or comparing activist and corporate strategies. This<br />
limited viewpoint does not take into account the valuable social contributions activists provide.<br />
Why are activists not being looked at as an individual type <strong>of</strong> organization? Although<br />
there is interest in activists it has been fairly limited because they tend to be harder to identify<br />
because there is not a standard structure, there are less <strong>of</strong> them than corporations, and they may<br />
be stigma attached to the organizations. The activist organization needs to be examined and<br />
studied on its own (Dozier & Lauzen, 2000), not in comparison to corporations or lumped<br />
together with nonpr<strong>of</strong>its to determine unique contributions to the field <strong>of</strong> communication through<br />
evaluating the activist’s merits, skills and methodology. If public relations scholars do not study<br />
activist organizations, many changes in our society including passage <strong>of</strong> laws and altering <strong>of</strong><br />
social norms will not be fully understood. Dozier and Lauzen (2000) proposed that “it would be<br />
more interesting to study social movements to see how they differ from other types <strong>of</strong> publics,<br />
how they are not adequately accommodated by existing public relations theory” (p. 9).<br />
The excellence theory was set out as an example <strong>of</strong> best practices and believed to apply<br />
to all public relations organizations (Grunig & Grunig, 2009). This case study provides a look at<br />
whether an activist organization possesses the attributes <strong>of</strong> an excellent public relations<br />
organization. The research provides a case study using interviews and content analysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
primary activist organization in tobacco control, the Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (CTFK).<br />
This study looks at how CTFK has accomplished influencing law changes and developing a<br />
social movement around tobacco control issues through public relations.<br />
Organization<br />
The Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids (CTFK) is the only national level tobacco control<br />
activist organization and is recognized as the top tobacco issues advocacy organization. They<br />
were founded on the principals <strong>of</strong> communication and have a staff <strong>of</strong> over 90 people with 10 <strong>of</strong><br />
107
those dedicated specifically for communications roles, combined with other staff having<br />
significant communication responsibilities. CTFK works towards a goal <strong>of</strong> reducing tobacco use<br />
and its harmful effects through changing public attitude and public policies on tobacco<br />
(Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2009b) by influencing policy makers, the tobacco industry,<br />
and voters to create changes. Since 1996, CTFK has been advocating, educating, empowering,<br />
mobilizing, and assisting others by advancing policy development, distributing research, funding<br />
organizations, speaking out, and other methods (Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2009a).<br />
CTFK has worked to accomplish its goals including tobacco tax increases at the state and<br />
national levels, advising negotiations leading to the Master Settlement Agreement between the<br />
states and tobacco companies, supporting legislation for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration<br />
to regulate tobacco, and shaping laws that created smoke-free workplaces including bars and<br />
restaurants (Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, 2009a). As a well-organized, consistently funded,<br />
and accomplished activist group, CTFK provides a depth <strong>of</strong> information that can be studied.<br />
Literature Review<br />
Activists<br />
As defined by Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier (2002) “an activist public is a group <strong>of</strong> two or<br />
more individuals who organize in order to influence another public or publics through action that<br />
may include education, compromise, persuasion, pressure tactics or force” (p. 446). This<br />
comprehensive definition presents who the activists are, individuals that have come together on a<br />
common topic or issue, and what they are trying to do, influence other publics to support a<br />
similar viewpoint and invigorate a target audience to become active members <strong>of</strong> the public.<br />
Many times, public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and theorists view activists as the “enemy,”<br />
even though the activists may only have an alternate view from the organization. This viewpoint<br />
<strong>of</strong> the “enemy” has been expressed such as when Mintzberg stated that activism is a problem for<br />
organizations (1983, as cited in Grunig et al., 2002). Grunig et al. state that a fear <strong>of</strong> some<br />
organizations is being “taken hostage” by activist groups because they do not fully understand<br />
the activist public (p. 446). Grunig et al. even call activist publics “belligerent groups” (p. 447).<br />
Activists tend to be considered threats to organizations, specifically corporations, because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the effects they have by creating disruptions and refocusing attention on specific issues that<br />
the organization does not want to address (Smith, 1997 as cited in Smith & Ferguson, 2001). The<br />
conflicting relationships between corporations and activists have been studied: between AIDS<br />
activists and Merck pharmaceuticals (Taylor, Vazquez & Doorley, 2003); a tobacco control<br />
activist organization’s public relation efforts in Colorado against Philip Morris (Rubin & Stokes,<br />
2006); and analysis <strong>of</strong> the relationship between Greenpeace and Dupont (Murphy & Dee, 1996).<br />
Recently, there has been a growing trend to view activists as individual public relations<br />
practitioners (e.g., Dozier & Lauzen, 2000; Holtzhausen, 2007; Holtzhausen & Voto, 2002;<br />
Taylor, Kent, &White, 2001). “Activists are not just publics <strong>of</strong> an organization” (Aldoory & Sha,<br />
2007, p. 352), but activists are organized entities. There has been an increasing scholarly interest<br />
in activist organizations, “but it has not kept up with the increasing importance <strong>of</strong> activists on<br />
public policy and advocacy efforts” (Aldoory & Sha, 2007, p. 352). Smith and Ferguson (2001)<br />
put forth the idea that activist organizations are organized, use strategic communication to<br />
achieve their organizational goals, and engage in public relations practices.<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> the current research has contrasted activist publics and other organizations,<br />
leading to a significant amount <strong>of</strong> the research comparing and measuring activists against<br />
corporate standards (e.g., Reber & Kim, 2006; Simmons, 2003; Zoch, Collins, Sisco, & Supa,<br />
2008). Although it is acknowledged that activists are unique entities, the studies analyzed the<br />
108
public relations functions or tactics <strong>of</strong> activist groups and compared to standards that are applied<br />
to corporations. As a result <strong>of</strong> comparing the activists’ methods with the corporate methods,<br />
sector differences were not taken into account leading the studies to find that the activists’<br />
methods do not meet the same standards set for the corporations. Only a few studies have looked<br />
at activists on their own merits including Derville’s (2005) study <strong>of</strong> activist identity development<br />
and usage <strong>of</strong> disruptive image events and Sommerfeldt’s (2008b) case study <strong>of</strong> Moveon.org.<br />
From the recent research on activist organizations, some basic ideas <strong>of</strong> how they function<br />
have emerged. Rubin and Stokes (2006) found that in the two-way symmetrical model, the<br />
compromise metaphor is not accurate for activists because many times activists are better able to<br />
make gains by not compromising. Additionally, they found that activists use public relations in<br />
order to direct public debate and sway discussions and decision-making (Rubin & Stokes, 2006).<br />
Theory and Activists<br />
Before original theories are developed, current theories should be reviewed to determine<br />
if they are valid for activists. One component <strong>of</strong> the theory <strong>of</strong> relationship development<br />
examined in terms <strong>of</strong> activists is if they are involved in dialogic relationships. Kent and Taylor<br />
(1998) identified five methods for creating a dialogic relationships using websites including<br />
dialogic loops, a simple interface, retaining <strong>of</strong> visitors on the site, generation <strong>of</strong> return visits, and<br />
providing relevant information and applied these to activist websites. <strong>Relations</strong>hip management<br />
studies the “linkage between public relations objectives and organizational goals” which can<br />
easily be addressed in studies <strong>of</strong> activists (Ledingham & Bruning, 2000, p. xiii).<br />
Sommerfeldt (2008b) analyzed relationship development theories with the activist<br />
organization Moveon.org. This study examined the rhetoric used to develop an identification<br />
through sympathy, unawareness, and antithesis, which helped Moveon.org develop relationships<br />
with individuals supporting the cause and who could become potential members or funders.<br />
The excellence theory addresses the value <strong>of</strong> public relations to organization and society,<br />
presents theory on public relations functions, and puts forward the need to examine the<br />
organizational and environmental context (Grunig & Grunig, 2006). The excellence theory’s<br />
basic findings included a set <strong>of</strong> 20 key characteristics that identified excellent programs. These<br />
characteristics include having knowledge to play the communication manager role; using the<br />
two-way symmetrical and asymmetrical models; having communication valued and support by<br />
the dominant coalition; the importance <strong>of</strong> research and communication <strong>of</strong> it to outside groups;<br />
consideration <strong>of</strong> communication when developing a strategic plan; and providing a participative<br />
organizational culture (Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig, 1995).<br />
These key characteristics were broken up into three groups falling under the categories <strong>of</strong><br />
the knowledge base <strong>of</strong> the communication department, the shared expectations about<br />
communication with senior management, and the organizational culture (Dozier et al, 1995).<br />
The authors envisioned these categories as a layered sphere. The knowledge category is the<br />
core, with the shared expectations as the middle sphere, and the organizational culture<br />
encompassing them. The middle sphere contains the most characteristics and was further split<br />
into three components: departmental power, the demand-delivery loop for two-way practices,<br />
and the organizational role played by the top communicator (Dozier et al, 1995).<br />
Although it has been theorized that all organizations are able to exemplify the excellence<br />
theory, a thorough analysis has not been completed <strong>of</strong> activist organizations to determine if they<br />
conduct public relations similarly. This paper will be one <strong>of</strong> the first steps into exploring if<br />
activists conduct public relations in a similar manner to other organizations through evaluating:<br />
RQ 1: How do activists accomplish their goals through public relations?<br />
109
Dozier and Lauzen (2000) also proposed that studies <strong>of</strong> social movements are needed to<br />
determine the linkages between activists, public relations, social movements, policy changes, and<br />
shifts in institutions.<br />
Social Movements<br />
Within public relations and communication, there is no clear definition <strong>of</strong> a social<br />
movement. The most relevant definition for this study is from sociology. Diani (1992) identifies<br />
a social movement as a social dynamic consisting “in a process whereby several different actors,<br />
be they individuals, informal groups and/or organisations, come to elaborate, through either joint<br />
action or communication, a shared definition <strong>of</strong> themselves as being part <strong>of</strong> the same side in a<br />
social conflict” (p. 2). This definition fits with the key elements <strong>of</strong> the public relations definition<br />
<strong>of</strong> an activist in terms <strong>of</strong> the composition, the action, and the use <strong>of</strong> communication tactics.<br />
Activists and social movements can be linked further based on Dozier and Lauzen’s<br />
statement that “despite emancipatory rhetoric that demands immediate change, social movements<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten bring about changes only slowly; at the same time, social movements can pr<strong>of</strong>oundly affect<br />
public policy and fundamentally alter and destroy institutions” (2000, p. 13). Activists attempt<br />
to affect public policy and create change in institutions, government and corporations.<br />
Many times the changes that activists want to create are similar to the changes that<br />
decision makers, politicians, or the general public may want, but each group has different means<br />
<strong>of</strong> obtaining that solution. This is similar to the study <strong>of</strong> Greenpeace USA and DuPont<br />
conducted by Murphy and Dee (1996). They found that although the values <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
organizations were similar on specific issues, and the organizations wanted the same end result,<br />
the organizations could not agree on a similar path, thereby causing conflict. Conflict <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
arises in social movements whether it is among the different groups working together, the<br />
activists and corporations, or the activists and government.<br />
Conflict can arise because activist organizations addressing issues seen as problems <strong>of</strong><br />
society. Heath and Waymer (2009) found that to engage in a social movement many times<br />
activists have to “correct [the] overly positive interpretations <strong>of</strong> various conditions that cause a<br />
strain between what is and what ought to be (p. 212).” This gap is brought forth through<br />
communication and at times the strife is increased by the activists “mobilization, confrontation,<br />
and perhaps engage[ment] in negotiation and resolution” (Heath & Waymer, 2009, p. 212).<br />
Although activist organizations have been studied in relation to corporations and through<br />
possible tactics, there are no major studies to date on activist organizations that are focused<br />
primarily on social change including governmental policy and social norm modification.<br />
RQ 2: How do activists influence social movements through communication?<br />
Methods<br />
A case study methodology was used to explore the research questions in this study. A<br />
case study analyzes a current issue within real life context, which is meant to lead to multiple<br />
findings developed from data from a variety <strong>of</strong> sources and guided by theoretical propositions<br />
(Yin, 2009, p. 18). Berg (2009) more simply defines a case study as “systematically gathering<br />
enough information about a particular person, social setting, event or group to permit the<br />
researcher to effectively understand how the subject operates or functions” (p. 317). Although a<br />
case study can be a valid form <strong>of</strong> research, the results found in a case study cannot be<br />
generalized to or be applied to other cases, yet the results can be further ascertained to determine<br />
if it can be replicated in additional cases (Yin, 2009).<br />
110
Data Collection<br />
Documents. In an effort to triangulate the data, two types <strong>of</strong> data were collected:<br />
documents and in-depth interviews. There were two categories <strong>of</strong> documents: ones generated<br />
by the organization such as the website, annual reports, and press releases, and ones generated by<br />
outside sources such as media stories. The outside documents were gathered through a Lexis-<br />
Nexis search <strong>of</strong> relevant media coverage from December 1, 2008 to December 1, 2009. The<br />
search term used was “Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids.” The sources searched included<br />
newspapers and magazines published in the United States, the Associated Press State and Local<br />
Wire. The Associated Press, and. The Associated Press newswire was chosen because it creates<br />
original content. When distributed on the state wire, a story is only received by newspapers<br />
within that state, when distributed on the national wire, it goes to approximately 1,700<br />
newspapers in the United States who have the option <strong>of</strong> running the story (The Associated Press,<br />
2009).<br />
The Lexis-Nexis search yielded a total <strong>of</strong> 124 unique articles focused on tobacco control<br />
issues from 10 newspapers, one magazine, and the four Associated Press newswires. Additional<br />
articles mentioning CTFK were eliminated because they focused on the appointment <strong>of</strong> a now<br />
former CTFK employee as deputy secretary at the Department <strong>of</strong> Health and Human Services<br />
and, thus, were not relevant to the study's focus.<br />
The 61 organizational documents were collected through CTFK’s website, including<br />
website content, press releases, annual reports, and research reports. The website pages<br />
evaluated were archived in December 2009 using Adobe Acrobat to record the information at the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> assessment since websites can easily be changed or updated. The benefits <strong>of</strong> using these<br />
documents include the ability to research longer periods <strong>of</strong> time, it can be undertaken without the<br />
cooperation <strong>of</strong> the organization, and the documents can be repeatedly viewed (Yin, 2009).<br />
Interviews. The six in-depth interviews with staff at CTFK included organization<br />
leadership. Initial interviews were conducted with executive level staff to facilitate additional<br />
interviews. Six interviews were conducted, five in-person and one via phone from November<br />
2009 to April <strong>2010</strong>, and lasted between 42 to 75 minutes. Each interviewee agreed to have their<br />
name associated with their comments. Individuals interviewed included: William (Bill) Novelli,<br />
board <strong>of</strong> directors chair and former president; Peter Fisher, advocacy vice president, state issues;<br />
Joel Spivak, associate director, media relations; Mark Hurley, director, international<br />
communications, Elaine Yin, associate director, international communications; and Brian<br />
Hutchinson, advocacy director, grassroots. Novelli was the first president <strong>of</strong> CTFK and helped<br />
found it in 1995. Executive staff was chosen based on the long-term employment <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
staff and the need for in-depth insight into the organization at the strategic and managerial levels.<br />
The in-depth interview is one <strong>of</strong> the most vital sources <strong>of</strong> information for a case study<br />
because it provides information that may not be available otherwise (Yin, 2009). The interviews<br />
were conducted in an interpretive constructionist frame to develop an understanding <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organization based on the experiences reflected in the interviews (Rubin & Rubin, 2005).<br />
The interview data was analyzed using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) methodology <strong>of</strong><br />
data reduction, data display, and drawing <strong>of</strong> conclusions. The data display was generated using<br />
Micros<strong>of</strong>t Excel and listed in checklist matrices. The data were coded based on the research<br />
questions and emergent themes. Data displays were created. Data that did not match the<br />
research questions was also coded to determine if there were additional patterns.<br />
111
Results<br />
Activists Accomplishing Their Goals Through <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Different themes emerged from the data to address how this activist organization is<br />
working to accomplish its goals through communications. Overall it was found that a number <strong>of</strong><br />
different tactics and strategies were used to accomplish goals, such as media relations, the<br />
development and usage <strong>of</strong> research, and how the different units within CTFK would together.<br />
Interestingly, these themes aligned with major components in the excellence theory. Some other<br />
themes were also discussed in specific interviews such as strategic planning and lobbying.<br />
Media relations. Findings showed significant media coverage on tobacco issues and<br />
CTFK. Of the 124 media articles reviewed, 65 <strong>of</strong> them directly quoted CTFK staff, primarily the<br />
president, a vice president or a director. Additionally, 11 articles were editorials supporting a<br />
tobacco control issue that included a mention <strong>of</strong> CTFK. Twelve articles included a letter to an<br />
editor, a letter to an advice columnist, and other miscellaneous mentions. This substantial<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> media coverage averages over 1.69 articles a week per year where CTFK is quoted or<br />
mentioned.<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> media relations to CTFK can be seen in the amount <strong>of</strong> information<br />
available on its website for the press. There is a specific section called the “Press Office” on the<br />
site, which provides reporters with fact sheets, media releases, statements, and contacts for<br />
CTFK media relations staff. There are 68 press releases and statements posted covering<br />
December 1, 2008 to December 1, 2009, the same period the media articles were pulled from<br />
Lexis-Nexis. Additionally, there are additional press releases dating back to August 14, 1998.<br />
This large number <strong>of</strong> press releases, leads to the question <strong>of</strong> which comes first, the story<br />
idea or the press release? Spivak, associate director <strong>of</strong> media relations, stated “any work with the<br />
press is somewhat reactive I think…I think within the last few years, that it is more <strong>of</strong>ten the<br />
case that we will initiate contact.” In comparison, in the Associated Press article “Historic antismoking<br />
vote to give FDA new power” distributed on June 11, 2009 there is a quote from<br />
Matthew L. Myers, president <strong>of</strong> CTFK, that “this legislation represents the strongest action<br />
Congress has ever taken to reduce tobacco use, the leading preventable cause <strong>of</strong> death in the<br />
United States” (Abrams, 2009). Exactly the same as the statement posted on the CTFK website<br />
on June 11, 2009, entitled U.S. Senate Casts Historic Vote to Regulate Tobacco Products.<br />
According to Spivak, CTFK has gained media coverage because:<br />
We’ve had a very aggressive press outreach over the years. When we’ve got a story to<br />
tell, we reach out. We’ve got an extensive press list…we’ve got contacts we’ve<br />
developed over the years. We can pick up the phone and talk to people at major news<br />
outlets and get a hearing.<br />
Not only is CTFK using traditional methods <strong>of</strong> developing media relationships but it is<br />
also integrating Facebook and Twitter. Hutchinson, director <strong>of</strong> grassroots advocacy, described<br />
how CTFK “follow(s) every major health reporter, I think we added 200 to 300 health reporters<br />
to our follow list. We’re following all these people and a lot <strong>of</strong> them followed us back. We’re<br />
really trying to build relationships that way.” Hurley, director <strong>of</strong> international communications,<br />
also described how they are working with journalists on the international level through<br />
traditional mediums <strong>of</strong> press releases but moving towards more interaction via social media.<br />
Media relationships being developed with journalists in other countries are fostered through<br />
educational workshops, network development, fellowships to fund investigative reporting, and<br />
travel grants to locations already implementing tobacco control policies according to Hurley.<br />
112
Research. A key area <strong>of</strong> CTFK’s website is the “Research and Facts” section. This area<br />
provides users with a wealth <strong>of</strong> information that is thorough and covers a variety <strong>of</strong> topics,<br />
issues, types <strong>of</strong> resources including fact sheets, special reports, tobacco political action<br />
committee contributions, and web resources. This research has either been conducted directly by<br />
the CTFK or it has compiled secondary research into usable formats.<br />
The research covers a range <strong>of</strong> topics from exposing tobacco industry tactics, to policy<br />
statements regarding the FDA legislation, cigarette taxes, smoke-free workplaces, and spending<br />
on tobacco prevention and cessation program. This research is to be used by a wide variety <strong>of</strong><br />
people, including the press. Out <strong>of</strong> the 124 articles analyzed from the Lexis-Nexis search, 36<br />
specifically relied on and quoted research from the CTFK. These articles did not include specific<br />
quotes from individuals, only the information from the research. The press has identified the<br />
research developed by CTFK as a credible source for information on tobacco control issues.<br />
CTFK’s research focus is demonstrated by Novelli, board <strong>of</strong> directors chair:<br />
You can’t be an advocate without good policy research and analysis. So that was part <strong>of</strong><br />
our structure from day one. We had to have that. It wasn’t that we had to do all original<br />
research, far from it, but we had to be synthesizers <strong>of</strong> research, packagers <strong>of</strong> research,<br />
promoters <strong>of</strong> research and then we were doing our own research in terms <strong>of</strong> polling,<br />
message testing and things like that.<br />
Not only does CTFK do research on issues, but they also develop message testing and<br />
research on its communication tactics prior to implementation. Spivak stated, “we do focus<br />
groups, we do polling, we understand what resonates with people, and we spend the money to<br />
make sure we know what resonates with people and then we use it.”<br />
Integrated with other departments. Sometimes communication departments may<br />
operate separately from other departments and only coordinate when needed. That is not the<br />
case with CTFK. The communication team is integrated into meetings and decision-making on<br />
campaigns and efforts with the other departments through participation on task forces. The<br />
message development is developed through a “kind <strong>of</strong> an interdepartmental decision making<br />
process. Everybody has a hand in it” according to Spivak.<br />
This idea was echoed in the statements <strong>of</strong> Fisher, vice president <strong>of</strong> state issues, as well:<br />
We’re a very collegial group. Obviously we have an org chart and there are lines <strong>of</strong><br />
authority and so forth… It’s not just my state team with the advocacy department that is<br />
working on state issues. It’s the research team and the communications team, everybody,<br />
we all work across it, everybody’s involved to achieve all <strong>of</strong> those goals.<br />
Hutchinson said that the “international people come pick our brains…[asking] well what<br />
do you guys do in the states to get around something like this? We have this wealth <strong>of</strong><br />
information to share with our newer folks who are doing similar things internationally…we’re all<br />
very interconnected.” However, the feeling is not necessarily mutual coming from the<br />
international department. Yin, associate director <strong>of</strong> international communication, stated, “we<br />
(the international division) try very hard to communicate and learn the best practices from the<br />
domestic part. But…the international staff travels so much and are so busy that people don’t do<br />
enough communication and learning and experience sharing.” She goes on to talk about how she<br />
hopes this changes in the future.<br />
Activists Influencing Social Movements Through Communication<br />
Based on the definition developed by Diani (1992) that a social movement is “a process<br />
whereby several different actors, be they individuals, informal groups and/or organisations, come<br />
to elaborate, through either joint action or communication, a shared definition <strong>of</strong> themselves as<br />
113
eing part <strong>of</strong> the same side in a social conflict” (p. 2), data from the website and interviews was<br />
analyzed for emergent themes to demonstrate how CTFK participates in and influences the<br />
tobacco control social movement.<br />
Developed partnerships. According to the CTFK website, they have more than 130<br />
organizational partners, including public health, medical, education, civic, corporate, youth and<br />
religious organizations. The three primary organizations CTFK has worked with over the past 12<br />
years are the <strong>America</strong>n Cancer <strong>Society</strong>, <strong>America</strong>n Heart Association, and <strong>America</strong>n Lung<br />
Association. Also, they work closely with tobacco control coalitions on the state and local level.<br />
In addition to sharing research, many <strong>of</strong> the press statements, press releases and reports provide<br />
information from multiple partners involved with CTFK.<br />
These partnerships involve funding, information exchange, and working on issues<br />
together. According to Fisher, CTFK “still get(s) some money from Robert Wood Johnson. We<br />
get money from The Legacy Foundation, Cancer <strong>Society</strong>, Heart Association, and the rest we<br />
fundraise.” This is also presented in the 2008 Annual Report, which lists <strong>America</strong>n Cancer<br />
<strong>Society</strong>, <strong>America</strong>n Legacy Foundation and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation as $1,000,000 plus<br />
donors, and the <strong>America</strong>n Heart Association as a donor in the $100,000 to $499,000 range.<br />
In the international arena, Yin reported that the in-country partners provide key insights<br />
“into the political systems to understand how to advocate and put effective policies in place so<br />
that Indonesians and Chinese can be protected.” Hurley further described the international<br />
partnerships between both the other grantees <strong>of</strong> the Bloomberg Initiative and the organizations in<br />
the specific countries as vital to accomplish goals, a way to reinforce each others efforts, and a<br />
great way to create lasting change by empowering the local organizations.<br />
Not only does CTFK receive funding from partners, but they also distribute funding to<br />
state and local coalitions. Hutchinson described how each year the advocacy department<br />
develops a strategic plan with the regional directors, key members from other departments, and<br />
the president <strong>of</strong> CTFK. In this meeting, they discuss key states, coalitions and partner<br />
organizations CTFK can work with to accomplish policy goals and “by the end <strong>of</strong> year, we have<br />
a list <strong>of</strong> 5 or 6 top priority states that we are going to set aside money for” stated Hutcinson.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> working with state and local coalitions, Novelli expressed that “the state<br />
coalitions were pretty strong and getting stronger. So we were pretty supportive <strong>of</strong> them. Doing<br />
research, packaging research, getting it to them, trying to help them with their legislative work.”<br />
Although this has changed in the past few years due to state tobacco control coalitions losing<br />
significant funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJ). Fisher explained some <strong>of</strong><br />
the changes when he said:<br />
RWJ pulled out, that money was one <strong>of</strong> the best things they ever did…because it<br />
established an infrastructure that their sole responsibility was to work on tobacco…So<br />
we’ve sort <strong>of</strong> reverted back to the situation before SmokeLess States, where we’re<br />
working with the three big voluntaries.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> issues management, conflict does occur between partners. A specific<br />
example is on legislation that empowered the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to regulate<br />
tobacco. In an article from the New York Times, conflict demonstrated between Dr. Stanton<br />
Glanz, a respected researcher on tobacco control, and CTFK on the position <strong>of</strong> compromising on<br />
provisions within the FDA regulations (Wilson, 2009). Novelli specifically mentioned how the<br />
public health community split over the first attempt to pass FDA regulation in 1996, over the<br />
issue <strong>of</strong> compromising with the tobacco industry, with CTFK being willing to develop<br />
compromises and consensus to get a bill passed and other groups not willing to compromise.<br />
114
Engaging individuals. Many times activists are individuals and not organizations.<br />
CTFK has taken steps to engage individuals in the social movement through a number <strong>of</strong> ways,<br />
specifically its websites and activating youth participation through events. One way that an<br />
individual can be involved in CTFK is through becoming a part <strong>of</strong> the “growing network <strong>of</strong><br />
volunteers, called E-Champions, who take action over the Internet to contact elected <strong>of</strong>ficials and<br />
hold the tobacco industry accountable” (Coalition for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2009a). CTFK’s<br />
“Take Action” link directs individuals to the “Action Center,” which registers individuals. Once<br />
registered, individuals can use six different ways to get involved in the social movement: sending<br />
pre-written emails, signing a tobacco-free pledge, writing a letter to the editor <strong>of</strong> a local<br />
newspaper, writing a letter to a legislator, purchasing CTFK gear, and writing narrative on how<br />
tobacco impacted them.<br />
Hutchinson directs the grassroots advocacy efforts <strong>of</strong> CTFK, including activating<br />
individuals. He described methods <strong>of</strong> getting individuals engaged such as action alerts through<br />
the E-Champion network, calling individuals through phone banks, contacting them through<br />
Facebook and Twitter, and attracting them in new and creative ways, such as a new interactive<br />
microwebsite called “the playbook”. Hutchinson states that the playbook “allows people to say<br />
what they would really be willing to do in response to what big tobacco is doing in their local<br />
community. Then it prints out a playbook for them at the end, it allows them to share it on<br />
Facebook and Twitter.” Hutchinson described how the playbook is a research tool to gauge what<br />
actions people are willing to take and helps CTFK customize communication with individuals.<br />
Other Findings<br />
Activist versus advocate. Although many <strong>of</strong> the findings reported have been tied to the<br />
research questions, one major theme found outside the established research questions was on the<br />
reluctance <strong>of</strong> the organization to identify itself as an activist. CTFK primarily refers to itself as<br />
an advocacy organization. This led to adding a question in the interview protocol to address the<br />
perceived differences. One major reason for not using the activist term is articulated by Fisher:<br />
An activist is somebody that has an interest in the issue, and acts to change public policy<br />
on that issue. So in that sense we’re an activist organization…I think activist has a<br />
negative connotation with people, so we tend to use advocacy as our mantra.<br />
Novelli defined a clear delineation between the goals <strong>of</strong> activists and advocates:<br />
I think you can be an activist in many ways. You can write a letter to the editor, you can<br />
march…there’s a lot <strong>of</strong> ways to be an activist. I think that what distinguishes advocates<br />
is they do many <strong>of</strong> those things and they try to galvanize activists to be a part <strong>of</strong> it. But<br />
they’re [advocates] also focused on legislative, regulatory, and legal change.<br />
Hurley presented another perspective when he described that advocates typically have a<br />
specific goal they are trying to achieve through a strategic plan, whereas an activist could be an<br />
advocate, but they could also be just a single person or an organization that delivers a single<br />
message within an advocacy campaign.<br />
Centered on communication. Communication is vital. As an activist and non-pr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
organization, CTFK does not produce a product to sell, <strong>of</strong>fer programs, or supply any sort <strong>of</strong><br />
direct services. Hurley put it in the perspective that CTFK is selling its mission. CTFK (2009a)<br />
states on its website that it works to:<br />
• Educate the public and policy makers about the tobacco problem and its solutions.<br />
• Expose and counter tobacco industry efforts to market to children and mislead the public.<br />
• Advocate for solutions that reduce tobacco use and exposure to secondhand smoke.<br />
• Mobilize organizations and individuals to join the fight against tobacco use.<br />
115
• Empower a tobacco-free generation by fostering youth leadership and activism.<br />
• Enhance tobacco prevention efforts worldwide by sharing programs and information<br />
with international partners.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these tasks are centered on communication. Novelli stated it best that:<br />
Communications is a critical part <strong>of</strong> what the campaign does. It has always been and<br />
always will be. If you look at what the campaign does, communications and advocacy<br />
are married. Communications is connected to everything else, the synergies with the<br />
public health community, with the campaigns partners, with the public, against the<br />
industry. So communications will always be critical.<br />
Resource for others. Throughout the interviews a key theme that appeared was the need<br />
to empower other organizations. Fisher stated that CTFK “provide(s) technical assistance, here’s<br />
how best to get your op ed placed, or we help write op eds. We will go down and participate in<br />
press events, or provide testimony that that gets covered in the press” as ways to assist other<br />
organizations.<br />
Not only has CTFK provided direct assistance to organizations but it has also acted as an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> how to accomplish goals. Novelli provided an example when he said:<br />
The campaign has been a leader, a catalyst, and that catalytic advocacy role is unique. If<br />
you look at the <strong>America</strong>n Heart Association and <strong>America</strong>n Cancer <strong>Society</strong>, they have<br />
really built their advocacy dimensions. I think in large measure, they learned that from<br />
the campaign.<br />
Yin described the three main activities for the international communication directors as<br />
“implementing media advocacy strategies by in-country advocates,” “increasing the capacity and<br />
capabilities <strong>of</strong> in-country advocates,” and “increasing the capacity and awareness <strong>of</strong> journalists<br />
to do a better job on reporting on tobacco control.” According to Yin, these goals focus on<br />
increasing the capacity <strong>of</strong> journalists, individual advocates, and partner organizations by<br />
providing trainings for advocates, workshops for journalists, funding, legal advice, access to<br />
research, and experience <strong>of</strong> supporting and helping pass laws in other countries and states.<br />
Discussion<br />
In an attempt to study an activist organization’s use <strong>of</strong> communication and public<br />
relations, this study has provided a wealth <strong>of</strong> information. CTFK’s efforts have been evaluated<br />
on their own merits and not in conjunction with or comparison to a corporation or another<br />
organization. It has been found that some <strong>of</strong> the existing public relations theory can be applied<br />
to this activist organization, yet additional theories are in need <strong>of</strong> further development.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the primary public relations theories resulted from the excellence study. The<br />
excellence theory focuses on a three-layered sphere <strong>of</strong> communication: a knowledge core, a<br />
partnership between communicators and senior managers, and a participative culture within the<br />
organization (Dozier, Grunig, & Grunig, 1995). CTFK demonstrated all three levels and many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the individual components <strong>of</strong> each level. These included the knowledge to implement a<br />
successful media relations program, prioritizing the communication among the organizational<br />
decision makers, and a creating a collegial culture.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations has a significant impact on society through communicating on “levels <strong>of</strong><br />
public policy, activism, and social norms, and even values” (Bowen, 2007, p. 277). CTFK has<br />
been able to have a significant impact on influencing policies and changing the social norms in<br />
regards to the acceptance <strong>of</strong> smoking and tobacco products. This is demonstrated through<br />
accomplishments <strong>of</strong> CTFK, including helping to pass smoke-free workplace laws in 27 states,<br />
116
Washington, DC, and Puerto Rico; getting lawmakers to increase taxes on the federal and state<br />
levels; and working to advocate for funding <strong>of</strong> prevention and cessation programs.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> research, Grunig (2008) feels that research should be completed at the<br />
program, functional, organizational, and societal levels. CTFK has been conducting research<br />
from day one. Although the primary research publicly available is at the societal level, CTFK is<br />
also engages in message testing, strategy development, and evaluation <strong>of</strong> campaigns. To<br />
determine if CTFK is developing research at all four levels more thorough research is needed.<br />
There needs to be additional theory development in how activists relate to social<br />
movements. This study presents some preliminary findings in that CTFK provided a method to<br />
bring organizations and individuals together to work towards a common goal. This issue needs<br />
to be addressed by additional studies <strong>of</strong> activist groups and the social movements to fully<br />
develop a theory through both quantitative and qualitative research.<br />
Additionally, this study provides initial support that activists engage in unique behavior,<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> the excellence theory. Researchers should begin to formulate new theories that<br />
activist organization’s primary goals are accomplished through communication and partnerships.<br />
The contrast activist versus advocacy can be addressed through the definition <strong>of</strong> an<br />
activist, which includes using persuasion (Dozier, Grunig & Grunig, 2002). Edgett (2002)<br />
defined advocacy “publicly representing an individual, organization, or idea with the object <strong>of</strong><br />
persuading targeted audiences to look favorably on—or accept the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong>—the<br />
individual, the organization, or the idea. (p. 1).” Therefore, when organizations identify as<br />
advocates, they are likely engaging in the persuasive method used by activist organizations.<br />
Limitations<br />
A major limitation <strong>of</strong> this study is that it only analyzes a single activist organization.<br />
With the limited number <strong>of</strong> interviews there is also a restricted view <strong>of</strong> the organization.<br />
Although there is triangulation in terms <strong>of</strong> data gathering methods, additional research on activist<br />
organizations should utilize a variety <strong>of</strong> research approaches. Additional weaknesses include<br />
that only online documents were analyzed which means that some additional documents that<br />
may have provided insight were not examined and as with any research (Yin, 2009). A possible<br />
weakness in using the interpretive constructionist approach includes possible researcher bias that<br />
may impact data gathered and the researcher’s interpretation <strong>of</strong> the data based on cultural<br />
assumptions and experiences (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Through self-reflection and interview<br />
design, these weaknesses were mitigated (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Although there are some basic<br />
limitations, this research provides a vital look into key aspects <strong>of</strong> an activist organization.<br />
References<br />
Abrams, J. (2009, June 11). Historic anti-smoking vote to give FDA new power. The Associated<br />
Press. Retrieved from: http://www.lexisnexis.com.<br />
Aldoory, L., & Sha, B. (2007). The situational theory <strong>of</strong> publics: Practical applications,<br />
methodological challenges, and theoretical horizons. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future <strong>of</strong><br />
excellence in public relations and communication management: Challenges for the next<br />
generation (pp. 339-355). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
The Associated Press (2009). FAQ. Retrieved from: http://www.ap.org/pages/about/faq.html.<br />
Berg, B. (2009). Qualitative research methods for social sciences. (7 th ed). Boston, MA: Allyn &<br />
Bacon.<br />
Bowen, S. A. (2007) The extent <strong>of</strong> ethics. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future <strong>of</strong> excellence in public<br />
relations and communication management: Challenges for the next generation (pp. 275-<br />
297). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
117
Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (2009a). About the campaign. Retrieved from:<br />
http://www.tobacc<strong>of</strong>reekids.org/organization/<br />
Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (2009b). Home page. Retrieved from:<br />
http://www.kickbuttsday. com.<br />
Cutlip, S. M., Center, A. H., & Broom, G. M. (2000). Effective public relations. Upper Saddle<br />
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.<br />
Derville, T. (2005). Radical activist tactics: Overturning public relations conceptualizations.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 31(4), 527-533.<br />
Diani, M. (1992). The concept <strong>of</strong> social movement. The Sociological Review, 40, 1-25.<br />
Dozier, D. M., Grunig, L. A., & Grunig, J. E. (1995). Manager’s guide to excellence in public<br />
relations and communication management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Dozier, D. M. & Lauzen, M. M. (2000). Liberating the intellectual domain from the practice:<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations, activism, and the role <strong>of</strong> the scholar. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Research, 12(1), 3-22.<br />
Grunig, J.E. (2008). Conceptualizing quantitative research in public relations. In B. van Ruler, A.<br />
Tkalac Verčič & D. Verčič (Eds.). <strong>Public</strong> relations metrics: Research and evaluation.<br />
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Grunig, J. E. (2006). Furnishing the edifice: Ongoing research on public relations as a strategic<br />
management function. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 18(2), 151-176.<br />
Grunig, J. E. and Grunig, L.A. (2006). The excellence theory. In C. H. Botan and V. Hazleton<br />
(Eds.) <strong>Public</strong> relations theory II. (pp. 21-62). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum<br />
Associates.<br />
Grunig, L. A. & Grunig, J. E (2009). <strong>Public</strong> relations in the United Status: A generation <strong>of</strong><br />
maturation. In K. Sriramesh & D. Vercic (Eds.), The global public relations handbook:<br />
Theory, research, and practice. (pp. 621-653), New York, NY: Routledge.<br />
Grunig, L. A., Grunig, J. E., & Dozier, D. M. (2002). Excellent public relations and effective<br />
organizations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Heath, R. L. and Waymer, D. (2009) Activist public relations and the paradox <strong>of</strong> the positive: A<br />
case study <strong>of</strong> Frederick Douglass’ “Fourth <strong>of</strong> July Address”. In R. L. Heath, E. L. Toth &<br />
D. Waymer (Eds.), Rhetorical and critical approaches to public relations II (pp.193-<br />
215). New York: Routledge.<br />
Holtzhausen, D. R. (2007). Activism. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future <strong>of</strong> excellence in public<br />
relations and communication management (pp. 357-379). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Holtzhausen, D. R., & Voto, R. (2002). Resistance from the margins: The postmodern public<br />
relations practitioner as organizational activist. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research,<br />
14(1), 57–84.<br />
Kent, M. L. and Taylor, M. (1998). Building dialogic relationships through the World Wide<br />
Web. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review. 24(3), 321–334.<br />
Ledingham, J. A. and Bruning, S. D. (2000). Introduction: Background and current trends in the<br />
study <strong>of</strong> relationship management. In J. A. Ledingham and S. D. Bruning (Eds), <strong>Public</strong><br />
relations as relationship management: a relational approach to the study and practice <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations. (pp. xi-xx). Mahwah, N.J., Lawrence. Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook.<br />
2 nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
118
Murphy, P. & Dee, J. (1996) Reconciling the preferences <strong>of</strong> environmental activists and<br />
corporate policymakers. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 8, 1-33.<br />
Reber, B., & Kim, J. (2006). How Activist Groups Use Websites in Media <strong>Relations</strong>: Evaluating<br />
Online Press Rooms. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 18(4), 313-333.<br />
Rubin, H & Rubin, I (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art <strong>of</strong> hearing data. 2 nd ed. Thousand<br />
Oaks, CA. Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Rubin, D., & Stokes, A. (2006, June). <strong>Public</strong> relations activism through the looking glass:<br />
Colorado GASP vs. Philip Morris. Presented at International Communication Association<br />
Annual Conference, Dresden, Germany.<br />
Simmons, D. (2003). Use <strong>of</strong> Staged Event in Successful Community Activism. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Quarterly, 48(1), 35-39.<br />
Sommerfeldt, E. (2008b). Activism, <strong>Relations</strong>hip Building, and the Internet: The Case <strong>of</strong><br />
MoveOn.org. Presented at National Communication Association, San Diego, CA.<br />
Smith, M. F. & Ferguson, D. P. (2001). Activism. In R. Heath (Ed.), The Handbook <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong>, (pp. 291-300). Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Taylor, M., Kent, M. L. & White, W. J. (2001) How activist organizations are using the Internet<br />
to build <strong>Relations</strong>hips. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 27, 263–284<br />
Taylor, M., Vasquez, G., & Doorley, J. (2003). Merck and AIDS activists: engagement as a<br />
framework for extending issues management. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 29(3), 257-270.<br />
Wilson, D. (2009,April 1). A vote nears for a tobacco bill that Philip Morris can live with. The<br />
New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.lexisnexis.com.<br />
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods. 4 th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage<br />
<strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Zoch, L. M., Collins, E. L, Sisco, H. F. & Supa, D. H. (2008). Empowering the activist: Using<br />
framing devices on activist organizations’ web sites. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, 351-<br />
358.<br />
119
Analyzing Student Writing Pr<strong>of</strong>iciency and Assessment Measures<br />
in Programs <strong>of</strong> Mass Communication<br />
Andrew Lingwall, Ph.D.<br />
Clarion University <strong>of</strong> Pennsylvania<br />
alingwall@clarion.edu<br />
Across higher education institutions in the United States, an established body <strong>of</strong> evidence<br />
suggests that students are entering programs <strong>of</strong> mass communication with serious writing<br />
deficiencies. In studies dating back to the 1970s, researchers have documented a steady decline<br />
in students’ writing skills. Some studies have placed the blame on primary and secondary<br />
education, while others have addressed university-level instruction in English or general<br />
education. More recently, researchers have established links between students’ increasing use <strong>of</strong><br />
technology -- including Internet use, social media, text messaging -- and a general decline in<br />
writing skills.<br />
The issue is a critical one for faculty and students alike in programs <strong>of</strong> mass<br />
communication, including those that <strong>of</strong>fer study in public relations. Writing is arguably the most<br />
important skill that graduates bring to the mass communication field in general, and to the public<br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession in particular. Students who are weak writers cannot succeed in their<br />
coursework or careers, regardless <strong>of</strong> their skills in social media or other new technologies.<br />
Amid this reality, public relations educators are beset with issues that work against their<br />
best efforts to produce good writers. Too many students show up as university freshmen without<br />
adequate writing instruction from high school, and may feel entitled to good grades regardless <strong>of</strong><br />
their performance. Today’s world <strong>of</strong> social media and text messaging seems to stress immediacy<br />
and gratification over critical thinking. University administrators are <strong>of</strong>ten more concerned with<br />
boosting enrollments and cutting budgets than with screening out unqualified students or limiting<br />
class sizes. Faculty members cannot qualify the best students and teach well in a culture <strong>of</strong><br />
entitlement, grade inflation, and generalized student apathy toward writing. Burgeoning<br />
workloads in grading, paper editing, and remedial writing instruction have only added to an<br />
overall sense among faculty that they are fighting a losing battle.<br />
It is therefore notable that relatively little research has been done within the last decade to<br />
explore the major writing-related issues facing faculty members in mass communication<br />
programs, and how faculty are attempting to better assess and improve student writing. This<br />
study builds upon the demonstrated need for a better understanding <strong>of</strong> these issues, and for<br />
practical writing assessment and improvement measures that faculty can implement in their own<br />
departments, schools and colleges.<br />
Review <strong>of</strong> Literature<br />
In examining the writing skills students bring into mass communication programs, it is<br />
useful to review their formative sources <strong>of</strong> writing instruction, and factors that have influenced<br />
their development as writers along the way. Some <strong>of</strong> these include primary and secondary<br />
education, technology, and the undergraduate university curriculum. It is also useful to review<br />
measures that mass communication programs have used to assess and improve student writing.<br />
Educational Shortcomings<br />
According to Bauerlin (<strong>2010</strong>), student scores on three national assessments <strong>of</strong> student<br />
reading and writing ability have decreased steadily since the 1990s. On the National Assessment<br />
120
<strong>of</strong> Educational Progress (NAEP), 80% <strong>of</strong> 12 th graders in 1992 scored “basic” or higher. By 2005,<br />
that figure had fallen to 73%. Students’ critical reading scores on the SAT have dropped 4 points<br />
since 1999, while their writing scores have decreased 4 points since 2006 -- the first year for that<br />
section. Reviewing ACT trends from 2006 to 2009, the percentage <strong>of</strong> test-takers who met college<br />
readiness benchmarks in English fell by 2%, with flat scores in reading. Only two-thirds <strong>of</strong> the<br />
test-takers were prepared for college work in English, and only 53% were ready for college-level<br />
reading.<br />
In 2003, the National Commission on Writing in <strong>America</strong>’s Schools and Colleges<br />
sounded a warning call to educators and policymakers in its report, “The Neglected “R”: The<br />
Need for A Writing Revolution”. The commission bemoaned the lack <strong>of</strong> writing instruction and<br />
quality student work in <strong>America</strong>’s high schools and universities. “Both the teaching and practice<br />
<strong>of</strong> writing are increasingly shortchanged throughout the school and college years,” the report<br />
noted. “Writing, always time-consuming for the student and teacher, is today hard-pressed in the<br />
<strong>America</strong>n classroom. By grade 12, most students are producing relatively immature and<br />
unsophisticated writing. Indeed, more than one in five continues to produce prose with a<br />
substantial number <strong>of</strong> errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. We must do better.” The<br />
commission reported that at the university level, more than 50% <strong>of</strong> freshmen are unable to<br />
produce papers relatively free <strong>of</strong> language errors.<br />
The 2008 National Assessment <strong>of</strong> Educational Progress supports the commission’s<br />
conclusion. Manzo wrote in 2008 that only small proportions <strong>of</strong> middle and high school students<br />
showed pr<strong>of</strong>iciency in writing – use <strong>of</strong> proper spelling and grammar, along with more<br />
sophisticated skills needed to write an essay or explain complex information.<br />
Technology Influences<br />
Researchers have established links between students’ increasing use <strong>of</strong> technology --<br />
including Internet use, social media, and text messaging -- and a general decline in writing skills.<br />
In a pair <strong>of</strong> studies done in 2009, Turner found that among college students sampled, college<br />
grade point average and levels <strong>of</strong> need for cognition were negatively related to the frequency<br />
with which students used certain interactive media. Turner’s studies also revealed that frequent<br />
use <strong>of</strong> socially interactive technologies (including text messaging and instant messaging) was<br />
consistently associated with the use <strong>of</strong> particularly informal written communication techniques,<br />
along with formatting problems, nonstandard orthography, and grammatical errors. The second<br />
study also showed that multitasking on the computer was significantly related to problems with<br />
formatting and an increased number <strong>of</strong> grammatical errors.<br />
Other scholars have raised alarm over students’ increased use <strong>of</strong> technology and a general<br />
decline in reading and critical thinking, both <strong>of</strong> which are prerequisite skills for writing. In his<br />
2008 book The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young <strong>America</strong>ns and<br />
Jeopardizes Our Future (or Don’t Trust Anyone Under 30), Bauerlin lamented students’ apathy<br />
toward reading or learning about the world around them. “The Dumbest Generation cares little<br />
for history books, civic principles, foreign affairs, comparative religions, and serious media and<br />
art, and it knows less. Careening through their formative years, they don’t catch the knowledge<br />
bug, and tradition might as well be a foreign word. Other things monopolize their attention – the<br />
allure <strong>of</strong> screens, peer absorption, career goals……it’s a new attitude, this brazen disregard <strong>of</strong><br />
books and reading. Early generations resented homework assignments, <strong>of</strong> course, and only a<br />
small segment <strong>of</strong> each dove into the intellectual currents <strong>of</strong> the time, but no generation trumpeted<br />
a-literacy as a valid behavior <strong>of</strong> their peers.”<br />
121
In a separate publication (<strong>2010</strong>), Bauerlein wrote that high-school English teachers face a<br />
stiff challenge in overcoming such attitudes in the digital age. “With the digital age, the English<br />
teacher’s task has turned into Mount Everest,” he wrote. “Kids see and say more words than ever<br />
before, but their texts and posts and e-mails have only made them less disposed to study the<br />
medium. By the time they reach their senior year <strong>of</strong> high school, students have internalized a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> expression that teachers must labor mightily to dislodge. Their verbal intelligence has<br />
been formed in a crucible <strong>of</strong> keyboards and “send” buttons, where language is all about<br />
communication, not craft.”<br />
The High School to College Transition<br />
Substantial research demonstrates that high school graduates are not prepared to write at<br />
the college level. According to Knudson et al. (2008), a growing number <strong>of</strong> incoming university<br />
freshman need remediation in reading and writing before they can take university-level<br />
coursework. This places a heavy burden on both the student and the university faculty. The<br />
authors predict this trend will escalate throughout the country. In a separate study, Attewell et al.<br />
(2006) found that the ranks <strong>of</strong> students needing remediation include large numbers <strong>of</strong> students<br />
who successfully completed college preparatory tracks in high school.<br />
This disconnect may be partially explained by a pair <strong>of</strong> 2006 studies by The Chronicle <strong>of</strong><br />
Higher Education. Here, researchers found that college pr<strong>of</strong>essors are much more concerned<br />
than high-school teachers about the writing abilities <strong>of</strong> freshmen. Nearly 44% <strong>of</strong> university<br />
faculty members said that students are not well prepared for college-level writing, compared with<br />
only 10% among high-school teachers. Conversely, only 6% <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essors viewed students as<br />
very well-prepared writers, while 36% <strong>of</strong> high-school teachers held this view.<br />
Other critics have faulted the English instruction that some students receive in universitylevel<br />
courses. In 2006, Miller wrote that at many universities, English 101 is now based on a<br />
“postmodern” approach taught by composition theorists who are more concerned with process,<br />
collaboration, and individual expression than with mechanics, paragraph structure, or studying<br />
classic literary works. In Miller’s view, such an approach fails to prepare students to write in<br />
upper-level classes and produces students who cannot conform to strict conventions <strong>of</strong> spelling,<br />
mechanics, and usage required for career employment. Miller concludes that the postmodern<br />
approach is founded on fallacies and produces poor results. “Hundreds <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> recent<br />
college graduates today cannot express themselves with the written word,” wrote English<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essor Stanley Ridgeley in the article. “Why? Because universities have shortchanged them,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fering strange literary theories, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and other oddities in the<br />
guise <strong>of</strong> writing courses. They’ve <strong>of</strong>fered everything, really, but the basics <strong>of</strong> writing.” In a<br />
“back to basics” argument, Miller contends that college instructors should teach writing<br />
strategies in class rather than having students work in groups, design and use systematic<br />
grammar reviews, schedule frequent conferences with students, and require students to read and<br />
write about classic literature.<br />
California State University has attempted to diagnose and improve the writing skills <strong>of</strong><br />
high-school graduates with the California Early Assessment Program, a collaboration among the<br />
university, the California Department <strong>of</strong> Education and the California State Board <strong>of</strong> Education.<br />
The program provides California high school 11 th -graders with an early indication <strong>of</strong> whether<br />
they are ready for college-level work in English and mathematics. Students who do not<br />
demonstrate readiness can pursue more intensive high-school classes to prepare for college-level<br />
work. Although the concept shows promise, Tierney and Garcia noted in 2008 that many<br />
students, especially those from underrepresented and low-income groups, are failing the high-<br />
122
school assessment, and that the program leaves students on their own to find the right highschool<br />
writing instruction to prepare them for college. The authors suggest shifting the focus<br />
from generic assessments to writing courses before, during, and after 12 th grade to enable<br />
students to bring their writing skills up to university level.<br />
Implications for the Workplace<br />
The assessment and improvement <strong>of</strong> student writing in mass communication programs<br />
gains urgency when viewed in light <strong>of</strong> the skills employers expect <strong>of</strong> graduates. A substantial<br />
body <strong>of</strong> literature has underscored the importance <strong>of</strong> solid writing skills as a prerequisite for<br />
career employment in the communications field. “Writing as an advanced skill becomes both the<br />
means and the expression <strong>of</strong> critical thinking and problem solving,” wrote White in 1993. “When<br />
critical thinking and problem solving have been taught, they have been taught through writing.”<br />
In its 2006 report, the Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education wrote that the top-rated<br />
competencies sought in hiring entry-level practitioners included writing skills, critical thinking<br />
and problem-solving skills, a good attitude, the ability to communicate publicly, and initiative.<br />
A substantial body <strong>of</strong> literature has also established that communication graduates as the<br />
whole are not prepared to write at a pr<strong>of</strong>essional level, and that this skills deficit is costly to<br />
employers in a variety <strong>of</strong> ways. The Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education (2006)<br />
identified writing skills, and critical thinking and problem-solving skills as major deficiencies in<br />
entry-level practitioners. In 1993, Hansen noted that managers and executives spend nearly 25 %<br />
<strong>of</strong> their day writing business letters, memos, and reports, and that unclear writing at that time<br />
was costing U.S. businesses more than $1 billion annually. By 2004, the National Commission<br />
on Writing estimated this figure to be more than $3 billion. In a 2008 survey <strong>of</strong> 120 diverse<br />
<strong>America</strong>n corporations, Cole et al. found significant dissatisfaction with the writing performance<br />
<strong>of</strong> entry-level public relations practitioners. On the whole, respondents in this study rated the<br />
skills <strong>of</strong> their entry-level colleagues as “bad” and “getting worse.” While the quality <strong>of</strong> entrylevel<br />
public relations writing appears to be declining, new graduates are facing a constantly<br />
growing set <strong>of</strong> writing challenges, particularly in the area <strong>of</strong> new media.<br />
In a 1999 study, Treadwell et al. found that 25% <strong>of</strong> respondents said they regretted<br />
hiring a new communication graduate. Respondents cited reasons including basic writing skills<br />
(spelling and grammar), intellectual skills (research, reasoning, problem solving, synthesizing<br />
information, writing for multiple audiences), and lack <strong>of</strong> attention to detail among others.<br />
Writing Assessment Measures in Mass Communication Programs<br />
A well-documented body <strong>of</strong> literature has established that from the mid-20 th century<br />
onward, mass communication programs have utilized a range <strong>of</strong> measures to assess the writing<br />
<strong>of</strong> entering students. These have included minimum GPAs, language skills exams, Grammar,<br />
Spelling, and Punctuation (GSP) tests, and written essays. GSP testing grew rapidly in the 1970s<br />
as scores on national standardized testing indicated declining writing abilities. Many programs<br />
have required all incoming students to complete a basic writing skills class. However, despite<br />
longstanding interest in formally assessing writing skills <strong>of</strong> entering students, nothing<br />
approaching uniform standards has ever been applied across institutions.<br />
An early study by Fedler and Taylor in 1982 found that scores on a writing skills entrance<br />
exam were a strong predictor <strong>of</strong> later student success in journalism courses. The same study also<br />
established a strong correlation between scores on the writing skills exam and grades in English<br />
composition courses.<br />
123
However, in a 1991 survey <strong>of</strong> journalism programs by John et al., only 36% <strong>of</strong><br />
respondents required a formal writing skills test. Accredited programs were more likely to<br />
require testing than non-accredited programs. A 1998 study by Oukrop, Brown and Parsons<br />
found that 31% <strong>of</strong> respondents required prospective students to take a skills exam. The same<br />
study also revealed that the use <strong>of</strong> minimum GPA for admission grew ten-fold in the 1990s. In a<br />
1995 study, researchers discovered that a minimum GPA requirement predicted success in<br />
writing and grammar courses.<br />
In 2009, Alvarado and Callison found that students’ scores on the GSP Test could be<br />
best predicted by scores received on the English portion <strong>of</strong> the ACT. They concluded that GSP<br />
test scores and grades earned in college introductory English composition classes, taken together,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered the most accurate picture <strong>of</strong> how mass communication students would perform in an<br />
introductory media writing course. However, they noted that among majors, the GSP performed<br />
most poorly at predicting writing grades among journalism students – the group for whom the<br />
test itself was created.<br />
While the above research has explored the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> individual writing assessment<br />
and improvement measures, this study builds upon the need for a more comprehensive view <strong>of</strong><br />
student writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency, measures that programs are utilizing, and the degree <strong>of</strong> success<br />
achieved with those measures.<br />
Method<br />
Research Questions<br />
To better understand the range <strong>of</strong> writing-related issues that mass communication faculty<br />
face and how they are attempting to deal with them, it is necessary to know how respondents<br />
perceive the writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency <strong>of</strong> students entering their programs, as well as the issues raised<br />
by student writing deficiencies. It is also important to discover which measures programs are<br />
using to assess and improve student writing. Finally, it is useful to determine whether<br />
institutional attributes such as academic unit, Carnegie classification, or accreditation are<br />
correlated with any <strong>of</strong> the above factors. Therefore, the following research questions were<br />
developed:<br />
RQ1: What are respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> the writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency <strong>of</strong> students entering<br />
their academic unit?<br />
RQ2: What are respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> the issues, if any, that have been raised by<br />
writing deficiencies <strong>of</strong> students entering their academic unit?<br />
RQ3: What types <strong>of</strong> measures are respondents using to assess and improve student<br />
writing?<br />
RQ4: What degree <strong>of</strong> success has been achieved by utilizing such measures?<br />
RQ5: Is there a correlation between the above factors and the institutional attributes <strong>of</strong><br />
respondents?<br />
Survey Method<br />
Considering the varying media preferences <strong>of</strong> JMC educators and the uneven reliability<br />
<strong>of</strong> e-mail, the researcher developed both a paper and Web-based version <strong>of</strong> the survey. The paper<br />
version was mailed to all prospective participants. The cover sheet <strong>of</strong> the survey contained a link<br />
to the Web-based version <strong>of</strong> the survey, with an invitation to take the survey online.<br />
The survey was fielded between November and December 2009. Within three weeks <strong>of</strong><br />
mailing, a reminder postcard followed. The postcard contained the researcher’s contact<br />
information and the survey Web site. Five, $50 gift certificates to Amazon.com were <strong>of</strong>fered and<br />
awarded to individuals completing the survey.<br />
124
Both the paper and Web-based survey instrument contained three sections with a<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> check-<strong>of</strong>f, barometer scale and open-ended items. Sections were divided as<br />
follows:<br />
Section 1: Perceptions <strong>of</strong> student writing skills<br />
Section 2: Measures used to assess or improve student writing<br />
Section 3: Institutional information<br />
At its conclusion, the survey contained one open-ended question inviting participants to<br />
share further observations or insights. In all cases, respondents’ anonymity was protected.<br />
Participants<br />
The survey was mailed to 1,000 randomly selected members <strong>of</strong> the Association for<br />
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC). A total <strong>of</strong> 166 surveys were<br />
completed, yielding a 16.6% response rate. Of the total, 138 were completed on paper, and 28<br />
were completed online.<br />
Participants came from a range <strong>of</strong> academic units. Among 163 respondents, 57% (n = 93)<br />
came from departments, 32 % (n = 52) came from schools, and 11% (n = 18) came from<br />
colleges. Regarding Carnegie Classification, 25 % (n = 41) <strong>of</strong> participants came from<br />
baccalaureate colleges or universities. Another 23% (n = 37) came from master’s colleges or<br />
universities. Just over 50% <strong>of</strong> the participants (n = 85) came from doctorate-granting<br />
universities. Regarding ACEJMC accreditation, 60% (n = 98) <strong>of</strong> participants’ academic<br />
programs were accredited, while 35% (n = 57) were not accredited. Another 5% (n = 8) indicated<br />
that accreditation was in process.<br />
Independent Variables<br />
Measures used to assess or improve writing were selected as the first group <strong>of</strong><br />
independent variables. To determine measures used to assess or improve writing, respondents<br />
were provided with a list <strong>of</strong> check-<strong>of</strong>f items to select one or more <strong>of</strong> the following: (a) minimum<br />
GPA, (b) language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance, (c) language skills<br />
exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students, (d) written essay, (e) basic<br />
writing class required for all incoming students, (f) other and (g) none.<br />
Institutional attributes were selected as the second group <strong>of</strong> independent variables. Here,<br />
respondents were asked to select their: (a) academic unit, (b) Carnegie Basic Classification, and<br />
(c) accreditation status.<br />
Dependent Variables<br />
Four groups <strong>of</strong> dependent variables were identified for this study: (1) perception <strong>of</strong><br />
student writing skills, (2) issues created by student writing deficiencies, (3) hours per week spent<br />
dealing with basic writing issues; and (4) degree <strong>of</strong> success achieved with measures to assess or<br />
improve writing.<br />
To measure perception <strong>of</strong> student writing skills, respondents were provided with<br />
barometer scale items for: (a) critical thinking, (b) paragraph and sentence structure, (c) grammar<br />
and punctuation, (d) Associated Press style, (e) pro<strong>of</strong>ing and editing, and (f) other. Here, 1 =<br />
unskilled and 5 = highly pr<strong>of</strong>icient.<br />
To measure the intensity <strong>of</strong> issues raised by student writing deficiencies, respondents<br />
were again provided with barometer scale items for: (a) student frustration with grades, (b)<br />
inability to pass required courses, (c) lack <strong>of</strong> quality work in student media, (d) class time spent<br />
reviewing basic writing conventions, (e) time and effort spent on grading, and (f) other. Here, 1 =<br />
not an issue and 5 = major issue.<br />
125
To measure the number <strong>of</strong> hours per week respondents spent dealing with basic student<br />
writing issues (e.g., correcting grammar and spelling, reworking drafts, explaining basic skills to<br />
students), a barometer scale question was developed with the following choices: (a) 0-3 hours,<br />
(b) 3-6 hours, (c) 6-9 hours, and (d) more than 9 hours.<br />
To determine which measures were being used to assess or improve writing, and their<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> success, respondents were provided with check-<strong>of</strong>f and barometer scale items for: (a)<br />
minimum GPA, (b) language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance, (c)<br />
language skills exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students, (d) written<br />
essay, (e) basic writing class required for all incoming students, (f) other and (g) none. Here, 1 =<br />
complete failure and 5 = complete success.<br />
Finally, through two open-ended questions, respondents were asked: (1) to briefly explain<br />
why they believed any <strong>of</strong> their measures had succeeded or failed, and (2) to list any measures<br />
they would like to see implemented, as well as any barriers they had encountered.<br />
Data Analysis<br />
To investigate RQ1-4, responses were compared using descriptive statistics. T-tests, the<br />
Mann-Whitney U –test, and Spearman correlations were used to test for significant differences.<br />
To investigate RQ5, responses were compared using descriptive statistics. Pearson correlation, t-<br />
tests and chi-square were used to test for significant differences. An alpha level <strong>of</strong> .05 was used<br />
for all statistical tests.<br />
Results<br />
RQ1: What are respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> the writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency <strong>of</strong> students entering<br />
their academic unit?<br />
Across institutions, respondents (n = 166) indicated that they perceive overall student<br />
writing skills as slightly below average ( x = 2.70, sd = .672). Within the item, respondents gave<br />
the highest mean scores to paragraph and sentence structure ( x = 2.72, sd = .808), the secondhighest<br />
mean scores to critical thinking, and grammar and punctuation ( x = 2.44, sd = .885;<br />
.865), followed by pro<strong>of</strong>ing and editing ( x = 2.12, sd = .760) and Associated Press style ( x =<br />
1.74, sd = .870)<br />
Notably, none <strong>of</strong> the scores for the above responses varied by more than one standard<br />
deviation. This tight cluster around the mean indicated fairly consistent agreement among<br />
respondents. Mean scores for respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> student writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency are<br />
displayed in Table 1.<br />
RQ2: What are respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> the issues, if any, that have been raised by<br />
writing deficiencies <strong>of</strong> students entering their academic unit?<br />
Across institutions, respondents indicated that too much time and effort spent on grading<br />
was the biggest issue ( x = 3.61, sd = 1.16). Too much class time spent reviewing basic writing<br />
conventions was the second-biggest issue ( x = 3.40, sd = 1.13). Student frustration with grades<br />
and lack <strong>of</strong> quality work in student media was the next-biggest issue ( x = 3.21, sd = 1.10),<br />
followed by inability to pass required courses ( x = 2.61, sd = .973).<br />
Mean scores for respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> issues raised by student writing deficiencies<br />
are displayed in Table 2.<br />
Within the “other” category, respondents indicated scores <strong>of</strong> “4” and “5” on a number <strong>of</strong><br />
related issues. These included: lack <strong>of</strong> intellectual curiosity, student boredom, leaving the major,<br />
plagiarism, and lack <strong>of</strong> challenge for more capable students.<br />
Regardless <strong>of</strong> institutional attributes, all faculty indicated that they spent between 3 and 6<br />
hours per week dealing with basic student writing issues that could have been resolved before the<br />
126
student was admitted to their academic unit. The fact that the standard deviation was quite small<br />
(sd = .990) indicates that regardless <strong>of</strong> academic unit, Carnegie Basic Classification or<br />
accreditation status, all respondents are spending about the same amount <strong>of</strong> time each week<br />
grappling with basic student writing issues.<br />
Further examining the relationship between hours per week faculty spend dealing with<br />
basic student writing issues and other factors, several significant correlations were found<br />
utilizing the Spearman’s rho correlation:<br />
Hours per week spent and perceived writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency. Four negative correlations<br />
were established between hours spent each week and perceived student writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency in:<br />
(a) paragraph and sentence structure (r = -.199, p = .010); (b) grammar and punctuation (r = -<br />
.235, p = .002); (c) Associated Press style (r = -.177, p = .025); and (4) pro<strong>of</strong>ing and editing (r =<br />
-.319, p < .001). Faculty who spent more hours per week dealing with basic writing skills tended<br />
to believe their new students were less pr<strong>of</strong>icient in the above areas.<br />
Hours per week spent and issues raised by student writing deficiencies. Three<br />
positive correlations were established between hours spent each week and issues raised by<br />
student writing deficiencies in: (a) class time spent reviewing basic writing conventions (r =<br />
.361, p < .001); (b) time and effort spent on grading (r = .281, p < .001); and (c) student inability<br />
to pass courses (r = .246, p = .001). Here, faculty who spent more hours per week dealing with<br />
basic writing skills tended to believe that these were bigger issues.<br />
Hours per week spent and perception <strong>of</strong> success with a basic class for all students.<br />
One negative correlation was established between hours spent each week and degree <strong>of</strong> success<br />
achieved with a basic writing class for all students (r = -.247, p = .019). Faculty who spent more<br />
hours per week dealing with basic writing issues indicated that the basic class had been less<br />
successful at their institutions.<br />
Correlations for the above items are displayed in Table 3.<br />
RQ3: What types <strong>of</strong> measures are respondents using to assess and improve student<br />
writing?<br />
Basic writing class required for all incoming students. By far, this was the largest<br />
percentage indicated among all <strong>of</strong> the listed measures. Across institutions, 59.6% <strong>of</strong> respondents<br />
(n = 99) indicated they were utilizing this measure.<br />
Minimum GPA. This was the second-largest percentage indicated among all <strong>of</strong> the listed<br />
measures. Across institutions, 46.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 77) indicated they were utilizing this<br />
measure. Here, the data was widely dispersed, and no clear pattern <strong>of</strong> GPA requirements<br />
emerged.<br />
Language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance. Across institutions,<br />
22.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 37) indicated they were utilizing this measure.<br />
Written essay. Across institutions, 20.5% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 34) indicated they were<br />
utilizing this measure.<br />
Language skills exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students.<br />
Across institutions, 13.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 22) indicated they were utilizing this measure.<br />
None. Across institutions, 15.1% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 25) indicated they were not<br />
utilizing any <strong>of</strong> the listed measures to assess or improve student writing.<br />
Other. Here, 14.5% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 24) listed a range <strong>of</strong> measures not on the survey<br />
list. These included: work in the writing skills lab, a writing-intensive course requirement,<br />
minimum ACT and SAT scores, freshman writing assessments, minimum GPA requirements for<br />
specific courses including English, and others.<br />
127
Frequencies for all writing measures are displayed in Table 4.<br />
Further examining the relationship between measures utilized and other factors, a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> significant findings were made:<br />
Written essay and hours per week spent dealing with basic student writing issues.<br />
Utilizing the Mann-Whitney U-Test, a significant difference was found between programs that<br />
require a written essay (mean rank = 67.12) and those that don’t (mean rank = 87.12) relative to<br />
hours spent per week dealing with basic writing issues (U= 1687, p = .022.). Faculty who teach<br />
in programs that require a written essay spend fewer hours per week at this task.<br />
Language skills exam and student frustration with grades. A t-test established a<br />
significant difference between programs that require a language skills exam with minimum score<br />
required for entrance and those that don’t, relative to student frustration with grades (t = 1.987,<br />
df =1, 163; p = .049.) Programs requiring the exam reported a lower mean level <strong>of</strong> student<br />
frustration ( x = 2.89) than programs not requiring the exam ( x = 3.29).<br />
Basic writing class required for all incoming students, and time and effort spent on<br />
grading. A t-test established a significant difference between programs that require a basic<br />
writing class for all incoming students and those that don’t, relative to perception <strong>of</strong> time and<br />
effort spent on grading (t = -2.439, df =1, 160; p = .016.) Programs requiring the class reported<br />
that time and effort spent on grading was a bigger issue ( x = 3.8) than programs not requiring the<br />
class ( x = 3.4).<br />
RQ4: What degree <strong>of</strong> success has been achieved by utilizing such measures?<br />
Across institutions, respondents indicated they had been most successful with a language<br />
skills exam with basic writing class required for low-scoring students ( x = 3.22, sd = .751). This<br />
was followed by a language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance ( x = 3.17, sd<br />
= .892), a basic writing class required for all incoming students ( x = 3.04, sd = .923), and a<br />
written essay ( x = 3.03, sd = 1.01). Respondents reported the least amount <strong>of</strong> success with a<br />
minimum GPA ( x = 2.96, sd = .877). Mean scores for respondents’ perceptions <strong>of</strong> degree <strong>of</strong><br />
success are displayed in Table 5.<br />
Taken as a whole, the above mean scores indicate that no more than a moderate amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> success has been achieved with any <strong>of</strong> the above measures. Notably, all but one <strong>of</strong> the scores<br />
for the above responses varied by less than one standard deviation. This tight cluster around the<br />
mean indicated fairly consistent agreement among respondents.<br />
Reasons for Success or Failure<br />
In an open-ended question, respondents were asked to briefly explain why they believed<br />
any <strong>of</strong> the above measures had succeeded or failed. A review <strong>of</strong> the 85 usable responses revealed<br />
that 61% (n = 52) respondents believed their measures had failed. Only 39% (n = 33) <strong>of</strong><br />
respondents believed their measures were successful.<br />
In general, the “failure” responses fell into the following categories:<br />
Inadequate high-school preparation. “In recent years, entering students not only show<br />
the results <strong>of</strong> insufficient writing instruction by overworked and underpaid high school teachers,<br />
but students also show that their parents (or peers) don’t reward reading,” wrote one faculty<br />
member. Another wrote, “The crux <strong>of</strong> the situation is the process writing approach used in our<br />
state’s high schools. Students have not learned the basics. They truly wind up starting over, in<br />
some cases.” A third respondent added, “It has to happen in K-12, actually; we don’t seem to<br />
have a coherent educational system with regard to writing instruction.” Another noted that many<br />
<strong>of</strong> his new students had never written a research paper or done much writing <strong>of</strong> any kind in high<br />
school.<br />
128
Problems with the measures: Here, some respondents indicated that although they had<br />
instituted specific measures within their academic units, the measures weren’t working. “Most <strong>of</strong><br />
my students cannot write even after passing the super-easy grammar exam or getting a C in<br />
ENGL 203,” wrote one faculty member. Another added, “Students do not seem to grasp basic<br />
writing concepts, such as grammar and sentence construction, after taking the basic writing class.<br />
They need more help than they are receiving.” A third respondent wrote that the required “C” in<br />
the basic communication writing class is inadequate to improve writing or to be an adequate<br />
filter for progression to future courses in the mass communication major. Another faculty<br />
member wrote, “The writing skills <strong>of</strong> incoming students are at such a low level that it’s difficult<br />
to get them to an acceptable level in the basic writing class. Also, our basic writing course is not<br />
strenuous enough.”<br />
Yet another respondent noted that not all measures are designed primarily to assess or<br />
improve student writing skills. “The language skills exam works for some things like grammar<br />
and punctuation, but not for others like clarity, sentence and paragraph structure. It is machine<br />
marked because it is a large lecture class. The written essay is largely meaningless -- I’m not<br />
sure it’s even read critically unless a student is a borderline admit.”<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> respondents indicated their belief that a minimum GPA was an ineffective<br />
measure. They noted that a high GPA is not always indicative <strong>of</strong> good writing skills, and that the<br />
minimum GPA <strong>of</strong>ten isn’t high enough. “Even students who achieve the minimum GPA lack<br />
basic writing skills,” wrote a faculty member. “They treat the newspaper style class like other<br />
academic classes and forget the information after the semester.” “Teachers tend to inflate grades<br />
to enable students to pass, particularly on a second or third try,” wrote another.<br />
Student attitudes toward writing: Several faculty members commented on students’<br />
attitudes toward writing. “Too many students are resentful and dismissive <strong>of</strong> writing<br />
corrections,” wrote one respondent. They act like it is a waste <strong>of</strong> their time. The instructor is<br />
being overly picky. The instructor is correcting them on something they will not need when they<br />
become a rich and famous anchor person, or when they own their hugely successful PR firm.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> them want to write as they do in their text messages.”<br />
None <strong>of</strong> the measures changes student attitudes or values for standard written English,<br />
according to another faculty member. “In general, students don’t seem to grasp or care about<br />
writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency. They care more about the grade, so unless you fail them for poor writing<br />
(which would mean failing a majority), the lessons you teach them don’t sink in and they have to<br />
be continually re-taught.”<br />
Institutional culture: Several respondents indicated either that they are pressured by<br />
university administrators to keep writing standards low, or that their own colleagues do not share<br />
their own high standards for writing. “Administration wants us to be academically ‘accessible’ to<br />
the students, even though they don’t deserve to be in our unit,” wrote one. Another added, “Most<br />
<strong>of</strong> my colleagues are from PR or broadcasting backgrounds. They do not expect the same level<br />
<strong>of</strong> writing skills that I expect.”<br />
Of the 39% <strong>of</strong> respondents who believed their measures had succeeded, reasons provided<br />
generally fell into the following categories:<br />
Faculty and classroom factors: “Small classes and dedicated pr<strong>of</strong>essors have long<br />
proven to be imperative to improving the writing <strong>of</strong> undergraduates,” wrote one faculty member.<br />
Another noted, “We regularly work with students on their writing. Students work in groups on<br />
rough drafts <strong>of</strong> written work, and have the opportunity to rewrite assignments. A third<br />
129
espondent added that their 110-level writing course is taught by a team <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essors with a<br />
common syllabus, and that the instructors work collaboratively.<br />
Increased expectations. “Language skills exams get students’ attention about the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> writing quality, and they raise student expectations,” wrote one faculty member.<br />
“A language skills exam with a minimum score is very motivational, since it is competitive to<br />
get into our news writing courses,” added another. “Students who score low must take an on-line<br />
grammar course until they pass the exam.” Another respondent noted that since students are<br />
required to pass a grammar, spelling, and punctuation test in order to stay in the program, they<br />
are forced to take the exam seriously and to prepare for it.<br />
Weeding out <strong>of</strong> underprepared students. “Our measures do improve students’ writing<br />
as well as their sensitivity to the importance <strong>of</strong> good writing,” wrote one faculty member. “But<br />
mostly, they just remove the poor writers from the program.” “Our measures have eliminated<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the students we saw before who were unprepared, and overall, student writing skills<br />
have improved,” added another respondent.<br />
In contrast to their colleagues who indicated their belief that minimum GPA was a failed<br />
measure, several respondents indicated it had worked well for them. “A minimum GPA filters<br />
out the worst writers with the greatest ease,” wrote one faculty member. “Our media programs<br />
had been viewed by university-level counselors as a haven for those who bordered on illiteracy,”<br />
wrote another. “The minimum GPA now bars those students from our program.”<br />
RQ5: Is there a relationship between the above factors and the institutional attributes <strong>of</strong><br />
respondents?<br />
Perceived writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency. A Pearson bivariate correlation established no<br />
significant relationship between institutional attributes and any <strong>of</strong> the writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency scale<br />
items.<br />
Issues raised by writing deficiencies. A t-test revealed one significant difference<br />
between accredited programs and non-accredited programs on their perceptions <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> quality<br />
<strong>of</strong> work in the student media on campus (t = -2.13, df = 1, 152; p= .035). Faculty in accredited<br />
institutions saw this as less <strong>of</strong> an issue ( x = 3.08), than faculty in non-accredited institutions ( x<br />
= 3.46).<br />
Hours per week spent dealing with basic student writing issues. A Pearson bivariate<br />
correlation established no significant relationship between institutional attributes and hours per<br />
week spent dealing with basic student writing issues.<br />
Measures to assess and improve writing and perception <strong>of</strong> success <strong>of</strong> measures. Chisquare<br />
analysis revealed no significant differences between any <strong>of</strong> the categories <strong>of</strong> respondents<br />
according to measures utilized, or success with those measures.<br />
Discussion<br />
Based on the results, it is clear that most faculty in this survey, regardless <strong>of</strong> institutional<br />
attributes, are dealing with many new students who are only moderately pr<strong>of</strong>icient in writing,<br />
and that student writing deficiencies are raising a host <strong>of</strong> serious issues for universities <strong>of</strong> all<br />
kinds. It is equally clear that faculty members are spending a substantial amount <strong>of</strong> time each<br />
week dealing with basic student writing issues that they believe should have been resolved<br />
before students entered their academic units. These findings are all the more significant, given<br />
that 52% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 85) teach at doctorate-granting universities and 60 % (n = 98) come<br />
from accredited programs. Evidently, even students who are able to compete successfully for<br />
admission to more prestigious universities and accredited programs lack basic college-level<br />
writing skills as sophomores or juniors.<br />
130
Patterns in the open-ended response items indicate that faculty across institutions believe<br />
they are facing an epidemic problem created by the K-12 educational system, digital technology,<br />
university culture, and enrollment pressures.<br />
However, what is less clear is any trend in measures used among institutions to assess or<br />
improve student writing, or the degree <strong>of</strong> success achieved with those measures. Based on the<br />
data, it can be inferred that departments, colleges and schools are attempting to better assess or<br />
improve student writing in many different ways, but without clear indications <strong>of</strong> whether they<br />
have succeeded or failed. Respondents appear to have many more questions than answers about<br />
how to address this complex issue.<br />
Regarding RQ1, an overall mean writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency rating <strong>of</strong> 2.70 is hardly reassuring.<br />
The fact that most items within this question fell below 2.70 – for example, a mean rating <strong>of</strong> 2.12<br />
for pro<strong>of</strong>ing and editing – is further evidence that too many students are showing up in programs<br />
unable to perform basic college-level writing tasks.<br />
The data provided in response to RQ2 show that at least two <strong>of</strong> the issues raised by<br />
student writing deficiencies are impacting faculty most heavily in terms <strong>of</strong> grading workload ( x<br />
= 3.61) and class spent reviewing basics ( x = 3.40). These findings are cautionary because they<br />
indicate that many faculty members do not have enough class time to teach the new ideas,<br />
theories and skills that students need to become better thinkers, writers and communication<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. The three to six hours per week that most faculty indicated they are spending on<br />
basic writing issues means they have less time and energy available for the research, planning,<br />
and reflective thinking that are so necessary to good teaching.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> the statistically significant findings related to this question centered on hours per<br />
week spent dealing with basic writing issues such as correcting grammar and spelling, reworking<br />
drafts, and teaching basic skills. It is not surprising that: (a) a negative correlation was<br />
established between hours per week spent and perceived writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency, and (b) a positive<br />
correlation was established between hours per week spent and perception <strong>of</strong> issues raised by<br />
writing deficiencies. The negative correlation discovered between hours per week spent and<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> success with a basic writing class for all students perhaps indicates that faculty<br />
members spending more time per week dealing with basic writing issues have observed that the<br />
basic class has not been successful for their students.<br />
In answering RQ3, the results suggest there is no clear pattern in measures that programs<br />
are utilizing to assess or improve student writing. Of 166 respondents, 14.5% (n = 24) indicated a<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> measures in the “other” category. It was notable that another 15.1% <strong>of</strong> respondents<br />
(n = 25) indicated their programs were using no measures at all. However, the results did<br />
establish that faculty members who teach in programs requiring a written essay spend<br />
significantly fewer hours per week dealing with basic writing issues, and that programs requiring<br />
a language skills exam with minimum score required for entrance report a significantly lower<br />
level <strong>of</strong> student frustration with grades than programs not requiring the exam. Program planners<br />
who are considering implementing or changing measures in their own programs can benefit from<br />
this finding.<br />
Faculty who indicated that their program requires a basic writing class for all students<br />
also reported that time and effort spent on grading was a significantly larger issue for them. This<br />
could be attributed to the fact that faculty who teach in programs that require a basic writing<br />
class are simply spending more time and effort on grading for that class.<br />
On a larger scale, results relevant to RQ3 point to a dichotomy between faculty who<br />
desire a more rigorous approach to admissions and grading, and those who favor a more<br />
131
emediation-based approach through basic coursework and stronger academic support for<br />
students who are weak writers. For example, 46.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 77) indicated they were<br />
enforcing a minimum GPA for incoming students, and 22.3% (n = 37) listed a language skills<br />
exam with minimum score required for program entrance. Yet, the majority <strong>of</strong> respondents<br />
(59.6%, n = 99) indicated they required a basic writing class for all incoming students, and<br />
another 13.3% (n = 22) listed a language skills exam with a basic class required for low scorers.<br />
This “rigor versus remediation” dichotomy also appeared in answers to an open-ended<br />
question toward the end <strong>of</strong> the survey. Here, respondents were asked to list any measures they<br />
would like to see their academic unit use to assess or improve the writing skills <strong>of</strong> students<br />
entering their academic units, and any barriers they had encountered. Among 97 respondents, a<br />
nearly equal number appeared to be divided between the “rigor” and “remediation” approaches<br />
to student writing. Almost 17% (n = 16) indicated they would like to see more rigor in<br />
admissions and grading standards. However, another 18% (n = 17) indicated their desire to<br />
require a basic writing class for incoming students.<br />
Among those favoring the “rigor” approach, one respondent wrote, “We need more<br />
consistent and frequent evaluations <strong>of</strong> student writing. If they are unable to write clearly and<br />
coherently at this level, they should not be in the university.” Another faculty member noted, “I<br />
would like the department to be much more rigorous in passing/failing students in writing<br />
courses. Faculty must stick together and follow writing standards.” “We are all guilty <strong>of</strong> grade<br />
inflation, and it must be stopped,” wrote a third. “Students who cannot write, speak, listen, read,<br />
or think properly should not be allowed to pass until they can.” A fourth respondent added that<br />
he/she would like to increase the minimum passing grade for required courses from a “C” to a<br />
“B.”<br />
Among barriers to implementing more rigor in admissions and grading standards,<br />
respondents cited heavy faculty workloads and institutional pressures to accommodate marginal<br />
students.<br />
About 8% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 8) indicated they would like to require a higher minimum<br />
GPA <strong>of</strong> all prospective majors. Cited barriers included pressures to enroll as many students as<br />
possible, and again, to accommodate marginal students.<br />
Among those favoring the “remediation” approach, one faculty member wrote,<br />
“Unfortunately, students need writing fundamentals because they are not getting them in high<br />
school, junior high, or elementary school.” Another added, “I would like to see a required eightweek<br />
skills course that focuses on grammar and punctuation for students who don’t pass a<br />
language skills exam. This would give them the extra help they need and allow our writing<br />
classes to focus more on style and technique.”<br />
Among barriers to implementing a basic writing class, respondents cited shortages in<br />
funding and staffing, state rules disallowing remedial instruction, and the fact that remedial<br />
instruction was simply beyond the scope <strong>of</strong> what university faculty could provide to students.<br />
This “rigor versus remediation” dichotomy presents program planners with important<br />
questions about what kind <strong>of</strong> programs they want to create, and how those programs will best<br />
serve students. As established in this study, even faculty teaching in more selective accredited<br />
programs at doctorate-granting institutions say they are encountering serious problems with the<br />
writing skills <strong>of</strong> entering students. Given this reality, will it serve anyone to weed out<br />
underprepared students in even greater numbers, or is it more sensible to meet students where<br />
they are with basic writing classes, labs and diagnostic help?<br />
132
Trends evident in K-12 education, the impact <strong>of</strong> digital technology on writing skills, and<br />
financial pressures in higher education all suggest that regardless <strong>of</strong> institution type, more and<br />
more underprepared students will be turning up at the university gates. Tougher standards, on<br />
their own, may only result in smaller programs filled with students who still need help with basic<br />
writing skills. Based on the results <strong>of</strong> this study, a more balanced approach between rigor and<br />
remediation is advised.<br />
Reviewing RQ4, it is evident that faculty believe their programs have achieved no more<br />
than a moderate amount <strong>of</strong> success with any measures listed in the survey. The highest mean<br />
rating <strong>of</strong> 3.22 ( language skills exam with a basic class for low scorers) is hardly encouraging,<br />
and the cluster <strong>of</strong> mean scores near 3.0 (“neutral) for all items illustrates faculty members’ mixed<br />
feelings toward any measures they have tried. The fact that nearly two-thirds <strong>of</strong> the open-ended<br />
responses for this item indicated failure rather than success is further cause for concern among<br />
program planners. It is notable that the top two measures utilized – a basic writing class for all<br />
students and minimum GPA – garnered the lowest mean scores in terms <strong>of</strong> perceived success.<br />
Results relevant to RQ5 highlight a major finding <strong>of</strong> this study. All respondents,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> academic unit, Carnegie classification, or ACEJMC accreditation gave students<br />
similar ratings in writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency. All respondents also indicated they are dealing with many<br />
similar writing-related issues and trying many <strong>of</strong> the same measures with mixed success. Given<br />
that all respondents appear to be fighting similar instructional battles with similar results, future<br />
studies might explore the best combinations <strong>of</strong> measures that could be pursued to everyone’s best<br />
advantage.<br />
On a more optimistic note, faculty in ACEJMC-accredited programs noted lack <strong>of</strong> quality<br />
work in student media as less <strong>of</strong> an issue than their counterparts in unaccredited programs. This<br />
might be explained by Standard 2: Curriculum and Instruction in ACEJMC’s accrediting<br />
standards. This standard states, “Students may take up to three semester courses (or their<br />
equivalent) at a media outlet owned and operated by the institution where full-time faculty are in<br />
charge and where the primary function <strong>of</strong> the media outlet is to instruct students.” ACEJMC<br />
adds, “The Council urges journalism and mass communications programs to advise students to<br />
acquire appropriately supervised experience in campus media and pr<strong>of</strong>essional internships.” In<br />
other words, careful supervision <strong>of</strong> campus media by full-time faculty, as required by ACEJMC,<br />
appears to improve the quality <strong>of</strong> work in student media.<br />
Trends in Open-Ended Responses<br />
Among the 97 respondents who answered the open-ended question on measures they<br />
would like to see their academic unit use, by far the largest number (32%, n = 31) indicated they<br />
would like to implement a language skills exam, either with a minimum grade required for<br />
program entrance or with a basic class required for low-scoring students. “I think it is effective in<br />
not only assessing student writing skill, but in getting students to realize our expectations in<br />
those areas,” wrote one respondent. Four respondents wrote that they would like to expand the<br />
language skills exam to include an essay. “Some students do very well on parts <strong>of</strong> speech,<br />
punctuation, or grammar, but can’t write clear sentences,” added another. “I’d like to eliminate<br />
sections on spelling and most <strong>of</strong> the parts <strong>of</strong> speech. You can look up spelling.”<br />
Respondents noted several barriers to implementing language skills exams at their<br />
institutions, ranging from time and staff shortages to faculty resistance and institutional culture.<br />
“Most <strong>of</strong> my colleagues believe administration <strong>of</strong> the exam would be a nightmare if we don’t<br />
have the staff to handle it,” noted one respondent. Another wrote, “A minimum skills entrance<br />
test would probably be helpful, but it wouldn’t fit the institutional ethos <strong>of</strong> nurturing marginal<br />
133
students along with skilled students. A third faculty member added that too many students would<br />
be unable to achieve a minimum score to enter the major, and would be likely to switch majors.<br />
Three respondents wrote that they could not suggest any measures to better assess and<br />
improve student writing because <strong>of</strong> political and institutional pressures. “Grade inflation is a<br />
problem,” wrote one. “There is pressure from administration NOT to hold students back. That<br />
would make a low graduation rate even lower. Additionally, low student evaluations negatively<br />
impact faculty evaluations at the end <strong>of</strong> the year. Low faculty evaluations impact merit raises.<br />
The faculty does not want to upset the clients/customers.” A second respondent wrote, “I have<br />
not proposed any measures. Grade inflation is rampant, so I just go with the flow. I am a tenuretrack<br />
assistant pr<strong>of</strong>essor and do not want to be perceived as too critical.” Another faculty<br />
member wrote, “It is not practical to suggest anything. I work at a regional campus that derives<br />
considerable revenue from student tuition. State cutbacks in support mean that such measures<br />
are not a realistic possibility.”<br />
Only one respondent mentioned the idea <strong>of</strong> creating new university partnerships between<br />
universities and K-12 educators to improve student writing. Given the body <strong>of</strong> literature that has<br />
been devoted to the importance <strong>of</strong> writing development at the primary and secondary level <strong>of</strong><br />
education, and the comments that many respondents made elsewhere in the survey, this was<br />
somewhat surprising. “I’d like to see more resources sent to secondary educators,” he/she wrote.<br />
“Materials on the importance and usefulness <strong>of</strong> writing sent to students’ parents, and an<br />
agreement <strong>of</strong> sorts between grade school, high school, community colleges, and higher education<br />
on expectations, standards and rewards regarding writing.”<br />
At the conclusion <strong>of</strong> the survey, respondents were asked to share any final observations<br />
on the subject <strong>of</strong> assessing and improving students writing in mass communication programs.<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> 54 respondents who answered this question, 24% (n = 13) indicated their belief that the<br />
issue was largely related to failures in the K-12 educational system. “I believe this is a systemic<br />
problem, traceable directly to a poor level <strong>of</strong> instruction in elementary and high schools,” wrote<br />
one faculty member. Another echoed, “It’s a universal issue that has been caused by K-12<br />
schools who no longer stress writing.” “A key problem is the total failure <strong>of</strong> public schools in our<br />
state,” concluded one respondent. “Students tell me they feel unprepared for college<br />
writing…that they do not have sufficient grammar and writing in high school.”<br />
Expressing a related concern, a handful <strong>of</strong> respondents (11%, n = 6) wrote that many <strong>of</strong><br />
their students do not seem to possess the requisite values and habits <strong>of</strong> mind to become skilled<br />
writers. “While some students want to improve their writing and learn media conventions, others<br />
persistently rebel,” wrote one faculty member. “They resist standards common to various media<br />
(i.e. AP style, inverted pyramid organization, word limits in broadcast and social media, not<br />
editorializing in news stories). These students make writing instruction a challenge.” Two other<br />
respondents suggested that faculty require students to read more. “Read anything. Newspapers<br />
are best, but good journalism is not possible to practice unless you know what it is.” “The<br />
problem is that students don’t read enough. That affects writing ability,” added another.<br />
“Students need to learn why and how important writing skills are for their daily lives and future<br />
careers.”<br />
Another 7% <strong>of</strong> the respondents (n = 4) indicated their belief that technology, including<br />
social media, texting and e-mail were to blame for poor writing skills. “The social media<br />
phenomenon is contributing to deterioration <strong>of</strong> traditional writing skills,” wrote one faculty<br />
member. “Students are entering with poorer writing skills, probably due to habits acquired<br />
through social media use,” wrote one faculty member.<br />
134
Another 15% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 8) expressed concerns about the competence <strong>of</strong> their<br />
fellow faculty, both inside and outside <strong>of</strong> their academic units. “An increasingly important<br />
concern is the weak writing skills <strong>of</strong> younger faculty,” wrote one faculty member. “In some<br />
cases I have to ‘unteach’ what has been taught in a lower level course.” “Ultimately, it takes a<br />
lot <strong>of</strong> faculty time to work on improving student writing, and many faculty aren’t willing to<br />
make the investment,” noted another. “Despite students’ resistance to improve their writing, they<br />
could do it if they knew that they had to do it. If they whine and resist, faculty and<br />
administration usually give in,” added a third respondent.<br />
Of this group, three respondents mentioned the English departments at their universities.<br />
“I think more JMC programs need to reach out to the English departments at their schools,”<br />
wrote one faculty member. “We’re both in the ‘good language’ business with different<br />
applications. Students really need to be able to write well before they can understand the<br />
sometimes nuanced variations with media writing, and that starts with their English classes.” “I<br />
would like the English department to focus on grammar and composition and less on literature in<br />
English 101 and 102,” added another respondent. “University English departments do not teach<br />
writing. They prefer to teach something more akin to ‘expression.’”<br />
Encouragingly, 11% <strong>of</strong> respondents (n = 6) <strong>of</strong>fered some constructive techniques for<br />
writing skills improvement. Ideas included the use <strong>of</strong> rubrics, the university writing center, peer<br />
editing, or a pre-test and post-test in introductory media writing classes.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This study was limited by two main factors. First, the survey may have attracted more<br />
respondents who were strongly dissatisfied with student writing skills in their own programs,<br />
creating some response bias. Second, the response rate <strong>of</strong> 16.6% was less than desired. At the<br />
same time, clear patterns in perceived writing pr<strong>of</strong>iciency and issues raised by deficiencies,<br />
coupled with a lack <strong>of</strong> any clear trends in measures utilized or their success, indicate that<br />
program planners must now begin doing more to meet students where they are and then<br />
implement meaningful assessment and improvement measures that work for their own<br />
institutions. Some remediation is inevitable, but it must be tempered with academic rigor that<br />
students need in order to become competent thinkers, writers, and communication pr<strong>of</strong>essionals.<br />
Based on the findings <strong>of</strong> this study, it is recommended that future research explore<br />
partnerships that might be undertaken with the K-12 educational system to strengthen student<br />
writing instruction in primary and secondary education. In addition, future studies should explore<br />
individual assessment/improvement measures on a longitudinal basis to examine how well they<br />
have improved student writing performance over time.<br />
The issues surrounding student writing are complex and multifaceted. From an early age,<br />
writing skills are influenced at every turn <strong>of</strong> one’s life and education. By the time a student<br />
appears in a university-level media writing course at age 19 or 20, much <strong>of</strong> the die has already<br />
been cast. Yet, weak writing skills are not irreversible. Educators and policymakers at all levels<br />
have much work ahead. The task begins with substantive policy changes and stronger writing<br />
instruction at the K-12 educational level. The task continues as students arrive at the university<br />
gates as freshmen, and then matriculate into mass communication programs. In the meantime,<br />
educators will be best served by a dual approach stressing both remediation and rigor.<br />
The National Commission on Writing in <strong>America</strong>’s Schools and Colleges challenges<br />
educators at all levels to do better. They stress the importance <strong>of</strong> strong writing skills – not only<br />
in gaining an education or securing meaningful career employment – but in shaping <strong>America</strong>’s<br />
future. The commission recommends that every state should revisit its education standards to<br />
135
make sure they include a comprehensive writing policy, and that higher education should address<br />
its special roles in improving writing. “<strong>America</strong>n education will never realize its potential as an<br />
engine <strong>of</strong> opportunity and economic growth until a writing revolution puts language and<br />
communication in their proper place in the classroom.”<br />
136
Table 1<br />
Respondents’ Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Student Writing Pr<strong>of</strong>iciency<br />
Overall Critical Paragraph, Grammar, AP style Pro<strong>of</strong>ing<br />
thinking sentence punctuation<br />
& editing<br />
structure<br />
x 2.70 2.44 2.72 2.44 1.74 2.11<br />
SD .672 .886 .808 .865 .870 .760<br />
1 = unskilled 3 = neutral 5 = pr<strong>of</strong>icient<br />
Table 2<br />
Respondents’ Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Issues Raised by Student Writing Deficiencies<br />
Frustration Inability Quality Class time Time, effort<br />
With grades to pass work in reviewing on grading<br />
courses student basics<br />
media<br />
x 3.20 2.61 3.21 3.40 3.61<br />
SD 1.10 .973 1.08 1.13 1.12<br />
1 = not an issue 3 = neutral 5 = major issue<br />
137
Table 3<br />
Correlations Between Hours Per Week Spent on Basic Writing Issues<br />
And Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>iciency, Deficiency, and Success<br />
Item r Sig.<br />
Paragraph and<br />
sentence structure -.199 .010<br />
Grammar and -.235 .002<br />
punctuation<br />
Associated -.177 .025<br />
Press style<br />
Pro<strong>of</strong>ing -.319
Table 4<br />
Frequencies <strong>of</strong> Listed Writing Measures<br />
Measure n %<br />
Basic writing 99 59.6<br />
class for all<br />
Minimum GPA 77 46.3<br />
LSE with<br />
minimum score<br />
for entrance 37 22.3<br />
Written essay 34 20.5<br />
LSE with basic<br />
class for low scorers 22 13.3<br />
Other 24 14.5<br />
None 25 15.1<br />
n = 166<br />
* For this item, respondents were allowed to check one or more measures.<br />
139
Table 5<br />
Respondents’ Perceptions on Degree <strong>of</strong> Success Achieved<br />
Measure x SD<br />
LSE with basic<br />
class for low scorers 3.22 .751<br />
LSE with<br />
minimum score<br />
for entrance 3.17 .892<br />
Basic writing 3.04 .923<br />
class for all<br />
Written essay 3.03 1.01<br />
Minimum GPA 2.96 .877<br />
n = 166<br />
* For this item, respondents were allowed to check one or more measures.<br />
1 = complete failure 3 = neutral 5 = complete success<br />
References<br />
Alvarado, G. & Coy, G. (2009). GSP testing as a student screener in journalism schools:<br />
investigating its predictors and its ability to predict. Journalism & Mass Communication<br />
Educator, 64 (1), 333-344.<br />
Attewell, R., Lavin, D., Domina, T, & Levey, T. (2006). New evidence on college remediation.<br />
The Journal <strong>of</strong> Higher Education, (77), 886-924.<br />
Bauerlein, M. (2008). The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young<br />
<strong>America</strong>ns and Jeopardizes Our Future (or Don’t Trust Anyone Under 30 (pp. 40, 234).<br />
New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc.<br />
Bauerlein, M. (<strong>2010</strong>). The English problem in the digital age, School Administrator, 67 (1), 11-<br />
14.<br />
Cole, R.T., Hembr<strong>of</strong>f, L.A. & Corner, A.D. (2009). National assessment <strong>of</strong> the perceived writing<br />
skills <strong>of</strong> entry-level PR practitioners. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator. 64<br />
(1), 10-26.<br />
Fedler F, & Taylor, P. (1982). Two-year analysis discloses effects and problems <strong>of</strong> required<br />
grammar tests. Journalism Educator, 37 (3), 20-22.<br />
140
Hansen, R.S. (1993). Clear, concise writing is especially important for marketers. Marketing<br />
News, Sept. 13,<br />
p. 20. Chicago: <strong>America</strong>n Marketing Assn.<br />
John, J.A., Ruminski, H. & Hanks, W. (1991). Trends in writing skills Tests for admission to<br />
programs. Journalism Educator, 46 (4), 46-49.<br />
Knudson, R.E. , Zitzer-Comfort, C., Quirk, M. & Alexander, P. (2008). The California State<br />
University early assessment program. The Clearing House, 81 (5), 227-228.<br />
Manzo, K. (2008). More students master basics on writing NAEP. Education Week, 27 (32), 27-<br />
34.<br />
Miller, N. (2006). Postmodern moonshine in English 101. Academic Questions, 19 (3), 6-36.<br />
Olson, L.D. & Dickinson, T.V. (1995). English composition courses as preparation for news<br />
writing, Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 50 (3), 47-54.<br />
Oukrop, C., Brown, L. & Parsons, P. (1998). Language exams and entrance requirements: a 20-<br />
year update. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator. 53 (2), 40-44.<br />
San<strong>of</strong>f, A.P. (ed.) (2006). A perception gap over students’ preparation. The Chronicle <strong>of</strong> Higher<br />
Education, 52 (27), B9-B14.<br />
The College Board (eds.) (2004). Writing: A Ticket to Work…or a Ticket Out – A Survey <strong>of</strong><br />
Business Leaders: Report <strong>of</strong> The National Commission on Writing.<br />
The College Board (eds.) (2003). Report <strong>of</strong> The National Commission on Writing in <strong>America</strong>’s<br />
Schools and Colleges: The Neglected “R” -- The Need for a Writing Revolution.<br />
Tierney, W.G. & Garcia, L.D. (2008). Preparing underprepared students for college: remedial<br />
education and early assessment programs. The Journal <strong>of</strong> At-Risk Issues, 14 (2), 1-7.<br />
Treadwell, D.F. & Treadwell, J.B. (1999). Employer expectations <strong>of</strong> newly-hired communication<br />
graduates, Journal <strong>of</strong> the Association for Communication Administration, 28, 87-89.<br />
Turner, J.S. (<strong>2010</strong>) An investigation <strong>of</strong> the relationships among socially interactive technologies,<br />
communication competence, social cognition, and formal written discourse. Dissertation<br />
Abstracts International, publ. nr. AAT 3371122, DAI-A 70/09.<br />
VanSlyke Turk, J. (Ed.) (2006). The pr<strong>of</strong>essional bond: public relations education for the 21 st<br />
century: report <strong>of</strong> the 2006 Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education. New York:<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>.<br />
White, E.M. (1993) Assessing higher-order thinking and communication skills in college<br />
graduates through writing. The Journal <strong>of</strong> General Education, 42, 105-122.<br />
141
How <strong>Public</strong>s Use Social Media to Communicate During Crises:<br />
Proposing the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model<br />
Brooke Liu, Ph.D., and Lucinda Austin<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Maryland, College Park<br />
bfliu@umd.edu and llaustin@umd.edu<br />
Yan Jin, Ph.D.<br />
Virginia Commonwealth University<br />
yjin@vcu.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
Through an online questionnaire with 37 college students and 22 in-depth interviews with<br />
college students this study empirically explores an emerging public relations model: the Blogmediated<br />
Crisis Communication Model (BMCC). The findings support the validity <strong>of</strong> the BMCC<br />
model including its expansion into broader social media context, but also suggest four revisions.<br />
First, the influence <strong>of</strong> blogs through e-opinion leadership might not be as strong as that <strong>of</strong> other<br />
social media during crises, particularly for young adults. Second, the direction <strong>of</strong> older media’s<br />
indirect influence on publics’ crisis issue awareness might need to be reversed, indicating an<br />
intertwined, more complex relationship loop rather than a linear relationship. Third, existing<br />
media effects likely need to be further separated. Finally, to reflect previous research and this<br />
study’s findings, renaming the BMCC model to the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication<br />
(SMCC) model is suggested.<br />
Introduction<br />
As publics increasingly use social media more individuals are primarily turning to online<br />
sources for news about crises. Despite this huge opportunity, research on incorporating online<br />
media into crisis management is just emerging. The majority <strong>of</strong> this research focuses on websites<br />
(e.g., Bucher, 2002; Perry, Taylor, & Doerfel, 2003; Taylor & Kent, 2007) and blogs (e.g., Bates<br />
& Callison, 2008; Sweetzer & Metzgar, 2007) and overwhelmingly concludes that publics seek<br />
out online media for both immediate and in-depth crisis information. However, recent findings<br />
from the Pew Internet Research Center indicate that traditional blog use has decreased as<br />
individuals are increasingly using social networking and microblogging sites (Lenhart, Purcell,<br />
Smith, & Zickuhr, <strong>2010</strong>). These emerging trends in Web use among publics indicate the need for<br />
public relations to consider new media sources beyond blogging alone.<br />
Additional research also is needed to determine how publics make decisions about which<br />
social media they consider to be most influential. More studies have examined how public<br />
relations practitioners and organizations use social media (e.g., Diga & Kelleher, 2009; Eyrich,<br />
Padman, & Sweetser, 2009; Hathi, 2009) as opposed to how publics use social media to<br />
communicate with and about organizations during crises. As such, a science-based, theory-driven<br />
method is needed to strategically approach crisis communication via social media.<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> this study is to build upon the blog-mediated crisis communication<br />
(BMCC) model (see Figure 1)—a model that helps navigate the rapidly evolving social media<br />
landscape (____ & ____, in press) 1 —to understand how individuals and organizations use social<br />
media to communicate information in the event <strong>of</strong> an organizational crisis. Through an online<br />
questionnaire and in-depth interviews, this study explores individuals’ social media use patterns;<br />
how individuals engage with social media prior to, during, and after an organizational crisis; and<br />
what primary factors affect their social media use in relation to organizational crises. By doing<br />
1 Author names removed here and throughout for blind review.<br />
142
so, this study follows up on recent research (____, ____, ____, & ____, 2009) that expanded the<br />
scope <strong>of</strong> the BMCC model beyond blogs alone to include other forms <strong>of</strong> social media. The study<br />
concludes with suggestions for further revising the BMCC model including renaming the model<br />
the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model (SMCC).<br />
Literature Review<br />
Social Media Defined<br />
The Pew Internet Research Center defined social media as “an umbrella term that is used<br />
to refer to a new era <strong>of</strong> Web-enabled applications that are built around user-generated or usermanipulated<br />
content, such as wikis, blogs, podcasts, and social networking sites” (Pew Internet<br />
& <strong>America</strong>n Life, <strong>2010</strong>). Here we operationalize social media broadly as various digital tools<br />
and applications that facilitate interactive communication and content exchange among and<br />
between publics and organizations. As Wright and Hinson (2009) stated, social media encompass<br />
“a number <strong>of</strong> different forms including text, images, audio, and video” (p. 2).<br />
The Role <strong>of</strong> Social Media in <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Practice<br />
In 2009, for the first time, <strong>America</strong>n adults reported the Internet is their preferred source<br />
for information and the most reliable source for news (Zogby Interactive, 2009). Online sources<br />
are ideal for generating timely communication (Taylor & Perry, 2005) and interactive<br />
conversations (Kent & Taylor, 1998; Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007), which are especially critical in<br />
dealing with organizational crises.<br />
<strong>Public</strong>s’ use <strong>of</strong> social media. Through virtual communities, consumers extend their<br />
social networks to people they have never met in person and seek out these people regularly for<br />
their opinions about products and services (Cheong & Morrison, 2008). During crises, social<br />
media can provide a new platform for online word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication, working as an<br />
informal communication channel through which personal, product/service, or organization<br />
related information is conveyed, shared, and processed (_____ & _____, in press).<br />
Pew Internet research showed that most teens (93%), young adults (93%), and older<br />
adults (73%) regularly use the Internet (Lenhart et al., <strong>2010</strong>) and are increasingly using social<br />
media more than blogs. Close to two-thirds <strong>of</strong> teens and two-thirds <strong>of</strong> young adults have used<br />
social networking sites, compared to close to 40% <strong>of</strong> adults over 30. The use <strong>of</strong> social<br />
networking sites among college students is especially high, with 85% <strong>of</strong> all college students<br />
reporting they used one or more social networking sites (ECAR, 2008). The number <strong>of</strong> college<br />
students using social networking sites daily has increased dramatically from around one-third <strong>of</strong><br />
college students in 2006 to around two-thirds <strong>of</strong> all college students in 2008 (ECAR, 2008).<br />
Young adults also lead use <strong>of</strong> microblogging sites such as Twitter, with one-third <strong>of</strong> these<br />
individuals posting microblogs or reading updates, compared to only 8% <strong>of</strong> teens and 19% <strong>of</strong> all<br />
adult Internet-goers. Young adults are also more likely to use and share online videos than were<br />
individuals in other age ranges (Madden, 2007).<br />
While social networking and microblogging use has increased, traditional blog use and<br />
commenting has decreased slightly among teens and young adults. Although adults ages 30 and<br />
older have increased in their blogging (11%), they still remain behind younger adults in use<br />
(15%) (Lenhart, <strong>2010</strong>). Approximately one-third <strong>of</strong> young adults comment on news pages or<br />
blogs compared to a quarter <strong>of</strong> older adults, and young adults are more likely to create their own<br />
Web pages or post content on others’ pages (Lenhart et al., <strong>2010</strong>).<br />
Motivations for social media use. Little theoretical work explores individuals’<br />
motivations for social media use in relation to organizations or crises. On the purely applied side,<br />
143
esearch shows factors that may have an impact on individuals’ use <strong>of</strong> social media. Social<br />
motivation is a driving force in online video watching (Madden, 2007). Also, consumers’<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> their own media content is tied to social function and ego-defensive functions, but not<br />
to utilitarian knowledge functions (Daugherty, Eastin, & Bright, 2008). Furthermore, young<br />
adults’ motivations for use <strong>of</strong> newer communication technologies is related most to their need for<br />
connectedness, but also to their need for self-expression and to a lesser extent for utilitatarian<br />
purposes (Behairy, Mukherjee, Ertimur, & Venkatesh, 2006; Phillips, 2008).<br />
More narrowly looking at blogs, there are six primary motivations for accessing blogs:<br />
information seeking and media checking, convenience, personal fulfillment, political<br />
surveillance, social surveillance, and expression and affiliation (Kaye, 2005). Finally, research<br />
finds that consumers who share their opinions online utilize online opinion exchange platforms<br />
in four ways (Goldsmith & Horowitz, 2006; Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner, Walsh, & Gremler,<br />
2004): (a) topic-related utility, making a contribution to add value to the community; (b)<br />
consumption utility, using contributions from other community members to user’s own benefit;<br />
(c) approval utility, feeling satisfaction when commended by others; (d) moderator-related<br />
utility, acting as a third-party to aid community members in lodging a complaint; and (e)<br />
homeostasis utility, maintaining equilibrium or balance in user’s life.<br />
The Role <strong>of</strong> Social Media in Organizational Crisis Communication<br />
A crisis is an event that "creates an issue, keeps it alive, or gives it strength” (Heath &<br />
Palenchar, 2009, p. 278). Issues emerging online can be more unpredictable, taking dramatic<br />
turns and multiplying more quickly than issues that emerge <strong>of</strong>fline (Coombs, 2008). During<br />
crises publics’ social media use increases (Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life, 2006) and, in some<br />
cases, publics assign a higher level <strong>of</strong> credibility to social media coverage than to traditional<br />
mass media crisis coverage (Horrigan & Morris, 2005; Procopio & Procopio, 2007; Sweester &<br />
Metzgar, 2007). Social media may have a direct and indirect impact on publics in times <strong>of</strong> crisis<br />
(_____ & _____, in press). In particular, journalists increasingly use social media as sources for<br />
news generation (Lariscy, Avery, Sweetser, & Howes, 2009; GWU & Cision, 2009).<br />
Motivations for social media use in crises. In crises publics seek out social media<br />
because they provide an unfiltered, up-to-date line <strong>of</strong> communication (Johnson & Kaye, <strong>2010</strong>;<br />
Procopio, & Procopio, 2007). In addition, social media provide emotional support after crises<br />
occur as well as a way to virtually band together, share information, and demand resolution<br />
(Choi & Lin, 2009; Stephens & Malone, 2009). A few central publics use sites such as Flickr and<br />
YouTube to collect crisis images and information for larger groups <strong>of</strong> individuals (Palen, 2008).<br />
Finally, publics go online to find crisis information they cannot get elsewhere (Bucher, 2002).<br />
The BMCC model (_____ & _____, in press; _____ et al., 2009) proposed that followers<br />
use influential blogs and micro-blogs for the following three motivations: (a) issue relevance:<br />
interest in the current issue discussed; (b) information seeking and sharing: search for additional<br />
information that is not available from other public channels such as news media; and (c)<br />
emotional venting and support: sharing <strong>of</strong> positive experiences and/or venting negative<br />
experiences regarding the issue or organization with others, which creates a sense <strong>of</strong> compassion,<br />
understanding, comfort, and excitement.<br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> social media in crises. Examining the motivation <strong>of</strong> both speakers (opinion<br />
leaders) and listeners (opinion seekers), Dichter (1966) emphasized that effective word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth<br />
communication influence depends on the fit between opinion leaders, opinion seekers, the<br />
product, and the quality <strong>of</strong> the message itself. The source similarity and message sensitivity<br />
increased individuals’ belief that they could prepare for a disaster situation (Heath, Lee, & Ni,<br />
144
2009). In BMCC context, in addition to the blogger’s information credibility and authority, the<br />
blog’s influence on blog followers also lies in the issue fit between the content provided by the<br />
influential blogs and the blog followers’ interest and attitude (_____ & _____, in press).<br />
Blog users rate blogs to be their most credible source <strong>of</strong> information (Johnson & Kaye,<br />
2004), but <strong>America</strong>ns as a whole rate blog credibility much lower (Banning & Trammell, 2006;<br />
Bern<strong>of</strong>f, 2008). However, during a crisis publics equally rate the credibility <strong>of</strong> third-person blogs<br />
and blogs sponsored by organizations experiencing crises (Bates & Callison, 2008).<br />
Additionally, increased blog reading and use enhances perceptions <strong>of</strong> blog credibility (Johnson<br />
& Kaye, <strong>2010</strong>; Sweetser, Porter, Chung, & Kim, 2008; Sweester & Metzgar, 2007).<br />
Blog Mediated Crisis Communication Model<br />
The BMCC model (___ & ___, in press—see Figure1) helps crisis managers decide if<br />
and when to respond to influential bloggers through monitoring the blogosphere. The first part <strong>of</strong><br />
the model explains how information is transmitted on and <strong>of</strong>fline among key players: influential<br />
bloggers and their followers, mass media, and organizations’ online and <strong>of</strong>fline communication.<br />
The first seven propositions predict how these various publics interact (propositions 1.1 to 3.2,<br />
see Table 1), while the second part <strong>of</strong> the model provides suggestions on how a given<br />
organization should proactively manage blog-mediated crises from crisis monitoring to strategic<br />
responses (propositions 4.1 and 4.2, see Table 1).<br />
---------------------------------<br />
Insert Figure 1 about here<br />
---------------------------------<br />
Through interviews with 40 <strong>America</strong>n Red Cross chapters, researchers tested how an<br />
organization in a given blog-mediated crisis should monitor and respond (propositions 4.1 and<br />
4.2) and expanded the BMCC model to include micro-blogs such as Twitter and content-sharing<br />
sites such as YouTube and Facebook (____ et al., 2009). This previous research also expanded<br />
the model to include organizations’ internal social media platforms, as opposed to solely external<br />
influential bloggers, due to emerging evidence suggesting that other platforms are increasingly<br />
being used by public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals (___ et al., 2009).<br />
---------------------------------<br />
Insert Table 1 about here<br />
---------------------------------<br />
In this study, we provide the first empirical evaluation <strong>of</strong> three key components the<br />
BMCC model posited: (a) Influential blogs affect blog followers by providing issue-fit opinion<br />
leadership to address the followers’ motivation for informational and emotional needs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
crisis issue (proposition 2.1, see Table 1); (b) Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key<br />
publics’ issue awareness by providing the media with newsworthy content that is later edited and<br />
disseminated to general news audiences (proposition 3.1, see Table 1); and (c) Influential blogs<br />
exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness though <strong>of</strong>fline word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth<br />
communication <strong>of</strong> issues among bloggers, blog followers, and other publics (proposition 3.2, see<br />
Table 1). Research questions one and two follow up on propositions 2.1 and 3.1 by asking:<br />
RQ1: Why, if at all, do publics seek out social or older media for crisis information?<br />
RQ2: What factors affect whether publics seek social or older media for crisis information?<br />
Research questions three and four follow up on proposition 3.2 by asking:<br />
RQ3: How, if at all, do publics communicate about crises on and <strong>of</strong>fline?<br />
RQ4: What factors affect whether publics communicate about crises?<br />
145
Method<br />
This study included screening questionnaires with 37 college students and interviews<br />
with 22 college students as the first empirical evaluation <strong>of</strong> propositions 2.1, 3.1, and 3.2.<br />
Because college students are typically savvier with social media and new technology and their<br />
use <strong>of</strong>ten sets trends for how the broader culture views technology, studying this population<br />
lends insight to future studies in this area (ECAR, 2008; Lenhart, et al., <strong>2010</strong>). Additionally,<br />
because research questions address how publics use social media in times <strong>of</strong> organizational<br />
crises, participants were asked about issues they self-identified as involving.<br />
Process. Participants were recruited through convenient and purposive means. Before<br />
conducting the interviews, the researchers launched an online questionnaire via a participant pool<br />
system at a large East Coast university. Thirty-nine students answered a brief questionnaire about<br />
daily media habits to prescreen participants, which yielded 37 valid responses—from this prescreen,<br />
22 individuals were invited to participate in in-depth, in-person interviews, which were<br />
audio-taped and fully transcribed. The researchers stopped conducting interviews once the major<br />
categories identified in the propositions displayed depth and variations (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).<br />
The interviews lasted on average 26 minutes with a range <strong>of</strong> 15 to 45 minutes. Participants<br />
received extra credit for their participation in the study.<br />
Online questionnaire and interview guide. The online questionnaire asked 19 openended<br />
questions related to older and new media consumption on a minutes-per-day and hoursper-week<br />
basis (e.g., “How much time on average do you spend reading blogs per day and per<br />
week?”) and two demographic questions (“What is your age?” and “What is your gender?”). The<br />
interview guide asked eight open-ended questions with additional probes related to the BMCC’s<br />
propositions. For example, for proposition 2.1 on participants’ motivation, the guide asked, “For<br />
what reasons do you use social media in a crisis?” For propositions 3.1 and 3.2 on the indirect<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> social media, the guide asked, for example, “How did you first learn about the<br />
crisis?” and “Did you talk about this crisis with friends, family, and/or coworkers?”<br />
Analysis. Analysis occurred during and after data collection. During data collection, the<br />
researchers immediately transcribed interviews, sharing transcripts, observer comments, and<br />
memos. This co-current data collection and analysis process allowed the researchers to capture<br />
early themes and identify needs for shifting questions or approach. Once the interviews were<br />
completed, the researchers systematically analyzed the transcripts through Miles and<br />
Huberman’s (1994) data analysis procedures: data reduction, data display, and conclusion<br />
drawing/verification. During data reduction, interview transcripts were coded using Atlas.ti and<br />
Excel. First, using Atlas.ti, researchers coded comments relevant to the theoretical propositions.<br />
During this stage, the researchers also coded for data that did not fit into the propositions (i.e.,<br />
outliers) and developed new codes for this data. During data display, the researchers merged any<br />
related codes into common themes using Atlas.ti and then exported the data into an Excel<br />
spreadsheet for each theme, called checklist matrices. Lastly, during conclusion drawing/<br />
verification, researchers reviewed the matrices to identify the multiple meanings that emerged<br />
from the data, noting commonalities as well as discrepancies in interpretation.<br />
Findings<br />
On average, the 37 questionnaire respondents most frequently spent time using social<br />
networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace (M = 27.40 hours/week, SD = 77.55), reading<br />
newspapers (M = 7.28 hours/week, SD = 25.15), and reading blogs (M = 7.15 hours/week, SD =<br />
27.12) (see Table 2). As expected, there was a wide variety in the respondents’ media<br />
consumption as evidenced by large standard deviations.<br />
146
---------------------------------<br />
Insert Table 2 about here<br />
---------------------------------<br />
Media Use Before Crises<br />
Before addressing why publics seek out social and older media for crisis information, we<br />
first asked why participants use social and traditional media regularly to compare to use during<br />
crises. Participants use social media regularly for four main reasons: entertainment, relationship<br />
maintenance, networking, and education. In addition, participants used older media on a daily<br />
basis for education and entertainment. All participants emphasized that they use social media for<br />
entertainment and relationship maintenance purposes. For example, a participant noted, “For<br />
social media, my main purpose for using it is to stay in contact with people,” and another<br />
observed, “Entertainment value is really the root reason I use social media.” Related to<br />
relationship maintenance, five participants also mentioned using social media for pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
networking. For example, one participant stated: “I will look at their Twitter feeds because a lot<br />
<strong>of</strong> times they will put up postings, like ‘If you’re interested in this, contact this person,’ and<br />
that’s kind <strong>of</strong> a good way to start networking.” Seven participants mentioned using social media<br />
for educational purposes. For example, a participant stated: “Sometimes Facebook is the quickest<br />
news source because everybody’s posting about the most recent thing that’s important to<br />
everyone, so sometimes I’ll find out about it there and then go read the story on a news website.”<br />
Participants primarily use older media for education. For example, one participant said:<br />
“The newspapers and stuff are just for educational and so I know what’s going on in the world so<br />
I’m not just living in a bubble.” Five participants mentioned using older media for entertainment.<br />
For example, one participant noted: “There’s usually a section in the Washington Post about<br />
travel or something, and I go to D.C. a lot, so sometimes I look in there for good places to go.<br />
Also I look in the movie section just to see the reviews.”<br />
RQ1: Why, if at all, do publics seek out social or older media for crisis information?<br />
Participants explained recent crises, while researchers probed for their media use. The<br />
participants discussed 17 different crises (see Table 3), with riots after a major athletic victory<br />
and the H1N1 flu outbreak discussed most frequently. For the majority <strong>of</strong> the crises discussed,<br />
the participants remembered first hearing about them through in person word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth<br />
communication (n = 11), followed by TV news (n = 9), directly experiencing the crisis (n = 9),<br />
and Facebook (n = 7). Less common media for first finding out about crises were text<br />
messages (n = 4), email (n = 2), and radio, blogs, and news magazines (n = 1 each).<br />
---------------------------------<br />
Insert Table 3 about here<br />
---------------------------------<br />
For all crises, the participants first looked for information about why and how the crisis<br />
occurred, followed by accountability. However, when participants were highly involved in crises<br />
they also wanted to know what response steps to take. In other words, participants affirmatively<br />
answering that crises personally affected them wanted to know information such as where to get<br />
an H1N1 flu shot, how to repair their recalled Toyota, and how to prepare for the blizzard. For<br />
example, one participant said, “I just wanted to know basically how many people had it [H1N1]<br />
and then what to do. I knew that some <strong>of</strong> my friends had it, and I was just like ‘stay away.’”<br />
Through discussing various crises, two themes emerged explaining why participants primarily<br />
use social media during crises: insider information and checking in with family/friends. In<br />
addition, one theme—education—emerged explaining why participants use older media during<br />
147
crises. Almost all participants mentioned using social media during crises to obtain insider<br />
information. For example, talking about riots after a major athletic victory, one participant said:<br />
“So when I went up to my room, obviously it wouldn’t be in the news yet because it was just<br />
happening so I went on Facebook, and I noticed there were some people that had Facebook<br />
statuses about it and about police being too brutal or something.” Most participants use social<br />
media during crises to check up on friends/family. As a participant said, “For the earthquake in<br />
Chile, I had a friend who is Chilean. So, I talked with him on Facebook for a little longer than I<br />
usually do.” Finally, a majority <strong>of</strong> participants seek out older media during crises for educational<br />
purposes. For example, one participant noted: “Well, for example, during 9-11 I started watching<br />
TV more for the news…So if there is something dramatic and ongoing happening, I will turn on<br />
the news to at least know what is going on and how dramatic it is.”<br />
RQ2: What factors affect whether publics seek social or older media for crisis information?<br />
Participants identified factors shared for social and older media as: convenience,<br />
involvement, personal recommendation, and information overload. For social media, two<br />
additional factors emerged: humor appeal and the primary function <strong>of</strong> social media. For older<br />
media, one additional factor emerged: credibility.<br />
Almost all participants reported that convenience initially was a driving force behind the<br />
media they use during crises. Participants mentioned convenience in terms <strong>of</strong> Facebook, email,<br />
and headlines on email pages. For example, one participant said: “I think I found out a lot <strong>of</strong> my<br />
information about Haiti just through random news articles that would just pop up through like<br />
the Yahoo opening page.” Those that did actively search for information typically relied on<br />
search engines rather than specific sources. As one participant stated: “I just did some Google<br />
searches [after hearing about the Toyota recall in the news] and that led me to various websites.”<br />
Most strikingly, only four participants mentioned actively seeking out websites <strong>of</strong> organizations<br />
experiencing crises. For example, one participant said: “I did go to the Red Cross because I just<br />
wanted to get the number I could text and send that money to them [after the Haiti earthquake].”<br />
Level <strong>of</strong> involvement was another theme for media use in crisis. If participants personally<br />
experienced a crisis or had a close friend or family member experience the crisis, they were more<br />
likely to consume media. For example, one participant said: “It [riots after major athletic victory]<br />
was right here in our own environment…So I was more likely to find out more information on it.<br />
I knew everyone was going to be talking about it the next day.”<br />
Receiving a personal recommendation was a theme mentioned by most participants to<br />
explain crisis media consumption. Recommendations came from friends, parents, and pr<strong>of</strong>essors.<br />
As a participant said, “There were different groups on Facebook. Someone invited me to a group<br />
that said for every one million people that join, I’ll donate this amount <strong>of</strong> money to Haiti. So, I<br />
joined the group and read more about Haiti.” Finally, participants mentioned information<br />
overload to explain why they did not consume media during crises. For example, a participant<br />
said: “I’m not going to lie. I probably ignored almost all <strong>of</strong> those emails because by the time the<br />
University starting doing things I was so H1N1’d-out.”<br />
For social media only, several participants mentioned humor appeal as a reason for using<br />
media during crises. As one participant stated, “There was a video that was making a fun <strong>of</strong><br />
[H1N1] because it’s called the swine flu and it’s not from pigs actually. So I learned what it was<br />
actually about from the video.” As a participant mentioned, however, lack <strong>of</strong> humor appeal was a<br />
reason for not using social media in the event <strong>of</strong> crises: “If I really just want to watch something<br />
that is silly, funny, I’m not going to like search Haiti videos on YouTube—that seems a little<br />
depressing.” Participants explained not using social media during crises because the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
148
social media is not crisis communication. As a participant said, “I don’t think I’ve seen that<br />
many people on Facebook pay attention. So, I don’t even see that much about those types <strong>of</strong><br />
crises on Facebook.” Participants mentioned using social media because traditional media had<br />
not yet covered the crisis, as was the case with the athletic riots. Finally, all participants agreed<br />
that older media generally are more credible than social media for crisis information. As a<br />
participant noted, “You probably would want to go somewhere that is known for being reliable<br />
for that, not just someone writing willy-nilly about something like swine flu.”<br />
How Are Crises Communicated?<br />
RQ3 asked how publics communicate about crises on and <strong>of</strong>fline and RQ4 asked what<br />
factors affect whether they communicate about crises. Participants primarily communicate about<br />
crises face-to-face followed by Facebook and text messaging. On a more limited basis, they<br />
sometimes communicate about crises through phone calls (mostly with relatives) and email<br />
(mostly with parents). Four themes explain why participants prefer these formats: humor value,<br />
insider information, social norms, and privacy concerns.<br />
Participants mentioned joking about crises with friends on and <strong>of</strong>fline. As one participant<br />
stated, “With my friends we would just say jokingly if someone coughed they would<br />
automatically assume that you have the swine flu.” Humor value also explained why participants<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten did not communicate about crises. As a participant said, “I don’t think people want to put<br />
their [Facebook] statuses as, ‘I have swine flu, leave the area.’ It’s really awkward…”<br />
Seeking information seemed to be the primary motivator for communicating about crises<br />
through all media. As a participant said: “Well both my roommates are from Potomac, so they<br />
knew a lot more about it [metro crash]. So, I just talked to them more about it to ask them what<br />
really happened.” Another participant noted: “I used Facebook [during the blizzard] because my<br />
friends from high school were like, ‘How is it? Do you have power? Are you okay?’”<br />
Almost all participants mentioned social norms as an explanation for why they might use<br />
Facebook rather than other social media to communicate about crises. As one participant said, “I<br />
would never go on Facebook to look up information on a crisis unless there are groups and stuff;<br />
like I joined a Haiti group I think just to raise awareness because I got sent something.”<br />
Conversely, if their friends do not use certain social media, they are very unlikely to use that<br />
media. As a participant stated: “Well the reason why I don’t use Twitter is, I signed up for an<br />
account but most <strong>of</strong> the people I know don’t use, except for celebrities. It’s kind <strong>of</strong> like a<br />
celebrity gossip thing, to see what the celebrities are doing, and none <strong>of</strong> my friends are on it.”<br />
Indeed, none <strong>of</strong> the participants sent tweets or posted blogs about crises, which can be<br />
explained by a final theme: privacy concerns. More than half <strong>of</strong> the participants mentioned being<br />
wary <strong>of</strong> Twitter and blogs because they do not want their online posts to be misrepresented or<br />
twisted. For example, one participant said: “I guess because a lot <strong>of</strong> times with bloggers… the<br />
responses are sometimes very not pr<strong>of</strong>essional… it’s like someone is attacking you for your<br />
opinion. I guess it’s kind <strong>of</strong> discouraging.” Another participant noted: “One <strong>of</strong> the reasons I<br />
don’t use Twitter is that a lot <strong>of</strong> times employers are searching through your social media sites<br />
and that’s not okay. As private as you make your pr<strong>of</strong>ile, with hackers they can look at<br />
anything.” Interestingly, only one participant who did not have a Facebook account raised<br />
similar concerns about Facebook. Finally, most participants seemed to associate Twitter with<br />
unnecessary status updates and blogs with gossip sites. When they did use blogs during crises<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than not it was because a news source or Web search led them to the blog.<br />
149
Discussion and Conclusions<br />
Motivation for Crisis Information and Emotional Needs<br />
The BMCC model’s proposition 2.1 states that influential blogs affect blog followers by<br />
providing issue-fit opinion leadership to address followers’ motivation for informational and<br />
emotional needs related to the crisis or issue. RQ1 and RQ2 provide insights about why publics<br />
seek out social and older media for information about crises and what factors affect this<br />
behavior. The most obvious finding is that publics in our study do not actively use blogs during<br />
crises. The interview participants provided insights into why they prefer older media during<br />
crises: They generally view older media, and especially broadcast news and newspapers, as more<br />
reliable sources for crisis information than all social media. However, participants still use social<br />
media during crises, especially Facebook and text messages, to share or obtain insider<br />
information and to check in with family and friends. While some social media are useful for<br />
emotional needs and insider information needs, older media primarily are used for information<br />
needs because participants perceive older media to be more credible than social media. This<br />
finding matches prior research stating corporate blogs are seen as less credible (Bern<strong>of</strong>f, 2008),<br />
but conflicts with other research that suggests blogs and social media may be perceived as more<br />
credible during crises (Bates & Callison, 2008). This discrepancy may be explained by<br />
participants’ relative infrequent use <strong>of</strong> blogs given that blog credibility is enhance by frequent<br />
blog use (Johnson & Kaye, <strong>2010</strong>; Sweetser, Porter, Chung, & Kim, 2008).<br />
Indirect Influence<br />
The finding about preferring older over social media during crises relates to the BMCC<br />
model’s proposition 3.1: Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue<br />
awareness by providing media with newsworthy content that is later edited and disseminated to<br />
general news audiences. The majority <strong>of</strong> the interview participants only read blogs during crises<br />
if they find a link to a blog in another news source or through passive Web searching. Future<br />
research is needed to more systematically examine the content sharing relationship between<br />
blogs and older media and how this process affects publics’ issue awareness during crises.<br />
Participants, however, provide support for the converse <strong>of</strong> proposition 3.1: Older media<br />
exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness by providing social media with<br />
newsworthy content. Participants frequently mentioned that they passively receive information<br />
about crises through logging onto Facebook, email accounts, and emailed news alerts). If their<br />
friends post links to crisis coverage they are more likely to read these links via Facebook than<br />
going to the original sources such as the New York Times for information. However, there<br />
appears to be a tipping point—once participants notice a trend in their social media networks <strong>of</strong> a<br />
crisis discussion they are more likely to seek out traditional media coverage <strong>of</strong> these crises.<br />
Offline Word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth Communication<br />
The BMCC model’s proposition 3.2 states that influential blogs exert influence indirectly<br />
on key publics’ issue awareness through <strong>of</strong>fline word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication <strong>of</strong> issues among<br />
bloggers, blog followers, and other publics. RQ3 and RQ4 explored this proposition through<br />
asking how, if at all, publics communicate about crises on and <strong>of</strong>fline and what factors affect<br />
their communication. For the majority <strong>of</strong> the crises, participants first heard about them through<br />
<strong>of</strong>fline interpersonal communication. Their preferred method for communicating about crises<br />
was in person, followed by text messaging and Facebook. Participants frequently mentioned<br />
discussing crises with friends, family, and pr<strong>of</strong>essors indicating that these publics are influential<br />
for our participants. Channel complexity theory at least partially explains why participants<br />
preferred interpersonal communication on and <strong>of</strong>fline. This theory draws on selective exposure<br />
150
and uses and gratifications theories, predicting that publics select channels based on congruency<br />
(Dutta-Bergman, 2006). In other words, publics use media for similar functions during crises.<br />
Primary factors that motivate participants to communicate about crises on and <strong>of</strong>fline are<br />
humor value and having/seeking insider information. A primary factor that <strong>of</strong>ten causes<br />
participants to avoid online communication is social norms, which includes: (a) whether their<br />
family and friends frequently use particular social media and (b) level <strong>of</strong> comfort with and trust<br />
<strong>of</strong> social media. For the crisis most frequently discussed (riots after a major athletic victory)<br />
participants frequently mentioned posting comments and sharing pictures/videos on Facebook,<br />
which sometimes were later picked up by local news and the campus newspaper. This crisis in<br />
particular seemed to create a hot-issue public as conceptualized by the situational theory <strong>of</strong><br />
publics (Grunig, 1997), even for participants who reported lower involvement in the issue by<br />
stating that the crisis did not affect them personally. As a consequence, participants that<br />
mentioned this crisis reported active word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication primarily in person, via<br />
Facebook, and text messaging. Future research could further investigate the relationship between<br />
crises that are hot issues, on and <strong>of</strong>fline word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication, and media consumption.<br />
Proposed Revisions to the BMCC Model<br />
While most our findings confirmed the validity <strong>of</strong> the current BMCC model with its<br />
expansion into broader social media context we also suggest four revisions. First, the influence<br />
<strong>of</strong> blogs through e-opinion leadership might not be as strong as that <strong>of</strong> other social media during<br />
crises, particularly for young adults. To reflect our findings, we could replace influential blogs<br />
with influential SM (social media). Second, the direction <strong>of</strong> older media’s indirect influence on<br />
publics’ crisis issue awareness might need to be reversed, or, at least, it should go two-way:<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> flowing as older media social media publics, it can also flow as social media <br />
publics older media, etc. This means, instead <strong>of</strong> a linear relationship, an intertwined, more<br />
complex relationship loop or network might better describe the direct and indirect influences<br />
among social media, older media, and publics in crisis situations. Third, existing media effects<br />
likely need to be further separated into social media effects (SM effects) and older media effects<br />
(OM effects) as our findings suggest individuals might use different types <strong>of</strong> media for different<br />
purposes during crises. Fourth, given that the purpose <strong>of</strong> this study is to evaluate and expand the<br />
BMCC model to a wider social media context, we propose renaming the model as the SMCC<br />
(Social-Mediated Crisis Communication) model.<br />
Limitations and Future Research<br />
This study is limited in that the interview and questionnaire results are not generalizable.<br />
Future quantitative research is needed to confirm and extend these findings. Additionally, this<br />
study included only one public: college students at a single university. To triangulate and extend<br />
these findings (a) additional interviews should be conducted with different publics, (b)<br />
experiments should be conducted with college students and regional/national populations, and (c)<br />
surveys should be conducted with organizations frequently experiencing crises. Through<br />
additional research the SMCC model provides a science-based, theory-driven approach for<br />
managing crisis communication in the evolving media landscape.<br />
References<br />
Behairy, N., Mukherjee, S., Ertimur, B., & Venkatesh, A. (2006). Technology-based<br />
communication patterns <strong>of</strong> youth. Advances in Consumer Research, 33(1), 304-305.<br />
Banning, S. A., & Trammell, K. D. (2006, August). Revisiting the issue <strong>of</strong> blog credibility: A<br />
national survey. Paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass<br />
Communication Conference, San Francisco, CA.<br />
151
Bates, L., & Callison, C. (2008, August). Effect <strong>of</strong> company affiliation on credibility in the<br />
blogosphere. Paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass<br />
Communication Conference, Chicago, IL.<br />
Bern<strong>of</strong>f, J. (2008, December 9). People don’t trust company blogs: What you should do about it.<br />
Forrester.com. Retrieved from http://blogs.forrester.com/<br />
Bucher, H. J. (2002). Crisis communication and the Internet: Risk and trust in a global media.<br />
First Monday, 7, 3.<br />
Cheong, J. C., & Morrison, M. A. (2008). Consumers’ reliance on product information and<br />
recommendations found in UGC. Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive Advertising, 8(2), article 4.<br />
Choi, Y., & Lin, Y-H. (2009). Consumer responses to Mattel product recalls posted on online<br />
bulletin boards: Exploring two types <strong>of</strong> emotion. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research,<br />
21(2), 198-207.<br />
Coombs, W. T. (2008). Crisis communication and social media. Essential Knowledge Project,<br />
Institute for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>. Retrieved from http://www.instituteforpr.org/<br />
essential_knowledge/detail/crisis_communication_and_social_media/<br />
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics <strong>of</strong> qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for<br />
developing grounded theory (3 rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.<br />
Daugherty, T., Eastin, M., & Bright, L. (2008). Exploring consumer motivations for creating<br />
user-generated content. Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive Advertising, 8(2), 1-24.<br />
Dichter, E. (1966). How word <strong>of</strong> mouth advertising works. Harvard Business Review, 44(6),<br />
147-60.<br />
Diga, M., & Kelleher, T. (2009). Social media use, perceptions <strong>of</strong> decision-making power, and<br />
public relations roles. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35(4), 440-442.<br />
Dutta-Bergman, M. J. (2006). Community participation and Internet use after September 11:<br />
Complementarity in channel consumption. Journal <strong>of</strong> Computer-Mediated<br />
Communication, 11(2), 469-484.<br />
ECAR. (2008). Social networking sites. Students and Information Technology, 81-98. Retrieved<br />
from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ers0808/rs/ers08086.pdf.<br />
Eyrich, N., Padman, M., & Sweetser, K. (2008). PR practitioners’ use <strong>of</strong> social media tools and<br />
communication technology. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 34(4), 412-414.<br />
GWU & Cision. (2009, December). 2009 social media & online usage study. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.gwu.edu/~newsctr/10/pdfs/gw_cision_sm_study_09.PDF<br />
Goldsmith, R., & Horowitz, D. (2006). Measuring motivations for online opinion seeking.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive Advertising, 6(2), 3-14.<br />
Grunig, J. E. (1997). A situational theory <strong>of</strong> publics: Conceptual history, recent challenges, and<br />
new research. In D. Moss, T. MacManus, & D. Vercic (Eds.), <strong>Public</strong> relations research:<br />
An international perspective (pp. 3-48). London: International Thomson Business.<br />
Hathi, S. (2009). Communicators remain unclear on business case for social media. Strategic<br />
Communication Management, 14(1), article 9.<br />
Heath, R., Lee, J., & Ni, L. (2009). Crisis and risk approaches to emergency management<br />
planning and communication: The role <strong>of</strong> similarity and sensitivity. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 21(2), 123-141.<br />
Heath, R. L., & Palenchar, M. J. (2009). Strategic issues management: Organizations and<br />
public policy changes (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
152
Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K. P., Walsh, G., & Gremler, D. D. (2004). Electronic word-<strong>of</strong>mouth<br />
via consumer-opinion platforms: What motivates consumers to articulate themselves<br />
on the Internet? Journal <strong>of</strong> Interactive Marketing, 18(1), 38-52.<br />
Horrigan, J. B., & Morris, S. (2005). Data memo. Pew Internet and <strong>America</strong>n Life<br />
Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org<br />
Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2004). Wag the blog: How reliance on traditional media and<br />
the Internet influence credibility perceptions on weblogs among blog users. Journalism<br />
and Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(3), 622-642.<br />
Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (<strong>2010</strong>). Choosing is believing? How Web gratifications and<br />
reliance affect Internet credibility among politically interested users. Atlantic Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Communication, 18, 1-21.<br />
Kaye, B. K. (2005). It’s a blog, blog, blog, blog world. Atlantic Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication,<br />
13(2), 73-95.<br />
Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (1998). Building dialogic relationships through the World Wide Web.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 24(3), 321-324.<br />
Lariscy, R. A., Avery, E. J., Sweetser, K. D., & Howes, P. (2009). An examination <strong>of</strong> the role <strong>of</strong><br />
online social media in journalists’ source mix. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35(3), 314-316.<br />
Lenhart, A. (<strong>2010</strong>). Social media and young adults. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org<br />
Lenhart, A., Purcell, K., Smith, A., & Zickuhr, K. (<strong>2010</strong>). Social media and mobile Internet use<br />
among teens and young adults. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org<br />
Madden, M. (2007). Pew Internet and <strong>America</strong>n Life Project: Online video. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.pewinternet.org<br />
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook.<br />
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Palen, L. (2008). Investigation <strong>of</strong> recent disasters reveals use <strong>of</strong> online social media as an<br />
emergent, significant, and <strong>of</strong>ten accurate form <strong>of</strong> public participation and backchannel<br />
communication. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, 31(3).<br />
Perry, D. C., Taylor, M., & Doerfel, M. L. (2003). Internet-based communication in crisis<br />
management. Management Communication Quarterly, 17(2), 206-232.<br />
Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project. (2006). Blogger callback survey. Retrieved<br />
from http://www.pewinternet.org<br />
Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project. (<strong>2010</strong>). Web 2.0. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.<br />
org/topics/Web-20<br />
Phillips, D. (2008). The psychology <strong>of</strong> social media. Journal <strong>of</strong> New Communications Research,<br />
3(1), 79-85.<br />
Procopio, C. H., & Procopio, S. T. (2007). Do you know what it means to miss New Orleans?<br />
Internet communication, geographic community, and social capital in crisis. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Applied Communication Research, 35(1), 67-87.<br />
Seltzer, T., & Mitrook, M. (2007). The dialogic potential <strong>of</strong> weblogs in relationship building.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33(2), 227-229.<br />
Stephens, K. K., & Malone, P. (2009). If the organizations won’t give us information…: The use<br />
<strong>of</strong> multiple new media for crisis technical translations and dialogue. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 21(2), 229-239.<br />
Sweester, K. D., & Metzgar, E. (2007). Communicating during crisis: Use <strong>of</strong> blogs as a<br />
relationship management tool. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33(3), 340-342.<br />
153
Sweetser, K. D., Porter, L.V., Chung, D., & Kim, E. (2008). Credibility and the uses <strong>of</strong> blogs<br />
among pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in the information industry. Journalism & Mass Communication<br />
Quarterly, 85(1), 169-185.<br />
Taylor, M., & Kent, M. L. (2007). Taxonomy <strong>of</strong> mediated crisis responses. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, 33(2), 140-146.<br />
Taylor, M., & Perry, D. (2005). Diffusion <strong>of</strong> traditional and new media tactics in crisis<br />
communication. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 31(2), 209-217.<br />
Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. (2009). An updated look at the impact <strong>of</strong> social media on public<br />
relations practices. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal, 3(2), article 2, Retrieved from<br />
http://www.prsa.org/Intelligence/PRJournal/Spring_09<br />
Zogby Interactive. (2009). Poll: Online news sources top all others. Retrieved June 20, 2009,<br />
from http://pww.org/article/view/16025.<br />
154
Table 1 BMCC Model Propositions (_____ & _____, in press) 2<br />
Propositions<br />
Proposition 1.1.a<br />
Influential bloggers engage themselves in blogging about organizational crisis<br />
out <strong>of</strong> their issue involvement. 3<br />
Proposition 1.1.b<br />
Proposition 1.2<br />
Influential bloggers engage themselves in blogging about organizational crisis<br />
out <strong>of</strong> their self-involvement. 4<br />
Influential bloggers and their blogs exert more influence when the information<br />
authority and blogger credibility are both high. 5<br />
Proposition 2.1 Influential blogs affect blog followers by providing issue-fit opinion leadership 6<br />
to address the followers’ motivation for informational and emotional needs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
crisis issue.<br />
Proposition 2.2<br />
Proposition 3.1<br />
Proposition 3.2<br />
Proposition 4.1<br />
Blogs created by influential bloggers affect media coverage by<br />
building/suggesting crisis issue agendas and providing alternative crisis<br />
information to journalists.<br />
Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness by<br />
providing the media with newsworthy content that is later edited and<br />
disseminated to general news audiences.<br />
Influential blogs exert influence indirectly on key publics’ issue awareness<br />
though <strong>of</strong>fline word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication <strong>of</strong> issues among bloggers, blog<br />
followers, and other publics.<br />
Crisis managers should engage in issue monitoring at every stage <strong>of</strong> the rumor<br />
generation process (generation, belief, and transmission) involving blog<br />
followers, blog-resist publics, and mass media outlets.<br />
Proposition 4.2 Crisis managers should focus on crisis management strategies to circumvent<br />
rumor generation, belief, and transmission on and through influential blogs.<br />
Table 2 Questionnaire Respondents’ Average Media Consumption<br />
3 Issue-involvement is the positive or negative direct or indirect (from news media, employment history, or other<br />
people) experience related to dealing with an issue that motivates a blogger to talk about the organization (___ &<br />
___, accepted for publication).<br />
4 Self-involvement is related to a blogger’s need for self-confirmation. By talking to others about a product or an<br />
organization, bloggers can carry through their insecurities and build up authority and leadership (___ & ___,<br />
accepted for publication).<br />
5 Information authority is whether bloggers are insiders <strong>of</strong> the organization and/or experts on the issue. Blogger<br />
credibility is whether bloggers convey a genuine sense <strong>of</strong> community and public interest (___ & ___, accepted for<br />
publication).<br />
6 Issue-fit opinion leadership is the fit between the content provided by the influential blogs and the blog followers’<br />
interest and attitude (___ & ___, accepted for publication).<br />
155
Media<br />
Daily Consumption<br />
(minutes)<br />
Weekly Consumption<br />
(hours)<br />
M SD M SD<br />
Using social networking sites (i.e., Facebook, 64.08 (n = 36) 49.20 (n = 36) 27.40 (n = 36) 77.55 (n = 36)<br />
MySpace)<br />
Reading newspapers (online, hard copies) 14.70 (n = 37) 14.94 (n = 37) 7.28 (n = 37) 25.15 (n = 37)<br />
Reading blogs 9.43 (n = 37) 15.40 (n = 37) 7.15 (n = 36) 27.12 (n = 36)<br />
Watching broadcast news (cable, network) 24.95 (n = 37) 38.69 (n = 37) 5.82 (n = 37) 24.83 (n = 37)<br />
Reading magazines (online, hard copies) 12.39 (n = 36) 13.63 (n = 36) 5.34 (n = 36) 24.83 (n = 36)<br />
Using video sharing sites (i.e., YouTube,Vimeo) 13.47 (n = 36) 17.09 (n = 36) 4.32 (n = 36) 10.42 (n = 36)<br />
Listening to radio news (live, online, podcasts) 8.68 (n = 38) 16.63 (n = 38) 3.50 (n = 36) 14.99 (n = 36)<br />
Using wikis (i.e., Wikipedia, Wetpaint) 10.64 (n = 36) 15.70 (n = 36) 2.88 (n = 37) 7.49 (n = 36)<br />
Total time spent commenting on all social/digital 14.33 (n = 37) 26.86 (n = 37) 2.47 (n = 36) 4.69 (n = 36)<br />
media<br />
Interacting with blogs (i.e., posting comments, 2.54 (n = 37) 10.37 (n = 37) .30 (n = 37) .91 (n = 36)<br />
writing content)<br />
Using photo sharing sites (i.e., Flickr) .67 (n = 36) 3.38 (n = 36) .23 (n = 36) 1.05 (n = 36)<br />
Using microblogs (i.e., Twitter, Foursquare) 1.50 (n = 38) 3.47 (n = 38) .12 (n = 37) .30 (n = 37)<br />
Using social news sites (i.e., Digg, Mixx, Reddit) 1.11 (n = 37) 4.73 (n = 37) .11 (n = 36) .40 (n = 36)<br />
Reading customer review sites (i.e., Eopinions, Yelp) 1.00 (n = 37) 2.85 (n = 37) .10 (n = 36) .26 (n = 36)<br />
Writing blog posts .43 (n = 37) 1.82 (n = 37) .07 (n = 36) .24 (n = 36)<br />
Using livecasting sites (i.e., ustream.tv) .43 (n = 37) 2.47 (n = 37) .06 (n = 36) .23 (n = 36)<br />
Using virtual worlds (i.e., Second Life) .05 (n = 37) .33 (n = 37) .06 (n = 36) .33 (n = 36)<br />
Creating content for video-sharing sites (i.e.,<br />
YouTube, Vimeo)<br />
.03 (n = 34) .16 (n = 34) .03 (n = 36) .17 (n = 36)<br />
Table 3 Crises Discussed by Interview Participants<br />
Crises<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> Participants<br />
Post-athletic Victory Riots 14<br />
H1N1 Flu Pandemic 11<br />
Haiti Earthquake 9<br />
U.S. East Coast Blizzard 6<br />
Toyota Recall 4<br />
Chile Earthquake 2<br />
Fort Hood Shootings 2<br />
Hudson River Airline Crash 2<br />
Virginia Tech Shootings 2<br />
Cocaine at NASA Space Center 1<br />
Hurricane Katrina 1<br />
Iran Election 1<br />
Metro Crash 1<br />
Michael Jackson’s Death 1<br />
Peanut Butter Recall 1<br />
September 11 Terrorist Attack 1<br />
Tiger Woods Extramarital Affairs 1<br />
156
FIGURE 1 BMM Model (_____ & _____, in press)<br />
Strategic Responses to Influential External Blogs<br />
E-opinion leadership<br />
P2.1<br />
Measures<br />
Influential<br />
Blogs<br />
Crisis blog intervention<br />
P4.2<br />
Other Blogs<br />
P1.1-<br />
P1.2<br />
Influentia<br />
l<br />
Bloggers<br />
CC<br />
WOM <strong>of</strong>fline<br />
CC<br />
Blog<br />
Followers<br />
Media effects<br />
P4.1<br />
WOM <strong>of</strong>fline<br />
Organizatio<br />
n<br />
CC<br />
CC<br />
WOM <strong>of</strong>fline<br />
Organization agenda building<br />
Organizations and <strong>Public</strong>s<br />
Media Content<br />
P2.2<br />
Issue agenda building<br />
Nonblogfollowers<br />
Media effects<br />
P3.2<br />
Media effects<br />
Mass Media<br />
& Other Social<br />
Media<br />
P3.1<br />
CC: Crisis Communication<br />
157
Practitioner Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Organizational Factors Impacting Web-based<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Strategies<br />
Sheila M. McAllister-Spooner, Ph.D., APR<br />
Monmouth University<br />
smcallis@monmouth.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
A survey <strong>of</strong> public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals sheds light on perceptions <strong>of</strong> the ease and<br />
ability to manage Web-based public relations strategies. The findings show that public<br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals do not believe that they receive adequate time, training, staff,<br />
resources, and support to effectively maintain Web-based practices.<br />
Introduction<br />
Researchers and practitioners both agree that 21 st century practitioners clearly<br />
need Internet skills. Indeed, in a very short period, the Internet has emerged as an allpurpose<br />
communication medium for interacting with a wide variety <strong>of</strong> stakeholders (van<br />
der Merwe et al., 2005). As aptly pointed out by Wright and Hinson (2009), it is an<br />
understatement to suggest that Web sites and new media technologies have had a huge<br />
impact on the scholarship and practice <strong>of</strong> public relations.<br />
Despite the relationship building potential <strong>of</strong>fered by the Internet, Web-based<br />
tools are vastly underutilized in the practice <strong>of</strong> public relations. Prior research suggests<br />
that organizational factors may inhibit practitioners from utilizing the full potential<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered by Web-based tools. For example, Newland Hill and White (2000) found that<br />
public relations practitioners did not get enough training, have enough time, or obtain<br />
enough organizational resources to maximize the potential <strong>of</strong> the Web. These findings<br />
were paralleled by Waters et al. (2009) in the area <strong>of</strong> new media use for nonpr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
organizations who found that practitioners were not taking advantage <strong>of</strong> the options that<br />
could enhance their relationship cultivation efforts. More research is needed in this area<br />
to find out why.<br />
Viewed through the lens <strong>of</strong> the dialogic theory <strong>of</strong> public relations, this study<br />
provides an examination <strong>of</strong> practitioner perceptions <strong>of</strong> organizational factors that impact<br />
their ability to implement and develop Web-based public relations strategies and tactics.<br />
The dialogic theory is relevant because it provides overriding tenets and principles to<br />
serve as guidelines for the successful and ethical integration <strong>of</strong> dialogic public relations<br />
tools. The sample surveyed includes public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals serving in the higher<br />
education sector. Colleges and universities were selected because they are highly<br />
resource dependent organizations that are especially in need <strong>of</strong> public relations efforts via<br />
the Internet and new media technologies (McAllister-Spooner & Kent, 2009). With<br />
unprecedented decreases in national and state funding, college public relations<br />
practitioners are faced with the daunting task <strong>of</strong> having to increase the visibility and<br />
credibility <strong>of</strong> the institution with limited funds and resources. This can best be achieved<br />
by focusing on filtering the messages through the media.<br />
The field <strong>of</strong> public relations is now benefitting from broader theories that provide<br />
alternative frameworks to think about organization-public relationships (Taylor, 2009).<br />
Because dialogic public relations is considered one <strong>of</strong> the most ethical and effective<br />
approaches to practicing public relations (Kent & Taylor, 1998), public relations<br />
158
practitioners and scholars argue for the use <strong>of</strong> Kent and Taylor’s dialogic Internet<br />
features for Web sites as well as new media technologies (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009). To<br />
contextualize the theoretical foundations <strong>of</strong> this study, the next section will provide an<br />
overview <strong>of</strong> the dialogic theory <strong>of</strong> public relations.<br />
The Dialogic Theory <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Dialogic theory—deeply rooted in philosophy and relational communication<br />
theory—was first applied to organizational communication and public relations theory by<br />
Pearson, whose research agenda to develop a more ethical framework for public relations<br />
theory and practice was cut short by his untimely death in 1989. Botan expanded upon<br />
Pearson’s research, using dialogue to elevate publics to the status <strong>of</strong> communication<br />
equal with the organizations (Kent & Taylor, 2002). Kent and Taylor (1998, 2002)<br />
extended dialogic theory as an honest and ethical means to guide practitioners and<br />
scholars in the creation and maintenance <strong>of</strong> effective organization–public relationships<br />
(Kent et al., 2003).<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations, like other communication, should be dialogic, respecting and<br />
facilitating the rights <strong>of</strong> publics to engage in informed and free decision making<br />
by exchanging persuasive and informative messages. <strong>Public</strong> relations should<br />
simply make available the information publics need, along with a forthright and<br />
honest advocacy <strong>of</strong> what the client wants. (Botan, 1997, p.197)<br />
Viewed as more than a relational strategy for interpersonal communication, Kent and<br />
Taylor (1998, 2002) <strong>of</strong>fered five principles to serve as guidelines for the successful<br />
integration <strong>of</strong> dialogic public relations via the World Wide Web. The first principle,<br />
Useful Information, suggests that organizations provide useful information <strong>of</strong> general<br />
value to all publics in a logical hierarchical structure. As the title suggests, the second<br />
principle, Ease <strong>of</strong> Interface, involves the intuitiveness and/or ease <strong>of</strong> the Web site’s<br />
interface. Developed out <strong>of</strong> respect for the valued visitors, the third principle,<br />
Conservation <strong>of</strong> Visitors, maintains that organizational Web sites should <strong>of</strong>fer features<br />
and links that conserve visit time. The fourth principal, Generation <strong>of</strong> Return Visits,<br />
explores ways to create the foundation for long lasting relationships by <strong>of</strong>fering features<br />
that increase the “stickiness” <strong>of</strong> the site. The fifth principal, Dialogic Feedback Loops,<br />
involves providing features that allow publics to query organizations and <strong>of</strong>fers<br />
organizations the opportunity to respond to questions (Kent & Taylor, 1998, p. 327).<br />
According to Kent and Taylor, “sites should be dynamic enough to encourage all<br />
potential publics to explore them, information rich enough to meet the needs <strong>of</strong> very<br />
diverse publics, and interactive enough to allow users to pursue further informational<br />
issues and dialogic relationships” (p. 341).<br />
For over a decade, scholars have extended and refined the dialogic research <strong>of</strong><br />
Web sites. Kent and Taylor’s dialogic principles have been applied to research <strong>of</strong> various<br />
organization types and public relations sectors. (Esrock & Leichty, 1999, 2000; Kang &<br />
Norton, 2006; McAllister-Spooner & Kent, 2009; McAllister-Spooner, 2008, <strong>2010</strong>,<br />
McAllister-Spooner & Taylor, 2007, in press; Reber, Gower, & Robinson, 2006; Reber &<br />
Kim, 2006; Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007; Taylor & Kent, 2004).<br />
Some have examined the dialogic principles in relation to the usability <strong>of</strong> Web<br />
sites (Hallahan, 2001; McAllister-Spooner, 2008; Vorvoreanu, 2006), and others have<br />
studied user perceptions <strong>of</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> the features (McAllister-Spooner, <strong>2010</strong>).<br />
159
As noted earlier, because colleges and universities have high resource<br />
dependencies with multiple publics, they are important organizations to study. Moreover,<br />
Kang and Norton (2006), McAllister-Spooner (2008, <strong>2010</strong>), McAllister-Spooner and<br />
Kent (2009), McAllister-Spooner and Taylor (2007; in press), and others have identified<br />
colleges and universities as organizations that could do more to improve their Web sites<br />
and new media strategies for public relations efforts.<br />
For example, Kang and Norton (2006) detected a strong relationship between<br />
retention rate and dialogic relational communication functions such as feedback forms,<br />
discussion forums, online surveys, online shopping, and alumni connections. The<br />
researchers also found that the universities were greatly lacking in the area <strong>of</strong> creating<br />
synchronous dialogic loops with targeted publics, and not fully embracing the strength <strong>of</strong><br />
their Web sites in their relational communication capabilities (Kang & Norton, 2006).<br />
These findings were supported in research exploring New Jersey’s nineteen<br />
community colleges (McAllister-Spooner & Kent, 2009; McAllister-Spooner & Taylor,<br />
2007), which found that the Internet was only being used for early relationship-building<br />
functions. McAllister-Spooner and Kent (2009) found that different principles did in fact<br />
elicit different dialogic and responsiveness effects; college Web sites that appeared to be<br />
dialogic were more responsive to user requests.<br />
McAllister-Spooner’s (2008) two-stage usability study <strong>of</strong> Kent and Taylor’s<br />
Internet principles suggests that users are not able to find critical enrollment and<br />
academic information, and that improvement is needed in the method <strong>of</strong> content delivery<br />
on community college Web sites. Despite the fact that users were unable to locate critical<br />
information, they did not have strong feelings for or against the sites. With the exception<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Dialogic Feedback Loop features, the user assessments <strong>of</strong> the remaining Internet<br />
principles were positive. This is interesting in light <strong>of</strong> negativity <strong>of</strong> the users’ actual<br />
experiences (McAllister-Spooner, 2008).<br />
Through an examination <strong>of</strong> college Web site preferences <strong>of</strong> high school students,<br />
parents/guardians <strong>of</strong> high school students, and high school guidance and admissions<br />
counselors, McAllister-Spooner (<strong>2010</strong>) found that <strong>of</strong>fering dialogic Internet features<br />
could impact the likelihood <strong>of</strong> submitting applications. The findings also show that<br />
intuitive interface and useful information that generate return visits take precedence over<br />
flashy graphics, photos, and interactive features.<br />
The extant research shows that, although the dialogic features enhance usability <strong>of</strong><br />
Web sites, and users perceive dialogic features as important and expect organizations to<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer them (McAllister-Spooner, 2008), the dialogic potential <strong>of</strong>fered by the Internet is<br />
not fully utilized. Kent and Taylor’s dialogic principles have also been applied to<br />
research exploring new media tools. The next section will provide a review <strong>of</strong> the<br />
research.<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hip Development via New Media Tools<br />
Because the Internet is fast becoming the key initial contact point for<br />
communicating with stakeholders, public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals should embrace new<br />
tools and technologies (Christ, 2005). Through an investigation <strong>of</strong> online relationship<br />
building through a comparison <strong>of</strong> weblogs to traditional Web sites, Seltzer and Mitrook<br />
(2007) found that weblogs incorporate dialogic communication principles to a greater<br />
degree than traditional Web sites, potentially making them better suited for online<br />
relationship building.<br />
160
Several studies, however, suggest that organizations are not adequately utilizing<br />
Web-based tools to generate dialogic communication, and that there are gaps between<br />
relationship-building goals, implementation <strong>of</strong> online strategies, and actual dialogic<br />
engagement (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009; Seltzter & Mitrook, 2007; Waters, Burnett, Lamm<br />
& Lucas, 2009).<br />
For example, a content analysis <strong>of</strong> Facebook Pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> 50 environmental<br />
advocacy groups conducted by Bortree and Seltzer (2009) suggests that advocacy groups<br />
are not taking advantage <strong>of</strong> the dialogic strategies afforded by social networking. These<br />
findings are particularly troubling because the results suggest that dialogic strategy use<br />
appears to be closely related to dialogic outcomes, including networking activity,<br />
network extensiveness, network growth, user responsiveness, and organization<br />
responsiveness (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009, p. 318).<br />
Waters et al. (2009) content analyzed 275 nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organizations for the presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> items representing organizational disclosure, information dissemination, and<br />
involvement to find that, although nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organizations understood the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
disclosure in their pr<strong>of</strong>iles, they did not use the Facebook pr<strong>of</strong>iles to distribute<br />
organizational news. Very few took advantage <strong>of</strong> the multimedia capabilities, and they<br />
did not provide many methods for their supporters to become involved. The study found<br />
that nonpr<strong>of</strong>its have not incorporated the vast majority <strong>of</strong> the Facebook applications<br />
available to them into their social networking presence (Waters et al., 2009).<br />
As social media tools gain strategic momentum, practitioners are developing<br />
skills related to this online technology (Eyrich, Padman & Sweetzer, 2008). Several<br />
researchers have also explored practitioners’ assessments <strong>of</strong> how they adapt traditional<br />
public relations practices to the new technologies (Curtis, Edwards, Fraser, Gudelsky,<br />
Thornton & Sweetser, <strong>2010</strong>; Diga & Kelleher, 2009; Eyrich et al., 2008; McAllister-<br />
Spooner & Taylor, in press; Newland Hill & White, 2000; Porter, Chung & Sweetser,<br />
2009; Wright & Hinson, 2009). The next section will briefly review those studies.<br />
Practitioner Perceptions<br />
Ten years ago, Newland Hill and White (2000) found that public relations<br />
practitioners did not get enough training, have enough time, or obtain enough<br />
organizational resources to maximize the potential <strong>of</strong> the Web in media relations. The<br />
authors also found that the Web site has become one more job added to a long list <strong>of</strong><br />
tasks including marketing, advertising, employee relations, government relations and<br />
publication design (Newland Hill & White, 2000).<br />
Seo, Kim, and Yang (2009) surveyed communication representatives at 75<br />
transnational nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to find that promoting the<br />
organization’s image and fundraising were the two most important functions <strong>of</strong> new<br />
media tools, and that organizational capacity and main objective <strong>of</strong> the organization were<br />
significant predictors <strong>of</strong> NGOs’ new media use in their public relations.<br />
Eyrich, Padman and Sweetser (2008) surveyed 283 public relations practitioners<br />
about their adoption <strong>of</strong> 18 social media tools and their perceptions on the growth <strong>of</strong> social<br />
media trends in public relations practice. The data shows that although the practitioners<br />
have adopted the more established and institutional tools (e-mail, Intranet) and seem<br />
comfortable with blogs and podcasts, they are slower to integrate more technologically<br />
complicated tools that caters to a niche audience such as text messaging, social networks,<br />
and virtual worlds (Eyrich et al., 2008).<br />
161
Porter, Chung and Sweetser (2009) examined the perceptions and adoption <strong>of</strong><br />
blogs among public relations practitioners and how blog use relates to roles and status.<br />
The data shows that, although blog use was similar to national audiences, practitioners<br />
were using blogs pr<strong>of</strong>essionally at low levels, and that women lagged behind men in the<br />
strategic use <strong>of</strong> blogs. The researchers argue that practitioners may be missing an<br />
opportunity to reach publics directly through blogging (p.250).<br />
Diga and Kelleher (2009) detected a relationship between social network use and<br />
power. The findings suggest that practitioners who were more frequent users <strong>of</strong> social<br />
network sites and social media tools reported greater perceptions <strong>of</strong> their own structural,<br />
expert and prestige power.<br />
Curtis et al. (<strong>2010</strong>) surveyed 409 nonpr<strong>of</strong>it public relations practitioners to<br />
examine <strong>of</strong> how nonpr<strong>of</strong>its are adopting social media tools. The results suggest that social<br />
media tools are becoming beneficial methods <strong>of</strong> communication for nonpr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, and that women consider social media to be beneficial, and men exhibit<br />
more confidence in actively utilizing social media. Additionally, organizations with<br />
specified public relations departments were more likely to adopt social media. (Curtis et<br />
al., 2009, p. 92).<br />
Wright and Hinson (2009) conducted an international survey <strong>of</strong> 574 public<br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals to examine how social media are being implemented in the<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> public relations. The findings show that meaningful and statistically<br />
significant gaps exist between what practitioners say what “is” happening and what<br />
“should” be happening. The findings also suggest that demographic differences exist:<br />
younger respondents were more likely to recommend using social media tools (Wright &<br />
Hinson, 2009).<br />
McAllister-Spooner and Taylor (in press) found that many organizational factors<br />
inhibit Web-based communication strategies and tactics in higher education. The survey<br />
<strong>of</strong> community college public relations practitioners reveals that respondents see great<br />
potential with public relations practices via the Internet, and overwhelmingly agreed that<br />
it is necessary to <strong>of</strong>fer many <strong>of</strong> Kent and Taylor’s (1998, 2002) dialogic features. The<br />
data suggests that there are many organizational, departmental, and inter-departmental<br />
factors inhibiting practitioners from <strong>of</strong>fering the dialogic and relationship building<br />
features that they deem important.<br />
Christ (2005) maintains that public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals that do not master new<br />
media technologies may face encroachment from other business areas. More research is<br />
needed to explore the role that public relations practitioners play in managing Web-based<br />
initiatives, which prompted the first research question:<br />
RQ1. What role do public relations practitioners play in managing Web-based<br />
initiatives? This question is answered by assessing practitioners’ responsibilities<br />
and the perceived levels <strong>of</strong> ease that practitioners experience managing Webbased<br />
initiatives.<br />
The articles reviewed show that there may be organizational factors that inhibit<br />
practitioners from using Web-based tools to their fullest potential. More research in this<br />
area is necessary, which led the researcher to pose the second research question:<br />
RQ2. What types <strong>of</strong> internal organizational factors influence practitioners’ ability<br />
to effectively develop Web–based initiatives? This question was answered by<br />
assessing practitioner perceptions <strong>of</strong> departmental, organizational, and practical<br />
162
factors that impact the development and implementation <strong>of</strong> Web-based public<br />
relations strategies and tactics.<br />
The findings <strong>of</strong> this study provide a glimpse into practitioner perspectives <strong>of</strong> the<br />
role that public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals play in managing Web-based public relations<br />
initiatives, and how internal organizational factors influence externally focused Webbased<br />
public relations efforts. The next section describes the research design.<br />
Research Design<br />
Perceptions <strong>of</strong> organizational factors impacting use <strong>of</strong> Kent and Taylor’s (1998,<br />
2002) Internet principles via Web sites and new media tools were assessed via Webbased<br />
survey research. The highly structured multipart questions were divided into 2<br />
parts: 1) perceived ease and ability <strong>of</strong> managing Web-based initiatives, and, 2) perceived<br />
organizational support <strong>of</strong> Web initiatives.<br />
E-mail invitations to participate were disseminated to a purposive sample <strong>of</strong><br />
college and university communication pr<strong>of</strong>essionals affiliated with the Council for<br />
Support and Advancement <strong>of</strong> Education (CASE)―the largest pr<strong>of</strong>essional organization<br />
serving communications and advancement pr<strong>of</strong>essionals at more than 3,400 colleges,<br />
universities, independent elementary and secondary schools, and educational associates<br />
in 61 countries around the world (retrieved May 13, 2009, from<br />
http://www.case.org/container.cfm?CONTAINERID=40&CRUMB=2&NAVID=54).<br />
In an effort to strategically reach communication pr<strong>of</strong>essionals that are involved<br />
with the management and development <strong>of</strong> the college/university Web sites and new<br />
media tools, the invitation was sent to a convenient sample <strong>of</strong> CASE members enrolled in<br />
the Communications Pr<strong>of</strong>essional listserv. Although, 1,626 CASE members were<br />
enrolled in the listserv, not all were involved in management and development <strong>of</strong> Webbased<br />
public relations tools; 159 started the survey and 81 completed the survey (5% <strong>of</strong><br />
the total listserv population and 51% <strong>of</strong> those that responded). Because respondents were<br />
provided the option to skip questions or exit the survey, response rates to individual<br />
questions varied.<br />
The respondents were asked what title best describes their position at the<br />
college/university. Of the 63 participants that responded, 43% serve as directors (n = 27),<br />
17% as managers (n = 11), 9% as executive directors (n = 6), 8% as assistant directors,<br />
5% as vice presidents (n = 3), and 2% as technicians (n = 1). Sixteen percent <strong>of</strong> the<br />
respondents selected “other,” and specified the following positions: Web/graphic<br />
designer, director within a school, communications staff, new media specialist, assistant<br />
vice president, staff writer/public relations assistant, senior director, communications<br />
specialist, and Web content editor (n = 10).<br />
Regarding types <strong>of</strong> colleges/universities that they serve at, <strong>of</strong> the 63 participants<br />
that responded, nearly 29% indicated public university (n = 17), 27% private 4-year<br />
colleges (n = 16), 20% private university (n = 12), nearly 14% public 4-year colleges (n =<br />
8), and 10% indicated public 2-year colleges (n = 6). Nearly 7% indicated “other,” and<br />
specified the following types <strong>of</strong> schools: independent school in New England,<br />
independent academy, independent school, and public 4-year medical school (n = 4).<br />
RQ1 asked whether public relations practitioners are able to effectively manage Webbased<br />
initiatives. Recall, this question was answered by assessing practitioners’<br />
responsibilities and the perceived levels <strong>of</strong> ease that practitioners experience managing<br />
Web-based initiatives. The next section reports the findings.<br />
163
Results<br />
Ease and Ability to Managing Web Initiatives<br />
RQ1 asked whether public relations practitioners are able to effectively manage<br />
Web-based initiatives. Ryan (2003) and McAllister-Spooner and Taylor (in press) found<br />
that the responsibilities <strong>of</strong> public relations departments are vast. Newland Hill and White<br />
(2000) found that the Web site has become one more job added to a long list <strong>of</strong> tasks<br />
including marketing, advertising, employee relations, government relations and<br />
publication design. Unfortunately these findings are supported in the current study.<br />
Over 83% <strong>of</strong> the 79 participants that responded are responsible for marketing (n =<br />
66), 82% for public relations (n = 65), over 78% are responsible for photography (n =<br />
62), 75% for graphic design and Web site management (n = 59), over 69% are<br />
responsible for advertising (n = 55), and 56% for printing (n = 44), 20% indicated<br />
development/alumni, 17% indicated government relations (n = 14), 15% indicated<br />
fundraising (n = 12), 13% indicated enrollment management (n= 10), and 9% indicated<br />
managing the TV/radio facilities (n = 7). Nearly 27% selected “other” and specified<br />
responsibilities such as: media relations, sports information, electronic communication,<br />
internal communications, community relations, and publication management (n = 21).<br />
Organizational Web sites can be developed through centralized or decentralized<br />
management systems. As explained by McGovern (2003), whereas centralizing<br />
publishing ensures a consistent quality <strong>of</strong> what is published, it is <strong>of</strong>ten slow and<br />
frustrating. Decentralized publishing, on the other hand, is faster and <strong>of</strong>ten more costeffective,<br />
but can result in inconsistent quality, unless rigorous publishing standards are<br />
adhered to (retrieved March<br />
http://www.gerrymcgovern.com/nt/2003/nt_2003_10_27_publishing.htm).<br />
For nearly 58% <strong>of</strong> the 78 participants that responded, the Web site is maintained<br />
through several decentralized departments (n = 45). Forty-two percent indicated that<br />
content is developed and maintained through one centralized department (n = 33).<br />
Similar to the findings reported by Ryan (2003), the respondents said their public<br />
relations departments contribute significantly to their Web content. The respondents also<br />
reported that Web content is also overseen by key stakeholders in the enrollment<br />
management departments, information technology departments, and learning resources<br />
departments.<br />
To assess the perceived levels <strong>of</strong> ease <strong>of</strong> accomplishing Web management tasks,<br />
the respondents were asked to rank their level <strong>of</strong> agreement on a 7-point Likert scale<br />
ranging from “very strongly agree” (+3) to “very strongly disagree” (-3), with “0”<br />
indicating neutrality. Recall, because respondents were provided the option to skip<br />
questions or exit the survey, response rates to individual questions varied. Table 1 reports<br />
the findings.<br />
For Web site related functions, the findings suggest that the college and university<br />
practitioners have relative ease in ensuring delivery <strong>of</strong> accurate Web content (n = 73, M =<br />
.65, SD = 1.23), ensuring user-friendly navigation (n = 74, M = .49, SD = 1.40), and<br />
ensuring that the Web site is organized well (n = 76, M = .35, SD = 1.43). The<br />
respondents indicated that they have relative ease getting diverse interests to agree on the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> Web-based initiatives (n = 74, M = .29, SD = 1.57).<br />
To test whether variability exists between the mean scores for the Web site related<br />
functions, a one-way analysis <strong>of</strong> variance (ANOVA) was calculated on practitioner<br />
164
perceptions <strong>of</strong> administrative support for Web initiatives. The analysis yielded a<br />
significant main effect for the four constructs: ease in ensuring delivery <strong>of</strong> accurate Web<br />
content F(6,59) = 97.098, p < .05; ease in ensuring user-friendly navigation F(6,59) =<br />
75.808, p < .05; ease in ensuring that the Web site is organized well F(6,59) = 87.745, p<br />
< .05; and getting diverse interests to agree on the purpose <strong>of</strong> Web-based initiatives<br />
F(6,59) = 80.999, p < .05. Post hoc tests could not be performed because at least one<br />
group had fewer than two cases.<br />
These results suggest that it appears likely that <strong>of</strong> the population means were not<br />
equal for each <strong>of</strong> the four features. Based on the findings and the small sample size, these<br />
results should be viewed with caution.<br />
Organizational Support <strong>of</strong> Web Initiatives<br />
RQ2 asked what types <strong>of</strong> internal organizational factors influence the creation and<br />
formation <strong>of</strong> college-public relationships via college Web sites and new media tools.<br />
Again, the respondents were asked to rank their level <strong>of</strong> agreement regarding perceived<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> support on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from “very strongly agree” (+3) to<br />
“very strongly disagree” (-3), with “0” indicating neutrality.<br />
As shown in Table 2, although the respondents indicated that the<br />
college/university administration understand the importance <strong>of</strong> Web-based initiatives (n =<br />
61, M = .49, SD = 1.48), and they receive relatively low levels <strong>of</strong> administrative direction<br />
(n = 73, M = -.16, SD = 1.44). The findings also suggest limited support for technical<br />
training (n = 74, M = -.46, SD = 1.37), and conceptual training (n = 73, M = -.66, SD =<br />
1.54).<br />
Finding time to develop and refine Web sites is also a factor. The respondents<br />
indicated that they do not receive necessary time to devote to Web initiatives (n = 76, M<br />
= -.58, SD = 1.62).<br />
The respondents also reported low levels <strong>of</strong> budgetary support (n = 73, M = -.51,<br />
SD = 1.41), as well as staffing and resources (n = 59, M = -.79, SD = 1.52).<br />
To test whether variability exists between the mean scores for the Web site related<br />
functions, a one-way analysis <strong>of</strong> variance (ANOVA) was calculated on practitioner<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> administrative support for Web initiatives. Again, the analysis yielded a<br />
significant main effect all <strong>of</strong> the constructs and Post hoc tests could not be performed<br />
because at least one group had fewer than two cases. As such, the results should be<br />
viewed with caution.<br />
To get a clearer understanding <strong>of</strong> the staffing and resource allocations, the<br />
respondents were also asked what percent <strong>of</strong> the total budget and staff was allocated<br />
toward the Web site development and what percent <strong>of</strong> the total budget and staff was<br />
allocated toward new media strategies and tactics.<br />
The budget allocations for the college/university Web sites varied considerably,<br />
ranging from 0 to 50% (n = 70, M = 7.28, SD = 11.16). For new media strategies and<br />
tactics, the budget allocations ranged from 0 to 95% (n = 70, M = 10.61, SD = 21.43).<br />
The staffing allocations for the college/university Web site functions ranged from<br />
0 to 100% (n = 70, M = 28.88, SD = 30.39), and for new media strategies and tactics, the<br />
staffing allocations ranged from 0 to 95% (n = 70, M = 19.90, SD = 23.36). Given the<br />
large standard deviations, these findings should be interpreted with caution.<br />
165
Discussion<br />
For Web site related functions, the findings suggest that the college and university<br />
practitioners have relative ease in ensuring delivery <strong>of</strong> accurate Web content, that the<br />
Web sites provide user-friendly navigation, and ensuring that the Web site is organized<br />
well. The respondents indicated that they have relative ease getting diverse interests to<br />
agree on the purpose <strong>of</strong> Web-based initiatives. This is good news, particularly because<br />
almost 60% <strong>of</strong> the respondents indicated that Web initiatives are managed through<br />
decentralized management processes. A common sense <strong>of</strong> purpose is imperative for<br />
success.<br />
Curtis et al. (<strong>2010</strong>) maintain that it is absolutely essential for public relations<br />
practitioners to recognize the resourcefulness <strong>of</strong> social media tools and take advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
every available opportunity to effectively reach their publics. Kent and Taylor (2002)<br />
argue that, through the commitment <strong>of</strong> organizational resources and training, the Web can<br />
function dialogically rather than monologically. Unfortunately, although the respondents<br />
indicated that they do not believe that the administration understands the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
Web-based initiatives, and that they are not receiving adequate levels <strong>of</strong> support.<br />
Furthermore, the findings suggest that they believe that they do not receive adequate<br />
allocations <strong>of</strong> staffing and financial resources, or training.<br />
Seo, Kim, and Yang (2009) surveyed communication representatives at 75<br />
transnational nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to find that promoting the<br />
organization’s image and fundraising were the two most important functions <strong>of</strong> new<br />
media tools, and that organizational capacity and main objective <strong>of</strong> the organization were<br />
significant predictors <strong>of</strong> NGOs’ new media use in their public relations.<br />
The findings support Seltzer and Mitrook (2007) − a gap continues to exist<br />
between the relationship-building potential <strong>of</strong> Web-based public relations tools and the<br />
objectives <strong>of</strong> practitioners. The findings <strong>of</strong> the current study, point to lack <strong>of</strong> time and<br />
organizational support as factors inhibiting practitioners’ abilities to realize the full<br />
potential <strong>of</strong>fered by Web sites and new media tools.<br />
The findings <strong>of</strong> the current study are troubling because, as indicated by Bortree<br />
and Seltzer (2009), dialogic strategy use appears to be closely related to dialogic<br />
outcomes, including networking activity, network extensiveness, network growth, user<br />
responsiveness, and organization responsiveness (p. 318).<br />
Limitations<br />
As with all studies, there are limitations that must be acknowledged. Although e-<br />
mail surveys have demonstrated superiority over postal surveys in terms <strong>of</strong> response<br />
speed, it is important not to overlook one important element; the response rate (Sheehan,<br />
2006). A purposeful sample <strong>of</strong> public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals managing the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> college/university Web-based strategies and tactics was sought through a larger sample<br />
<strong>of</strong> communication pr<strong>of</strong>essionals serving the higher education sector. Self-selection occurs<br />
when the entities in the sample are given a choice to participate. The data was collected<br />
from a convenience sample that opted to participate. Consequently, the response rate for<br />
the current study is low.<br />
Furthermore, the response rate for individual questions varied because<br />
respondents were provided the opportunity to skip questions. As explained by Sheehan<br />
(2006), there are numerous potential influences on response rate including survey length,<br />
respondent contacts, design issues, research affiliation, and compensation. Waters et al.<br />
166
(2009) reminds us that the limitations should not discourage researchers, but give ideas<br />
for future research. Further testing <strong>of</strong> the instrument should be conducted before<br />
attempting to administer to a larger or different sample. Despite the limitations, this study<br />
lays the groundwork for future research in this area.<br />
Table 1<br />
Ease and ability to manage Web-based tools<br />
Scale Item n M SD<br />
Ease in ensuring delivery <strong>of</strong> accurate Internet content 73 .65 1.23<br />
Ease in ensuring user-friendly navigation 74 .49 1.40<br />
Ease in ensuring Web site is organized well 76 .35 1.43<br />
Ability to getting diverse interests to agree on Internet’s purpose 74 .29 1.57<br />
167
Table 2<br />
Perceptions <strong>of</strong> Organizational Support<br />
Scale Item n M SD<br />
Administration understands importance <strong>of</strong> Web-based initiatives 61 .49 1.48<br />
Receives adequate administrative direction 73 -.16 1.44<br />
Receives adequate technical training 74 -.46 1.37<br />
Receives adequate monetary support 73 -.51 1.41<br />
Receives necessary time to devote to Web initiatives 76 -.58 1.62<br />
Receives adequate conceptual training 73 -.66 1.54<br />
Receives adequate staffing and resources 59 -.79 1.52<br />
References<br />
Bortree, D. S., &. Seltzer, T. (2009). Dialogic strategies and outcomes: An analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
environmental advocacy groups’ Facebook pr<strong>of</strong>iles. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35,<br />
317-319.<br />
Botan, C. H. (1997). Ethics in strategic communications campaigns: The case for<br />
A new approach to public relations. Journal <strong>of</strong> Business Communication,<br />
34, 188-202.<br />
Callison, C. (2003). Media relations and the Internet: How fortune 500 company<br />
Web sites assist journalists in news gathering. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 29, 29-<br />
41.<br />
Christ, P. (2005). Internet technologies and trends transforming public relations. Journal<br />
<strong>of</strong> Website Promotion, 1(4), 3-14.<br />
Curtis, L., Edwards, C., Fraser, K. L., Gudelsky, S., Holmquist, J., Thornton, K., &<br />
Sweetser, K. D. (<strong>2010</strong>). Adoption <strong>of</strong> social media for public relations by nonpr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
organizations. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 36, 90-92.<br />
Diga, M., & Kelleher, T. (2009). Social media use, perceptions <strong>of</strong> decision-making<br />
power, and public relations roles. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, 440-442.<br />
Esrock, S. L., & Leichty, G. B. (1999). Corporate World Wide Web pages: Serving the<br />
news media and other publics. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly,<br />
76(3), 456–467.<br />
Esrock, S. L., & Leichty, G. B. (2000). Organization <strong>of</strong> corporate Web pages: <strong>Public</strong>s and<br />
functions. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 26, 327–344.<br />
Eyrich, N., Padman, M. L., Sweetser, K. D. (2008). PR practitioners’ use <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
tools and communication technology: <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 34,<br />
168
412-414.<br />
Gonzalez-Herrero, A., & Ruiz, M. (2006). Trends in online media relations: Webbased<br />
corporate press rooms in leading international companies. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, 32, 267-275.<br />
Gower, K., & Cho, J. (2001). Use <strong>of</strong> the Internet in the public relations curriculum.<br />
Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 56(2), 81-92.<br />
Gregory, A. (2004). Scope and structure <strong>of</strong> public relations: A technology driven view.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 30, 245-254.<br />
Kang, S., & Norton, H. E. (2006). Colleges and universities’ use <strong>of</strong> the World Wide Web:<br />
A public relations tool for the digital age. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review 32, 426-428.<br />
Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (1998). Building a dialogic relationship through the<br />
World Wide Web. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 24, 321-340.<br />
Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (2002). Toward a dialogic theory <strong>of</strong> public relations. <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Review, 28, 21-37.<br />
McAllister-Spooner, S. M. (2009). Fulfilling the dialogic promise: A ten-year reflective<br />
survey on dialogic Internet principles. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, (320-322).<br />
McAllister-Spooner, S. M. (2008). User perceptions <strong>of</strong> dialogic public relations tactics<br />
via the Internet. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal, 2(1).<br />
McAllister-Spooner, S. M. (<strong>2010</strong>). Whose Site Is It Anyway? Expectations <strong>of</strong><br />
College Web sites <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal, 4(2).<br />
McAllister-Spooner, S. M., & Kent, M. L. (2009). Dialogic communication and<br />
resource dependency: Community colleges as models for Web site effectiveness.<br />
Atlantic Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication, 17(4), 220-239.<br />
McAllister-Spooner, S. M., & Taylor, M. (2007). Community college Web sites as tools<br />
for fostering dialogue. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33, 230-232.<br />
McAllister-Spooner, S. M., & Taylor, M. (in press). Organizational influences and<br />
constraints on community college Web based media relations. Community<br />
College Journal <strong>of</strong> Research and Practice.<br />
Newland Hill, L., & White, C. (2000). <strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners' perceptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the World Wide Web as a communications tool. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 26,<br />
31-51.<br />
Porter, L., Chung, D., & Sweetser, K. (2009). The blogosphere and public relations:<br />
investigating practitioners’ roles and blog use. Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication<br />
Management, 13(3), 250-267.<br />
Reber, B. H., Gower, K. K., & Robinson, J. K. (2007). The Internet and litigation public<br />
relations. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 18(1), 23–44.<br />
Reber, B. H., & Kim, J. K. (2006). How activist groups use Web sites in media relations:<br />
Evaluating online press rooms. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 18(4), 313–<br />
333.<br />
Ryan, M. (2003). <strong>Public</strong> relations and the Web: Organizational problems, gender,<br />
and institutional type. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 29, 335-349.<br />
Seltzer, T., & Mitrook, M. A. (2007). The dialogic potential <strong>of</strong> weblogs in relationship<br />
building. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33, 227-229.<br />
Seo, H., Kim, J. Y., & Yang, S. (2009). Global activism and new media: A study <strong>of</strong><br />
transnational NGOs’ online public relations. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, 123-<br />
126.<br />
169
Sheehan, K. H. (2006). E-mail survey response rates: A review. Journal <strong>of</strong> Computer-<br />
Mediated Communication, 6(2).<br />
Taylor, M., Kent, M. L., & White, W. J. (2001). How activist organizations are<br />
using the Internet to build relationships. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 27, 263-284.<br />
Taylor, M. (2009). Civil society as a rhetorical public relations process. In R. L. Heath, E.<br />
L. Toth & D. Waymer (Eds.), Rhetorical and critical approaches to public<br />
relations II, (pp. 76-91). New York, NY: Routledge.<br />
van der Merwe, R., Pitt, L. F., & Abratt, R. (2005). Stakeholder strength: PR<br />
survival strategies in the Internet age. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Quarterly, 50(1), 39-49.<br />
Vorvoreanu, M. (2006). Online organization-public relationships: An experiencecentered<br />
approach? <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 32, 395-401.<br />
Waters, R. D., Burnett, E., Lamm, A., & Lucas, J. (2009). Engaging stakeholders through<br />
social networking: How nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organizations are using Facebook. <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Review, 35, 91-170.<br />
Wright, D. K. & Hinson, M. D. (2009). Examining how public relations practitioners<br />
actually are using social media. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal, 3(3).<br />
170
Intersections and Overlaps: Building Leader-Employee <strong>Relations</strong>hips through<br />
Internal <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>, Leadership Style, and Workplace Spirituality<br />
Nance McCown, Ph.D.<br />
Messiah College<br />
nmccown@messiah.edu<br />
* Recipient <strong>of</strong> PRSA Top Faculty Paper Award<br />
Although strategic public relations practice continues to shift paradigmatically<br />
from promotion and one-way communication toward two-way communication and<br />
relationship management between organizations and key publics (Heath, 2001;<br />
Ledingham, 2003), scholarship addressing the relationship between organizational<br />
leaders and their internal publics remains relatively undeveloped. Moreover, little<br />
research has explored the leader-internal publics relationship within specific workplace<br />
cultures (i.e., Denison, 1990; Kotter & Heskett, 1992; Schein, 1985). The relatively<br />
unexplored interplay <strong>of</strong> these concepts prompts the need to probe the contextual<br />
intersection <strong>of</strong> leadership, public relations practice, and internal publics. Specifically,<br />
how might leadership style leadership influence internal public relations, leaderemployee<br />
relationship building, and employee leadership development within a specific<br />
type <strong>of</strong> organizational culture: Wagner-Marsh and Conley’s (1999) spiritually based<br />
workplace?<br />
Study Rationale and Research Questions<br />
This organizational case study used qualitative, in-depth interviews, participant<br />
observation, and document analysis to examine converging phenomena with several<br />
specific goals: explore application/expand understanding <strong>of</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> several<br />
potentially existing leadership styles—transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978),<br />
authentic (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), and principle-centered (Covey, 1992) or servant<br />
(Greenleaf, 1977, 1978)—on internal public relations practices; build on previous<br />
research (McCown 2005a, 2005b, 2006, 2007) to apply relationship management theory<br />
to the organizational leader-internal public relationship; discover potential confluence<br />
between certain leadership styles, excellent internal public relations practices, and leaderemployee<br />
relationship management and relational outcomes within the context <strong>of</strong> a<br />
spiritually based firm (Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999). The following research questions<br />
explored this knowledge gap:<br />
RQ1: What leadership style is exhibited in the organization’s top leader (as selfascribed<br />
and as ascribed by organizational employees)?<br />
RQ2: How does that particular leadership style influence the organization’s<br />
workplace culture?<br />
RQ3: How does that leadership style influence internal public relations (employee<br />
communication) practices?<br />
RQ4: How does the confluence <strong>of</strong> this particular leadership style, the<br />
organization’s internal public relations, and workplace culture facilitate leaderemployee<br />
relationship building? What are the resulting outcomes <strong>of</strong> leaderemployee<br />
relationship building?<br />
Organization to be Studied<br />
This study researched a banking corporation (“CommunityBankCorp”) with more<br />
than 100 employees at eight branches. Located in the Eastern United States, the bank has<br />
171
een in existence only three years, yet established itself as the region’s fastest-growing<br />
community bank during that time period. Chosen for its match with study criteria, the<br />
organization features a relatively developed internal public relations (employee<br />
communication) program, potential for leader to exhibit certain leadership styles as well<br />
as religiosity, and organizational culture known for its spiritual foundations.<br />
Conceptualizations<br />
Several theoretical streams lend insight to this research problem: internal publics<br />
and employee communications; relationship management; and public relations power,<br />
leadership styles, and organizational culture.<br />
Internal <strong>Public</strong>s and Employee Communications<br />
J. E. Grunig’s (1997) situational theory <strong>of</strong> publics suggests that publics act based<br />
on three independent variables (problem recognition, constraint recognition, level <strong>of</strong><br />
involvement) that influence a public’s information seeking/processing communicative<br />
behaviors affecting an organization. This theory mandates that public relations<br />
practitioners measure, identify, and segment publics in order to better understand their<br />
nature and appropriately plan organizational communication (J. E. Grunig, 1997; J. E.<br />
Grunig & Hunt, 1984; J. E. Grunig & Repper, 1992) with internal/external publics.<br />
Several scholars (Friedman & Miles, 2002, 2004; J. E. Grunig & Repper, 1992; J. E.<br />
Grunig & L. A. Grunig, 2000; L. A. Grunig, J. E. Grunig, & Dozier, 2002; Hallahan,<br />
2001) <strong>of</strong>fered theoretical public relations programs for effectively managing publics<br />
through varying behavioral levels, shifting organizational communication processes from<br />
long-term, relationship-building communication to greater public involvement in<br />
organizational decision-making processes and greater use <strong>of</strong> mass media/interpersonal<br />
communication.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners/scholars desire increased focus on an organization’s<br />
internal public—its employees (Toth, 2006). According to the excellence theory (Dozier,<br />
L. A. Grunig, & J. E. Grunig, 1995; J. E. Grunig, 1992; L. A. Grunig et al., 2002),<br />
organizations that value communication excellence exhibit several principles guiding<br />
communication management between organizational decision-makers and employees,<br />
including decentralized, less formal, and <strong>of</strong>ten more complex communication processes<br />
and two-way symmetrical internal public relations that foster a participative, organic<br />
organizational culture affording employees significant decision-making input. Also,<br />
public relations practitioners with power in/direct access to the dominant coalition are<br />
best able to influence the organization’s world view on public relations, to help set goals,<br />
and to identify and manage relationship-building communication with strategic publics,<br />
including internal ones. In addition, public relations practitioners span boundaries<br />
between organizational leadership and internal publics, relaying messages and helping<br />
give voice to all parties. These characteristics lead to employee job satisfaction/increased<br />
productivity.<br />
Other research addressed the role <strong>of</strong> an organization’s public relations manager in<br />
mediating organizational environments (Lauzen & Dozier, 1992) and discovered largely<br />
“journalistic” rather than relationship-oriented internal public relations functions (Wright,<br />
1995. Jo and Shim (2005) posited that “employees receiving positive communication are<br />
more likely to be motivated to form trusting relationships with the management level” (p.<br />
278). McCown (2005a, 2006) also found that leaders employing transformational<br />
leadership style with individualized consideration strategies enhanced internal public<br />
172
elations excellence, relationship-building, and leader-employee trust. Employees<br />
perceiving internal communication gaps, particularly in turbulent situations, may also<br />
become “activist” to force organizational leadership into symmetrical communication<br />
(McCown, 2007).<br />
Marketing and management scholars suggested that managers encouraging<br />
ethical, benevolent workplace climates enhanced employee communication/increase<br />
manager-employee trust (Ruppel & Harrington, 2000), and used strategic communication<br />
including face-to-face direct involvement/dialogical communication with employees,<br />
matching actions/words, openness, and shared communication responsibility “to manage<br />
tough organizational changes” (Young & Post, 1993, p. 31). Other scholars explored<br />
cooperative leader-employee communication processes resulting in shared vision,<br />
job/personal satisfaction, service focus, empowerment, organizational commitment, and<br />
sustained loyalty (Asif & Sargeant, 2000) and employee relations success through<br />
relationship-building rather than information dissemination (Dolphin, 2005). Also,<br />
Therkelsen and Fiebich’s (2003) macro review <strong>of</strong> employee relations literature supports<br />
the employee public’s primacy and the frontline supervisor’s critical role in effective<br />
employee communication. Leadership’s internal communication affects follower<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> leader charisma and effectiveness based on vision content (Awamleh &<br />
Gardner, 1999), organizational performance (Kirkpatrick, 1996), and leader delivery <strong>of</strong><br />
the vision (Romm, 1999). Through employee communication, leaders create shared<br />
vision <strong>of</strong> organizational goals (i.e., Cameron & McCollum, 1993; Farmer et al., 1998;).<br />
Also, although leaders may enhance management-employee relationships best through<br />
team meetings, group problem-solving sessions, and supervisor briefings (Cameron &<br />
McCollum, 1993), they experience frustration regarding their own limited direct<br />
communication with employees below the middle-management level (Pincus et al, 1991).<br />
Finally, manager/leader-employee communication to enhance participative decisionmaking<br />
produced employee job satisfaction increases (Kim, 2002) and improved<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> employee trust in leadership’s decision making and organizational loyalty<br />
(Sobo and Sadler, 2002).<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hip Management<br />
Numerous scholars have examined various facets public relations’ shift from<br />
manipulation/persuasion to relationship building (Broom, , and Ritchey, 1997, 2000;<br />
Bruning & Ledingham, 2000; Ledingham & Bruning, 2000a, 2000b; Ledingham,<br />
Bruning, & Wilson, 1999). Further studies identified “good” organization-publics<br />
relationships dimensions—trust, openness, involvement, commitment, and investment<br />
(Ledingham & Bruning, 1998). J. E. Grunig and Huang (2000) noted the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
measuring these characteristics in both internal and external publics. Recently, Flynn’s<br />
(2006) multi-dimensional public relations perspective advocated balancing dialogue,<br />
collaboration, and organization-publics negotiation through relationship building.<br />
Scholars have tested and applied organization-publics relationship management<br />
theories in a variety <strong>of</strong> settings (Bruning, 2002; Bruning, Castle, & Schrepfer, 2004;<br />
Bruning, Langenhop, & Green, 2004; Ledingham, 2001; Ni, 2006), <strong>of</strong>ten using Hon and<br />
J. E. Grunig’s (1999) guidelines for relationship measurement to test for control<br />
mutuality, trust, satisfaction, commitment, and exchange vs. communal relationships.<br />
Finally, Scott (2007) noted improved access to and positive attention gained from<br />
organizations’ dominant coalitions, increased focus on practitioners’ crucial role in<br />
173
effective company management, increased transparency <strong>of</strong> the connections between<br />
building effective public relationships with achieving organizational goals (particularly<br />
the bottom line), and trust in the organization-publics relationship all achieved through<br />
“real client” relationship instruments. (For a synopsis <strong>of</strong> organization-public relationship<br />
research published between 1985 and 2004, see Ki & Shin, 2006.)<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Power, Leadership Styles, and Organizational Culture<br />
Examining leadership styles and their power/influence to enhance public relations<br />
excellence is crucial to this study. Berger and Reber (2006) define power and influence as<br />
“the ability to get things done by affecting the perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, opinions,<br />
decisions, statements, and behaviors <strong>of</strong> others” (p. 5). Drawing from this definition, the<br />
power-control perspective (Berger, 2005, 2007; Dozier & L. A. Grunig, 1992; L. A.<br />
Grunig, 1992; Plowman, 1998) suggests that leaders will set up organizational structures<br />
that merely satisfice, and beyond that make decisions based on their own interests in<br />
power/control. Although public relations practitioners with power in the dominant<br />
coalition can best influence the organization’s worldview <strong>of</strong> public relations (L. A.<br />
Grunig et al., 2002), they sometimes risk co-opting their pr<strong>of</strong>essional voice and values<br />
(Berger, 2007; Holtzhausen, 2000, 2007; Holtzhausen & Voto, 2002), and may need to<br />
resist usual power structures (Berger & Reber, 2007; Holtzhausen, 2007; Holtzhausen &<br />
Voto, 2002) to gain additional power and influence to accomplish organizational goals<br />
(Hay & Hartel, 2000) and give voice to less powerful publics (Karlberg, 1996).<br />
Although authoritarian leadership is not conducive to excellent public relations (J.<br />
E. Grunig, 1992), relatively little research has further explored types <strong>of</strong> leadership styles<br />
that most effectively contribute to an organization’s public relations excellence.<br />
Exceptions include Aldoory and Toth (2004), who found strong preference among<br />
practitioners for transformational style combined with employment <strong>of</strong> situational (a<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> transformational and transactional) style in more turbulent times, and<br />
McCown (2005a, 2006), who found strong connections between transformational<br />
leadership style and internal public relations excellence.<br />
One emerging leadership style theory explored transformational leaders who<br />
recognized follower needs beyond transactional exchanges (Burns, 1978). Bass (1985)<br />
argued that these leaders “can move those influenced to transcend their own self-interest<br />
for the good <strong>of</strong> the group, organization, or country” (p. 15). Ultimately, “transformational<br />
leadership is closer to the prototype <strong>of</strong> leadership that people have in mind when they<br />
describe their ideal leader and is more likely to provide a role model with which<br />
subordinates want to identify” (Bass, 1990a). Yukl (2002) described behaviors that most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten draw followers to such leaders, including unconventional behavior in order to<br />
accomplish a vision; willingness to self-sacrifice or risk personally for the vision; and use<br />
<strong>of</strong> persuasive or “visioning” appeals rather than authority or participative decisionmaking<br />
processes. Other charismatic leader behaviors sway follower attitudes/behaviors,<br />
such as articulating appealing vision; strongly communicating vision; communicating<br />
high expectations; expressing follower confidence; modeling behaviors consistent with<br />
vision; building organization identification; and empowering followers (p. 244). These<br />
leaders also influence followers through social identification (employing slogans,<br />
symbols, rituals, ceremonies, or storytelling), internalization, augmentation <strong>of</strong> individual<br />
and collective self-efficacy, and celebration <strong>of</strong> reaching organizational goals (Yukl,<br />
174
2002), all <strong>of</strong> which encourage employees to develop organizational loyalty/pride<br />
(Ashforth & Mael, 1989).<br />
Employing individualized consideration (IC) strategies, transformational leaders<br />
exhibit friendly/close behavior, treat followers as equals, and <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
support/encouragement according to followers’ individual needs (Bass, 1985). Leaders<br />
using IC draw from compassionate, ethical value systems that include other-oriented end<br />
goals and high need sensitivity (Musser & Orke, 1992) to empower followers (Musser,<br />
1997). Further research linked transformational leadership’s with a wide range <strong>of</strong> IC<br />
outcomes (Berson & Avolio, 2004; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003; Piccolo & Colquitt,<br />
2006; Pillai & Williams, 2004; Rafferty & Griffin, 2006; Seltzer & Bass, 1990;<br />
Walumbwa & Lawler, 2003, Walumbwa et al., 2004).<br />
The tenets <strong>of</strong> another leadership style, principle-centered (Covey, 1992), align<br />
closely with this study’s purpose, despite limited scholarship in this area. Heightening<br />
attention to the importance <strong>of</strong> ethics, character, and principles in organizational<br />
leadership, Covey identified characteristics <strong>of</strong> principle-centered leaders, among them<br />
being service-oriented (seeing life as a “mission”), radiating positive energy, believing in<br />
the potential/good in other people, being adventuresome, and exercising physical, mental,<br />
emotional, and spiritual self-renewal (pp. 33-39). Covey saw employee empowerment<br />
and trust as critical for creating principle-centered workplaces, suggesting that these keys<br />
enable employees to meet expectations “without being reminded” because leaders have<br />
“built an emotional bank account with them” (p. 155).<br />
Relatedly, servant leadership style involves leaders “serving” their followers, not<br />
“because <strong>of</strong> the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material<br />
possessions. . . . [but to] make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being<br />
served” (Greenleaf, 1998, pp. 18-19). In corporations, the primary purpose <strong>of</strong> a business<br />
should be to create a positive impact on its employees and the greater community;<br />
servant-leadership brings together service and meaning in the workplace (Greenleaf,<br />
1977, 1978). DePree (1989) noted that servant-leaders employ participative management,<br />
creating “covenantal relationships” with employees and elevating workplace<br />
“redemption” above pr<strong>of</strong>it (DePree in Lee & Zemke, 1995, pp. 101-102). DePree (1992)<br />
also promoted 12 keys to successful servant-leadership: integrity, vulnerability,<br />
discernment, awareness <strong>of</strong> the human spirit, relational courage, sense <strong>of</strong> humor,<br />
intellectual energy/curiosity, respect for future/regard for present/understanding <strong>of</strong> past,<br />
predictability, breadth, comfort with ambiguity, and presence. In addition, Spears (1998)<br />
summarized servant leadership traits including listening; empathy; healing; persuasion<br />
through convincing/consensus rather than coercion; awareness <strong>of</strong> self, others, and<br />
environment; conceptualization (dreaming dreams); foresight (understanding<br />
past/present/future); stewardship (commitment to serving needs <strong>of</strong> others first);<br />
commitment to the growth <strong>of</strong> people; and building community among employees (pp. 4-<br />
7). Recently, Fry’s (2003) spiritual leadership model (similar to servant-leadership)<br />
incorporated vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love; theories <strong>of</strong> workplace spirituality; and<br />
spiritual survival. Spiritual leadership creates vision and value congruence across the<br />
strategic, empowered team, and individual levels, and, ultimately, fosters higher levels <strong>of</strong><br />
organizational commitment and productivity.<br />
Finally, focusing on the shared root construct <strong>of</strong> transformational, charismatic,<br />
principled, and servant leadership styles (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), Luthans and Avolio<br />
175
(2003) developed a theory <strong>of</strong> authentic leaders—those who “take authentic action” and<br />
meet criteria such as correspondence between ideas and behaviors, consistency between<br />
“talk” and “walk,” coherence connecting one consistent action to another, and<br />
convergence <strong>of</strong> mutual understanding (Terry, 1993, pp. 223-229). Authentic leaders<br />
exhibit deep awareness <strong>of</strong> their own thoughts, behavior, values/moral perspectives,<br />
knowledge, and strengths; sensitivity to the context in which they operate; and<br />
confidence, hope, optimism, resilience, and high moral character (Avolio, Luthans, &<br />
Walumbwa, 2004; Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004; May,<br />
Chan, Hodges, & Avolio, 2003). They also work to transform associates into leaders<br />
themselves (Luthans & Avolio, 2003, p. 243), and possess “self-transcendent values and<br />
positive, other-directed emotions” (Michie & Gooty, 2005, p. 441).<br />
Shamir and Eilam (2005) narrowed authentic leadership’s definition to four<br />
defining characteristics. Authentic leaders do not “fake” leadership; do not lead for<br />
“status, honor or other personal rewards”; are “originals, not copies”; and base their<br />
actions on values and convictions (pp. 396-397). Through belief-action consistency,<br />
authentic leaders also facilitate development <strong>of</strong> authentic followers who realistically<br />
perceive and share the leader’s beliefs, values and convictions, the leader’s concerns, and<br />
the leader’s definition <strong>of</strong> the situation (Gardner et al., 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005).<br />
Ultimately, authentic leadership—through developing self-awareness and encouraging<br />
follower personal growth—leads to greater follower authenticity and increased leaderfollower<br />
intimacy and trust, increased follower (employee) engagement, and “workplace<br />
wellbeing” that contributes to greater workplace performance (Gardner et al., 2005, p.<br />
360-367).<br />
Turning to organizational culture, those behaviors and norms that distinguish one<br />
organization from another, Schein (1985) suggested that organizational culture is a set <strong>of</strong><br />
assumptions developed through group consensus and shared experiences, and “valid”<br />
enough to teach new group members (p. 9); key elements include consensual mission<br />
statement and shared economic and esoteric purposes. Kotter and Heskett (1992) defined<br />
organizational culture as a combination <strong>of</strong> shared values and group behaviors that emerge<br />
as top management shares an organizational vision/philosophy. Schein also contended<br />
that religion <strong>of</strong>ten provides a context for organizational members to understand difficult<br />
or “‘unexplainable’ situations and ‘provides guidelines for what to do in ambiguous,<br />
uncertain, and threatening situations’” (p. 79). Integrating involvement, consistency,<br />
adaptability, and mission provides organizations with purpose, meaning, and clear<br />
direction and goals (Denison, 1990, p. 15).<br />
Recent studies examined workplace spirituality as part <strong>of</strong> organizational culture.<br />
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) defined workplace spirituality as a “framework <strong>of</strong><br />
organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ experience <strong>of</strong><br />
transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense <strong>of</strong> being connected in a<br />
way that provides feelings <strong>of</strong> compassion and joy” (p. 13). Employees in spiritual<br />
workplaces <strong>of</strong>ten exhibit a sense <strong>of</strong> vocational calling and a need for social connection/<br />
membership. McCormick (1994) identified themes <strong>of</strong> spiritual workplaces without regard<br />
for specific spiritual traditions: compassion, right livelihood (the Buddhist concept <strong>of</strong><br />
choosing work that does not cause people or animals to suffer); selfless service (drawn<br />
from Christianity and Hinduism); work as meditative; and pluralism, which, if not<br />
checked, could “endanger an employee’s right to religious freedom” (p. 7).<br />
176
Conley and Wagner-Marsh (1998) proposed that spirituality and ethics in the<br />
workplace complement each other, producing synergy when combined with concern for<br />
ethical performance in the workplace (p. 255). Leaders who encourage a more<br />
widespread commitment to the organizational philosophy’s spiritual foundations could<br />
enhance acceptance and practice <strong>of</strong> ethical behavioral codes which, in turn, might lead<br />
employees beyond mere conformity to ethical codes and into internalization (p. 257).<br />
Further, “honesty with self [in the organizational leader], articulation <strong>of</strong> the corporation’s<br />
spiritually-based philosophy, mutual trust and honesty with others, commitment to<br />
quality and service, commitment to employees, and selection <strong>of</strong> personnel to match the<br />
corporation’s spiritually-based philosophy” are critical for achieving a spiritually based<br />
organizational culture (Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999, p. 292). Defining spirituality in<br />
the organization’s written mission statement helps potential employees determine if<br />
personal spirituality fits with an organization’s spirituality and helps avoid employee<br />
confusion and frustration (Konz & Ryan, 1999), while organizations with strong<br />
corporate cultures correlate positively with pr<strong>of</strong>itability and employee job performance,<br />
suggesting that organizational leaders should focus on individuals and establish<br />
“organizations with a higher sense <strong>of</strong> business purpose” (Garcia-Zamor, 2003 p. 361).<br />
Method<br />
Blurred lines between context and phenomenon support a qualitative case study<br />
(Yin, 1994) as the most appropriate means for exploring this study’s research questions.<br />
Data collection occurred through a three-pronged, iterative process. First, 21 individual<br />
in-depth interviews (H. J. Rubin & I.S. Rubin, 1995; Lindl<strong>of</strong> & Taylor, 2002) with<br />
employees, public relations staff, and the organization’s leader provided data regarding<br />
employee and leader perceptions <strong>of</strong> leader style, internal public relations practices,<br />
employee leadership development, and relationship management outcomes. Purposive<br />
and maximum variation sampling strategies gained interviews with employees from a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> organizational levels, employment lengths, and gender. The pretested, semistructured,<br />
21-question interview protocol began with “grand tour” questions to establish<br />
rapport, and used follow-up probes throughout to clarify and allow for rich data<br />
emergence. Interview durations ranged from 50-90 minutes each. Second, ten hours <strong>of</strong><br />
participant observation yielding extensive field notes discovered the setting’s<br />
social/cultural meanings and context clues (Wolcott, 1994) through “witnessing<br />
evidence” (Lindl<strong>of</strong> & Taylor, 2002, pp. 135, 139) in one-on-one, small group, and large<br />
group interactions/meetings. Finally, document analysis <strong>of</strong> key internal materials<br />
including a corporate foundations booklet, vision/values statement, web site, and<br />
employee newsletters provided “confirmatory evidence and strengthen[ed] the credibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> the results <strong>of</strong> interviews and observations” (Potter, 1996, p. 96).<br />
Data analysis began with the first interviews/observations, with insertion <strong>of</strong><br />
observer comments regarding potential emerging themes during transcription and<br />
multiple readings. Further constant comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss<br />
& Corbin, 1998) used a coding scheme to categorize recurring themes. Visual data<br />
displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994) helped identify relationship/links between<br />
data/categories. Comparison <strong>of</strong> emerging themes with relevant literature from the review<br />
aided analysis to address the overarching research questions.<br />
In addition to data collection triangulation (Kvale, 1995), the study employed<br />
lengthy fieldwork duration (four months) to increase validity, resulting in “thick<br />
177
description” (Geertz, 1973) and saturation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Frequent reflexive<br />
memo writing prior to and during the data collection analysis processes helped “bracket”<br />
potential researcher bias (Lindl<strong>of</strong> & Taylor, 2002, p. 80) while still allowing the data to<br />
“speak” and categories to emerge (Wolcott, 1994, p. 10). Appropriate Institutional<br />
Review Board approvals as well as ethical participant treatment (Lindl<strong>of</strong> & Taylor, 2002;<br />
H. J. Rubin & I. S. Rubin, 1995) respected and empowered participants in the research<br />
process. Finally, member checks through mailed research summaries and findings<br />
presentations solicited participant feedback to confirm the account’s accuracy (Ellis,<br />
1995).<br />
Results<br />
Based on data analysis, this study revealed numerous interrelated themes. The<br />
organization’s founder and top leader based his leadership style on his understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
and desire to live out his own religious faith; this faith foundation permeated the entire<br />
organization, from the top leader’s style and its influence on the way others led and<br />
managed, to the underlying cultural values (both expected and “lived”), to the internal<br />
public relations and employee communication practices. The organization’s prescribed<br />
leadership style demonstrated a hybrid <strong>of</strong> characteristics found in authentic,<br />
transformational, principle-centered, and servant leadership theory. Cultural values<br />
focused on positive, relational interactions between all employees—from leaders to<br />
entry-level employees. Central to “living out” the cultural values effectively, internal<br />
public relations emphasized face-to-face communication whenever possible, whether<br />
through formal communication channels such as regular one-on-one/team meetings, or<br />
informally through interpersonal conversations. Specific outcomes <strong>of</strong> the confluence <strong>of</strong><br />
three elements—leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public relations—<br />
included strong relationships among organizational members as well as organizational<br />
unity and a commitment to employee leadership development. Specific emerging themes<br />
are organized around the study’s four research questions. Participants have been assigned<br />
pseudonyms to preserve confidentiality, although general position levels are included to<br />
increase contextual understanding.<br />
RQ1: Leadership style<br />
CommunityBankCorp’s founder/top leader, David, demonstrated a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
traits/activities characteristic <strong>of</strong> leaders identified as authentic, transformational,<br />
principle-centered, and servant, including leading in accordance with one’s true self<br />
(authenticity), especially born out <strong>of</strong> life experiences; establishing, sharing, and “living” a<br />
vision/culture consistent with the leader’s authentic self; communicating effectively with<br />
employees, enacting a positive, people-driven approach to leadership; inspiring mutual<br />
trust/respect with employees; exhibiting a servant attitude toward subordinates;<br />
employing individualized consideration strategies in employee-leader interactions;<br />
intentionally acting to positively grow and transform employees into leaders; recognizing<br />
and celebrating employee achievements; and demonstrating commitment to constant<br />
improvement. Certain themes stand out, illustrated here.<br />
David’s leadership style grew from his upbringing in extreme poverty in a thirdworld<br />
country, deep religious faith (“spirit-filled Christianity”), and educational<br />
opportunities afforded to him in the United States. After experiencing a pivotal “vision,”<br />
he felt “led” to leave a leadership role in a large banking conglomerate to found a new<br />
community-based bank based on “fundamental biblical principles [<strong>of</strong>] integrity, honesty,<br />
178
passion, caring for people.” Noted by interview participants as integral to<br />
CommunityBankCorp’s vision, these principles underpinned leadership style as well as<br />
cultural values and communication processes.<br />
Many participants mentioned David’s Christian faith or the Bible as the<br />
principles’ basis. Senior leader team member Tamara said, “David is a very religious<br />
person, and I know that has a lot to do with how he deals with individuals and with<br />
businesses.” Branch teller Kendra added that David’s leadership style and the<br />
organization’s culture/communication were based on “moral” or “ethical” principles,<br />
noting, “Here, the leaders want to do things ‘right.’ It’s a better way to treat each other.”<br />
Branch leader Jared stated that David constantly reaffirms and lives the organizational<br />
vision, adding, “We’ve heard it a million times and seen him put it into play. . . and it’s<br />
something we actually do.” Also highlighted by many participants, David’s people-driven<br />
positivity goes beyond simply being “Mr. Blue Skies and Rainbows,” as mid-level<br />
employee Angela title David. “This organization isn’t about money, it’s about people,<br />
and to truly be able to put people first. Every opportunity David has, he puts employees<br />
first.”<br />
Every participant also expressed trust in David’s leadership and the leadership<br />
team. Senior leader team member Brandon said, “I would pretty much follow David<br />
anywhere because I trust him that much.” Participants described a culture-permeating<br />
mutual respect between organizational leaders and employees. Branch leader Jared noted<br />
his leaders treated “everyone underneath them with respect. And if the leaders treat<br />
employees well they’re going to give respect to other people. They’ll be more willing to<br />
communicate with those above them, and they’ll be more willing to let leaders know<br />
what’s going on out in the branches.”<br />
CommunityBankCorp’s employee handbook actually defined one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organization’s strategic objectives as “an authentic management style that incorporates a<br />
servant-leader model,” devoting a full page to detailing how employees at all levels<br />
should carry out the organization’s four key principles: grace, authentic, partnership, and<br />
stewardship. In addition, David’s use <strong>of</strong> individualized consideration strategies,<br />
supported by an intentional organizational structure committed to keeping leaders<br />
visible/accessible to employees, was clear in every aspect <strong>of</strong> his leadership style, from his<br />
first-floor <strong>of</strong>fice located where everyone could see him to the way he frequently stopped<br />
by their <strong>of</strong>fices or cubicles to talk, joined them outside for a break, or walked to lunch<br />
with them. Several participants also noted David’s balance <strong>of</strong> building relationships with<br />
ensuring employee work accomplishment. CommunityBankCorp’s leadership also<br />
intentionally encouraged employees to grow and reach their potential and career goals,<br />
from participatory, collaborative decision-making, to empowerment without micromanaging,<br />
to focused career planning, to regular training in leadership, relationship<br />
development/management, customer service, and cultural values maintenance.<br />
Participants noted all leaders’ effective communication through purposeful listening<br />
styles, clear expectation setting, and respectful confrontation <strong>of</strong> issues/mistakes. Finally,<br />
led by David’s example, CommunityBankCorp leaders frequently recognized and<br />
celebrated employee accomplishments, both through special honors and through regular<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> gratitude for employee work, as evidenced by mandated “storytelling” <strong>of</strong><br />
exemplary employee actions and an annual employee appreciation week extravaganza.<br />
179
RQ2: Leadership style influence on workplace culture<br />
CommunityBankCorp’s founder/current CEO David has greatly influenced the<br />
establishment/ maintenance <strong>of</strong> organizational culture through his leadership style. Based<br />
on spiritual foundations and “biblical principles” (David’s term), the organizational<br />
culture prompted a variety <strong>of</strong> participant descriptions such as respectful,<br />
warm/friendly/family-like, team-oriented, supportive/encouraging, fun/enjoyable,<br />
accommodating to personal/family life, philanthropic, and<br />
open/empowering/participatory. Leadership invested heavily in intentional cultural<br />
maintenance through a specific leadership position (the Chief <strong>Relations</strong>hip Officer),<br />
cultural training, vision/values reinforcement, written documents (such as the foundations<br />
booklet), storytelling, appropriate hiring an dfiring, building relationships inside and<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> work, and special committee activities.<br />
Regarding CommunityBankCorp as a spiritually based firm, participants<br />
recognized David’s faith foundation; some shared the same religious beliefs, which they<br />
felt informed the company’s business philosophies. Senior leader team member Brandon<br />
noted, “Faith is strong for many people in the organization, and you know, that kind <strong>of</strong><br />
drives who we are.” Mid-level <strong>of</strong>ficer Rebekah added, “Everyone’s crystal clear on<br />
David’s faith, and for the most part, everyone brings the same faith to work. That’s a<br />
huge part <strong>of</strong> this organization.” However, those participants who did not share the same<br />
religious faith still agreed with the moral and ethical principles guiding<br />
CommunityBankCorp. Senior leader team member Ryan, self-identified as having a<br />
strong faith other than Christian, stated, “We have shared beliefs about doing the right<br />
thing, about treating people the right way. . . . But for an [employee] who doesn’t have<br />
religious beliefs, I think that person still believes fundamentally how to do business in a<br />
certain manner.” David himself noted that he did not require employees to share his<br />
specific faith, but rather to adhere to the principles he felt grew out <strong>of</strong> that faith. Midlevel<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficer Jennifer confirmed this, saying, “David will tell people he wants to build a<br />
biblical foundation for our company, but that doesn’t mean that every person in our<br />
company is a Christian. . . . If we were labeled as a ‘Christian bank,’ he would be very<br />
turned <strong>of</strong>f by that.”<br />
Participants described CommunityBankCorp’s cultural values in a wide range <strong>of</strong><br />
terms, all related to the original biblical principles David noted. “A lot <strong>of</strong> it is very<br />
moral,” shared mid-level employee Lindsay, “like you give people the benefit <strong>of</strong> the<br />
doubt.” Added senior leader team member Gary, “It’s the integrity, the attitude, the<br />
commitment to doing a good job, caring for people and for each other.” And senior leader<br />
team member Maria stated, “Here, it’s the Golden Rule. . . Do unto others.”<br />
Distinguishing CommunityBankCorp from other corporate cultures, branch<br />
employee Michael noted, “Here it’s less <strong>of</strong> a corporate mentality and more <strong>of</strong> a family<br />
mentality.” Looking to David as the model for this cultural value, senior leader team<br />
member Edward said, “People really do care for each other, and David kind <strong>of</strong> sets the<br />
tone. He’s always asking people about things that are going on with them, no in an<br />
intrusive way, but because he cares.” That family mentality also translated into teamwork<br />
and mutual support among leaders and coworkers. Employees regularly covered each<br />
other’s workloads during family illnesses and emergencies. “Non-issue,” said senior<br />
leader team member Ryan. “That’s what it looks like for all <strong>of</strong> us in any position in here.<br />
People make sure they back each other up if there is ever a need or things need to get<br />
180
done.” Accommodations such as flexible schedules for raising children or finishing<br />
college are also part <strong>of</strong> the corporate culture, as are having fun and enjoying work while<br />
still remaining accountable. As mid-level employee James noted, “I love the work<br />
environment here. We get our jobs done, but we have fun!” Finally, nearly every<br />
interview participant highlighted leadership’s commitment to maintaining the cultural<br />
values <strong>of</strong> openness, empowerment, and employee participation in decision-making. As<br />
mid-level <strong>of</strong>ficer Andrea noted, “We definitely have an open door policy where we say,<br />
‘Let’s talk about this, let’s figure this out.” Senior team leader member Ryan also stated,<br />
“We want to engage employees and even customers in the process so they feel like<br />
they’re actually part <strong>of</strong> our bank.”<br />
As CommunityBankCorp continues to grow—and every participant expects that<br />
to be the case—maintaining its cultural values will require even greater intentionality.<br />
Many participants believed that without intentional cultural maintenance, the<br />
organization would lose its distinction, resulting in slowed growth and perhaps less<br />
bottom-line success. Current cultural values maintenance strategies include keeping the<br />
Chief <strong>Relations</strong>hip Officer’s role prominent, continuing ongoing cultural training,<br />
communicating vision/value statements, engaging in cultural storytelling, practicing<br />
participatory/informed hiring and firing, promoting relationship-building informally and<br />
through activities, and tying cultural values engagement to performance reviews.<br />
Although data supported every strategy, several stand out as key. First, researcher<br />
observations noted frequent reminders <strong>of</strong> the organization’s vision/values statements.<br />
Printed cards displayed the statements on employee desks and workstations, screensavers<br />
scrolled them across every computer screen, corporate newsletters explicitly or implicitly<br />
wove them throughout articles, and leaders/employees referred to portions <strong>of</strong> them quite<br />
naturally in everyday conversations. Second, cultural storytelling occurred at every<br />
meeting observed, occupying at least one-quarter <strong>of</strong> each session with leadership sharing<br />
stories about employees assisting customers through exemplary, helping each other<br />
accomplish tasks during crunch times, or jumping in to cover for a forgotten detail. After<br />
every story, attendees cheered and clapped voluntarily, showing genuine appreciation for<br />
the way employees were “living the CommunityBankCorp cultural values.” Finally,<br />
“right hiring” practices, even to the point <strong>of</strong> leaving key positions unfilled until a<br />
“cultural fit” was found, demonstrated intentional cultural maintenance. As mid-level<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficer Rebekah noted, “When we’re looking for someone, they could have the absolute<br />
best skills, they could be the best at what they do, but if they don’t fit from a personality<br />
perspective or from a cultural perspective, we just don’t bring them on board.”<br />
RQ3: Leadership style influence on internal public relations practices<br />
CommunityBankCorp’s leadership model clearly influenced the organization’s<br />
internal public relations/ employee communication practices. As senior leader team<br />
member Brandon noted, “If you have leaders doing the right things, you’ll always have<br />
open communication because you won’t have fear in the workplace. People will feel their<br />
opinions matter and they’ll feel valued. So you’ll get that open communicating.” Top<br />
leader David—as well as the rest <strong>of</strong> the senior leader team—exhibited authentic,<br />
participatory, and open communication consistent with the organization’s prevalent<br />
leadership style. Formal internal communication processes fell under the Chief<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hip Officer’s purview, and flowed through a variety <strong>of</strong> channels. Within the<br />
181
formal processes as well as informally, timely, open, two-way, and supportive<br />
transactions characterized CommunityBankCorp’s internal communication.<br />
Participants said that leaders communicated “well” and frequently, set clear<br />
expectations, practiced good listening skills, and acted beneficently in confronting<br />
issues/rejecting ideas. Mid-level <strong>of</strong>ficer Rebekah noted, “David makes it clear where<br />
we’re going and what’s expected, and then he walks the walk rather than just being a<br />
figurehead that shouts out commands and then does his own thing.” Senior team leader<br />
member Robert added, “The biggest thing I’ve found about David is I didn’t expect him<br />
to be as good <strong>of</strong> a listener as he is, especially with the success and community reputation<br />
that he has.” David’s model <strong>of</strong> listening was shared by other leaders. In addition, he<br />
communicated value for others in the way he preserved employee dignity even when<br />
confronting an issue or rejecting an idea. As branch employee Michael shared, “Even if<br />
David’s upset about something, he always has a kind and positive way <strong>of</strong> explaining what<br />
was wrong. And if you tell him something and he totally disagrees with it, he tells it back<br />
to you why he doesn’t agree with you in a positive way that you feel he actually listened<br />
to you.”<br />
All CommunityBankCorp formal internal communication processes were created<br />
and implemented by employees reporting to the Chief <strong>Relations</strong>hip Officer, including<br />
postings on the company intranet, email notices and blasts, a quarterly newsletter,<br />
company-wide voicemail messages, and face-to-face supervisor/employee and team<br />
meetings. The corporation’s “foundations booklet” outlined “Rules <strong>of</strong> Engagement” to<br />
guide communication (i.e., be loyal to the absent; give people the benefit <strong>of</strong> the doubt;<br />
don’t make assumptions; respond to the person, not the position; and approach every<br />
situation in a positive, helpful way). In addition, guidelines for email usage, an emphasis<br />
on face-to-face communication wherever possible, and required communication from<br />
team leaders to subordinates within 24 hours <strong>of</strong> weekly management meetings further<br />
promoted open, timely communication.<br />
Although participants expressed overwhelmingly that they felt informed, a few<br />
negative examples emerged where employees felt either “out <strong>of</strong> the loop” or confused<br />
because information was shared while still under discussion and then later changed. Also,<br />
CommunityBankCorp culture includes frequent mandatory meetings, occasionally<br />
causing employee frustration. However, one participant noted that during “crunch” times,<br />
supervisors were willing to excuse employees to make tight deadlines. Still, David<br />
maintained that “face time” was critical to excellent internal public relations and leaderemployee<br />
communication, noting, “People will look at it and say, ‘That’s a lot <strong>of</strong> time,’<br />
and I say, ‘No, it’s not the time, it’s the process <strong>of</strong> having a weekly meeting where you’re<br />
looking at people. . . face to face, watching their tone and their facial expressions. That<br />
builds accountability.”<br />
RQ4: Leader-employee relationship building/relational outcomes<br />
As clearly evidenced under RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3, top leader David ascribed to<br />
specific spiritually based principles that provided the foundation for the organization’s<br />
promoted leadership style, cultural values, and internal public relations practices. The<br />
confluence <strong>of</strong> these elements led to well-developed, strong, and positive leader-employee<br />
and employee-employee relationships. Key indicators demonstrated relationship strength<br />
and organizational unity, including trust, control mutuality (empowerment),<br />
182
organizational commitment and loyalty, motivation/productivity, and job<br />
satisfaction/enjoyment.<br />
Although data provided ample evidence for all indicators noted, several bear<br />
specific mention. First, mid-level <strong>of</strong>ficer Rebekah stated, “Trust is something that’s built<br />
by follow through. Here we see come to fruition what [the leaders] have promised or said<br />
they’d do and having them back you up or support you when you make a decision.” In<br />
addition, beyond CommunityBankCorp’s status as the #1 Best Place to Work in its state,<br />
employee loyalty, motivation/productivity, and satisfaction clearly manifested<br />
themselves. “There’s a high loyalty,” mid-level employee Lindsay noted. “Most anyone<br />
will stay past normal hours to get things done. You don’t have to, but you want to stay<br />
and help. You could say this is an 8-5 job and I’m out <strong>of</strong> here, but I’ve never seen<br />
anybody do that.” Mid-level employee James added, “If you treat employees right, they’ll<br />
give it right back in return with their work.”<br />
Two other relationship-building outcomes emerged from the data. First, a<br />
powerful sense <strong>of</strong> unity pervaded the organization, as evidenced by senior leader team<br />
member Maria’s comments: “We all kind <strong>of</strong> believe in the same values, so that really<br />
helps to know that we have the same beliefs, the same ideas, the same expectations. That<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> grounds people.” For top leader David, unity meant synchronizing all aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
the organization to achieve an integrated whole. “At the end <strong>of</strong> the day, it’s all in<br />
alignment, which is what most companies are missing.” Second, employees felt<br />
empowered to grow as leaders within the organization. David noted his own vision and<br />
purpose for employee leadership development. “When you look at the average age <strong>of</strong> the<br />
current leadership team, it’s 43. So that’s a young team. But 20 years from now. . . if<br />
we’ve developed the next generation <strong>of</strong> leadership, I would like nothing more than to<br />
walk away and say, ‘Now you guys take over with the same vision.’”<br />
Discussion and Conclusions<br />
This study discovered that the organization’s top leader, driven by faith and<br />
vision, enacted authentic (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns,<br />
1978), principle-centered (Covey, 1992), and servant (Greenleaf, 1977, 1978) leadership<br />
characteristics within the context <strong>of</strong> spiritually based organizational culture (Wagner-<br />
Marsh & Conley, 1999). Open, two-way symmetrical communication (i.e., L. A. Grunig<br />
et al., 2002) fostered intentional, positive, people-driven cultural maintenance,<br />
interpersonal communication, and employee empowerment/growth strategies. In turn,<br />
this hybrid environment encouraged strong relationship building (i.e., Heath, 2001;<br />
Ledingham, 2003) between employees and organizational leaders as well as between<br />
employees across the organization. The confluence also promoted organizational unity as<br />
well as intentional leadership development among employees through both specific<br />
career goal planning and opportunities for honing individual employees’ leadership skills.<br />
These outcomes fed back into the leadership, culture, and communication processes to<br />
perpetuate a cycle <strong>of</strong> organizational success. Findings led to development <strong>of</strong> a model for<br />
internal relationship building (see Figure 1) explained through several theoretical<br />
propositions:<br />
1. An organizational leader’s faith and vision can drive leadership style,<br />
organizational culture, and internal public relations processes.<br />
183
2. Leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public relations processes<br />
influence each other to create specific cultural values, leader-employee interaction<br />
characteristics, and communication values.<br />
3. The confluence <strong>of</strong> leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public<br />
relations processes forms the basis for relationship-building and employee<br />
leadership development outcomes,<br />
4. <strong>Relations</strong>hip strength, organizational unity, and intentional leadership<br />
development perpetuate the organization’s espouse leadership style/model,<br />
cultural values, and internal public relations excellence, thus serving as the keys<br />
to organizational success.<br />
Applying these theoretical propositions, the model shows the organizational<br />
founder’s/top leader’s faith and vision as driving the entire organization, providing a<br />
strong foundation from which to establish a specific leadership style—authentic,<br />
transformational, principle-centered, and servant; organizational culture—spiritually<br />
based; and excellent internal public relations processes and practices—two-way<br />
symmetrical. These three elements, represented by the three ovals, exert influence on<br />
each other; as participants noted, changing any one <strong>of</strong> these elements (i.e., enacting a<br />
different leadership style or constraining open, two-way internal communication) would<br />
greatly affect the other components’ ability to exist in their current state. Moreover, these<br />
three elements work consistently and cooperatively with each other to foster intentional,<br />
positive, and people driven cultural maintenance, interpersonal communication, and<br />
employee empowerment/growth. Specifically, cultural maintenance elements encompass<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> hiring/firing according to cultural fit, cultural storytelling, and intentional<br />
cultural training. In addition, interpersonal communication is characterized by frequent,<br />
open, timely, and two-way interactions between leaders and employees—evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
internal public relations excellence. Finally, employee empowerment/growth stems from<br />
intentional leadership training, participatory idea generation and decision-making, and<br />
control mutuality.<br />
184
Founder/Leader Faith & Vision<br />
Authentic/Transformational/<br />
Servant/Principled<br />
Leader Style<br />
Spiritually Based<br />
Organizational Culture<br />
Excellent Internal <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Practices<br />
Intentional, Positive, People-Driven<br />
Cultural Maintenance,<br />
Interpersonal Communication, &<br />
Employee Empowerment/Growth<br />
Relational Strength<br />
Organizational Unity<br />
Employee Leadership Development<br />
Figure 1. McCown’s model <strong>of</strong> internal relationship building.<br />
185
The organizational realities depicted in the oval resulting from the confluence <strong>of</strong><br />
leadership style, organizational culture, and internal public relations practices combine to<br />
produce a hybrid environment which nurtures relational strength, organizational unity,<br />
and employee leadership development. As the data revealed, relational strength grows out<br />
<strong>of</strong> trust, control mutual, organizational commitment, and loyalty, motivation/<br />
productivity, and job satisfaction/enjoyment. In addition, organizational unity is<br />
demonstrated through participants’ high dedication to teamwork and commitment to<br />
“living out” the organization’s mission, vision, and values. Finally, employee leadership<br />
development clearly occurs through specific leadership training and coaching sessions,<br />
leader modeling, and intentional career path planning. In turn, these three outcomes feed<br />
back into the environment to perpetuate the organization’s defining characteristics,<br />
ultimately leading to organizational unity and success.<br />
Theoretical implications<br />
Although many studies have examined dyadic relationships <strong>of</strong> leadership style<br />
influence on public relations and on organizational culture, or organizational culture<br />
influence on public relations, no research explored the confluence <strong>of</strong> all three and their<br />
resulting effect on a spiritually based organization’s ability to achieve strong internal<br />
relationships. These findings enhance understanding <strong>of</strong> how these phenomena come<br />
together to produce internal relationship building as the key to organizational success.<br />
Going beyond previous studies identifying leadership styles not conducive to<br />
internal public relations excellence and strong employee-leader relationship building (i.e.,<br />
Dozier et al., 1995; J. E. Grunig, 1992; L. A. Grunig et al., 2002), and building on the few<br />
studies that specified leadership style(s) that may actually strengthen public relations<br />
excellence and relationship-building (Aldoory & Toth, 2004; McCown 2005a, 2005b,<br />
2006, 2007), this study’s findings indicate that authentic leadership style as enacted<br />
through transformational, principle-centered, and servant leadership strategies positively<br />
influenced internal public relations and led to strong relationship-building, not only<br />
between leaders and employees, but also among employees at various organizational<br />
levels. Leadership’s value for employees as people as well as a desire to serve them and<br />
empower them to do their jobs/reach their potential was key. Despite assertions that<br />
organic, open, participatory cultures are most conducive to excellent internal public<br />
relations (Dozier et al., 1995; J. E. Grunig, 1992; L. A. Grunig et al., 2002), no studies<br />
examined a spiritually based organizational culture’s influence on employee<br />
communication. This study indicated that commitment to specific principles (in this case,<br />
biblically based) that elevate valuing people through respectful, open communication has<br />
a pr<strong>of</strong>ound influence on the organization’s ability to practice excellent internal public<br />
relations. Thus, the resulting model for internal public relationship-building further <strong>of</strong>fers<br />
scholars a theoretical understanding <strong>of</strong> how an organizational leader’s faith and vision<br />
can drive enactment <strong>of</strong> particular leadership styles, organizational culture, and internal<br />
communication. Through intentionality, positivity, and value for people in maintaining<br />
culture, interpersonal communication, and employee empowerment/growth,<br />
organizational leaders—working with those responsible for internal public relations—can<br />
build strong relationships, promote organizational unity, and develop employees as<br />
leaders to create a self-perpetuating cycle <strong>of</strong> increased organizational success.<br />
186
Practical implications<br />
This study also poses several implications for applied practice <strong>of</strong> internal public<br />
relations. First, organizational leaders can, and perhaps should, allow their faith and<br />
vision to contribute meaningfully to the types <strong>of</strong> leadership style, organizational culture,<br />
and internal communication practices promoted within an organization. As<br />
CommunityBankCorp has demonstrated, spirituality can provide a strong foundation for<br />
shared organizational values and behavioral expectations/principles. However, leaders<br />
must be careful to maintain respect for employees from other faith traditions or no faith<br />
traditions to foster buy0in to those values, expectations, and principles. Second,<br />
enactment <strong>of</strong> authentic, transformational, principle-centered, and servant leadership styles<br />
coupled with open, two-way symmetrical internal communication within a spiritually<br />
based organizational culture should, according to the model, produce positive, peopledriven<br />
cultural values, interpersonal communication, and employee<br />
empowerment/growth. In praxis, leaders and public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals must be<br />
consistent, intentional, and unified in maintaining these specific leadership styles, cultural<br />
values, and excellent communication processes. Commitment to constant training and<br />
reinforcement will be required across all organizational levels. In addition, leaders must<br />
employ carful hiring and firing practices based on foundational cultural values,<br />
behavioral expectations, and principles. In short, for the model to work, the organization<br />
must “practice what it preaches.”<br />
Finally, the resulting outcomes <strong>of</strong> relational strength, organizational unity, and<br />
employee leadership development will feed back into maintaining organizational success<br />
over time. Special attention must be paid to encouraging these outcomes from the top<br />
leadership trickling out through mid-level leaders to employees at all levels. Again,<br />
intentional, consistent organization-wide training, modeling, and mentoring will help<br />
ensure a perpetuating cycle <strong>of</strong> success. As leaders model positive, respectful relationship<br />
building and as appropriate hiring/firing practices (with careful attention to cultural fit)<br />
are employed, employees at all levels should begin to emulate this behavior. <strong>Public</strong><br />
relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, through facilitating face-to0face communication as well as<br />
through cultural maintenance strategies such as vision/values communication,<br />
storytelling, and relationship-building informally and through activities, should help to<br />
facilitate this perpetuating cycle as well.<br />
Future research. Directions for future research include further model<br />
testing/development, specifically its staying power within the original organization and<br />
its potential applicability and universality in both similar and dissimilar organizations. In<br />
addition, testing the importance <strong>of</strong> cultural maintenance assessment within the<br />
organization as well as specifically exploring the role <strong>of</strong> listening in achieving internal<br />
public relations excellence will enhance understanding <strong>of</strong> the hybrid confluences depicted<br />
here.<br />
Due to its unique context and combination <strong>of</strong> research streams as well as the<br />
resulting model, this study is theoretically and descriptively rich, adding to the<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> internal relationship management found in mainstream public relations<br />
research. For too long, employees have been passed over as a critically value public and a<br />
crucial research topic; yet without them—and more importantly, without greater<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> how to best build relationships between them and organizational<br />
leaders—businesses would experience constraint in their ability to practice both internal<br />
187
and external public relations with excellence. Ultimately, this study’s most important<br />
scholarly contribution is focused attention on an organization’s exemplary combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> specific leadership styles, organizational culture, and internal public relations practices<br />
that give voice to its employees, clearly identifying internal organizational<br />
communication as critical for effective future public relations practice.<br />
References<br />
Aldoory, L., & Toth, E. (2004). Leadership and gender in public relations: Perceived<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> transformational and transactional leadership styles. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 16(2), 157-183.<br />
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy<br />
<strong>of</strong> Management Review, 14, 20-39.<br />
Asif, S., & Sargeant, A. (2000). Modelling internal communications in the financial<br />
sector. European Journal <strong>of</strong> Marketing, 34(3/4), 299-317.<br />
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the<br />
root <strong>of</strong> positive forms <strong>of</strong> leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315-338.<br />
Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004).<br />
Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact<br />
follower attitudes and behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 801-823.<br />
Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2004). Authentic leadership: Theory<br />
building for veritable sustained performance. Working paper: Gallup Leadership<br />
Institute, University <strong>of</strong> Nebraska-Lincoln.<br />
Awamleh, R., & Gardner, W. (1999). Perceptions <strong>of</strong> leader charisma and effectiveness:<br />
The effects <strong>of</strong> vision content, delivery, and organizational performance.<br />
Leadership Quarterly, 10, 345-374.<br />
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free<br />
Press.<br />
Bass, B. M. (1990a). Bass & Stogdill’s handbook <strong>of</strong> leadership: Theory, research &<br />
managerial applications (3 rd ed.). New York: The Free Press.<br />
Berger, B. K. (2005). Power over, power with, and power to relations: Critical reflections<br />
on public relations, the dominant coalition, and activism. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 17(1), 5-27.<br />
Berger, B. K. (2007). <strong>Public</strong> relations and organizational power. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The<br />
future <strong>of</strong> excellence in public relations and communication management:<br />
Challenges for the next generation (pp. 221-234). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum.<br />
Berger, B. K., & Reber, B. H. (2006). Gaining influence in public relations: The role <strong>of</strong><br />
resistance in practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Berson, Y., & Avolio, B. J. (2004). Transformational leadership and the dissemination <strong>of</strong><br />
organizational goals: A case study <strong>of</strong> a telecommunication firm. Leadership<br />
Quarterly, 15(5), 625-646.<br />
Broom, G. M., Casey, S., & Ritchey, J. (1997). Toward a concept and theory <strong>of</strong><br />
organization-public relationships. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 9(2), 83-<br />
98.<br />
Broom, G. M., Casey, S., & Ritchey, J. (2000). Concept and theory <strong>of</strong> organizationpublic<br />
relationships. In J. A. Ledingham & S. D. Bruning (Eds.), <strong>Public</strong> relations<br />
as relationship management: A relational approach to the study and practice <strong>of</strong><br />
188
public relations (pp. 3-22). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Bruning, S. D. (2002). <strong>Relations</strong>hip building as a retention strategy: Linking relationship<br />
attitudes and satisfaction evaluations to behavioral outcomes. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, 28, 39-48.<br />
Bruning, S. D., Castle, J. D., & Schrepfer, E. (2004). Building relationships between<br />
organizations and publics: Examining the linkage between organization-public<br />
relationships, evaluations <strong>of</strong> satisfaction, and Behavioral intent. Communication<br />
Studies, 55(3), 435-446.<br />
Bruning, S. D., Langenhop, A., & Green, K. A. (2004). Examining city-resident<br />
relationships: Linking community relations, relationship building activities, and<br />
satisfaction evaluations. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 30, 335-345.<br />
Bruning, S. D., & Ledingham, J. A. (2000). Perceptions <strong>of</strong> relationships and evaluations<br />
<strong>of</strong> satisfaction: An exploration <strong>of</strong> interaction. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 26(1), 85-<br />
95.<br />
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.<br />
Cameron, G. T., & McCollum, T. (1993). Competing corporate cultures: A multi-method,<br />
cultural analysis <strong>of</strong> the role <strong>of</strong> internal communication. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 5, 217-250.<br />
Conley, J., & Wagner-Marsh, F. (1998). The integration <strong>of</strong> business ethics and<br />
spirituality in the workplace. In L. C. Spears, (Ed.), Insights on leadership:<br />
Service, stewardship, spirit, and servant-leadership (pp. 251-257). New York:<br />
John Wiley & Sons.<br />
Covey, S. R. (1992). Principle-centered leadership. New York: Fireside.<br />
Denison, D. R. (1990). Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness. New York:<br />
John Wiley & Sons.<br />
DePree, M. (1989). Leadership is an art. New York: Doubleday.<br />
Depree, M. (1992). Leadership jazz. New York: Dell.<br />
Dolphin, R. R. (2005). Internal communications: Today’s strategic imperative. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Marketing Communications, 11(3), 171-190.<br />
Dozier, D. M., & Grunig, L. A. (1992). The organization <strong>of</strong> the public relations function.<br />
In J. E. Grunig (Ed.), Excellence in public relations and communication<br />
management (pp. 395-418). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Dozier, D. M., Grunig, L. A., & Grunig, J. E., (1995). Manager’s guide to excellence in<br />
public relations and communication management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum.<br />
Ellis: C. (1995). Emotional and ethical quagmires in returning to the field. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Contemporary Ethnography, 24(1), 68-98.<br />
Farmer, B. A., Slater, J. W., & Wright, K. S. (1998). The role <strong>of</strong> communication in<br />
achieving shared vision under new organizational leadership. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 10, 219-235.<br />
Flynn, T. (2006). A delicate equilibrium: Balancing theory, practice, and outcomes.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 18(2), 191-201.<br />
Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.<br />
Friedman, A., & Miles, S. (2002). Developing stakeholder theory. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Management Studies, 39(1), 1-22.<br />
Friedman, A., & Miles, S. (2004). Stakeholder theory and communication practice.<br />
189
Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication Management, 9(1), 89-97.<br />
Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory <strong>of</strong> spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14,<br />
693-727.<br />
Garcia-Zamor, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and organizational performance. <strong>Public</strong><br />
Administration Review, 63(3), 355-363.<br />
Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). “Can<br />
you see the real me?” A self-based model <strong>of</strong> authentic leader and follower<br />
development. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 343-372.<br />
Gardner, W. L., & Schermerhorn, J. R. (2004). Unleashing individual potential:<br />
Performance gains through positive organizational behavior and authentic<br />
leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 33(3), 270-281.<br />
Geertz, C. (1973). Thick Description: Toward an interpretive theory <strong>of</strong> culture. In C.<br />
Geertz, The interpretation <strong>of</strong> cultures: Selected essays (pp. 3-30). New York: Basic<br />
Books.<br />
Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz, (Eds.), Handbook <strong>of</strong> workplace spirituality and<br />
organizational performance (pp. 3-28). New York: M. E. Sharp.<br />
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery <strong>of</strong> grounded theory: Strategies for<br />
qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine.<br />
Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature <strong>of</strong> legitimate<br />
power and greatness. New York: Paulist Press.<br />
Greenleaf, R. K. (1978). Servant leader and follower. New York: Paulist Press.<br />
Greenleaf, R. K. (1998). Servant-leadership. In L. C. Spears, (Ed.), Insights on<br />
leadership: Service, stewardship, spirit, and servant-leadership (pp. 15-20). New<br />
York: John Wiley & Sons.<br />
Greiner, L. E., & Schein, V. E. (1988). Power and organizational development. Reading,<br />
MA: Addison-Wesley.<br />
Grunig, J. E. (1997). A situational theory <strong>of</strong> publics: conceptual history, recent<br />
challenges and new research. In D. Moss, T. MacManus, & D. Vercic (Eds.),<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations research: An international perspective (pp. 3-48). London:<br />
International Thomson Business Press.<br />
Grunig, J. E. (2001). Two-way symmetrical public relations: Past, present, and future. In<br />
R. Heath (Ed.), Handbook <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> (pp. 11-30). Thousand Oaks, CA:<br />
Sage.<br />
Grunig, J. E., & Grunig, L. A. (2000). <strong>Public</strong> relations in strategic management and<br />
strategic management <strong>of</strong> public relations: theory and evidence from the IABC<br />
Excellence project. Journalism Studies 1(2), 303-321.<br />
Grunig, J. E., & Huang, Y. H. (2000). From organizational effectiveness to relationship<br />
indicators: Antecedents <strong>of</strong> relationships, public relations strategies, and<br />
relationship outcomes. In J. A. Ledingham & S. D. Bruning (Eds.), <strong>Public</strong><br />
relations as relationships management: A relational approach to the study and<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> public relations (pp. 23-53). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum<br />
Grunig, J. E., & Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart,<br />
& Winston.<br />
Grunig, J. E., & Repper, F. C. (1992). Strategic management, publics, and issues. In J. E.<br />
Grunig (Ed.), Excellence in public relations and communication management (pp.<br />
117-157). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
190
Grunig, L. A. (1992). Power in the public relations department. In J. E. Grunig (Ed.),<br />
Excellence in public relations and communication management (pp. 483-502).<br />
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Grunig, L. A., Grunig, J. E., & Dozier, D. M. (2002). Excellent public relations and<br />
effective organizations: A study <strong>of</strong> communication management in three countries.<br />
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Hallahan, K. (2001). The dynamics <strong>of</strong> issues activation and response: An issues processes<br />
model. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 13(1), 27-59.<br />
Hay, P. D., & Hartel, D. E. J. (2000). The influence framework: A theoretical bridge<br />
between power and organizational effectiveness. Australian Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Communication, 27(2), 131-154.<br />
Heath, R. L. (2001). Shifting foundations: <strong>Public</strong> relations as relationship building. In R.<br />
L. Heath (Ed.), Handbook <strong>of</strong> public relations (pp. 1-9). Thousand Oaks, CA:<br />
Sage.<br />
Holtzhausen, D. R. (2000). Postmodern values in public relations. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 12(1), 93-114.<br />
Holtzhausen, D. R. (2007). Activism. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future <strong>of</strong> excellence in<br />
public relations and communication management: Challenges for the next<br />
generation (pp. 357-379). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Holtzhausen, D. R., & Voto, R. (2002). Resistance from the margins: The postmodern<br />
public relations practitioner as organizational activist. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Research, 14(1), 57-84.<br />
Hon, L. C., & Grunig, J. E. (1999). Guidelines for measuring relationships in public<br />
relations. Gainesville, FL: Institute for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>.<br />
Jo, S., & Shim, S. W. (2005). Paradigm shift <strong>of</strong> employee communication: The effect <strong>of</strong><br />
management communication on trusting relationships. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review,<br />
31, 277-280.<br />
Kark, R., Shamir, B., & Chen, G. (2003). The two faces <strong>of</strong> transformational leadership:<br />
Empowerment and dependency. Journal <strong>of</strong> Applied Psychology, 88(2), 246-255.<br />
Karlberg, M. (1996). Remembering the public in public relations research: From<br />
theoretical to operational symmetry. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 8(4),<br />
263-278.<br />
Ki, E., & Shin, J. (2006). Status <strong>of</strong> organization-public relationship research from an<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> published articles, 1985-2004. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 32, 194-195.<br />
Kim, S. (2002). Participative management and job satisfaction: Lessons for management<br />
leadership. <strong>Public</strong> Administration Review, 62(2), 231-241.<br />
Kirkpatrick, S. A., 1996. Direct and indirect effects <strong>of</strong> three core charismatic leadership<br />
components on performance and attitudes. Journal <strong>of</strong> Applied Psychology, 81(1),<br />
36-51.<br />
Konz, G. N. P., & Ryan, F. X. (1999). Maintaining an organizational spirituality: No easy<br />
task. Journal <strong>of</strong> Organizational Change Management, 12(3), 200-210.<br />
Kotter, J. P., & Heskett, J. L. (1992). Corporate culture and performance. New York:<br />
The Free Press.<br />
Kvale, S. (1995). The social construction <strong>of</strong> validity. Qualitative Inquiry, 1(1), 19-40.<br />
Lauzen, M. M. (1992). <strong>Public</strong> relations roles, intraorganizational power, and<br />
encroachment. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 4(2), 61-80.<br />
191
Lauzen, M. M., & Dozier, D. M. (1992). The missing link: The public relations manager<br />
role as mediator <strong>of</strong> organizational environments and power consequences for the<br />
function. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 4(4), 205-220.<br />
Ledingham, J. A. (2001). Government-community relationships: extending the relational<br />
theory <strong>of</strong> public relations. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 27, 285-295.<br />
Ledingham, J. A. (2003). Explicating relationship management as a general theory <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 15, 181-198.<br />
Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (1998). <strong>Relations</strong>hip management in public relations:<br />
Dimensions <strong>of</strong> an organization-public relationship. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 24(1),<br />
55-65.<br />
Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (2000a). Introduction: Background and current trends<br />
in the study <strong>of</strong> relationship management. In J. A. Ledingham & S. D. Bruning<br />
(Eds.), <strong>Public</strong> relations as relationship management: A relational approach to the<br />
study and practice <strong>of</strong> public relations (pp. xi-xvii). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />
Erlbaum.<br />
Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (2000b). A longitudinal study <strong>of</strong> organization-public<br />
relationship dimensions: Defining the role <strong>of</strong> communication in the practice <strong>of</strong><br />
relationship management. In J. A. Ledingham & S. D. Bruning (Eds.), <strong>Public</strong><br />
relations as relationship management: A relational approach to the study and<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> public relations (pp. 55-69). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Ledingham, J. A., Bruning, S. D., & Wilson, L. J. (1999). Time as an indicator <strong>of</strong> the<br />
perceptions and behavior <strong>of</strong> members <strong>of</strong> a key public: Monitoring and predicting<br />
organization-public relationships. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 11(2),<br />
67-183.<br />
Lee, C., & Zemke, R. (1995). The search for spirit in the workplace. In L. C. Spears<br />
(Ed.), Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf’s theory <strong>of</strong> servantleadership<br />
influenced today’s top management thinkers (pp. 99-112). New York:<br />
John Wiley & Sons.<br />
Lindl<strong>of</strong>, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualitative communication research methods (2 nd<br />
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership: A positive developmental<br />
approach. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive<br />
organizational scholarship (pp. 241-261). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.<br />
May, D. R., Chan, A. Y. L., Hodges, T. D., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Developing the moral<br />
component <strong>of</strong> authentic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 32(3), 247-260.<br />
McCormick, D. W. (1994). Spirituality and management. Journal <strong>of</strong> Managerial<br />
Psychology, 9(6), 5-8.<br />
McCown, N. (2005, May). Investigating the influence <strong>of</strong> an organization’s corporate<br />
leader on employee communication. Paper presented at the annual conference <strong>of</strong><br />
the International Communication Association, <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Division, New<br />
York City, NY.<br />
McCown, N. (2005, October). The role <strong>of</strong> public relations with internal activists. Paper<br />
accepted for presentation at the annual conference <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong> Educators Academy, Miami Beach, FL.<br />
McCown, N. (2006, November). Internal public relations and relationship-building<br />
through individualized considerations: A transformational leader exemplar. Paper<br />
192
presented to the annual conference <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong><br />
Educators Academy, Salt Lake City, UT.<br />
McCown, N. (2007). The role <strong>of</strong> public relations with internal activists. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 19(1), 47-68.<br />
Michie, S., & Gooty, J. (2005). Values, emotions, and authenticity: Will the real leader<br />
please stand up? Leadership Quarterly, 16, 441-457.<br />
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded<br />
sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:<br />
Prentice-Hall.<br />
Musser, S. J. (1997). A study <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> religious conversion on the giving <strong>of</strong><br />
individualized consideration by leaders. Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the annual meeting <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Behavioral and Applied Management, 5, 102-108.<br />
Musser, S. J., & Orke, E. A. (1992). Ethical value systems: A typology. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Applied Behavioral Science, 28(3), 348-362.<br />
Ni, L. (2006). <strong>Relations</strong>hips as organizational resources: Examining public relations<br />
impact through its connection with organizational strategies. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, 32, 276-281.<br />
Piccolo, R. F., & Colquitt, J. A. (2006). Transformational leadership and job behaviors:<br />
The mediating role <strong>of</strong> core job characteristics. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Journal,<br />
49(2), 327-340.<br />
Pillai, R., & Williams, E. A. (2004). Transformational leadership, self-efficacy, group<br />
cohesiveness, commitment, and performance. Journal <strong>of</strong> Organizational Change<br />
Management, 17(2), 144-159.<br />
Pincus, J. D., Rayfield, R. E., & Cozzens, J. D., (1991). The chief executive <strong>of</strong>ficer’s<br />
internal communication role: A benchmark program <strong>of</strong> research. In J. E. Grunig<br />
& L. A. Grunig (Eds.), <strong>Public</strong> relations research annual (Vol. 3, pp. 1-35).<br />
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Plowman, K. D. (1998). Power in conflict for public relations. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 10(4), 237-261.<br />
Potter, W. J. (1996). An analysis <strong>of</strong> thinking and research about qualitative methods.<br />
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>’s Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education.<br />
(2006, November). The pr<strong>of</strong>essional bond: <strong>Public</strong> relations education and the<br />
practice.<br />
Rafferty, A. E., & Griffin, M. A. (2006). Refining individualized consideration:<br />
Distinguishing developmental leadership and supportive leadership. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 37-61.<br />
Romm, C. (1999). The role <strong>of</strong> charismatic leadership in diffusion and implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
e-mail. Journal <strong>of</strong> Management Development, 18, 273-291.<br />
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art <strong>of</strong> hearing data.<br />
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Ruppel, C. P., & Harrington, S. J. (2000). The relationship <strong>of</strong> communication, ethical<br />
work climate, and trust to commitment and innovation. Journal <strong>of</strong> Business<br />
Ethics, 25(4) 313-328.<br />
Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />
193
Scott, J. (2007). <strong>Relations</strong>hip measures applied to practice. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future<br />
<strong>of</strong> excellence in public relations and communication management: Challenges for<br />
the next generation (pp. 263-273). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.<br />
Seltzer, J., & Bass, B. M. (1990). Transformational leadership: Beyond initiation and<br />
consideration. Journal <strong>of</strong> Management, 16(4), 693-703.<br />
Shamir, B., & Eilam, G. (2005). “What’s your story?” A life-stories approach to<br />
authentic leadership development. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395-417.<br />
Sobo, E. J., & Sadler, B. L. (2002). Improving organizational communication and<br />
cohesion in a health care setting through employee-leadership exchange. Human<br />
Organization, 61(3), 277-287.<br />
Spears, L. C. (1998). Servant-leadership and the Greenleaf legacy. In L. C. Spears, (Ed.),<br />
Insights on leadership: Service, stewardship, spirit, and servant-leadership (pp.<br />
1-14). New York: John Wiley & Sons.<br />
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics <strong>of</strong> qualitative research: Techniques and<br />
procedures for developing grounded theory (2 nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Terry, R. W. (1993). Authentic leadership: Courage in action. San Francisco, CA:<br />
Jossey-Bass.<br />
Therkelsen, D. J., & Fiebich, C. L. (2003). The supervisor: The linchpin <strong>of</strong> employee<br />
relations. Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication Management, 8(2), 120-129.<br />
Toth, E. L. (2006, March). PR leaders’ perceptions: Practice trends and PR education<br />
needed. Report to the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>’s Commission on<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education, Miami, FL.<br />
Wagner-Marsh, F., & Conley, J. (1999). The fourth wave: The spiritually-based firm.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Organizational Change Management, 12(4), 292-301.<br />
Walumbwa, F. O., & Lawler, J. J. (2003). Building effective organizations:<br />
Transformational leadership, collectivist orientation, work-related attitudes, and<br />
withdrawal behaviors in three emerging economies. International Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Human Resource Management, 14(7), 1083-1101.<br />
Walumbwa, F.O., Wang, P., Lawler, J. J., & Shi, K. (2004). The role <strong>of</strong> collective<br />
efficacy in the relations between transformational leadership and work outcomes.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 515-530.<br />
Wolcott, H. F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and<br />
interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Wright, D. K. (1995). The role <strong>of</strong> corporate public relations executives in the future <strong>of</strong><br />
employee communications. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 21(3), 181-198.<br />
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3 rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,<br />
CA: Sage.<br />
Young, M., & Post, J. E. (1993). Managing to communicate, communicating to manage:<br />
How leading companies communicate with employees. Organizational Dynamics,<br />
22(1), 31-43.<br />
Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.<br />
194
Prioritizing Stakeholders for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>: A Case Study <strong>of</strong> Envirocare<br />
Kenneth D. Plowman and Brad L. Rawlins<br />
Brigham Young University<br />
plowman@byu.edu<br />
The value <strong>of</strong> stakeholders to the successful operation <strong>of</strong> businesses and other<br />
organizations have received greater emphasis in the business and public relations<br />
literature. Traditionally, businesses have almost exclusively focused on the value <strong>of</strong><br />
stockholders, employees and customers to help them reach their goals. However, there<br />
are other groups, without as much vested interest in the success <strong>of</strong> the organization,<br />
which can also affect business policy and the bottom line. The question becomes, how<br />
do you identify these groups and when can you know when they will have an impact?<br />
This is the question at the heart <strong>of</strong> stakeholder theory, and inadequate answers to the<br />
question have lead several scholars to criticize the theory and its subsequent artifact,<br />
stakeholder management.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the holes in the stakeholder literature can be plugged by research<br />
conducted in the field <strong>of</strong> public relations. In particular, public relations studies help to<br />
identify ways to prioritize publics in certain situations, and which publics are important in<br />
your communication strategies during these situations. This paper will merge the<br />
literature <strong>of</strong> stakeholder theory, stakeholder management, and public relations to develop<br />
a prioritizing strategy that is focused on the need to maintain key relationships during<br />
times <strong>of</strong> conflict. The strategy is based on three steps: First, identifying stakeholders;<br />
Second, prioritizing the stakeholders according to their attributes; and Third, prioritizing<br />
the stakeholders according to their level <strong>of</strong> interest in the situation.<br />
Defining Stakeholders and <strong>Public</strong>s<br />
As Grunig and Repper (1992) noted, “<strong>of</strong>ten the terms stakeholder and public are<br />
used synonymously” (p. 125). Stakeholders have been identified in the business<br />
literature according to their relationships to organizations. <strong>Public</strong>s, in the public relations<br />
and other mass media literature, are <strong>of</strong>ten identified according to their relationship to a<br />
message.<br />
Stakeholders<br />
Freeman and Reed (2008) assert that “the stakeholder notion is…a simple one. It<br />
says that there are other groups to whom the corporation is responsible in addition to<br />
stockholders: those groups who have a stake in the actions <strong>of</strong> the corporation” (p. 49).<br />
The most quoted definition <strong>of</strong> a stakeholder in business literature is that given by<br />
Freeman (1984) in his book, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Freeman<br />
says a stakeholder is “any group or individual who is affected by or can affect the<br />
achievement <strong>of</strong> an organization’s objectives” (Freeman, 1984). In earlier writings, this<br />
definition is what Freeman refers to as the wide sense <strong>of</strong> a stakeholder; however, he also<br />
spoke <strong>of</strong> the narrow sense <strong>of</strong> a stakeholder when he described it as, “any identifiable<br />
group or individual on which the organization is dependent for its continued survival”<br />
(Freeman & Reed, 2008, p. 51). Preston and Donaldson (1995) agreed with the<br />
definitions <strong>of</strong> Freeman and other scholars, but are careful to make an important addition:<br />
“Stakeholders are identified by their interests in the corporation,” regardless <strong>of</strong> the<br />
corporation’s interest in them. Other scholars are specific when they say the stakeholders<br />
195
<strong>of</strong> a firm are individuals or groups “that contribute, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to<br />
its wealth-creating capacity and activities” (Post, Preston & Sachs, 2002).<br />
<strong>Public</strong>s<br />
“<strong>Public</strong>s” is the term used for stakeholders in the public relations literature.<br />
Because the public relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession evolved from journalism, the term has frequently<br />
been related to the recipients <strong>of</strong> messages from organizations. These publics, or more<br />
accurately, “audiences,” become segmented into more homogenous subsets that help<br />
communicators choose appropriate channels for reaching them. However, research in<br />
public relations has recently turned to the value <strong>of</strong> the relationships these publics have<br />
with organizations. This emphasis has encouraged adaptation <strong>of</strong> the term “stakeholder”<br />
in both practice and scholarship.<br />
Grunig (1992) separated stakeholders from publics by focusing on issues that<br />
form different levels <strong>of</strong> publics. As Grunig and Repper (1992) argued, organizations<br />
choose certain stakeholders by their marketing strategies, recruiting, and investment<br />
plans, but “publics arise on their own and choose the organization for attention” (p. 128).<br />
<strong>Public</strong>s organize from among the ranks <strong>of</strong> stakeholders when they recognize a problem<br />
and decide to do something to seek redress.<br />
Identifying Stakeholders<br />
Jennings (2001) argued that stakeholder theory does not provide direction as to<br />
how the theory should work. She, and other scholars, criticize the theory stating it does<br />
not make clear who is a stakeholder and who is not (Dunham, Freeman, Leidtka, 2001;<br />
Preston & Sapienza, 1990; Jennings, 2001). These scholars claim that stakeholder theory<br />
focuses heavily on the importance <strong>of</strong> meeting the needs <strong>of</strong> all stakeholders, but does not<br />
tell anyone who the stakeholders actually are or how to identify them. It is because <strong>of</strong> this<br />
uncertainty that so many different, yet similar, definitions <strong>of</strong> who and what a stakeholder<br />
is have arisen. Sternberg (1999) also lashed out against the idea by saying, “If the<br />
stakeholders include all who can affect or are affected by the organization, the number <strong>of</strong><br />
groups whose benefits need to be included in the calculation will be infinite.” Therefore,<br />
“stakeholder theorists and practitioners must move toward a ‘names and faces’<br />
orientation, seeking a highly specific understanding <strong>of</strong> and communication with each<br />
stakeholder” (Dunham et al 2001). Employees, customers, shareholders, communities<br />
and suppliers are those most commonly classified as stakeholders within an organization<br />
(Winn, 2001; Dunham, et. al., 2001).<br />
Several scholars in stakeholder theory, including Freeman, have attempted to<br />
identify stakeholders using systematic models and criteria. However, the focus has been<br />
on the attributes <strong>of</strong> the stakeholders in their relation to the organization. For example,<br />
whether the stakeholders could influence the organization or were dependent on the<br />
organization (Freeman, 1984; Savage, Nix, Whitehead & Blair, 1991; Harrison & St.<br />
John, 1994; and Mitchell, Agle & Wood, 1997). This categorization <strong>of</strong> stakeholders fits<br />
the second stage <strong>of</strong> prioritization according to the model proposed here. Before<br />
identifying stakeholder attributes, all stakeholders should be identified according to their<br />
relationships to the organization, not their attributes.<br />
In the public relations literature, there has been little effort to identify<br />
stakeholders according to the relationship with the organization. Some stakeholder<br />
segmentations are as simple as internal versus external publics. Perhaps the best effort to<br />
identify all stakeholders from the public relations literature is the linkage model<br />
196
developed by Grunig and Hunt (1984). This model, based on the work <strong>of</strong> Milton Esman<br />
(1972), William Evan (1976) and Talcott Parsons (1976), has four linkages that identify<br />
stakeholder relationships to an organization: enabling linkages, functional linkages,<br />
diffused linkages, and normative linkages.<br />
As Rawlins and Bowen (2005) explained, the enabling linkages identify<br />
stakeholders who have some control and authority over the organization, such as<br />
stockholders, board <strong>of</strong> directors, governmental legislators and regulators, etc. These<br />
stakeholders enable an organization to have resources and autonomy to operate. When<br />
enabling relationships falter, the resources can be withdrawn and the autonomy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organization restricted.<br />
Functional linkages are those that are essential to the function <strong>of</strong> the organization,<br />
and are divided between input functions that provide labor and resources to create<br />
products or services (such as employees and suppliers) and output functions that consume<br />
the products or services (such as consumers and retailers).<br />
Normative linkages are associations or groups with which the organization has a<br />
common interest. Stakeholders in the normative linkage share similar values, goals or<br />
problems and <strong>of</strong>ten include competitors that belong to industrial or pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
associations.<br />
Diffused linkages are the most difficult to identify because they include<br />
stakeholders who do not have frequent interaction with the organization, but become<br />
involved based on the actions <strong>of</strong> the organization. These are the publics that <strong>of</strong>ten arise<br />
in times <strong>of</strong> a crisis. This linkage includes the media, the community, activists, and other<br />
special interest groups.<br />
Prioritizing Stakeholders According to Attributes<br />
The first step in the prioritizing model is to identify all stakeholders using the<br />
linkage model. Stakeholder theory attempts to answer the question, “Which groups are<br />
stakeholders deserving or requiring management attention and which are not” (Mitchell,<br />
Agle, & Wood, 1997). From a strategic point <strong>of</strong> view, stakeholders are prioritized<br />
according to the self-interests (see the subheading on situational for more explanation) <strong>of</strong><br />
the organization (Berman, Wicks, Kotha, & Jones, 1999). Since it is impossible that all<br />
stakeholders will have the same interests in and demands on the firm, one scholar<br />
specifies that stakeholder theory be about “managing potential conflict stemming from<br />
diverging interests” (Winn, 2001). Once organizations have identified their stakeholders,<br />
there is a struggle for attention: who to give it to, who to give more to, and who to not<br />
give it to at all. Sacrificing the needs <strong>of</strong> one stakeholder for the needs <strong>of</strong> the other is a<br />
realistic, yet difficult concept to accomplish. When these conflicts arise it is important to<br />
the success <strong>of</strong> the organization that it has prioritized the value <strong>of</strong> the stakeholder<br />
relationships. Otherwise, it might spend undue resources on publics that are minimally<br />
tied to organizational goals.<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> the literature in stakeholder theory and stakeholder management<br />
prioritizes stakeholders based on their attributes. Harrison and St. John (1994) sorted<br />
stakeholders according to Freeman’s (1984) original classification: stake in the<br />
organization and influence on behavior. Stake is broken down into three parts: those<br />
stakeholders who have ownership in the organization; those stakeholders who are<br />
economically dependent on the organization; and, those stakeholders who are not linked<br />
directly to an organization, but who are interested in seeing the organization act socially<br />
197
esponsible. The authors also suggested classifying stakeholders by determining the<br />
extent to which an organization is dependent on them for survival and prosperity. The<br />
stakes are broken down by the potential to influence behavior, which Freeman (1984)<br />
identified as formal (contractual or regulatory), economic, and political.<br />
Savage, Nix, Whitehead and Blair (1991) considered two attributes for identifying<br />
who is a stakeholder: a claim, and the ability to influence. This introduces the concepts<br />
<strong>of</strong> legitimacy and power as important attributes for recognizing stakeholders. Savage et<br />
al. (1991) then used the attributes <strong>of</strong> cooperation and threat to identify four different<br />
types <strong>of</strong> stakeholders: the supportive, the marginal, the non-supportive and the mixed<br />
blessing stakeholder. The supportive stakeholder supports the actions and goals <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organization and is a low threat. The marginal stakeholder really has a minimal stake in<br />
the organization and isn’t very threatening. The non-supportive stakeholder is a threat to<br />
the organization and is always a concern for managers because they are the least likely to<br />
cooperate. The mixed blessing stakeholder has a potential for great cooperation as well as<br />
threat for the organization.<br />
Building on to the Savage et al. (1991) model, Mitchell et al. (1997) identified<br />
stakeholders by their possession <strong>of</strong> power, legitimacy and urgency. Their model<br />
expanded the limited scope by recognizing that legitimacy and power was not either/or<br />
variables, but part <strong>of</strong> a mix that would help prioritize stakeholders. By combining these<br />
attributes, Mitchell et al. were also able to identify the dependent stakeholder, which was<br />
missing from the Savage et al. model. Dependency <strong>of</strong> stakeholders on organizations is<br />
just as important as their influence over organizations in the context <strong>of</strong> social<br />
responsibility.<br />
Stakeholders have power when they can influence other parties to make decisions<br />
the party would not have otherwise made. Mitchell et al. (1997) relied on Etzioni’s<br />
(1964) categorization <strong>of</strong> power: coercive power, based on the physical resources <strong>of</strong><br />
force, violence, or restraint; utilitarian power, based on material or financial resources;<br />
and normative power, based on symbolic resources. Power is not a constant attribute,<br />
and can be lost or gained by stakeholders.<br />
Other stakeholders are attached to the organization by a legal, moral, or presumed<br />
claim (legitimacy) that can influence the organization’s behavior, direction, process or<br />
outcome. Clarkson (1994) identified stakeholders as risk-bearers who have “invested<br />
some form <strong>of</strong> capital, human or financial, something <strong>of</strong> value, in a firm” (p. 5). Mitchell<br />
et al. (1997) used the notion <strong>of</strong> risk to narrow stakeholders with a legitimate claim. These<br />
stakeholders are <strong>of</strong>ten dependent on the organization. The combination <strong>of</strong> power and<br />
legitimacy is authority.<br />
Urgency exists under two conditions: “(1) when a relationship or claim is <strong>of</strong> a<br />
time-sensitive nature and (2) when that relationship or claim is important or critical to the<br />
stakeholder” (Mitchell et al., 1997). Urgency, then, requires organizations to respond to<br />
stakeholder claims in a timely fashion. Urgency alone may not predict the priority <strong>of</strong> a<br />
stakeholder, especially if the other two attributes are missing. However, this attribute<br />
does add a dimension that is particularly salient to the practice <strong>of</strong> public relations,<br />
because it is the urgent public that <strong>of</strong>ten attracts the attention <strong>of</strong> the media and other<br />
stakeholders.<br />
Mitchell et al. (1997) used the combination <strong>of</strong> the three attributes to develop a<br />
prioritization strategy. Accordingly, latent stakeholders possess only one <strong>of</strong> the attributes;<br />
198
expectant stakeholders possess two attributes, and definitive stakeholders possess all<br />
three attributes. If individuals or groups do not possess any <strong>of</strong> the attributes, they are not<br />
considered stakeholders (Mitchell & Agle, 1997).<br />
The stakeholders who have all three attributes are definitive stakeholders and<br />
should be the most salient to management. An important tenet <strong>of</strong> the Mitchell et al.<br />
(1997) model is that each attribute is variable and not constant. In other words, any<br />
group can acquire power, legitimacy, or urgency depending on the situation. Therefore,<br />
an expectant stakeholder group can become a definitive stakeholder if it acquires the third<br />
attribute. A dangerous stakeholder group can acquire legitimacy, as has been the case<br />
with many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) over the last few years. In fact,<br />
according to a recent study on trust, NGOs are more trusted in many countries, including<br />
the United States, than are corporations and government (Edelman, 2005). A dependent<br />
stakeholder group can acquire power, such as a community affected by irresponsible<br />
corporate behavior, by appealing to governmental agencies. As Savage et al. (1991)<br />
noted, each <strong>of</strong> these groups could be supportive or threatening, and stakeholder strategies<br />
would be dependent on the level <strong>of</strong> support.<br />
After synthesizing the linkage model with other stakeholder attribute models, a<br />
priority hierarchy becomes apparent. The enabling and functional linkages are the most<br />
important for an organization to maintain long-term success, or what systems theory calls<br />
homeostasis. The enabling linkages, such as stockholders and regulatory agencies, have<br />
power over the organization, and their interests are usually legitimate, thereby dominant<br />
stakeholders by definition. If the issue affecting enabling stakeholders is urgent, then<br />
they become definitive stakeholders and would be given highest priority. Enabling<br />
stakeholders can also have ownership <strong>of</strong> the organization and economic and formal<br />
(regulatory) influence on the organization according to the model developed by Harrison<br />
and St. John (1994).<br />
Functional linkages providing the input necessary to create a product or service<br />
include employees, suppliers, and unions, and are also given a high priority. These<br />
stakeholders have constant contact with the organization and high levels <strong>of</strong> involvement.<br />
They are economically dependent on the organization, and as such, the power resides<br />
primarily with the organization. In this case, the organization has a moral and legal<br />
responsibility to those stakeholders that also increases their priority. The relationship <strong>of</strong><br />
employees is also critical to the effectiveness and efficiency <strong>of</strong> the organization. As such,<br />
these publics have legitimate interests in the operations <strong>of</strong> the organization. Employees<br />
would fall under the necessary compatible relationship identified by Friedman and Miles<br />
(2002), whereas unions would probably fall under the necessary incompatible<br />
relationship. Savage, et. al (1991) identified unions under the nonsupportive stakeholder<br />
category, suggesting they can be a threat to organizational goals.<br />
Functional output stakeholders consume what the organization produces, and<br />
include consumers, distributors, and retailers. Scholars have noted the recent shift in<br />
power from the producers to the retailers, citing large chains such as Wal-Mart, Priority<br />
and Costco as primarily responsible for this shift. Companies know that long-term<br />
customer relations are necessary for financial success. Because these stakeholders have<br />
power, legitimacy, and economic influence, any issue that imminently affects their<br />
relationship gives them high priority. Savage, et. al (1991) considered consumers and<br />
employees as mixed blessing stakeholders because they can be supportive or non-<br />
199
supportive depending on the actions <strong>of</strong> the organization. They suggested a collaborative<br />
strategy with these stakeholders.<br />
Normative linkages, such as competitors, have little direct power over the<br />
organization, but are considered a non-supportive threat by Savage, et. al (1991). They<br />
fall under the contingent incompatible relationship much <strong>of</strong> the time, and most<br />
organizations devise ways to eliminate them rather than foster positive relations. The<br />
only time they become important for cooperative purposes is when the industry is facing<br />
an issue with economic or regulatory impact, in which the peer organizations develop a<br />
contingency compatible relationship until the issue is resolved. For example, chemical<br />
manufacturers may rally together to fight increased environmental standards that would<br />
damage their pr<strong>of</strong>itability.<br />
Diffused stakeholders are the most problematic, because they do not have direct<br />
relationships with the organizations. Because these stakeholders are reactive to<br />
organizational actions, they are harder to predict and to recognize. These are contingency<br />
publics, or what Savage, et. al (1991) called a marginal stakeholder group. Diffused<br />
publics are usually situational and their relationship to the organization is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
temporary. These publics do not have a lot <strong>of</strong> power over the organization, and their<br />
legitimacy is sometimes suspect. What they have that gives them priority is urgency,<br />
because the issue is usually something that may imminently affect the organization.<br />
Because they lack the power and direct influence <strong>of</strong> other stakeholders, diffused<br />
stakeholders will attempt to affect the organization by working through members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
enabling or functional linkages according to Rawlins and Bowen (2005). In this sense<br />
the diffused stakeholders shift from marginal stakeholders to non-supportive<br />
stakeholders, which Savage et al (1991) identified as likely to form coalitions with other<br />
stakeholders to damage the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> the organization. Therefore, the diffused<br />
stakeholders attack the organization through those who have more power and influence<br />
on the organization, namely the enabling and functional linkages. Activist groups ask<br />
consumers to boycott products, or NGO’s ask government to increase regulations to<br />
prevent certain activities. Because <strong>of</strong> the appeal process <strong>of</strong> the diffused stakeholders,<br />
these groups cannot be ignored, and to do so can lead to serious financial losses and<br />
damaged reputations.<br />
To sum, the enabling and functional linkages have the greatest priority as<br />
stakeholders because their power/dependency/influence relationship is frequent and<br />
critical to the regular operations <strong>of</strong> the organization. Normative linkages, as competitors,<br />
are constantly on the mind <strong>of</strong> the organization, but not as groups that have a stake in the<br />
operations <strong>of</strong> the organization. This only changes when the industry or pr<strong>of</strong>ession is<br />
faced with a crisis that requires cooperative effort. The diffused linkages do not require<br />
as much attention and have a lesser priority, except when they react to an organization’s<br />
action or policy. Urgency is the variable that increases the priority <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> these<br />
stakeholders. However, this method <strong>of</strong> prioritizing does not answer the question <strong>of</strong> who<br />
will become the active groups in urgent situations. The next step will address that<br />
problem.<br />
Prioritizing Stakeholders for the <strong>Relations</strong>hip to the Situation<br />
As noted before, Grunig and Repper (1992) made a distinction between publics<br />
and stakeholders. “Stakeholders are people who are linked to an organization because<br />
they and the organization have consequences on each other—they cause problems for<br />
200
each other” (p. 125). Examples <strong>of</strong> this include employees or residents <strong>of</strong> a community,<br />
which Grunig and Repper suggest are <strong>of</strong>ten passive. On the other hand, “the stakeholders<br />
who are or become more aware and active can be described as publics.” (p. 125).<br />
Building on the Dewey (1927) definition <strong>of</strong> a public— that it is a group <strong>of</strong> people<br />
who face a similar problem, recognize the problem, and organize themselves to do<br />
something about it—J. Grunig (1983) segmented publics based on active or passive<br />
communication behavior. Those publics who do not face a problem are non-publics,<br />
those who face the problem but do not recognize it as problematic are latent publics,<br />
those who recognize the problem are aware publics, and those who do something about<br />
the problem are active publics. Grunig (1989) identified three variables that explain why<br />
certain people become active in certain situations. These variables— level <strong>of</strong><br />
involvement, problem recognition, and constraint recognition—led to the development <strong>of</strong><br />
the situational theory <strong>of</strong> public behavior. Grunig and other researchers have used<br />
situational theory to explain communication behavior and “the effect that communicating<br />
has on cognitions, attitudes, and other behaviors” (Grunig & Repper, p. 135).<br />
Level <strong>of</strong> involvement is measured by the extent to which people connect<br />
themselves personally with the situation. However, people do not seek or process<br />
information unless they recognize the connection between them and a problem, which is<br />
the level <strong>of</strong> problem recognition. Whether people move beyond information processing<br />
to the information seeking behavior <strong>of</strong> active publics <strong>of</strong>ten depends on whether they think<br />
they can do something about the problem. Those who think that nothing can be done<br />
have high constraint recognition and are less compelled to become active in the<br />
resolution <strong>of</strong> the problem. Another consideration, referent criteria, is the guideline that<br />
people apply to new situations based on previous experiences with the issue or the<br />
organization involved.<br />
Grunig and Repper (1992) concluded, “<strong>Public</strong>s consist <strong>of</strong> people with similar<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> problem recognition, constraint recognition, and involvement for the same<br />
issues or problems” (p. 139). Grunig (1983) tested the theory using problems that would<br />
create active and passive publics, and found four kinds <strong>of</strong> publics: all-issue publics, that<br />
are active on all issues; apathetic publics, that are inattentive to all issues; single-issue<br />
publics, that are active on a small subset <strong>of</strong> the issue that only concerns them; and hotissue<br />
publics, that are active on a single issue that involves nearly everyone and that has<br />
received a lot <strong>of</strong> media attention.<br />
To summarize this step, active publics will have more priority over aware and<br />
latent publics. Whether stakeholders will become active publics can be predicted by<br />
whether the problem involves them, whether they recognize the problem, and whether<br />
they think they can do anything about it. <strong>Public</strong>s in the diffused linkage are more likely<br />
to be single-issue publics or hot-issue publics, and their priority will diminish once the<br />
problem is resolved. Enabling and functional linkages are also likely to only become<br />
active on issues that involve them, but because the behavior <strong>of</strong> the organization has more<br />
<strong>of</strong> an impact on their power/dependency/influence relationship, they are also more likely<br />
to be multiple-issue publics.<br />
Referring back to the section on attributes, a latent public has lower salience to an<br />
organization because they only have one <strong>of</strong> the three attributes <strong>of</strong> power, legitimacy and<br />
urgency. These stakeholders are further identified as dormant, discretionary, and<br />
demanding. The dormant stakeholder has power but no legitimacy or urgency in its<br />
201
claim. Therefore its power remains unused. Discretionary stakeholders possess<br />
legitimacy, but no power to influence and no urgency in the claim, and therefore are<br />
reliant on the good will <strong>of</strong> the organization rather than through any other pressure. This<br />
group most likely falls under what Carroll (1991) called discretionary social<br />
responsibility, which is a reliance on corporate philanthropy according to Mitchell et al.<br />
(1997). The demanding stakeholder has urgency, but no legitimacy or power. These<br />
groups could be bothersome, but not dangerous.<br />
Expectant stakeholders are a mix <strong>of</strong> the Grunig and Repper (1992) defined active<br />
and aware publics. They possess two attributes and thereby increase their saliency but<br />
that saliency may only be an awareness <strong>of</strong> an issue, not active involvement. These<br />
stakeholders are organized into dominant, dependent, and dangerous stakeholders.<br />
Dominant stakeholders have power and legitimacy but may be only aware publics, but<br />
because they can easily become active, they receive much <strong>of</strong> management’s attention.<br />
Dependent stakeholders have legitimacy and urgency and can be active publics. The<br />
inclusion <strong>of</strong> a dependent relationship in the prioritization scheme is important because it<br />
recognizes that stakeholder priority is not limited to influence over the organization.<br />
Organizations should be socially and morally responsible to stakeholders that have a<br />
legitimate and urgent claim, and who depend on the organization to address and resolve<br />
the claim. Dangerous stakeholders are definitely active publics, have urgency and power,<br />
but lack legitimacy. These stakeholders may become violent or coercive to achieve their<br />
claims. Social activist groups sometimes engage in forms <strong>of</strong> protests, boycotts, and (in<br />
extreme cases) damage to property and lives.<br />
In order for a firm to effectively manage its stakeholders the self-interests, “the<br />
interests <strong>of</strong> key stakeholders must be integrated in the very purpose <strong>of</strong> the firm, and<br />
stakeholder relationships must be managed in a coherent and strategic fashion” (Freeman<br />
& McVae, 2001). These self-interests can be defined those underlying, broader and more<br />
abstract values that individuals and organizations may have in common (Fisher, Ury, &<br />
Patton, 1990). Self –interests, from the public relations literature, are not necessarily<br />
selfish interests but those interests that have intrinsic value for the survival <strong>of</strong> an entity,<br />
e.g. quality <strong>of</strong> life, needs <strong>of</strong> family and friends, and even economic well-being (Wilson,<br />
2005). These self-interests motivate individuals and organizations to act and to change<br />
behavior.<br />
Taken one step further, enlightened self-interests assist relationships to be<br />
mutually satisfactory in the long-term among related stakeholders. This is inherently<br />
two-way symmetrical as in the models literature <strong>of</strong> public relations because stakeholders<br />
have a constraining effect; they have consequences for each other. The basic survival <strong>of</strong><br />
an organization in the long-term depends on the relationship <strong>of</strong> self-interests and<br />
enlightened self-interests between it and its stakeholders (Plowman, 2005). L. Grunig, J.<br />
Grunig and Dozier (2002) “suggested that using the two-way symmetrical model or the<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> the two-way symmetrical and the two-way asymmetrical models that was<br />
then called the mixed-motive model could almost always increase the contribution <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations to organizational effectiveness.”<br />
To complete a discussion <strong>of</strong> publics, there is another critical step. According to<br />
Wilson (2005), there are three types <strong>of</strong> publics to consider when developing<br />
communication strategies: priority publics, intervening publics, and influentials.<br />
202
Priority publics are those whose participation and cooperation are required to<br />
accomplish organizational goals. In relation to the first two steps, they are the<br />
stakeholders who have the highest priority according to their<br />
power/dependency/influence relationship, the urgency <strong>of</strong> the issue, and their level <strong>of</strong><br />
active involvement in the issue. To communicate effectively with these stakeholders, an<br />
organization must understand them as much as possible. Priority publics can be pr<strong>of</strong>iled<br />
by their demographics, lifestyles and values, media preferences, influentials, and selfinterests.<br />
Effective strategies appeal to the self-interests <strong>of</strong> the priority publics and reach<br />
them through the most appropriate channels. At the same time, knowing publics<br />
according to these characteristics will help an organization plan goals consistent with its<br />
publics’ needs and interests.<br />
The intervening publics pass information on to the priority publics and act as<br />
opinion leaders. Sometimes these publics, such as the media, are erroneously identified<br />
as priority publics. If an organization is satisfied when the message stops at a public,<br />
then it is a priority public. If the expectation is that the message will be disseminated to<br />
others, it is an intervening public. In most cases the media are intervening publics. Other<br />
influentials can be important intervening publics, such as doctors who pass information<br />
on to patients, and teachers who pass information on to students. The success <strong>of</strong> many<br />
campaigns is determined by the strength <strong>of</strong> relationships with intervening publics.<br />
Influentials can be intervening publics, but they also affect the success <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations efforts in other ways. Influentials can either support an organization’s efforts or<br />
work against them. Members <strong>of</strong> some publics will turn to opinion leaders to verify or<br />
refute messages coming from organizations. The opinion <strong>of</strong> these personal sources is<br />
much more influential than the public relations messages alone. Therefore, successful<br />
campaigns must also consider how messages will be interpreted by influentials that act as<br />
either intervening or supporting publics. However, Spicer (2007) wrote <strong>of</strong> stakeholders<br />
and influentials in terms <strong>of</strong> risk: “stakeholders with claims incur risk, influencers do not”<br />
(p. 30).<br />
In summary, stakeholders that become active publics and that can influence the<br />
success <strong>of</strong> an organization, or can appeal to the other stakeholders with that influence,<br />
should become priority publics for communication strategies. <strong>Public</strong>s that are critical to<br />
getting the information to the priority publics, such as the media, need to be recognized<br />
as intervening publics and critical to the success <strong>of</strong> the communication strategy.<br />
Influential groups or individuals may not be stakeholders in the organization, but may be<br />
important in shaping or framing the way the message is interpreted by the priority public,<br />
and therefore must be a part <strong>of</strong> the communication strategy.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The first three steps to stakeholder analysis, according to Harrison and St. John<br />
(1994), are to identify stakeholders, classify them into meaningful groups, and prioritize<br />
them. By combining the stakeholder relations and public relations literature, a more<br />
comprehensive process for prioritizing the stakeholder groups, particularly those that<br />
become active publics has been provided.<br />
Developing positive relationships with stakeholders is a necessity for<br />
organizations. “The traditional management tendency is to respond to the squeaky wheel<br />
stakeholder,” (Savage, Nix, Whitehead, & Blair, 1991). If the organization has not<br />
203
properly prioritized its stakeholders and their relationships, the squeaky wheel<br />
stakeholder may get more attention than is deserved.<br />
Too <strong>of</strong>ten the squeaky wheel is attributed to the stockholders. One <strong>of</strong> the reasons<br />
there is so much confusion and conflict over stakeholder theory is that too many<br />
managers and scholars see stakeholder management as the enemy <strong>of</strong> stockholder<br />
management. Some managers feel the only way to effectively manage stakeholders is by<br />
putting the interests <strong>of</strong> stockholders somewhere other than first on the list. This leads to a<br />
stakeholder versus stockholder perspective, and eventually leads to conflict.<br />
Freeman & McVae (2001) believed that stakeholder theory should never be<br />
viewed in a stakeholder versus stockholder perspective. The days <strong>of</strong> always putting the<br />
stockholders at the top <strong>of</strong> the list, no matter what, are gone. “Stockholder theory is an<br />
idea whose time has come and gone…. I believe we can safely say that the stockholder<br />
theory is or at least should be intellectually dead” (Freeman, 1994). Certainly<br />
shareholders will consistently be one <strong>of</strong> the key stakeholders in a firm, but there needs to<br />
be a balance; there will be times when shareholder interests should not come first.<br />
Ogden and Watson (1999) conducted a study in the United Kingdom on the<br />
recently privatized water industry. By observing different companies that sell the same<br />
good (water), Ogden and Watson learned what effective organizations did well. The<br />
researchers observed that there were times when managers put the interests <strong>of</strong> customers<br />
in front <strong>of</strong> the interests <strong>of</strong> the organization’s shareholders, not knowing what the reaction<br />
would be. Ogden and Watson (1999) concluded that “It is possible, to some extent, to<br />
align the apparently conflicting concerns <strong>of</strong> different stakeholders” (Ogden & Watson,<br />
1999).<br />
Similarly, Preston and Sapienza (1990) evaluated 108 companies’ stakeholder<br />
relationships. The authors concluded, “We can say that there is no indication in this data<br />
that managers have pursued growth objectives (or short-term pr<strong>of</strong>its) at the expense <strong>of</strong><br />
major stakeholder interests. Instead, the higher the growth and pr<strong>of</strong>it indicators, the more<br />
favorable the performance ratings for most major stakeholders” (Preston & Sapienza,<br />
1990).<br />
This research provides evidence that the squeaky wheel may not be the<br />
stakeholder with the greatest priority. By using the steps outlined in this paper,<br />
organizations can take a more systematic and comprehensive approach to prioritizing<br />
stakeholders. By using the three steps in the Prioritizing Model below, a stakeholder<br />
analysis was conducted <strong>of</strong> Envirocare, a hot-waste processing company in Utah.<br />
According to Jensen and Uddameri (2009), models are most useful if they are based on<br />
real-world scenarios.<br />
Place Model Approximately Here (See separate page at end)<br />
Methodology<br />
A qualitative case study <strong>of</strong> Envirocare and Initiative One that was placed on the<br />
ballot in 2002 was conducted to investigate the three steps <strong>of</strong> stakeholder analysis<br />
previously explicated. The initiative would have banned hotter levels <strong>of</strong> radioactive<br />
waste than currently being processed in Utah and raised taxes on existing levels <strong>of</strong> waste<br />
by 1000 percent (Unfairtax, 2002). Revenues would have gone to public programs such<br />
as schools and homeless relief, but the initiative would eventually result in the<br />
bankruptcy <strong>of</strong> Envirocare.<br />
204
Collection <strong>of</strong> data triangulated (Yin, 2009) direct observation, documents, and<br />
interviews. Direct observation included field notes collected from 9 observers visit to<br />
Envirocare headquarters and plant site, documents on Initiative One collected from<br />
proponents and opponents <strong>of</strong> the initiative, and interviews <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the stakeholder<br />
groups.<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> data consisted <strong>of</strong> categorizing (the patterns <strong>of</strong> Yin, 2009) for the three<br />
steps from all three sources <strong>of</strong> evidence. To clarify, identifying stakeholders consisted <strong>of</strong><br />
a broader category <strong>of</strong> internal and external stakeholders who have consequences for<br />
Envirocare on Initiative One. Prioritizing stakeholders for attributes include power,<br />
legitimacy and urgency that also fall under enabling, functional, normative, an diffused<br />
linkages. The attributes mean nothing without the context <strong>of</strong> the situation, covering<br />
active, aware, latent publics as well as the support relationship involved in the singleissue<br />
regulatory environment <strong>of</strong> the normative and diffused linkages.<br />
Results<br />
Background<br />
In the 1980’s Vitro Company closed in the Salt Lake area. Its closure left<br />
radioactive sludge and uranium waste, which the government had an urgent need to clean<br />
up. As a result, government surveyors searched for and located what to them was the<br />
ideal waste storage site. It was located 60 miles west <strong>of</strong> Salt Lake City in a practically<br />
biologically dead area. After the federal government disposed <strong>of</strong> the radioactive<br />
substances created by Vitro, the door had opened for other firms to capitalize upon the<br />
reserved storage area identified. Soon after Vitro had disposed <strong>of</strong> its radioactive<br />
materials in Tooele County, Envirocare purchased 100 acres <strong>of</strong> land and established its<br />
waste processing and storage facilities in the same area.<br />
The Department <strong>of</strong> Energy’s atomic testing in parts <strong>of</strong> southern Utah and Nevada<br />
that affected thousands <strong>of</strong> people created sharp distrust and disapproval <strong>of</strong> all activities in<br />
the state that involved radioactive substances. Envirocare processes level A low-level<br />
radioactive materials, though they recently received their federal license to process higher<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> B and C wastes as well. In Utah, it is necessary for both the legislature and the<br />
governor to activate such a license, which was the cause <strong>of</strong> much civil unrest and the<br />
beginning <strong>of</strong> Initiative One.<br />
According to Bette Arial <strong>of</strong> Envirocare, one <strong>of</strong> its future competitors, Waste<br />
Control Specialists <strong>of</strong> Texas, in an attempt to impede Envirocare’s ability to gain access<br />
to the lucrative market <strong>of</strong> processing levels B and C waste, funded the political<br />
movements in Utah to legislate against the activation <strong>of</strong> Envirocare’s newly issued<br />
license. Through lobbyists and opinion leaders Frank Pignanelli and Doug Foxley, this<br />
Texas-based organization began its destructive campaign efforts in Utah to petition<br />
Envirocare’s license approval and continuance in Utah. Other anti-radioactive waste<br />
organizations such as Sierra Club, Heal Utah, Physicians for Social Responsibility,<br />
Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance, Families Against Incinerator Risk, Utah Rivers<br />
Council, Citizens Against Chlorine Contamination, Friends <strong>of</strong> Great Salt Lake, Utah<br />
Legislative Watch and the Downwinders participated in the lobbying efforts and<br />
successfully submitted a petition to the legislature with sufficient signatures to place<br />
Initiative One on the ballot.<br />
If the majority <strong>of</strong> Utah voters had supported Initiative One, then Envirocare<br />
would have been forced to eventually file bankruptcy and to cease operation. As a<br />
205
esult, it is essential for Envirocare to effectively perform a stakeholder analysis and<br />
identify and prioritize each stakeholder to formulate an effective campaign with which<br />
they can defeat Initiative One in the upcoming elections.<br />
Identifying Stakeholder Groups<br />
In any communications campaign, the first and most vital step is to identify<br />
stakeholders and their relation to the company’s objectives. This can be done through the<br />
linkage model <strong>of</strong> enabling, functional, normative and diffused links.<br />
Enabling. An enabling link between a stakeholder and an organization is a<br />
connection in which the stakeholder is responsible for allowing the organization to exist.<br />
In relation to Envirocare, most enabling stakeholders are those related to government<br />
bodies both national and state. This is because as a waste disposal facility the actions <strong>of</strong><br />
Envirocare fall under a variety <strong>of</strong> governmental regulatory agencies ranging from the<br />
EPA to the DOD. If any <strong>of</strong> these agencies were to decide against Envirocare on any<br />
matter and impose sanctions or fines on the company than Envirocare would not be able<br />
to function and would eventually shut down. Therefore Envirocare depends on the<br />
continual support <strong>of</strong> these enabling publics to be able to continue operations. The main<br />
enabling stakeholders for Envirocare are:<br />
- Regulatory government bodies. State, local and Federal. (e.g. Utah Department <strong>of</strong><br />
Transportation, Utah Radiation Commission, Utah Health and Water, Utah Water<br />
Quality, Utah Health Department, Tooele County, U.S. Environmental Protection<br />
Agency, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Dep. <strong>of</strong> Energy, Department <strong>of</strong><br />
Defense etc.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these agencies are in the same group because an elected <strong>of</strong>ficial that wishes<br />
reappointment heads each. Their application <strong>of</strong> policy and their stance on Initiative One<br />
directly reflects upon the federal government that would affect their potential for reelection.<br />
The authority vested in each organization mentioned above enables them to<br />
shut down or perpetuate Envirocare’s operations.<br />
- Toole County government (Tooele Mayor: Charlie Roberts; County<br />
Commissioner: Dennis Rockwell; Chamber <strong>of</strong> Commerce Director: Jack Howard;<br />
School board)<br />
- Clientele (Defense Department, State governments, defense contractors dealing<br />
with nuclear technology)<br />
- Utah government (Governor, Senator, Legislature)<br />
Functional Linkage. A functional link between a stakeholder and an organization<br />
means that the group in question allows the organization to function in its day to day<br />
operations. The most obvious example <strong>of</strong> this would be employees <strong>of</strong> the organization<br />
because without the employees the company would cease to function. In the case <strong>of</strong><br />
Envirocare, transportation and emergency management stakeholders are also vital to the<br />
running <strong>of</strong> the company because without them the company would not be able to<br />
effectively function. The main functional stakeholders for Envirocare are:<br />
- Employees (on-site medical, clean-up crews)<br />
- Emergency management (S. Dep. Highway Patrol, Regional Medical Center and<br />
Fire District, Wendover emergency response units, Utah Division <strong>of</strong> Radiation<br />
Control.)<br />
- Owner <strong>of</strong> Envirocare<br />
206
Diffused Linkage. A diffused stakeholder is one which arises suddenly in order<br />
to lobby against the company in question or to try and disrupt operations in some other<br />
way. These are publics which would not normally be a public and become one simply in<br />
response to a perceived threat or are normally categorized in a different public but<br />
become a diffused stakeholder because <strong>of</strong> some issue. Envirocare’s diffused stakeholders<br />
are:<br />
- Tooele County Citizens<br />
Normative Linkage. A normative stakeholder is one that has common interests<br />
with other groups involved with the organization. This means that while these<br />
stakeholders do not always have a direct link to the organization they do share many<br />
common interests with it, such as safety, contamination, and property value. The<br />
normative stake holders for Envirocare are:<br />
- Families <strong>of</strong> Envirocare employees.<br />
- Toole County Citizens (Home Owners and Citizens)<br />
- Opposition Groups.<br />
- Competitors (WCS <strong>of</strong> T, Int. Uranium)<br />
When analyzing the effects <strong>of</strong> these different stakeholders on Envirocare there are<br />
two main questions that need to be asked: what is their influence and what is their<br />
potential for threat? The most effective way to do show all the stakeholders and the<br />
relationships is through a chart but for the sake <strong>of</strong> brevity we will just show you a part <strong>of</strong><br />
the first page below.<br />
Table 1<br />
Level <strong>of</strong><br />
Stakeholder<br />
Stakeholder Self Interests <strong>Relations</strong>hip to Situation and Opinion<br />
Leaders<br />
Active Owner - Make money<br />
- Grow the<br />
corporation<br />
- Stability<br />
- Prestige<br />
- Internal public <strong>of</strong><br />
Envirocare<br />
- Against Initiative One<br />
- Supporting all the work against<br />
Initiative One<br />
- Portfolio<br />
Active Envirocare Employees<br />
-Emergency<br />
Response Team<br />
- Make money<br />
- Be safe<br />
- Job security<br />
- Stability <strong>of</strong> family<br />
- Health care benefits<br />
- Good work<br />
environment<br />
- Rewards and<br />
incentives<br />
- Satisfaction<br />
- Internal public to Envirocare<br />
- Responsible for taking care <strong>of</strong> the waste.<br />
- Very important in stopping Initiative One<br />
as they went door to door and took<br />
signatures <strong>of</strong>f the ballot<br />
1.) Utah Farm Bureau<br />
Prioritize These Stakeholders<br />
207
In the prioritization <strong>of</strong> our stakeholders we consider the Farmer’s Bureau the number<br />
one stakeholder. This is because the Farmer’s Bureau has come out very strongly in<br />
support <strong>of</strong> Envirocare; so much so that they have provided man power necessary to go<br />
door to door and fight the initiative by <strong>of</strong>ficially removing names from the petition.<br />
2.) Utah State Legislature<br />
Our number two stakeholder is the Utah State Legislature because they actually have<br />
the power to give Envirocare permission to carry the higher level waste. Also, because<br />
the public eye is so closely scrutinizing their position and statements regarding Initiative<br />
One, they become powerful media magnets. By persuading them to oppose Initiative<br />
One, we will have access to enormous amounts <strong>of</strong> media coverage, which will positively<br />
affect the voters.<br />
3.) Congressional Delegates<br />
Our next stakeholder is the congressional delegates for our key voter’s specific area.<br />
We consider these opinion leaders very important to target because <strong>of</strong> the huge influence<br />
they have on their constituents. If we can get these congressional delegates to come out<br />
on the side <strong>of</strong> Envirocare it is very likely that many <strong>of</strong> their constituents would do the<br />
same. Also, because the public eye is so closely scrutinizing their position and<br />
statements regarding Initiative One, they become powerful media magnets.<br />
4.) Media outlets<br />
Media outlets are next in importance on our list <strong>of</strong> stakeholders because they have<br />
such a large influence with the public at large. Thus far, the media has been generally<br />
negative toward Envirocare, but if it were possible to bring them to Envirocare’s side or<br />
at least to a more neutral position Envirocare would see a jump in support because <strong>of</strong> fair<br />
coverage <strong>of</strong> the issues behind Initiative One.<br />
5.) Envirocare employees<br />
The employees <strong>of</strong> Envirocare and their families are our next stakeholders because like<br />
the Farmer’s bureau they have provided the manpower necessary to take the names <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong><br />
the ballot supporting initiative one. Also these people are key opinion leaders in the<br />
Tooele County area. Because the media seeks their discourse on the topic <strong>of</strong> Initiative<br />
One, they will have a positive effect on media coverage regarding this initiative. Also,<br />
they can initiate a grassroots movement through word <strong>of</strong> mouth efforts. These types <strong>of</strong><br />
movements, because <strong>of</strong> their personal nature, tend to have a much more lasting effect<br />
upon voters’ decisions.<br />
6.) Utah State Government<br />
The Utah state government comes next on our list because <strong>of</strong> its power as opinion<br />
leaders as well as its ability to grant Envirocare permission to handle the higher level<br />
waste. Also, because the public eye is so closely scrutinizing their position and<br />
statements regarding Initiative One, they become powerful media magnets. By<br />
persuading them to oppose Initiative One, we will have access to enormous amounts <strong>of</strong><br />
media coverage, which will positively affect the voters.<br />
7.) National Regulatory Agencies<br />
National regulatory agencies come next because they have huge potential to harm<br />
Enviorcare’s operations. If the federal government decides that Envirocare is doing<br />
something wrong with the waste they can shut the company down with sanctions and<br />
fines. On the other hand, if these regulatory agencies decide that there is a greater need<br />
for the higher level waste to be disposed <strong>of</strong> they can strong-arm their way into letting<br />
208
Envirocare take it. They are also major opinion leaders, and their public discourse<br />
regarding Initiative One will be covered closely and read by Utah voters.<br />
8.) Voters<br />
Voters are next on the list because they are the people who will actually be deciding<br />
in favor or against initiative one. For this reason Envirocare needs to pay particular<br />
attention in gaining the support <strong>of</strong> voters in key districts. They are not higher on the list,<br />
because it would require ridiculous amounts <strong>of</strong> money and time to attempt to contact each<br />
Utah voter. However, through using intervening publics and then by implementing<br />
symmetrical communication research efforts to evaluate what measures Envirocare<br />
should take to meet the self-interests <strong>of</strong> Utah voters, they will be able effectively<br />
influence voting behavior.<br />
9.) The Tooele Government<br />
The Tooele government comes next on the list because <strong>of</strong> its position as key opinion<br />
leaders. They will be contacted regularly by media outlets for comment, thus, it is<br />
essential to have their support.<br />
10.) Industry Associations<br />
Industry associations follow the Tooele government because they have come out<br />
strongly against initiative one. This provides Envirocare with a possible base for forming<br />
a coalition to oppose Initiative One. Such a financial and political base would empower<br />
Envirocare in its lobbying efforts.<br />
11.) Envirocare Owner<br />
The owner is next on our list because he provides the funding for many <strong>of</strong> the anti-<br />
Initiative One activities. Without his support many <strong>of</strong> the stakeholders could never be<br />
reached.<br />
12.) Competitors <strong>of</strong> Envirocare<br />
The competitors <strong>of</strong> Envirocare follow, because like industry associations, they also<br />
can provide a base for a coalition. They are not as important as industry associations,<br />
however, because they are not in favor <strong>of</strong> Envirocare. In fact, it is suspected that one <strong>of</strong><br />
these companies provided the money for Initiative One. However, if these companies can<br />
see that Initiative One will eventually come to them as well if it’s passed, they may be a<br />
viable option for a coalition against the initiative.<br />
13.) Opposition Groups<br />
Opposition groups come next on our list even though it will be basically impossible to<br />
change their opinion about Envirocare. We cannot leave their claims unanswered.<br />
Currently, they are the biggest advocates <strong>of</strong> Initiative One, therefore, Envirocare must<br />
address their claims if it is to bring key opinion leaders to oppose the initiative.<br />
14.) Tooele Citizens<br />
Tooele citizens are our next group because they are some <strong>of</strong> the most adamant critics<br />
<strong>of</strong> Initiative One.<br />
15.) Transportation Companies<br />
Transportation companies come next because if we can show key opinion leaders that<br />
the people moving the waste are not worried about the increase then it will diffuse a lot <strong>of</strong><br />
the fear about the nature <strong>of</strong> the waste. Also, the Wagoneers is one <strong>of</strong> the larger lobbyist<br />
groups in <strong>America</strong>. This political ally could allow for more funding and political sway in<br />
efforts to defeat Initiative One.<br />
16.) Emergency Management Associations.<br />
209
Emergency Management Associations are our last stakeholder for the same reason as<br />
the transportation people. If we can show key opinion leaders that the people dealing with<br />
the waste are not worried about the increased level than it will diffuse a lot <strong>of</strong> the fear<br />
about the nature <strong>of</strong> the waste. Also, following 9-11, such public employees have had a<br />
tremendous increase in public discourse and opinion formulation, because <strong>of</strong> how the<br />
public venerates them.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Stakeholders play a crucial role in the success or failure <strong>of</strong> a company. Thus,<br />
conducting a stakeholder analysis was essential in helping Envirocare defeat Initiative<br />
One. As Envirocare performs its stakeholder analysis, it has the distinct advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
gaining insight on various people, companies and organizations that have a relationship<br />
with it and an effect upon whether or not Initiative One is passed. In order to discover<br />
pertinent self-interests and gain common ground with those stakeholders involved with<br />
Initiative One, Envirocare needs to conduct some preliminary and perhaps secondary<br />
research. Through determining which stakeholders have a positive effect and which<br />
carry a negative effect, a company can launch a particular campaign to meet specific<br />
goals. They also have the assurance that the message will be clear to each key<br />
stakeholder, because <strong>of</strong> the previous efforts to understand them. This involves a more<br />
symmetrical model <strong>of</strong> communication, which will promote lasting relationships with the<br />
afore-mentioned stakeholders.<br />
Determining which <strong>of</strong> the stakeholders are most important to Envirocare also<br />
needs to be done. This is crucial to make sure that proper measures are taken with the<br />
most influential stakeholders first to maximize use <strong>of</strong> all resources. For example,<br />
Envirocare has a numerous amount <strong>of</strong> stakeholders who have a direct, enabling effect on<br />
the company. Some that have a greater effect are the state legislature and other<br />
government regulatory agencies. In the case <strong>of</strong> Initiative One, if Envirocare doesn’t<br />
recognize the importance <strong>of</strong>, and focus on the legislature and other key stakeholders, then<br />
Initiative One will pass, not allowing “hotter” waste into Utah, and Envirocare will<br />
eventually file for bankruptcy. This is just one <strong>of</strong> the examples <strong>of</strong> why conducting a<br />
stakeholder analysis plays an important role in a company’s success. If after conducting<br />
this stakeholder analysis, Envirocare specifically targets its most influential stakeholders<br />
and goes after them with effective plan’s they will be successful in defeating Initiative<br />
One.<br />
References<br />
Berman, S.L., Wicks, A.C., Kotha, S., & Jones, T.M. (1999). Does stakeholder<br />
orientation matter? The relationship between stakeholder management models and<br />
firm financial performance. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Journal, 42(5), 488-506.<br />
Brody, E.W. (1987). The Business <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>. New York: Praeger Publishers.<br />
Clarkson, M. (1994). A risk based model <strong>of</strong> stakeholder theory. Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Second Toronto Conference on Stakeholder Theory. Centre for Corporate Social<br />
Performance & Ethics, University <strong>of</strong> Toronto.<br />
Donaldson, T., & Preston, L.E. (1995). The stakeholder theory <strong>of</strong> the corporation:<br />
Concepts, evidence and implications. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Review, 20(1), 65-<br />
91.<br />
210
Dunham, L., Freeman, R. E., & Liedtka, J. (2001). The s<strong>of</strong>t underbelly <strong>of</strong> stakeholder<br />
theory: The role <strong>of</strong> community. Darden School Working Paper No. 01-22.<br />
Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=284973<br />
Environmental risk in Skull Valley. BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk<br />
Etzioni, A. (1964). Modern Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.<br />
Families Against Incinerator Risk. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.volunteermatch.org/orgs/org7480.html<br />
Freeman, R.E. (1994). The politics <strong>of</strong> stakeholder theory: Some future directions.<br />
Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(4), 409-421.<br />
Freeman, R. E., & Reed, D. L. (2008). Stockholders and stakeholders: A new perspective<br />
on corporate governance. In A. J. Zakhem, D. E. Palmer, & M. L. Stoll (Eds.),<br />
Stakeholder theory (pp. 48-55). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.<br />
Friedman, A.L., & Miles, S. (2002). Developing stakeholder theory. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Management Studies, 39(1), 1-21.<br />
Friends <strong>of</strong> the Great Salt Lake. Retrieved from http://www.xmission.com/~fogsl/<br />
Grunig, J.E. (Ed.). (1992). Excellence in <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> and Communication<br />
Management. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.<br />
Harrison, J.S., St. John, C.H. (1994). Strategic Management <strong>of</strong> Organizations and<br />
Stakeholders. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.<br />
Heal Utah Organization. Retrieved from www.healutah.org<br />
Initiative One. Retrieved from http://www.citizensedproject.org/<br />
initiative1/nn4/initiative1.htm<br />
Jennings, M. M. (1999). “Stakeholder theory: Letting anyone who’s interested run the<br />
business–no investment required.” Conference paper presented at Corporate<br />
Governance: Ethics Across the Board, Houston, TX, April 6. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.stthom.edu/cbes/marianne_jennings.html<br />
Jensen, M.C. (2002). Value maximization, stakeholder theory, and the corporate<br />
objective function. Business Ethics Quarterly, 12(2), 235-256.<br />
Jensen, R., & Uddameri, V. (2009). Using communication research to gather stakeholder<br />
preferences to improve groundwater management models: A South Texas case<br />
study. Journal <strong>of</strong> Science Communication, 8(1), 1-8.<br />
Jones, T.M. (1995). Instrumental stakeholder theory: A synthesis <strong>of</strong> ethics and<br />
economics. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Review, 20(2), 404-437.<br />
Louma, P., & Goodstein, J. (1999). Stakeholders and corporate boards: Institutional<br />
influences on board composition and structure. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Journal,<br />
42(5), 553-563.<br />
Mitchell, R.K., Agle, B.R., & Wood, D.J. (1997). Toward a theory <strong>of</strong> stakeholder<br />
identification and salience: Defining the principle <strong>of</strong> who and what really counts.<br />
Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Review, 22(4), 853-886.<br />
Ogden, S., & Watson, R. (1999). Corporate performance and stakeholder management:<br />
Balancing shareholder and customer interests in the U.K. privatized water<br />
industry. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Journal, 42(5), 526-538.<br />
Physicians for Social Responsibility. Retrieved from http://www.psr.org/<br />
Plowman, K.D. (2005) Systems theory. Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>, Sage,<br />
Post, J.E., Preston, L.E., & Sachs, S. (2002). Managing the extended enterprise: The new<br />
stakeholder view. California Management Review, 45(1), 6-28.<br />
211
Preston, L.E., & Sapienza, H.J. (1990). Stakeholder management and corporate<br />
performance. The Journal <strong>of</strong> Behavioral Economics, 19(4), 361-375.<br />
Rawlins, B. & Bowen, S. (2005). <strong>Public</strong>s. Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>, Sage.<br />
Savage, G.T., Nix, T.H., Whitehead, C.J., & Blair, J.D. (1991). Strategies for assessing<br />
and managing organizational stakeholders. Academy <strong>of</strong> Management Executive,<br />
19, 453-473.<br />
Southern Utah Wildlife Alliance. Retrieved from http://www.suwa.org/<br />
Spicer, C. H. (2007). Collaborative advocacy and the creation <strong>of</strong> trust: Toward and<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> stakeholder claims and risks. In E. L. Toth (Ed.), The future <strong>of</strong><br />
excellence in public relations and communication management (pp. 27-40).<br />
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Stakeholder Template. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.worldbank.org/participation/AalbaniasaTOR.htm<br />
Szwajkowski, E. (2000). Simplifying the principles <strong>of</strong> stakeholder management: The<br />
three most important principles. Business & <strong>Society</strong>, 39(4), 379-396.<br />
The Sierra Club <strong>of</strong> Utah. Retrieved from http://www.sierraclub.org/ut/<br />
Ulmer, R. R. & Sellnow, T. L. (2000). Consistent questions <strong>of</strong> ambiguity in<br />
organizational crisis communication: Jack in the Box as a case study. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Business Ethics 25, 143-155.<br />
Utah Legislative Watch and Families Against Incinerator Risk. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.healutah.org/Alerts/HB145_release.html<br />
Utah River’s Council. Retrieved from http://www.aros.net/~urc/<br />
Winn, M.I. (2001). Building stakeholder theory with a decision modeling methodology.<br />
Business & <strong>Society</strong>, 40(2), 133-166.<br />
Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research: Design and Methods (4 th ed.). Thousand Oaks,<br />
CA: Sage.<br />
* For a copy <strong>of</strong> the model, please send a request to the study’s author.<br />
212
PEDAGOGICAL<br />
POSTERS<br />
213
Information Gathering as a Form <strong>of</strong> Experiential Learning for<br />
Corporate Communications<br />
Suzanne Berman<br />
H<strong>of</strong>stra University<br />
Suzanne.berman@h<strong>of</strong>stra.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
Involving students in the process <strong>of</strong> learning can <strong>of</strong>ten lead to exciting discoveries<br />
and help students develop their own concepts in a memorable way. This project is the<br />
final assignment <strong>of</strong> a Case Studies course in public relations designed to teach students<br />
the functional areas <strong>of</strong> corporate communications including; employee communications,<br />
cross-cultural communications, consumer relations, financial relations, public policy,<br />
crisis communications, and corporate social responsibility. At the beginning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
semester, students are asked to choose a corporation to follow, gathering information as<br />
each area is introduced in class throughout the semester. By conducting research through<br />
the media, via databases, periodicals and social networking sites, and through the<br />
corporation directly, students are encouraged to analyze the corporate communication<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> the corporation real time as they deal with crises, earning results, government<br />
regulations, brand management and other issues.<br />
Literature Review<br />
Recognizing the complex environment <strong>of</strong> corporations today, this course draws<br />
upon the concept that companies that succeed are proactive, have well-defined<br />
communication strategies linked to business objectives, and practice open, honest<br />
communication. (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman &Toth, 2007). With confidence levels for<br />
corporations falling substantially in the last 20 years (Gallup Organization), restoring the<br />
credibility <strong>of</strong> corporations has become a major priority facing many companies today and<br />
has increased the need for corporate communications. Argenti and Forman (2002) define<br />
corporate communications as the corporation’s voice and the image it projects <strong>of</strong> itself on<br />
a world stage, as well as the process it uses to communicate its messages to key<br />
constituencies, such as employees, government, communities and consumers. By learning<br />
the important role that communication plays for corporations students learn that<br />
businesses must develop a number <strong>of</strong> cooperative relationships with outside<br />
organizations. <strong>Public</strong> relations helps a company do this by helping them build a world<br />
class reputation through openness and honesty, consistent actions, being socially<br />
responsible and through public education (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman and Toth, 2007).<br />
By utilizing a form <strong>of</strong> information gathering based on experiential learning theory<br />
this course draws students into the corporate world directly and teaches them the<br />
concepts <strong>of</strong> corporate communications through current examples and real time<br />
experiences. Pedagogically, this project is based on experiential theory where students<br />
gain knowledge through gathering data and personal discovery. Boyatzis and Kolb define<br />
experiential learning theory as portraying two dialectically related models <strong>of</strong> grasping<br />
information based on concrete experience and abstract conceptualization, and two<br />
dialectically related modes <strong>of</strong> transforming experiences through reflective observation<br />
and active experimentation (Boyatzis &Kolb, 2002, p.3). A central problem in university<br />
education is that <strong>of</strong>ten students do not transfer their knowledge across different settings,<br />
and they <strong>of</strong>ten find it difficult to relate theory to practice and that knowledge does not<br />
214
seem to be context-dependent (Laurillard, 2002). According to Laurillard (2002),<br />
“teaching strategies are most effective when situated in accurate contextualized,<br />
objective, real-world settings, designed with features to afford learning and encourage<br />
reflection (p. 24). Similarly, Shapiro (2003) argues that interpretive, experiential and realworld<br />
context-based learning environments encourage reflection and provides a<br />
counterpoint to the study <strong>of</strong> hegemony and discursive control that creates passivity in<br />
citizens (Shapiro, 2003). Drawing upon these theories this course encourages student<br />
participation by adopting information- gathering practices as a tool to engage students<br />
directly. Once gathered, students share information and collectively build a knowledge<br />
base and understanding <strong>of</strong> the discipline.<br />
Teaching Activity<br />
At the beginning <strong>of</strong> the semester students are asked to submit the name <strong>of</strong> the<br />
corporation they wish to follow throughout the semester and write a 500- word paper<br />
citing the reasons they selected the organization. This initial paper ensures that students<br />
select a company that is large enough to be active publicly and therefore allow for a<br />
richer learning experience. It also encourages the students to think about companies from<br />
a public relations perspective whereby the pr<strong>of</strong>essor directs their analysis through a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> questions they must answer in their outline. As the semester continues each <strong>of</strong> the<br />
functional areas are discussed in class with accompanying case studies to illustrate each<br />
area. At the same time, students are reminded to continue following their company’s<br />
activities in the related specialty areas as they prepare for their final case study analysis.<br />
This allows them to experience the specialty area, whether it is employee<br />
communications, crisis communications or a variety <strong>of</strong> others and at the same time<br />
complements their classroom learning experience.<br />
By the end <strong>of</strong> the semester students have gathered significant information about<br />
the corporation and are asked to compile a case study analysis. This analysis includes a<br />
communication audit <strong>of</strong> the company complete with an overview, a review <strong>of</strong> strengths<br />
and weaknesses in each <strong>of</strong> the functional areas, a brief section on competitors and<br />
potential threats and finally, recommendations for future public relations efforts.<br />
Inventive information gathering techniques are encouraged and suggested such as<br />
following companies on social network sites, conducting one-on-one interviews with<br />
employees, monitoring the work <strong>of</strong> beat reporters and other industry analysts, media clips<br />
analysis, review <strong>of</strong> published case studies, monitoring and observing marketing activities,<br />
and participating in observations and site visits.<br />
Additionally, students are asked to contribute to a class blog by writing short<br />
posts on events appearing in the media about their companies. Events can include<br />
quarterly earnings announcements, recalls, sponsorships, product announcements and<br />
others. Students are asked to submit material about events as they occur so they can learn<br />
from each other by sharing and commenting.<br />
Rationale<br />
This approach was designed to allow students to be as close to an organization as<br />
possible without actually being there. Students are able to be part <strong>of</strong> an organization and<br />
experience the issues that companies deal with on a day-to-day basis. They learn to<br />
appreciate and understand what it means to approach corporate communications<br />
strategically and why corporations view communications as an integral part <strong>of</strong> their<br />
operation. In many cases students have never closely reviewed corporate websites or<br />
215
followed the activities <strong>of</strong> a corporation in the news media for an extended period <strong>of</strong> time.<br />
This assignment ensures that students employ the research methods they learned in earlier<br />
courses while at the same time encourages them to actively follow both traditional and<br />
new media as they cover their corporations, much like a real public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essional.<br />
By mirroring the work <strong>of</strong> the in-house public relations specialist, students are better able<br />
to learn the process <strong>of</strong> corporate communications as they blend abstract conceptual<br />
learning received from the classroom with concrete experience they obtain through their<br />
own information gathering.<br />
Outcomes<br />
Students <strong>of</strong>ten find it difficult to research beyond a basic Google search on their<br />
laptop. Since so much <strong>of</strong> public relations is based on research this assignment pulls them<br />
out <strong>of</strong> their comfort zone and attempts to introduce some <strong>of</strong> the information gathering<br />
challenges they will be faced with when they enter the workforce. Creatively uncovering<br />
information to determine potential opportunities or problems is the basis <strong>of</strong> corporate<br />
public relations. Through this process students become more capable <strong>of</strong> seeing<br />
connections regarding; why companies select spokespeople, how they choose target<br />
markets, how they strategically position their corporate philanthropy and how internal<br />
and external audiences such as employees, government and the media factor into their<br />
overall brand position.<br />
The goal is to extend students understanding <strong>of</strong> public relations. Many students<br />
have not yet been exposed to the strategic side <strong>of</strong> public relations and are only familiar<br />
with the basics <strong>of</strong> creating a media relations pitch for a product or service. This<br />
assignment brings them into the world <strong>of</strong> corporate communications and makes them<br />
explore the critical role public relations plays in the corporate world.<br />
In some instances, students select a company in the middle <strong>of</strong> handling a crisis<br />
during the course <strong>of</strong> the semester and follow closely as the company simultaneously<br />
issues press releases, notifies employees, deals with consumer confidence and repairs a<br />
tarnished reputation. What had seemed so simple and easy to criticize before they knew<br />
more about the organization now becomes a strategic puzzle that the student is invested<br />
in and determined to solve. In other instances, companies are embarking upon major rebranding<br />
efforts and new product positioning and students get to follow along as<br />
companies re-define themselves and approach new audiences. Many students gain a new<br />
respect for both corporations and the pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> public relations. Some students have<br />
even shown their final case study analysis to prospective employers and have impressed<br />
them with their in-depth knowledge <strong>of</strong> the complexities <strong>of</strong> corporate communications.<br />
References<br />
Argenti, P.A. and Forman, J. (2002). The Power <strong>of</strong> Corporate Communication. McGraw-<br />
Hill, New York<br />
Boyatzis, R.E. and Kolb, D.A. (2000). Experiential Learning Theory, Previous Research<br />
New Directions. In R.J. Sternberg & L.F. Zhang (eds.), Perspectives on<br />
cognitive and learning styles. NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000<br />
The Gallup Organization Web site: http://www.gallup.com<br />
Lattimore, D., Baskin, O., Heiman, S.T., Toth, E.L. (2006). <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>:<br />
The Pr<strong>of</strong>ession and the Practice. 2 nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, Boston.<br />
Laurillard, D. (2003). Rethinking University Teaching, A Conversational Framework for<br />
the Effective use <strong>of</strong> Learning Technologies, Taylor & Francis, London & NY<br />
216
Shapiro, A. (2003). Case Studies in Constructivist Leadership and Teaching. The<br />
Scarecrow Press Inc. Lanham, Maryland and Oxford<br />
217
Story: A Powerful Tool <strong>of</strong> Influence for PR<br />
Patrick Bishop, APR<br />
Ferris State University, CEPR<br />
patrickbishop@ferris.edu<br />
Introduction<br />
“We rely on stories like we rely on air, water, sleep, and food” (Haven, 2007, p.<br />
4).<br />
Seriously, stories? How can story be a powerful tool <strong>of</strong> influence for public<br />
relations, particularly when the industry is striving for credibility and a seat at the<br />
executive table? In an era where the business case for public relations rules, this report<br />
will <strong>of</strong>fer exceptional, credible testimony based on extensive research reviews<br />
demonstrating that the use <strong>of</strong> story is the single most powerful public relations tactic for<br />
influencing values, behavior, corporate culture, and reputation.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong>ten fail. Even as expert, ethical communicators, our powers <strong>of</strong><br />
persuasion are sometimes viewed as manipulation. Other times, our attempts to convince<br />
are met with skepticism (Patterson, Grenny, Maxfield, McMillan, & Switzler, 2008). The<br />
PR pr<strong>of</strong>essional should be the right-hand person <strong>of</strong> the president or CEO, consulting him<br />
or her on the right course <strong>of</strong> action based in high ethical standards and public<br />
expectations (Cobb, 2008). That said, there is significant discussion in the field <strong>of</strong> PR that<br />
there are not enough PR practitioners in top management (Cobb, 2008). This being the<br />
case, most PR pr<strong>of</strong>essionals do not have the luxury <strong>of</strong> direct authority and therefore, even<br />
when seated at the executive table, must rely on indirect leadership skills. Stephen R.<br />
Covey had it right when he stated that in order to gain a person’s head and hand, we must<br />
first capture his or her heart (1989). The best method for doing this is through the use <strong>of</strong><br />
vibrant story. Author Annette Simmons (2001) says it best, “You do not need a position<br />
<strong>of</strong> formal leadership when you know the power <strong>of</strong> story” (p. 29).<br />
Before I present the overwhelming evidence for this premise, I will address a few<br />
<strong>of</strong> the misconceptions <strong>of</strong> storytelling and provide a clear definition <strong>of</strong> what story is. After<br />
which, I will <strong>of</strong>fer a brief historical perspective on storytelling, followed by discussions<br />
on brain physiology, the credibility <strong>of</strong> story as a resource, the over-arching benefits <strong>of</strong><br />
story, and concluding thoughts.<br />
The Untold Story<br />
Chances are, when you read the statement that stories are a pr<strong>of</strong>ound tool <strong>of</strong><br />
influence you likely had one <strong>of</strong> two reactions: (1) that’s a bunch <strong>of</strong> who-ha, or (2) I want<br />
to believe, but how can it be true? These are natural, implicit reactions to story, but where<br />
does this skepticism originate from and is it justified? Let me address these doubts head<br />
on. First I will present three common arguments against story. Then I will <strong>of</strong>fer a clear<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> story, followed by the evidence that debunks these arguments.<br />
Argument #1: stories are lies. This concern is especially alarming to PR<br />
practitioners who strive to be transparent and truthful. We tell bedtime stories to children<br />
before saying goodnight, so it is difficult to take storytelling seriously in today’s<br />
sophisticated business environment. At some level, stories have been associated with<br />
make-believe, myth, legend, and fiction. Like losing our belief in Sana Claus, we are<br />
conditioned to believe that stories are false or, at best, unrealistic whimsy having little to<br />
do with the real-world <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it-and-loss statements (Haven, 2007).<br />
218
Argument #2: stories are for children. Similar to the above scenario, we not only<br />
believe stories are false, naïve, or impractical, most people believe that stories are for<br />
children. In his well-known 2006 speech at TED, Sir Ken Robinson talks about the<br />
education <strong>of</strong> children and how we slowly squeeze creativity out <strong>of</strong> people. As children<br />
outgrow their childish ways, storytelling is discarded and left behind as a sign <strong>of</strong><br />
immaturity. It seems, big boys and girls don’t tell stories.<br />
Argument #3: stories are boring. We have all been in meetings when someone<br />
attempts to tell a story and he or she drones on about their life and priorities. Author and<br />
storyteller Dan Yashinsky (2004) says, “We humans have limited patience with the<br />
display <strong>of</strong> somebody else’s life on a screen, but we find our own lives infinitely<br />
fascinating” (p. 155). Some people feel the need to add all the minutia <strong>of</strong> detail and<br />
simply talk too much. Regarding the storyteller, Yashinsky humorously understates that<br />
sometimes, “They leave too little unknown” (p. 157).<br />
A Definition: stories are…? What is story? It turns out most people have a poor<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> what story is. First, we have no other word besides story for the wide variety and<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> subcategories <strong>of</strong> narrative (Haven, 2007). This means that everything in the<br />
narrative category becomes “story” in our dialogue, adding significant confusion to this<br />
discussion. Additionally, as you will see from the research review later, we are<br />
surrounded by story, like a fish surrounded by water, and therefore, we take it for<br />
granted. For the purpose <strong>of</strong> this paper, I generally adopt the intricately researched<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> story by Kendall Haven (2007): “A detailed, character-based narration <strong>of</strong> a<br />
character’s struggles to overcome obstacles and reach an important goal” (p. 79). If you<br />
want the detailed explanation <strong>of</strong> why this is the best definition <strong>of</strong> story, I highly<br />
recommend his book (see references).<br />
The real story. Stories are not lies. “Story is not the information, the content.<br />
Story is a way <strong>of</strong> structuring information…” (Haven, 2007). Story is a process and can<br />
be thought <strong>of</strong> as the skeleton with our words providing the flesh. Simmons says that story<br />
is truth with transparent meaning, quite the opposite <strong>of</strong> lies. She states that, “Story<br />
doesn’t grab power. Story creates power” (p. 29). Consider this condensed story <strong>of</strong> three<br />
men working at a construction site. Each man is asked in turn, what are you doing? The<br />
first man replies, “I am laying brick.” The second man states, “I am building a wall.” The<br />
third man answers, “I am building a cathedral!” This story illustrates the power <strong>of</strong> vision<br />
and inspiration much better than simply talking about vision and inspiration. As Simmons<br />
puts it, story is less direct, more gracious, prompts less resistance, and is true with a<br />
capital “T.”<br />
The real story. Stories are not just for children. The research in the following<br />
sections will overwhelmingly demonstrate that our brains are hardwired for story. Think<br />
about how people perk up when someone says, “Listen to this story.” However, because<br />
society has deemed story as a children’s resource, “…we set aside the most powerful<br />
communications and teaching tool available to humans and then idly wonder why our<br />
efforts to communicate and to teach concepts, ideas, beliefs, values, attitudes, and facts<br />
do not succeed” (Haven, 2007, p. 17). Influential leaders use story to communicate<br />
values. Consider the story told by retailer Nordstrom’s illustrating exceptional customer<br />
service by the employee who warms customer’s cars while they finish shopping. You can<br />
say, “we provide excellent customer service,” but the story clearly illustrates the caring<br />
and desire to go above and beyond.<br />
219
Stories are not boring; okay, but maybe the storyteller is. The question is one <strong>of</strong><br />
focus: who is the story for? Many people make the mistake that storytelling is an act,<br />
presentation, or play. As Yashinsky says, “It is more important for the listener to see the<br />
story than to see you” (p. 151). Yashinsky goes so far as to state that actors get in the way<br />
<strong>of</strong> story. A story must come through the teller without ego; authenticity must shine<br />
through. In addition to putting the focus on story, it is important to fully understand the<br />
previously <strong>of</strong>fered definition <strong>of</strong> story in order to fully engage the process. Leaving out<br />
important qualities such as character description, goals, struggles, and outcome will<br />
dampen story results.<br />
Historical Perspective<br />
Storytelling precedes history; it is literally prehistoric. Scientists agree that about<br />
40,000 years ago, our ancestors first began to draw pictures on cave walls (Haugen,<br />
2001). However, it is believed that language came much sooner, perhaps as early as a<br />
million years ago. In fact, many paleontologists believe the use <strong>of</strong> language is a major<br />
contributing factor for our ancestor’s brain growth over a relatively short historical time<br />
period; more than a 33% increase (Baker, 2003). There is even recent research indicating<br />
that the use <strong>of</strong> stories predates language (Haven, 2007).<br />
Early use <strong>of</strong> verbal and non-verbal language most likely served as a warning<br />
against danger. Over a great span <strong>of</strong> time, families formed tribes and civilization<br />
transitioned from pre-historic to the modern era. By then, storytelling was at the heart <strong>of</strong><br />
the community as the primary mode <strong>of</strong> communication.<br />
“…wherever simple men were together relating the experiences <strong>of</strong> vigorous days,<br />
there would be found someone whose adventures were always the pleasantest to hear,<br />
whose deeds were the most marvelous, whose realistic details the most varied”<br />
(Ransome, 1909, p. 7). Often, according to story historian and author Arthur Ransome,<br />
the storyteller would grow in stature “to become the medicine man <strong>of</strong> his tribe, the<br />
depositary <strong>of</strong> their traditions, their sage as well as their entertainer.” (p. 7). The roots <strong>of</strong><br />
psychology, teaching, and religion, all stem from storytelling (Wilson, 2002).<br />
Many thousands <strong>of</strong> years later, and fairly recent in our history, the written word<br />
appeared in Samaria, Babylonia, and Egypt in approximately 4,000 B.C. (Grun, 1991).<br />
EVERY single culture in the history <strong>of</strong> this planet has created stories in the form <strong>of</strong><br />
myths, fables, legends, folktales, or similar constructs (Haven, 2007). Interestingly, there<br />
is one universal theme consistent in nearly all ancient stories (regardless <strong>of</strong> origin); they<br />
are predominantly stories <strong>of</strong> morality and they significantly contributed in shaping<br />
culture, perhaps even being the primary mechanism for the advance customs (Wilson,<br />
2002). According to Ransome, there is no story written today which cannot trace its<br />
pedigree back to the primitive types <strong>of</strong> narrative. He states, “The history <strong>of</strong> story-telling<br />
henceforth is that <strong>of</strong> the abasement <strong>of</strong> the grand and the uplifting <strong>of</strong> the lowly, and <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mingling <strong>of</strong> the two… the history alike <strong>of</strong> the progress <strong>of</strong> humanity” (p. 10).<br />
Clearly, our capacity for language and storytelling has been hardwired into the<br />
brain for hundreds and thousands <strong>of</strong> years. Written communication began less than 6,000<br />
years ago. Haven (2007) states that modern forms <strong>of</strong> argument, persuasion, and logic<br />
developed well after than. He adds, “Most Western cultures began, en masse, to read and<br />
write only a few hundred years ago. Before that, oral stories were the dominant form<br />
through which history, news, values, cultural heritage, and attitudes were passed from<br />
person to person and from generation to generation” (Haven, 2007, p. 3-4).<br />
220
Physiology<br />
“…your mind was evolutionary hardwired long before birth to think in specific<br />
story terms” (Haven, 2007).<br />
We are born with approximately 100 billion brain cells (neurons). Each cell<br />
makes about 100,000 connections, called synapses (100 billion x 100,000 = 100 trillion<br />
connections!). The more connections a neuron makes, the stronger the neuron becomes.<br />
The more a connection fires, or is used, the stronger the bond becomes, turning this link<br />
into a super-highway for information to travel. Connections that go unused die <strong>of</strong>f or<br />
become hard to access, like two-track pathways through the backwoods <strong>of</strong> the mind<br />
(Haven 2007; Baker, 2003; Goleman, 1995). “Somehow, through this freeway maze <strong>of</strong><br />
links, loops, and electric traffic jams, we each manage to think, perceive, consider,<br />
imagine, remember, react, and respond” (Haven, 2007).<br />
Through the organic construction <strong>of</strong> this vital organ, what connections become the<br />
strongest links and superhighways? Evolutionary biologists and other researchers who<br />
perform clinical studies on infants confirm that, at birth, the human mind processes<br />
information in story terms (Haven, 2007). It appears, hundreds <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> years <strong>of</strong><br />
ancestral storytelling has hardwired the brain in a very specific way. The structure <strong>of</strong><br />
story is how our brains are designed to internalize and interpret data before we even take<br />
our first breath. Odd as it may sound, researchers all agree, we enter this life prepared to<br />
understand the world through story.<br />
As infants grow and develop, the story structure is reinforced. Not only are<br />
newborns looking to make sense <strong>of</strong> their world through the story structure, but children<br />
are constantly exposed to information in the form <strong>of</strong> story. During the most malleable and<br />
important learning years <strong>of</strong> our lives, the story-based neural network is replicated,<br />
reinforced, and solidified. “This dominance <strong>of</strong> story exposure through the key years <strong>of</strong><br />
brain plasticity results in adults irrevocably hardwired to think in story terms” (Haven,<br />
2007, p. 27). Story works best because our brains are hardwired to process information<br />
specifically as story.<br />
Narrative as a Credible Resource<br />
According to esteemed psychologist and research fellow at the New York<br />
University School <strong>of</strong> Law, Dr. Jerome Bruner (1986), there are two primary modes <strong>of</strong><br />
cognitive functioning: argument and stories. They differ radically in their process, each<br />
<strong>of</strong>fering distinctive, yet valuable ways <strong>of</strong> ordering experience. Arguments verify truth<br />
through singular, focused procedures <strong>of</strong> formal, empirical pro<strong>of</strong>. Story establishes a<br />
perspective <strong>of</strong> truth from many points <strong>of</strong> view.<br />
This qualitative outlook is an extremely important process for explaining human<br />
phenomenon. Author Mary Midgley (2001) agrees stating, there is no way we can collect<br />
any significant aspect <strong>of</strong> life without viewing it from different angles. John Seely Brown,<br />
former chief scientist at Xerox and well-known knowledge management guru, agrees<br />
stating, “As a scientist, I moved from equations and formulas to artificial intelligence,<br />
and from there to a growing appreciation <strong>of</strong> the power <strong>of</strong> the narrative -- the power <strong>of</strong><br />
realizing that generalities are different from abstraction” (Ruggles & Holtshouse, 1999, p.<br />
ix).<br />
Researcher, author, storyteller, and NASA consultant Kendall Haven (2007),<br />
performed an exhaustive and comprehensive review <strong>of</strong> more than 100,000 pages <strong>of</strong><br />
quantitative and qualitative research from fifteen independent fields <strong>of</strong> study regarding<br />
221
story. He also collected more than 1,300 personal accounts from practitioners, performed<br />
storytelling for millions, and taught workshops to more than 240,000 teachers and<br />
students. Haven is an expert in the field <strong>of</strong> storytelling and he states; many research<br />
studies are contradictory, but not so with story. ALL researchers agree that stories work.<br />
Stories are the most effective and efficient structural method to motivate or communicate<br />
factual, conceptual, and abstract information.<br />
From a leadership perspective, story is extremely important in communicating<br />
long-term reputation, and fostering culture. Legendary leadership researchers and<br />
authors, Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal state that “Stories give flesh to shared values and<br />
sacred beliefs… Turned into stories, these events fill an organization’s treasure chest with<br />
lore and legend. Told and retold, they draw people together and connect them with the<br />
significance <strong>of</strong> their work” (p. 407).<br />
Benefits<br />
Due to the fact that our historical predestination and organic makeup preprograms<br />
us for stories, there are multiple benefits for the use <strong>of</strong> storytelling for<br />
education and industry. Haven (2007), author <strong>of</strong> Story Pro<strong>of</strong>: The Science Behind the<br />
Startling Power <strong>of</strong> Story, provides the following list <strong>of</strong> benefits backed by thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
consistent and comprehensive research studies: (a) improved comprehension, (b)<br />
improved logical thinking and general learning, (c) enhanced meaning, (d) creates<br />
motivation and enthusiasm for learning, (e) creates involvement and sense <strong>of</strong> community,<br />
(f) improves literacy and language mastery, (g) improves writing structure, and (h)<br />
enhanced memory.<br />
The best-selling authors <strong>of</strong> Influencer: The Power to Change Anything (Patterson,<br />
et. al., 2008), agree that stories are a primary method to change minds and behavior. The<br />
authors <strong>of</strong>fer the following award-winning research study as pro<strong>of</strong> that story uniquely<br />
impacts brain functions. Three Italian researchers were studying action and brain<br />
response using a monkey as their subject. The monkey was hooked with electrodes to<br />
monitor brain activity and movement. While on break, one <strong>of</strong> the researchers wanted a<br />
snack and he reached out and grabbed a banana. Instantly, neurons in the monkey’s mind<br />
fired as if she were performing the action herself. By chance, the researchers made a<br />
groundbreaking discovery. The brain cells, now known as mirror neurons, fire as if action<br />
is being taken even when the subject is only observing the action. The same firing <strong>of</strong><br />
neurons holds true when subjects listen to a story. “Poignant narratives help listeners<br />
transport themselves away from the content <strong>of</strong> what is being spoken and into the<br />
experience itself” (Patterson, et.al., 2008, p. 72). And again, “Concrete and vivid stories<br />
exert extraordinary influence because they transport people out <strong>of</strong> the role <strong>of</strong> critic and<br />
into the role <strong>of</strong> participant” (p. 61). One reason story is so powerful is that we virtually<br />
re-live the experience <strong>of</strong> someone’s story.<br />
As if these documented studies weren’t enough, former financial corporate<br />
executive and leading storytelling authority, Steve Denning, <strong>of</strong>fers these benefits from his<br />
diverse experience: (a) rapid understanding, (b) instant reach, (c) applicable to any size<br />
group (d) hi-tech compatible, (e) low-cost, (f) intrinsically known, (g) collaborative in<br />
nature, (h) fun and entertaining, (i) action oriented, (j) authentic and credible, and (k)<br />
creative and innovative. Denning sums up his experience by saying, “Storytelling<br />
works… Purposeful storytelling can get results in the modern organization that traditional<br />
abstract modes <strong>of</strong> communications can’t” (2003).<br />
222
Conclusion<br />
In the movie, Indiana Jones and the Holy Grail, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Jones is faced with a<br />
decision to pick out the real Holy Grail among dozens <strong>of</strong> imposters. The wrong choice<br />
brings a painful death and the right choice heals his dying father. Before he makes his<br />
decision, the noble knight who had guarded the Grail with his life understates the<br />
situation by saying, “Choose wisely.” The same can be said in selecting story as a PR<br />
tactic.<br />
Most obviously, story is not always the right tactic for PR. Strategy must still<br />
dictate which technique is best suited for the individual situation. Story is not a panacea<br />
for all PR issues. That said, a case can be made that story is severely underutilized based<br />
upon its power as a tool <strong>of</strong> influence. Story should certainly be considered more <strong>of</strong>ten for<br />
a well-rounded, more effective public relations plan.<br />
Lastly, like all influence tools, the power <strong>of</strong> story can be used unethically.<br />
Simmons (2001) presents a case demonstrating Hitler’s masterful use <strong>of</strong> story to commit<br />
horrendous crimes against humanity. Ethics in public relations must continue to lead the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> appropriate tactics and be the cornerstone for all decision-making.<br />
References<br />
Baker, D. (2003). What happy people know. New York: New Martin’s Press.<br />
Bolman, L.G. & Deal, T.E. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and<br />
leadership (3 rd Ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.<br />
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Boston: Harvard University Press.<br />
Cobb, C. (2008). Driving public relations: Chrysler moves PR under the HR umbrella,<br />
spurs debate about where PR reports. The <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Strategist, 14(3), 6-11.<br />
Cobb, C. (2008). Following the leader: What makes the great ones so great. The <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Strategist, 14(4), 21-24.<br />
Cobb, C. (2008). The real-world connection: Assessing the state <strong>of</strong> PR education today.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Tactics, 15(11), 14-15.<br />
Covey, S.R. (1989). The seven habits <strong>of</strong> highly effective people: Powerful lessons in<br />
personal change. New York: Fireside.<br />
Denning, S. (2003). Storytelling. Presentation at The Springboard Smithsonian<br />
Associates 2003. Retrieved from the Internet on August July 29, <strong>2010</strong> at:<br />
http://www.creatingthe21stcentury.org/stevedenning.html<br />
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.<br />
Grun, B. (1991). The timetables <strong>of</strong> history (3rd ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster.<br />
Haugen, P. (2001). World history for dummies. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Publishing.<br />
Haven, K. (2007). Story pro<strong>of</strong>: The science behind the startling power <strong>of</strong> story. Westport,<br />
CT: Libraries Unlimited.<br />
Midgley, M. (2001). Science and poetry. London: Routledge.<br />
Patterson, K., Grenny, J., Maxfield, D., McMillan, R., & Switzler, A. (2008). Influencer:<br />
The power to change anything. New York: McGraw-Hill.<br />
Ransome, A. (1909). A history <strong>of</strong> story-telling: Studies in the development <strong>of</strong> narrative.<br />
London: T.C. & E.C. Jack.<br />
Robinson, K. (Feb., 2006). TED: Ideas worth spreading. Ken Robinson says schools kill<br />
creativity. Retrieved from the Internet on August 24, <strong>2010</strong> at:<br />
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html<br />
223
Ruggles, R. & Holthouse, D. (1999). The knowledge advantage: 14 visionaries define<br />
marketplace success in the new economy. Dover, NH: Capstone.<br />
Simmons, A. (2001). The story factor: Inspiration, influence, and persuasion through the<br />
art <strong>of</strong> storytelling. New York: Basic Books.<br />
Wilson, J. (2002). The history <strong>of</strong> storytelling. Retrieved from the Internet on July 29,<br />
<strong>2010</strong> at: http://www.essortment.com/all/historystorytel_tukm.htm<br />
Yaskinsky, D. (2004). Suddenly they heard footsteps: Storytelling for the Twenty-first<br />
Century. Jackson, MS: University Press <strong>of</strong> Mississippi.<br />
224
Pitching on your Feet: Using a Mock Press Conference as a Teaching Tool<br />
Denise M. Casey<br />
Appalachian State University<br />
caseydm@appstate.edu<br />
Introduction<br />
Polished public speaking skills are highly desirable qualities in new PR hires.<br />
However, beyond a required <strong>Public</strong> speaking course in a core curriculum and a few<br />
scattered class presentations, the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> student has little oral persuasion<br />
experience in his or her vocational area. With the increased focus on new media use for<br />
students, even less time may be spent on oral communication skills. This paper describes<br />
a class activity for a capstone <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> seminar that allows the student to advance<br />
speaking skills while learning important press conference routines. It provides<br />
instructional goals and objectives for the activity. Finally, it also presents opinions <strong>of</strong><br />
practitioners in the field as to the value <strong>of</strong> this activity.<br />
The Mock Press conference<br />
The Mock Press Conference is designed to allow the student to behave as a <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional in a safe environment. The lecture material that leads up to the<br />
activity includes all <strong>of</strong> the document preparation that goes into a press kit, public<br />
speaking training, speech writing training, power points creation and presentation, press<br />
conference descriptions, “ preparing a speaker” training, and fielding questions training.<br />
Instructional objectives<br />
At the completion <strong>of</strong> the activity, the student are able to: present his/her client’s<br />
press kit, use an informative speech outline to present information, plan a press<br />
conference, start a press conference, run the press conference , write a press conference<br />
advisory, and field questions from reporters. PR practitioners agree that this is valuable<br />
preparation for their work.<br />
Planning the Press Kit<br />
Students are divided into groups <strong>of</strong> five. Each group is assigned a client.<br />
Directions are given to assign roles and the responsibility <strong>of</strong> each role. The group’s<br />
overall guideline and time line is based upon research, action planning, communication<br />
and evaluation. By the time the student arrives in the capstone course, he/she should be<br />
well prepared to create a media press kit for a client. A review <strong>of</strong> documents is all that is<br />
needed to prepare students for this part <strong>of</strong> the activity. The next step is to create speaking<br />
points from the press kit and organize them into a presentation format.<br />
The Informative Speech Outline<br />
The informative speech outline requires little instructional time and is readily<br />
adaptable to a variety <strong>of</strong> content. There are skeleton outlines available in all public<br />
speaking texts. The preview, develop, and review mantra allows students to effectively<br />
present complex material with clarity. This format also allows for flexibility in time<br />
constraints. The students are directed to introduce the client, the company, the mission,<br />
and then specific items in the press kit including the news release and its contents. Once<br />
the team has created and edited the outline. Rehearsal is the next step. One team member<br />
is the speech trainer and is required to work with the speaker(s), just as a PR pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
would do speech training with a client prior to a presentation. Time is also spent in<br />
225
training if fielding <strong>of</strong> questions and the routine <strong>of</strong>: listening to the question, breaking eye<br />
contact with the questioner, rephrasing the question, and then answering it.<br />
Fielding Questions<br />
The key to fielding questions is determined by your ability to rephrase questions...<br />
in other words, you say the question again, using different words before you answer it.<br />
The benefits <strong>of</strong> this technique are numerous: it provides the speaker with extra time to<br />
formulate answer as well as assess questioner, maintains audience control, assists other<br />
members <strong>of</strong> audience to actually hear the question, avoids conflict, avoids confrontation,<br />
and helps to maintains personal credibility. The next step is rephrasing the question.<br />
Rephrasing questions is useful if the question has hostile words in it, remove the hostile<br />
word or words and replace them with neutral words; if the question is not a question but a<br />
comment, identify it as a comment and thank the commenter and incorporate the<br />
comment into your material; if the question is long and confusing, simplify; if there is an<br />
"attitude" to the question, rephrase in a positive and cordial manner. Some tips for<br />
successful fielding <strong>of</strong> questions include: always rephrase the question, always maintain<br />
eye contact with the questioner while he/she is asking the question, always break eye<br />
contact when rephrasing the question, and never look at questioner again.<br />
The Press Conference<br />
A press conference is a formal media event. This event includes a prepared text to<br />
be delivered and question and answer sessions to be managed. The press conference is<br />
multipurpose and can achieve many goals including getting widespread media coverage,<br />
showing the strength <strong>of</strong> your organization or getting increased recognition for your cause.<br />
Students are responsible for all aspects <strong>of</strong> the press conference including the setup, how<br />
to start the press conference and how to run the press conference.<br />
The setup<br />
The most important step in setup is audience analysis. This requires a firm grasp<br />
<strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> your clients publics, potential publics, and stakeholders. This background<br />
knowledge will determine the location, the dates, the times, and the deadlines <strong>of</strong><br />
attendees. The next crucial step is the invitation- both phone and written to attendees and<br />
media, followed by a press advisory the week before the event and a phone call reminder<br />
three days before the event to confirm attendance and one more call the day before as a<br />
reminder to reporters, for good measure. The next steps in the setup are the message, the<br />
material, the training, and the visual aids. All <strong>of</strong> these steps have been previously<br />
addressed in informative speech and press kit preparation. Finally, the moderator is<br />
chosen and trained to start the press conference and keep it on track.<br />
How to start the press conference<br />
The readiness factor cannot be stressed enough. Students are warned to be ready.<br />
Honor those who are on time and preserve your credibility with your commitment to time<br />
schedules. The first step is to get reporters in and step up which takes time. Then meet<br />
and greet all the attendees and have them sign aguestbook or place their business cards in<br />
a location for a prize drawing- this is not absolutely necessary, but people like drawings.<br />
Distribute your materials- everything except the press release.<br />
How to run the press conference<br />
There are several different roles that have specific functions. The moderator<br />
welcomes the guests and introduces the speakers, he/she solicits and guides questioning<br />
acknowledging “hands up” and “turn taking”. He/she also lets the reporters know if the<br />
226
speaker(s) are available after the press conference. The spokesperson(s) is the subject<br />
matter expert and delivers the message on behalf the client. He/she also fields the<br />
questions from reporters. Is this experience valuable?<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional opinion<br />
Some wish that they would have been trained in school instead <strong>of</strong> on-the-job. After<br />
interviews with several PR practitioners, Monte Reid <strong>of</strong> Reid Communications-Sweden<br />
sums it up in an email<br />
“Our world is interconnected more than ever before in<br />
history. Technological developments have made it<br />
possible for us to get our message out quickly and easily.<br />
However, that same technology has also made it easier<br />
than ever before to bring corporates under scrutiny and<br />
hold them accountable in the public eye. It is our duty to<br />
see that our stakeholders hear our corporate message<br />
clearly and truthfully in harmony with the core values<br />
that drive our business. For this reason, the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> superior "people skills" in conjunction with<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional communication skills is in high demand.<br />
227
Connecting the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Writing Course with the Community through<br />
AmeriCorps VISTA<br />
Jane Dailey, Ph.D., APR<br />
Marietta College<br />
jd001@marietta.edu<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners engage in a multitude <strong>of</strong> activities and fulfill a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> responsibilities within their organizations, but one skill is common to all they<br />
do and remains important throughout their career – writing (Broom, 2009). For several<br />
years, though, practitioners have been making note <strong>of</strong> a precipitous decline in writing<br />
skills mostly among entry-level practitioners. While evidence has been largely anecdotal,<br />
a large national survey has recently confirmed what practitioners were saying is true. Of<br />
848 survey respondents from diverse public relations backgrounds, most agree that<br />
today’s entry level practitioners could not be classified as “good writers.” The<br />
respondents who employ these practitioners also expressed a sharp dissatisfaction with<br />
their subordinates’ writing performance across most media forms. In judging their ability<br />
to use proper grammar, spelling and punctuation, the respondents gave their more<br />
inexperienced cohorts a writing grade between a C and D (Cole, Hembr<strong>of</strong>f & Corner,<br />
2009). Clearly, this is disturbing news for a field that relies heavily on the written word to<br />
communicate and could pay a hefty price in terms <strong>of</strong> credibility, image and sales when<br />
mistakes are made (Canavor & Meirowitz, 2005). This also is bad news for young<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals who find they cannot meet their superior’s expectations and are unable to<br />
advance through the ranks as their predecessors once did (National Commission on<br />
Writing, 2005).<br />
The fact is the ability to write and produce easy-to-digest, informative, and<br />
grammatically correct copy is a fundamental skill in public relations. Educators and<br />
practitioners alike agree undergraduate public relations students must master this skill<br />
before they enter the field (Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education, 2006). Therefore,<br />
greater attention should be given to the undergraduate public relations writing course,<br />
which will help students improve this core skill. This presentation focuses on a public<br />
relations writing course where direct experience and community service was integrated<br />
into a concluding project through the services <strong>of</strong> an on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA<br />
representative. The project drew from the basic tenets <strong>of</strong> experiential education and<br />
service learning that emphasize active learning and real experience in order to increase<br />
knowledge and develop important skills (Dewey, 1938; Jacoby, 2009). The 300-level<br />
undergraduate course is designated as “writing intensive” and is required <strong>of</strong> all public<br />
relations majors. Students typically take the course their junior year prior to completing<br />
their internship. The community service component was integrated into the course over<br />
three consecutive semesters beginning in 2008.<br />
AmeriCorps VISTA<br />
Having a full-time AmeriCorps VISTA volunteer on campus presented a unique<br />
opportunity to connect the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Writing course to the community and meet<br />
the course objectives. The overall mission <strong>of</strong> AmeriCorps VISTA is to provide full-time<br />
members to organizations in order to create and expand programs focused on helping<br />
under-served families and communities (AmeriCorps VISTA, <strong>2010</strong>). Beginning in 2008,<br />
the college employed an AmeriCorps VISTA member in an effort to increase the<br />
228
college’s connection to the community and to provide civic engagement opportunities for<br />
students through its Volunteer Services Program. The program’s principal focus is to<br />
meet pressing community needs within the Appalachian region in which the college is<br />
located. Students benefit by having an opportunity to explore social issues, work for<br />
positive change, look for pr<strong>of</strong>essional experiences, and add experience to their resume.<br />
The on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA representative maintains regular ongoing contact<br />
with about a dozen community organizations where she attempts to link student interests<br />
and skills to the organizations’ needs. A common service requested by these<br />
organizations is public relations in terms <strong>of</strong> press releases and general promotion pieces<br />
to publicize their services and events.<br />
Course Overview<br />
The public relations writing course teaches students how to plan, research and<br />
write effective public relations pieces for mass media and other public audiences,<br />
including news releases, executive bios, fact sheets, brochures, press statements, public<br />
service announcements, and online blogs. It is one <strong>of</strong> four core public relations courses<br />
required for majors. The course objectives include: 1) learn how to write as a process that<br />
leads to a finished product; 2) demonstrate the ability to write clear, effective messages<br />
designed to reach a variety <strong>of</strong> audiences; 3) demonstrate the ability to write for multiple<br />
media formats; and 4) demonstrate the ability to write effective public relations pieces<br />
that address real-life public relations challenges. Students write in more than half <strong>of</strong> all<br />
class periods and the remaining time is used for instruction and feedback. On average,<br />
there are 12-14 students enrolled in the class, and the course is open to all students with<br />
the majority being public relations, journalism and graphic design majors. The course is<br />
designed for students to learn and practice their writing skills in class before applying<br />
them to the larger project.<br />
Student Projects<br />
Early in the semester the on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA representative was<br />
invited to speak to the class and present a list <strong>of</strong> organizations seeking help with public<br />
relations. The students then assembled into groups and selected organizations based on<br />
their interest. Once paired with these organizations, students researched and produced<br />
various public relations pieces based on their organization’s needs. The project deadline<br />
was scheduled toward the end <strong>of</strong> the course giving them a chance to learn and practice<br />
their skills in class before producing them for their client. Organizational leaders were<br />
under no obligation to use the students’ work, but did, in some cases, publish their work.<br />
In addition to producing the public relations pieces, students also were required to present<br />
their projects to the class and to their client.<br />
The organizations helped by this course included the Boys & Girls Club <strong>of</strong><br />
Washington County, Marietta Community Food Pantry, Kris Mar Woods, Skaters United<br />
<strong>of</strong> Marietta, Marietta YMCA, Washington County Community Action, and the Humane<br />
<strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Mid-Ohio Valley. The following is a brief description <strong>of</strong> the pieces written<br />
and produced by the public relations writing classes:<br />
o Boys & Girls Club <strong>of</strong> Washington County: Prepared a brochure, news releases,<br />
public service announcements, and flyers to promote after school programs and<br />
member achievements.<br />
229
o Kris Mar Woods: Wrote press releases, public service announcements, a fact<br />
sheet, an information bulletin board, and a brochure to promote a local natural<br />
woodland and recruit volunteers.<br />
o Marietta Food Pantry: Developed news releases, public service announcements,<br />
a video news release script, and posters to promote the Empty Bowls Lunch<br />
campaign.<br />
o Skaters United <strong>of</strong> Marietta Ohio: Prepared public service announcements, news<br />
releases, a fact sheet, flyers, and a Powerpoint presentation to help promote the<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> a new community skate park.<br />
o Humane <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Mid-Ohio Valley: Wrote press releases, newsletter<br />
articles, fact sheets, a brochure, and posters to inform the community about the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> spaying and neutering.<br />
o Marietta Family YMCA: Created public service announcements, press releases,<br />
a brochure, a fact sheet, posters, a video promo, a community bulletin, and<br />
window display to promote Summer Adventure Camp.<br />
o Washington County Community Action: Developed press releases, flyers,<br />
brochures, fact sheets, and public service announcements to promote local bus<br />
services and other community services available for low-income families.<br />
Course Assessment<br />
In almost every case the students opted to produce more than the minimum five<br />
public relations pieces for the concluding project. In comparing previous classes where<br />
outside clients were not used, students’ time and level effort increased. For example,<br />
more class time was used discussing the projects and students sought out more advice and<br />
feedback on their written pieces. Overall, students seem to spend more time editing and<br />
being attentive toward editing than with their in-class assignments. Although this project<br />
did not require students to spend time on-site like traditional service learning projects do,<br />
many groups scheduled multiple site visits to their organizations to meet one-on-one with<br />
their client, inventory existing publications, take photos, experience the setting, or in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> Kris Mar Woods – hike the trails.<br />
Student feedback supported these observations. Students noted this was an<br />
important class helping them succeed in their internship and claimed they put forth<br />
significant effort on this assignment. During their post-internship presentations to<br />
department faculty, at least five students cited the PR Writing course as the class that<br />
prepared them the most for the work that was expected <strong>of</strong> them. Two students who<br />
visited campus after graduation mentioned the concluding project and its relevance to<br />
their current job duties, and at least three students throughout the course <strong>of</strong> this project<br />
asked for feedback after the class had ended concerning a press release they were<br />
voluntarily writing for another community or student organization.<br />
Some comments related to the concluding project from course evaluations<br />
include:<br />
“The PR client project was unique and useful for the future.”<br />
“We had a chance to put the skills we learned into practice in real world<br />
situations … it was helpful for preparing us for real world writing.”<br />
“The client projects were a great way to gain a glimpse into the real<br />
world.”<br />
230
“I felt the class built upon our knowledge base effectively. We began<br />
writing press releases with a lot <strong>of</strong> assistance … and related classroom<br />
material to real-world experience.”<br />
“I feel like this class gave me material suitable to include in my<br />
portfolio.”<br />
Comments from the participating community organizations were also positive and<br />
reflect the level <strong>of</strong> work performed by the students. According to the AmeriCorps VISTA<br />
on-campus representative, “feedback from the organizations the students worked with<br />
was outstanding” and “many <strong>of</strong> the organizations planned to use the students’ press<br />
releases and other writing pieces.” Some organizations have subsequently asked to be<br />
included as candidates for future class projects and provided positive feedback to the<br />
students on their work. Although the assessment was positive overall, there are<br />
disadvantages that should be noted. Some disadvantages included the limited availability<br />
<strong>of</strong> certain organizational leaders for students to receive appropriate feedback and the<br />
difficulty in meeting numerous and changing deadlines necessary for providing<br />
appropriate instructor oversight and feedback. Some students also struggled with group<br />
work and believed the level <strong>of</strong> effort they put toward the project was not always equitable<br />
compared to other team members.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The public relations writing course is one that can easily be linked to community<br />
service where students can take knowledge they have learned and practiced in class and<br />
actively apply it to a real-world setting. When they do this, as the course assessment<br />
showed, they also become more attentive to their work. It is exciting to see students<br />
devote more energy toward their work and get excited about their work. Connecting the<br />
course to the community through on-campus AmeriCorps VISTA gave students a<br />
valuable opportunity to step up their work and understand the potential impact good<br />
writing can have.<br />
References<br />
AmeriCorps VISTA. (<strong>2010</strong>). Retrieved from www.americorps.gov<br />
Broom, G. B. (2009). Cutlip & Center’s Effective <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>, Tenth Ed., Upper<br />
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.<br />
Canavor, N. & Meirowitz, C. (July – August, 2005). Good corporate writing: Why it<br />
matters, and what to do. Communication World, 30-31. Retrieved from<br />
www.iabc.com/cw<br />
Cole, R.T., Hembr<strong>of</strong>f, L.A. & Corner, A.D. (Spring 2009). National Assessment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Perceived Writing Skills <strong>of</strong> Entry-Level PR Practitioners. Journalism & Mass<br />
Communication Educator, 10 – 26.<br />
Commission <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education. (2006). The pr<strong>of</strong>essional bond – public<br />
relations education and the practice. Retrieved from www.commpred.org<br />
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Collier Books.<br />
Jacoby, B. (2009). Preface. In B. Jacoby and Associates (Eds.) Civic engagement in<br />
higher education: concepts and practices, ix-xi. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />
National Commission on Writing (July 2005). Writing: a powerful message from state<br />
government. Retrieved from www.collegeboard.com<br />
231
Take It To The Extreme: Using Immersive Service-Learning To Build Students’<br />
Multimedia Skills And Cross-Discipline Understanding<br />
Kelly B. Everling, Ph.D., APR, and Lori Blachford<br />
Drake University<br />
kelly.everling@drake.edu and lori.blachford@drake.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
Can academic curricula keep up-to-speed with changing technologies in this fastpaced<br />
media environment? Researchers created an immersive, 9-day “extreme” social<br />
media experience to test just that. Students from each <strong>of</strong> Drake University’s School <strong>of</strong><br />
Journalism and Mass Communication’s majors joined together for an interdisciplinary<br />
service-learning project in the university’s neighborhood. Through pre- and post-test<br />
surveys, researchers examined students’ self-proclaimed understanding and their actual<br />
ability to use social media as an effective communication tool. Managing Twitter,<br />
Facebook and YouTube outreach, students were forced to approach their work in new<br />
ways, challenging their understanding <strong>of</strong> the needs and roles <strong>of</strong> communicators in this<br />
age <strong>of</strong> the smart phone and continuous news cycle. Among the largest changes in student<br />
understanding were public relations and video gathering and editing. Researchers saw a<br />
nearly 25% increase in the understanding <strong>of</strong> public relations among students, while 33%<br />
<strong>of</strong> students reported a full understanding <strong>of</strong> video production at the project’s conclusion.<br />
The immersive service-learning project provided a unique opportunity for<br />
students to expand their knowledge and awareness through an intensive collaboration<br />
among businesses, political leaders, nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organizations and fellow students. This<br />
project – which expanded the classroom onto the streets <strong>of</strong> the neighborhood – has led<br />
many students to reflect on their pr<strong>of</strong>essional skills as well as their responsibilities to the<br />
community. Armed with valuable experience, the interdisciplinary team <strong>of</strong> students<br />
proudly continues to communicate on behalf <strong>of</strong> various nonpr<strong>of</strong>it groups and remains<br />
engaged citizens in the community. Perhaps these outcomes represent the project’s most<br />
valuable ROI.<br />
Introduction<br />
Students from each <strong>of</strong> Drake University’s School <strong>of</strong> Journalism and Mass<br />
Communication’s majors, including public relations, magazine, news/Internet, radio/TV<br />
broadcast, and advertising, joined together for a service-learning project in their own<br />
neighborhood.<br />
Partnering with Hubbell Realty and Anawim Housing, the students were charged<br />
with managing the social media outreach for the “Hubbell Realty Company Extreme – 9<br />
Homes in 9 Days” project. The initiative, which featured the 24-hour-a-day construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> 9 low-income homes just three blocks from campus, provided an opportunity for<br />
students to supplement their classroom learning with on-site communication experience.<br />
Students were responsible for posting hourly tweets, more than 10 Facebook status<br />
updates and a minimum <strong>of</strong> three YouTube videos daily. The amount and frequency <strong>of</strong><br />
daily content challenged the students to cultivate fresh stories regularly, engaging readers<br />
consistently. Through pre- and post-test surveys <strong>of</strong> participants, researchers were able to<br />
gauge student growth in their understanding <strong>of</strong> various communication disciplines, their<br />
use <strong>of</strong> new tools and technologies, and the needs <strong>of</strong> those in their surrounding<br />
232
community. Many participants have continued their work in this area, helping nonpr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
organizations and associations to develop a cohesive approach to their outreach efforts.<br />
Project Overview<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> social media and new technology workshops and seminars <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
by pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations and private businesses seems to escalate daily. From the<br />
annual Social Media for Communicators conference to numerous PRSA-sponsored<br />
teleseminars and on-site workshops, the importance <strong>of</strong> social media understanding is<br />
undeniable. Academia must develop innovative projects to ensure that students gain the<br />
knowledge needed to be successful in communication positions globally. As Fiske wrote<br />
in PR Week’s Social Media Survey 2009 edition, “…It’s not just about 140-character<br />
messages. It’s having the right words at the right time, said to the right people through the<br />
right medium, in the right tone and sentiment – all the while keeping in mind the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> public interest” (October 2009, 28).<br />
Through a partnership with Hubbell Realty and Anawim Housing, students from<br />
Drake University’s School <strong>of</strong> Journalism and Mass Communication were challenged to<br />
manage the social media outreach for the “Hubbell Realty Company Extreme – 9 Homes<br />
in 9 Days” project. The immersive project required students to shoot video, take<br />
photographs, edit content, write stories and post updates – all from on-site media tents.<br />
Students interviewed and worked alongside some <strong>of</strong> the most influential politicians and<br />
business owners in the area. They shot video next to network affiliates, coordinated<br />
media opportunities next to public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and finalized stories alongside<br />
area reporters. Often the students’ content was available to the public first, due to the<br />
immediate nature <strong>of</strong> social media. This provided a powerful lesson about the power <strong>of</strong><br />
these platforms.<br />
Using Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, the students provided a direct connection<br />
to the project for those not able to join the site daily. They quickly gained comfort with<br />
the various mediums, using each <strong>of</strong> the tools to tell emotional stories. They learned the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> maintaining a consistent message across all communications and how to<br />
harness the various strengths each student brought as a result <strong>of</strong> their major/discipline.<br />
Finally, they developed a deeper understanding <strong>of</strong> how technology can meet an<br />
organization’s goals – all while building a sense <strong>of</strong> community.<br />
As Bruell noted in PRSA’s 2009 Career Guide, “social media savvy might get<br />
you in the company’s door, but the ability to use it strategically will keep you there” (20).<br />
This immersive project provided just that – a strategic use <strong>of</strong> technology to tell an<br />
important story and an opportunity for students to become pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in the field.<br />
Results and Discussion<br />
Participants were asked to complete a 10-item pre- and post-test survey regarding<br />
their experiences with the “9 Homes in 9 Days” project. Responses were received from<br />
all 15 participants, representing each <strong>of</strong> the sequences within the School (public relations,<br />
magazine, news/Internet, radio/TV broadcast, and advertising).<br />
Students were asked to report their comfort level with the social media tools used<br />
throughout the project. While 66.7% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported extreme comfort with<br />
Facebook prior to the initiative, 86.7% were extremely comfortable at its conclusion.<br />
Comfort when using Twitter essentially remained the same among those extremely<br />
comfortable, while the project seemed to move 13.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents from near the<br />
“Extremely Uncomfortable” side <strong>of</strong> the scale to moderately comfortable and comfortable.<br />
233
Similarly, 13.4% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported extreme discomfort when using YouTube prior<br />
to the project, but post-tests showed 40% <strong>of</strong> respondents felt moderately comfortable to<br />
comfortable with the technology after the initiative. Overall, regardless <strong>of</strong> the technology<br />
selected, all respondents reported an increase in comfort with each <strong>of</strong> the tools.<br />
When students were asked to rate the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> each social medium in<br />
“telling an organization’s story,” nearly half reported that Facebook and Twitter were<br />
effective. Participants rated YouTube’s effectiveness higher in the post-test, moving from<br />
33.3% effectiveness to 85.8% reporting the technology’s extreme effectiveness in telling<br />
an organization’s story, perhaps as a result <strong>of</strong> their increasing comfort with the<br />
technology and visual storytelling. Also, students <strong>of</strong>ten report that they “know” a<br />
technology when they achieve a mastery <strong>of</strong> the technical tools. However, this project<br />
allowed students to advance their use <strong>of</strong> social media from mere participation to purpose.<br />
Overall, students reported that their ability to gauge the ROI <strong>of</strong> each medium<br />
declined slightly (from 57.1% prior to the task, versus 51.1% after the task). Of<br />
respondents, 6.7% also reported that they felt unable to judge ROI in the post-test (none<br />
reported inability in the pre-test). As one student noted, as the team became increasingly<br />
familiar with each <strong>of</strong> the tools, they found that the number <strong>of</strong> followers or video clicks<br />
are not enough to rate the ROI for each <strong>of</strong> the tools. “Just becoming a fan <strong>of</strong> Hubbell<br />
Extreme on Facebook does not mean they are really following. I guess it would be really<br />
difficult to gauge how involved they are in the site unless they post or comment,”<br />
reported one student.<br />
Another student wrote, “The number <strong>of</strong> hits, tweets, fans, etc., can give us an idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> general interest, but I think it’s more important to look at the level <strong>of</strong> involvement. Did<br />
people keep coming back? How did they respond to our posts? … Did any <strong>of</strong> this prompt<br />
them to become more directly involved? These are all very important things to consider.”<br />
When asked in the pre-test if it was possible to maintain a consistent organization<br />
message over multiple mediums, 26.7% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported that it was only<br />
moderately possible. In contrast, 100% <strong>of</strong> participants reported that it was absolutely<br />
possible to maintain a consistent message over all technologies after the initiative.<br />
Another important element <strong>of</strong> this project was the students’ abilities to harness the<br />
unique strengths <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> their disciplines. When asked to rate their understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
each <strong>of</strong> the major areas represented on the team, responses varied – especially in the preand<br />
post-test responses. In the pre-test, 20% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported minimal<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> advertising prior. However, in the post-test, those reporting a strong<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> advertising actually declined slightly from 53.3% to 46.6%, while<br />
moderate understanding <strong>of</strong> advertising rose from 26.6% to 53.3%. News<br />
Reporting/Writing saw little change among respondents, with 79.9% in pre-test reporting<br />
understanding and 86.6% reporting understanding in post-test.<br />
While 100% <strong>of</strong> students reported in both pre- and post-tests feeling extremely<br />
comfortable with laptops, digital cameras, and cell phones with texting capabilities, some<br />
noted apprehension with some <strong>of</strong> the tools at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the project. For example,<br />
respondents reported a lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge in the pre-test when using cell phones with<br />
Internet capabilities (20%) and video cameras (28.5%). In contrast, at the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project, 86.6% <strong>of</strong> participants reported high levels <strong>of</strong> comfort when using Internetcapable<br />
cell phones, while 100% reported high levels <strong>of</strong> comfort when using video<br />
cameras. Some respondents (35.7%) reported apprehension before the project with<br />
234
posting content to the Internet, but all respondents (100%) reported extreme comfort in<br />
the post-test.<br />
At the beginning <strong>of</strong> the project, photography seemed to be the area where most<br />
students felt apprehension. In the pre-test, 53.4% <strong>of</strong> students reported only a moderate<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> photography. At the completion <strong>of</strong> the project, 80% <strong>of</strong> respondents<br />
reported a full understanding <strong>of</strong> photography. Students became comfortable with the idea<br />
that expert photography is not always available or necessary to share a visual message in<br />
these social media formats. While only the best photographs were chosen to share,<br />
students realized that the relentless need for fresh content quickly provided a unique<br />
opportunity to build a skill set they had not previously developed.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the largest changes among student understanding was in public relations.<br />
In the pre-test, 53.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported that they had only a moderate<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> public relations, with two students (13.3%) reporting no understanding<br />
at all <strong>of</strong> PR. In contrast, in the post-test, 73.4% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported having a full<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> public relations. The students worked closely with the public relations<br />
teams <strong>of</strong> both Hubbell Realty and Anawim Housing, perhaps increasing their<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the many projects <strong>of</strong>ten falling under the PR “umbrella” <strong>of</strong><br />
responsibilities.<br />
Another category in which students really gained knowledge was in video<br />
gathering and editing. In the pre-test, 20% <strong>of</strong> students reported no understanding <strong>of</strong> video<br />
gathering/editing, while 40% reported having complete knowledge in this area. In<br />
contrast, when asked to report their knowledge after the initiative, 26.7% reported a<br />
moderate knowledge, while 73.3% - a 33.3% increase from the beginning <strong>of</strong> the initiative<br />
– reported a full understanding. Many <strong>of</strong> the on-site projects required the students to use<br />
digital cameras, flip cameras and editing equipment available on laptops (such as<br />
iMovie). This provided opportunities for students to immerse themselves in the use <strong>of</strong><br />
these tools while in the “depths” <strong>of</strong> the project.<br />
When students were asked if they feel like they’re a part <strong>of</strong> the Drake<br />
neighborhood, 13.3% <strong>of</strong> respondents reported an increase in feeling a part <strong>of</strong> their<br />
neighborhood as a result <strong>of</strong> this project, bringing the post-test total to 80%. Projects that<br />
re-enforce the students’ already high impression <strong>of</strong> their place in the neighborhood<br />
provide them with opportunities to give back in special, meaningful ways while also<br />
building their pr<strong>of</strong>essional skills. Many have continued similar work with area nonpr<strong>of</strong>its<br />
and associations, building their resumes and their ties to the surrounding area.<br />
As noted by Wright and Hinson (2009), there is a gap between the social media<br />
use communicators perceive should be implemented in organizations and the actual use<br />
<strong>of</strong> the tools daily. Students in this survey were also asked to report the percent <strong>of</strong> their<br />
typical day spent using each <strong>of</strong> the three mediums used throughout the initiative. The<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> respondents reported spending 20% to 40% <strong>of</strong> their day on Facebook, while<br />
spending 10% to 20% <strong>of</strong> their day using YouTube. The majority <strong>of</strong> respondents reported<br />
spending 10% or less <strong>of</strong> their day on Twitter. However, while no participants reported<br />
using Twitter more than 40% <strong>of</strong> a typical day in the pre-test, the post-test research saw a<br />
21.4% increase in the number <strong>of</strong> respondents reporting Twitter use in 60% to 90% <strong>of</strong> a<br />
typical day. Perhaps students saw value in the technology or simply found a “new toy” to<br />
test. Although a small sample, one can posit that increased exposure to a new<br />
235
technology/communication tool can also increase the use <strong>of</strong> that tool in both pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
settings and personal lives.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In an ever-changing media environment, it is imperative that educators continue to seek<br />
innovative projects that allow students to supplement classroom learning with engaging<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional experiences. The “Hubbell Realty Company Extreme – 9 Homes in 9 Days”<br />
immersive service-learning project provided a unique opportunity for students to expand<br />
their knowledge and awareness through an intensive collaboration among fellow<br />
students, local businesses, political leaders and nonpr<strong>of</strong>it organizations in the area. This<br />
project – which expanded the classroom onto the streets <strong>of</strong> the neighborhood – has led<br />
many students to reflect on their pr<strong>of</strong>essional skills as well as their responsibilities to the<br />
community. Armed with valuable experience, the students proudly continue to<br />
collaborate with fellow students from various majors, work to communicate the services<br />
<strong>of</strong> various nonpr<strong>of</strong>it groups, and remain engaged citizens in the community. Perhaps<br />
these outcomes represent the project’s most valuable ROI.<br />
Works Cited<br />
Bruell, A. (2009). Digital Reality: Social Media Savvy Might Get You in the Company’s<br />
Door, but the Ability to Use It Strategically Will Keep You There.” PR Week<br />
2009 Career Guide.<br />
Fiske, R. (October, 2009). Today’s PR Student Must Learn Completely New<br />
Vocabulary. PR Week. 28.<br />
Wright, D. K. and M. D. Hinson. (2009). Examining How <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Practitioners Actually Are Using Social Media. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal.<br />
Summer 2009.<br />
236
What’s All The Hype About Skype? Re-Invigorating The Introductory <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Course Through The Implementation Of Global Speaker Series<br />
Dr. Kelly B. Everling, APR, and Ronda Menke, APR<br />
Drake University<br />
kelly.everling@drake.edu and ronda.menke@drake.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
We’ve all been there, spending many late nights planning for the all-important<br />
introductory public relations survey course. With so much information to cover within<br />
the confines <strong>of</strong> a semester, the task <strong>of</strong> preparing today’s public relations students for<br />
future coursework and pr<strong>of</strong>essional experience is daunting. In an effort to engage<br />
students using free technology, the researchers developed a global speaker series, inviting<br />
colleagues from around the world to join the class as guest speakers via Skype. Guests<br />
lectured on various topics, adding personal anecdotes and “war stories” that enthralled<br />
students and increased their understanding <strong>of</strong> PR and the role <strong>of</strong> communicators in the<br />
world today.<br />
Speakers hailed from France to Oregon, speaking about various public relations<br />
topics including corporate, agency and international relations. The Skype experiences<br />
expanded students’ knowledge <strong>of</strong> PR and diverse audiences and exposed students to a<br />
new technology with wide application in public relations and engaged citizenship<br />
(politics).<br />
Using pre- and post-test surveys, the researchers found that students’<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> diversity increased by 38%, their ability to reflect critically increased by<br />
20%, and their ability to communicate with diverse audiences increased by 17% as a<br />
result <strong>of</strong> the Skype speaker sessions. As one student said, “Talking one-on-one with<br />
someone who is actually in another country doing the things we learned about (in class)<br />
really puts PR in perspective.”<br />
Free. User-friendly. Accessible. So, what’s all the hype about Skype? Log on, and<br />
start chatting. Your students will thank you.<br />
237
Using a Gaming Scenario in Reputation Management<br />
Gregg Feistman<br />
Temple University<br />
greggf@temple.edu<br />
Introduction<br />
Learning public relations in the classroom <strong>of</strong>ten is guided by listening to lectures,<br />
taking part in discussions, examining case studies, developing good writing,<br />
understanding social media, and putting together strategic PR plans. But another teaching<br />
technique can be just as effective, informative and even fun: using games.<br />
In Reputation Management, a graduate level course on public relations, I use a<br />
gaming scenario to give my students a taste <strong>of</strong> the “what if?” aspect <strong>of</strong> high-level<br />
strategic public relations. According to Fombrum and Van Riel (2004, p. 20), reputation<br />
is defined as:<br />
A mirror that reflects an [organization’s] relative success at convincing upstream,<br />
downstream, and diagonal stakeholders about the current and future validity <strong>of</strong><br />
the [organization]. But the mirror is also a magnet: if stakeholders like what they<br />
see and hear, they support the [organization].<br />
The structure <strong>of</strong> this three week game is based on a scenario developed by the<br />
MIT-Harvard University <strong>Public</strong> Disputes Program, entitled “Dealing With An Angry<br />
<strong>Public</strong>,” (Ansell, Susskind & Wheeler, 2000) which is modified for this particular class.<br />
The scenario especially works well for classes with enrollments under 20 students.<br />
Three parties<br />
In the game, students are divided into three groups: A corporation, a consumer<br />
rights advocacy group, and media organizations (e.g., local electronic or print). The<br />
corporation and consumer rights advocacy group are purposely put into an adversarial<br />
relationship. The third group represents the mass media and will continually report on the<br />
goings-on as the scenario develops.<br />
All three groups are given the same basic background information and context<br />
about the two respective organizations and a medical product about to come into the<br />
market with great promise and potential patient benefits. After this initial phase however,<br />
the corporate and advocacy groups are each given proprietary information, the details <strong>of</strong><br />
which are to remain private within the context <strong>of</strong> the game.<br />
Procedures<br />
In the next stage, students are given approximately 30-45 minutes to consult with<br />
each other in their respective groups, prepare strategies, anticipate questions and create<br />
and deliver mock public positioning statements for an “open meeting.” Prior to the<br />
meeting, the corporate group and the consumer rights group prepare a statement on their<br />
position, which is videotaped and shown before the entire class. The “open meeting”<br />
occurs in class for 30 minutes while the student “reporters” cover the event. It’s their job<br />
to write mock media stories and post them through the class’ Blackboard electronic<br />
grading system. After the initial meeting, “live” interviews with designated spokespeople<br />
from each group are again videotaped, using a reporter-spokesperson format. The taped<br />
interviews are shown to the entire class who discuss and analyze what happened, what<br />
changes could have been made, and come up with suggestions for future actions or how<br />
the results could have been different.<br />
238
In between the times the class meets (one night per week), the students continue<br />
in their respective role playing. At any time over the three week period <strong>of</strong> the game, a<br />
“reporter” might interview representatives from “the corporation” or the consumer rights<br />
advocacy group for a story, or one group might issue a statement to those in the role <strong>of</strong><br />
the press. In addition, new random developments can be added at any time from outside<br />
sources (the instructor) during the three week length <strong>of</strong> the game. The random elements<br />
could be given to one, two or all three groups. Students then have to strategize and react,<br />
appropriate to their role. At the end <strong>of</strong> the three weeks, each student is required to rate<br />
their peers, which forms the basis for their individual grades.<br />
Learning Outcomes<br />
At least four learning outcomes are achieved with this exercise. First, students can<br />
learn to create a “win-win” approach when faced with angry stakeholders and understand<br />
how mutual gains can enhance an organization’s reputation. Mutual gains are a situation<br />
in which both sides come away with something positive. The learning goals for this<br />
outcome involve readily recognizing the issues and concerns the other side has, being<br />
inclusive, <strong>of</strong>fering “reasonable” preliminary commitments to minimize any potential<br />
negative impacts (such as a media or web-based campaign, calls for consumer boycotts,<br />
legislative initiatives, etc.), accepting responsibility (and admitting mistakes when<br />
appropriate), developing trust, and building a constructive relationship with an opponent.<br />
Second, students learn to identify where sources <strong>of</strong> power are, how they can<br />
change, the way power can impact a situation, and how an organization can affect these<br />
sources. In the game, the three groups use and exchange different types <strong>of</strong> power, such as<br />
referent or legitimate, for example. As the students representing the media write and post<br />
their stories throughout the exercise, each group must learn whether or not to respond to<br />
what is published, how, and in what forum. Power ebbs and flows as each group tries to<br />
exert control over what is reported, the potential impact on public opinion, and how their<br />
side <strong>of</strong> the story is presented and perceived.<br />
Third, students learn to interpret the perceptions <strong>of</strong> risk. One <strong>of</strong> the basic common<br />
tenants <strong>of</strong> communication and managing reputation is it is about managing risk. As<br />
students learn to understand the perceptions <strong>of</strong> risk to an organization, they learn how to<br />
advise senior management and craft better messages to satisfy their various stakeholders.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations practitioners operate in the court <strong>of</strong> public opinion, which can be a<br />
powerful ally or enemy. Students gain the knowledge <strong>of</strong> judging what to communicate,<br />
when to communicate it, and to whom. In addition, students learn to anticipate how their<br />
communications may be represented to wider audiences through the media and prepare<br />
for reactions.<br />
Fourth, students learn to anticipate the role <strong>of</strong> neutral parties, such as an arbitrator<br />
or mediator. In the game, the instructor plays the role <strong>of</strong> mediator; the instructor’s role is<br />
to answer questions and clarify issues, not help with devising strategy, craft statements or<br />
reach agreement on positions. Those responsibilities are left up to the student<br />
participants.<br />
This “slice <strong>of</strong> life” in the classroom is not only educational, it’s fun. “Real world”<br />
role playing scenarios like this one help students learn to develop a wider view and<br />
consider different sides <strong>of</strong> an issue, not just the side they represent. It helps them become<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> how perception shapes reality, how quickly an awkward phrase or inappropriate<br />
statement can be disseminated to wider audiences, and how words and actions can affect<br />
239
eputation. Games like this are an interactive tool to learning, in which students help<br />
teach themselves and each other.<br />
References<br />
Ansell, J., Susskind, L.E., & Wheeler, M. (2000, May). Dealing with an angry public:<br />
Protecting your reputation and your market share. Symposium conducted at the<br />
meeting <strong>of</strong> the Program on Negotiation, Cambridge, Mass.<br />
Fombrum, C.J., & Van Riel, C.B.M. (2004), Fame & Fortune: How successful<br />
companies build winning reputations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson<br />
240
Best Practices in <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>: A Practical Analysis <strong>of</strong> Training Students<br />
to Prepare and Present Proposals for Real-World Clients<br />
Arhlene A. Flowers<br />
Ithaca College<br />
aflowers@ithaca.edu<br />
Abstract<br />
With more than 20 years as a public relations practitioner at leading public<br />
relations agencies and corporate public relations departments in New York City and<br />
Toronto before transitioning to academia, the presenter shares her experiences over the<br />
past four years in teaching undergraduate students best practices in planning, writing,<br />
and presenting public relations proposals to real-world clients. The end result is<br />
application <strong>of</strong> public relations principles in the classroom to solve business problems for<br />
real-world organizations, as well as the creation <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional-quality public relations<br />
proposals that students can use as creative samples for job and internship interviews.<br />
Active Learning in the Classroom and Real-World Benefits<br />
From the Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research<br />
University (1998) to the report by the Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education (2006),<br />
studies have shown that participatory learning experiences can transform students from<br />
passive to active learners. <strong>Public</strong> relations research also has investigated the impact <strong>of</strong><br />
experiential learning on students, clients, and faculty. Aldoory and Wrigley (2000)<br />
evaluated the application <strong>of</strong> real-world clients in undergraduate public relations courses<br />
by assessing the three parties involved. Their findings concluded that each party<br />
benefited: students for “placing classroom material into a meaningful context” (p. 56);<br />
clients, all <strong>of</strong> whom did not have public relations staff or agency support, found value for<br />
the creative input; and teachers believed “that extra work and negotiation were required,<br />
but the enhanced learning was worth it” (p. 56). Daugherty (2003) also reported “positive<br />
outcomes” when examining the opinions <strong>of</strong> students and community partners in servicelearning<br />
projects in public relations classes. Student feedback, however, reported a few<br />
“obstacles,” primarily in communicating effectively with clients.<br />
My teaching pedagogy integrates service-learning opportunities with real-world<br />
clients to build teamwork, develop problem-solving skills that bring the lessons from the<br />
textbook and case studies to life, and meet with pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in various industries for<br />
feedback in a supportive environment. From the perspective <strong>of</strong> a former practitioner who<br />
had spent a significant amount <strong>of</strong> time training interns and entry-level staff, I have found<br />
the following attributes important for career growth: the ability to see the big picture <strong>of</strong><br />
the entire public relations campaign, not just the individual tasks at hand; an<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the client’s business in context <strong>of</strong> the industry at large, its competitors,<br />
and other factors that can impact the organization’s viability and future; problem-solving<br />
skills that separate the leaders from the doers in the business; and the patience to hone<br />
fundamental basics such as writing excellence, attention to detail, and time management.<br />
I believe that an active learning environment in the classroom helps students become<br />
better prepared for the highly competitive career opportunities in public relations and<br />
integrated marketing communications.<br />
241
Class Structure<br />
The 200-level, three-credit introductory course in public relations is a required<br />
course for the Integrated Marketing Communications B.S. degree program. In addition to<br />
IMC majors, the course is required for the IMC minor, Communication Management and<br />
Design majors with a concentration in Corporate Communications, and Sports Media<br />
majors. The class size averages 32 students, comprised <strong>of</strong> sophomores (approximately<br />
50%), juniors (30%) and seniors (20%). I teach two sections back-to-back, three days a<br />
week, every fall and spring semester.<br />
Client Identification and Communication<br />
To provide students with a diversified selection <strong>of</strong> “clients,” I identify six<br />
different nonpr<strong>of</strong>its and for-pr<strong>of</strong>it companies every semester that have staff who are able<br />
to be on campus for the final presentations at the end <strong>of</strong> the semester. Previously, I had<br />
used clients from around the country and abroad who were unable to attend the<br />
presentations. In those cases, other faculty or administrators participated in the<br />
presentations to role play the clients in the question-and-answer sessions or we conducted<br />
conference calls with the real clients. However, I have found that presenting to actual<br />
clients is more beneficial to both the students and the clients.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the clients have been local nonpr<strong>of</strong>its and small businesses within an<br />
hour-driving distance, which have limited financial and marketing resources. Non-pr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
clients have included art galleries, museums, historical societies, youth and health<br />
services, environmental advocates, educational institutions, and visitors and convention<br />
bureaus. For-pr<strong>of</strong>its have ranged from hotels, resorts, restaurants, recreational attractions,<br />
and private clubs to emerging musicians and new businesses in fashion, creative services,<br />
and health and fitness. With the power <strong>of</strong> word <strong>of</strong> mouth and alumni networking,<br />
organizations have been contacting me directly for support with student projects. I now<br />
need to invest less time in identifying new clients.<br />
I make outreach to prospective clients with a brief e-mail and, in some cases,<br />
make follow-up calls. After their interest is secured, I establish realistic expectation levels<br />
and outline in writing the parameters <strong>of</strong> the assignment and address any additional<br />
questions by e-mail or phone. I distribute questionnaires for the clients to fill out<br />
electronically or submit by mail or fax. This document supplies essential information on<br />
their public relations and marketing objectives, current and desired target audiences, key<br />
competitors, and current and previous public relations activities. I also ask them to send<br />
any existing plans, market research, or other promotional and press materials that are not<br />
readily available on their websites. This material is posted online for the students.<br />
In addition, I ask clients their preferred means <strong>of</strong> contact and receive their<br />
permission to have students meet with them face to face and tour their facilities, if<br />
appropriate. I personally schedule the in-class presentations on campus. I also follow up<br />
by e-mail and send driving directions and campus maps, and make follow-up calls to<br />
reconfirm. Clients receive the written proposal the day before the presentation. For the inclass<br />
presentation, clients fill out a one-page evaluation form to write comments and<br />
notes during the presentation. Clients are asked to rank the recommendations on a scale<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1 to 10, with optional comments, as well as to respond to open-ended questions on<br />
which recommendations were most on target and if they have any other comments to<br />
share with the teams.<br />
242
Assignment Structure<br />
Client Selection<br />
Students are given the opportunity to select their preferred client and team<br />
members. They are provided with information on the client’s public relations objectives,<br />
assets, and challenges, and then are asked to rank their client selection—from one to<br />
six—and to indicate which classmates they would like to partner with for teams <strong>of</strong> five to<br />
six students. I also provide them with the client’s websites, so they can spend more time<br />
investigating the organizations. First choices are given to seniors. In most cases, I find<br />
that students easily choose their account teams and preferred clients, while others have no<br />
preference. Their final rankings are handed in during the next class. I then allocate team<br />
assignments and presentation dates.<br />
Planning Resources<br />
Students are encouraged to put themselves in the client’s place and try to write the<br />
plan with all the necessary information for the client to evaluate their recommendations—<br />
and to inspire the client to approve the plan and grant the public relations agency the<br />
account, as if this were a real-life new business presentation. I share with students<br />
examples <strong>of</strong> real-world and student proposals—and discuss best practices on public<br />
relations planning. Students are provided with guidelines on how to write and format a<br />
proposal, covering the title page, table <strong>of</strong> contents, executive summary, situation analysis,<br />
objectives, target audiences and media, strategy, tactics, timetable, measurement and<br />
evaluation, budget (out-<strong>of</strong>-pocket expenditures), about the “agency”/biographies <strong>of</strong> the<br />
“staff,” and supplemental material/appendix. Samples <strong>of</strong> proposals, tip sheets, and a<br />
check list are posted online.<br />
I also prepare them to conduct the in-class presentations with the clients, covering<br />
how to write and design PowerPoints, tips on body language and appropriate attire, and<br />
how to conduct a question-and-answer session. Tips and examples <strong>of</strong> PowerPoints also<br />
are posted online. If students want to rehearse in the classroom, I will make arrangements<br />
for them to have access to the classroom.<br />
To help students develop critical-thinking skills, I have found Bean’s Engaging<br />
Ideas (2001) to be an excellent resource on strategies to help me improve student writing,<br />
small group collaboration and “teacher’s role as a coach” (Bean, p. 121) in active<br />
learning environments.<br />
Timing<br />
Account teams are assembled by the eighth week <strong>of</strong> the 17-week semester, after<br />
the classes have covered many <strong>of</strong> the core fundamentals with case study analyses<br />
underway. Approximately eight class sessions are dedicated to team meetings, including<br />
discussions on proposal development and presentation skills. I spend time with each team<br />
during these class sessions to monitor their progress, review drafts, and answer any<br />
questions. I also encourage each team to meet with me during my <strong>of</strong>fice hours or at<br />
another scheduled time. Client presentations are held at the end <strong>of</strong> the semester in the<br />
classrooms. Presentation teams have 50 minutes to cover the public relations proposal<br />
and initiate a question-and-answer session with the client. Non-presenting students also<br />
are encouraged to ask questions. During the 2.5-hour class sessions during finals week,<br />
each account team critiques the proposal prepared by the other class for the same client<br />
by filling out an evaluation form.<br />
243
Deliverables<br />
The assignment requires three deliverables: a public relations proposal; an in-class<br />
presentation to the client with a PowerPoint presentation with creative samples; and peer<br />
evaluations. An electronic version <strong>of</strong> the public relations proposal is due 24 hours prior to<br />
the presentation to both the client and pr<strong>of</strong>essor. Two bound, four-color proposals are<br />
distributed on the day <strong>of</strong> the presentation. The PowerPoint presentation with brief<br />
bulleted points and imagery serves as a visual guide during their in-class presentation to<br />
the client. Students also create other props or samples <strong>of</strong> tactics indicated in their<br />
recommendations, such as releases, press kit materials, brochures, social media, websites,<br />
or other documents, which help illustrate their ideas. PowerPoints and any supplemental<br />
materials also are posted online the day <strong>of</strong> the presentation. Peer evaluations are handed<br />
in by the end <strong>of</strong> the last class on finals week. Over the past year, I added a final<br />
evaluation <strong>of</strong> the public relations plan prepared by the other class for the same client.<br />
Evaluation<br />
The project is graded for the following components: addressing public relations<br />
solutions to meet the client’s specific challenges, needs, and goals (25%); demonstrating<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> public relations planning, audience, media, research, strategies, tactics,<br />
measurement, timetable, and out-<strong>of</strong>-pocket budget (25%); writing the PR proposal with<br />
clarity and confidence, including careful grammar, pro<strong>of</strong>reading, editing, and consistency<br />
in formatting (25%); and presenting the plan in class and answering questions from the<br />
client and audience (25%). The proposal and presentation comprise 35% <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
grade for the class, including an additional 5% for peer evaluations. The evaluation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
other proposal counts for an additional 10%. Each team is provided with written feedback<br />
with my evaluation, including a selection <strong>of</strong> the most useful comments from the client<br />
and the other student team.<br />
Challenges<br />
The major challenge I have encountered over the past four years has been team<br />
dynamics, in which a few students faced problems producing high-quality work within<br />
the team’s allotted deadlines. During my first year, I started with four teams <strong>of</strong> up to eight<br />
students and expanded to six teams with five to six members, which has resulted in fewer<br />
team management problems. Although I provide tips on team dynamics and<br />
brainstorming and also will meet with the concerned team members and provide counsel,<br />
I try to avoid serving as the liaison unless the student team is unable to resolve the<br />
conflict. Learning how to work with people is an invaluable skill for students to acquire.<br />
In the real world, they will most likely put together proposals in large teams—some<br />
requiring input from multiple <strong>of</strong>fices in the U.S. and abroad. Most student teams,<br />
however, collaborate successfully to achieve a final product that they are proud <strong>of</strong>.<br />
Earlier in the process, I had encountered a few clients who were disappointed with<br />
the end result. I learned quickly to set clearer expectation levels in writing and by phone.<br />
I also developed and continue to update a questionnaire for the clients to provide useful<br />
information to guide the students. This process requires more <strong>of</strong> my time upfront, but it is<br />
worthwhile to establish a rapport, understand the client’s public relations objectives, and<br />
obtain useful resources for the students. I also recommend that client presentations be<br />
held in back-to-back classes since this format gives the clients two different<br />
recommendations and creative solutions.<br />
244
Conclusion<br />
Integrating real-world clients in the classroom is a win-win proposition for all<br />
concerned. Students gain real-world experience while acquiring valuable skills to learn<br />
how to solve problems and how to create, write and present a public relations proposal.<br />
Organizations receive free public relations recommendations that can be adapted for<br />
actual use—and they also learn more about the “digital generation,” which is a target<br />
market that many organizations are trying to reach.<br />
Real-world proposals and presentations make the introductory public relations<br />
class more dynamic and interactive. Student evaluations continue to be positive with<br />
enthusiastic commentary, such as “the final presentation was a great simulation <strong>of</strong> a real<br />
PR pitch and it taught me so much,” “made me want to continue learning about PR,” and<br />
“incorporated relevant real-life experience.”<br />
The public relations plan also has a lifespan beyond the classroom since it serves<br />
as a creative sample for students to add to their portfolios for interviewing for internships<br />
and entry-level positions. Students who use e-portfolios also post the proposals to<br />
demonstrate their creativity and teamwork. Many students have told me that the<br />
proposals impressed their prospective employers—and helped them receive an <strong>of</strong>fer for a<br />
job or internship. Some classroom clients also have become real-life opportunities for<br />
students to serve as public relations interns, many <strong>of</strong> them in paid internships. In some<br />
cases, the creative samples presented in the classroom resulted in paid freelance<br />
assignments for the students.<br />
References<br />
Aldoory, L. & Wrigley, B. (2000). Exploring the use <strong>of</strong> real clients in the PR campaigns<br />
course. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, Winter, 46-58.<br />
Bean, J.C. (2001). Engaging ideas: The pr<strong>of</strong>essor’s guide to integrating writing, critical<br />
thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass,<br />
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.<br />
Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University (1998).<br />
Reinventing undergraduate education: A blueprint for <strong>America</strong>’s research<br />
institutions. Retrieved from http://naples.cc.sunysb.edu/Pres/boyer.nsf/.<br />
Commission on <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Education (2006, November). The pr<strong>of</strong>essional bond –<br />
public relations education and the practice. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.commpred.org/_uploads/report2-full.pdf.<br />
Daugherty, E. (2003). Service-learning integration in a public relations program<br />
pedagogy for enhanced learning. AEJMC Teaching <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Monograph,<br />
Winter, 58.<br />
245
The Facilitation and Evaluation <strong>of</strong> Meaningful International Internships<br />
James M. Haney, Ph.D.<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Wisconsin – Stevens Point<br />
jhaney@uwsp.edu<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essors and industry pr<strong>of</strong>essionals have long cited the value <strong>of</strong> meaningful<br />
internships for college students. The number <strong>of</strong> students completing internships has<br />
grown substantially in recent years. The National Association <strong>of</strong> Colleges and<br />
Universities found in 2008 that 50 percent <strong>of</strong> all graduating students completed<br />
internships, up from only 17 percent reported in a 1992 Northwestern University study.<br />
(1) With many schools stressing the value <strong>of</strong> international study experiences as a way for<br />
students to broaden their worldview and build their skill sets to compete in a global<br />
economy, the possibility <strong>of</strong> pursuing internships in a foreign country has great appeal.<br />
A traditional internship program presents academic challenges for supervisors<br />
whether students are working on campus or in local communities. When students are<br />
interning in another country thousands <strong>of</strong> miles from their home institution, the internship<br />
coordinator faces even more potential problems. The challenges include: 1) finding<br />
quality placements where students can test their communication skills and learn more<br />
about the public relations field; 2) screening potential interns to ensure that only well<br />
qualified students are placed abroad; 3) preparing students for the unique work conditions<br />
they will face in a foreign land; 4) complying with immigration and visa policies, laws<br />
and regulations; 5) providing meaningful support and lifelines to assist students working<br />
in another country in case <strong>of</strong> unforeseen circumstances; and 6) securing substantial<br />
academic evidence <strong>of</strong> student work in order to assess and grade internships responsibly.<br />
This paper details the experience <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Wisconsin – Stevens Point<br />
(UWSP) in conducting an international internship program In London, England, for the<br />
last six years (from 2005-<strong>2010</strong>). UWSP has 9,200 students and has been running<br />
successful international programs since 1969. The university traditionally has been a<br />
strong performer in international opportunities with about 20 percent <strong>of</strong> all students<br />
participating in a study abroad experience. According to the most recent survey by the<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> International Education, UWSP ranked 18 th in the country among master’s<br />
institutions in sending undergraduate students abroad. (2)<br />
Though UWSP has wanted to provide international internships for many years,<br />
the university didn’t commence its foreign internship program until 2005. After six years<br />
<strong>of</strong> experience with the program, it is possible to report on some <strong>of</strong> the successes and<br />
challenges the program has experienced. The focus <strong>of</strong> this paper is to establish some best<br />
practices for other schools that might consider international placements in the future.<br />
Special guidance is provided to communication faculty who must supervise public<br />
relations interns abroad.<br />
Initial Barriers<br />
English is spoken widely in many parts <strong>of</strong> the world, but it is difficult for interns<br />
to work in many countries without true pr<strong>of</strong>iciency in the local language. UWSP has<br />
explored placing interns in a number <strong>of</strong> countries where its students study, but too few<br />
communication majors are fluent in the languages they would need for successful<br />
placements in many parts <strong>of</strong> the world. Working effectively in an internship setting<br />
246
equires true fluency in the host country’s language. Rudimentary language skills are not<br />
sufficient for serving clients in the workplace.<br />
Since its inception in 2005, 208 UWSP students have held internships in the UK.<br />
Sixty <strong>of</strong> those students have been communication majors. In fact, over 35 percent <strong>of</strong> all<br />
the university’s students participating in the London internship program (73 students)<br />
have come from the Division <strong>of</strong> Communication in either its communication or arts<br />
management majors. Both majors have well established U.S. based internship<br />
opportunities. Students are encouraged to pursue work experiences in both the U.S. and<br />
London. Though students may receive up to eight credits for domestic internships, only<br />
three count for the communication major. Students also can earn an additional six credits<br />
for a London internship, but only three <strong>of</strong> those credits count for the 40-credit<br />
communication major thereby ensuring that they are taking a substantial number <strong>of</strong><br />
traditional courses in their major.<br />
Finding Placements<br />
Though a number <strong>of</strong> UWSP communication pr<strong>of</strong>essors have established contacts<br />
with industry pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in London, creating an international internship program with<br />
those few placement possibilities was not a viable option. The university pursued a<br />
relationship with Anglo <strong>America</strong>n Educational Services (AAES), a British based<br />
organization which supplies assistance to numerous North <strong>America</strong>n schools involved in<br />
foreign study programs. UWSP’s London program relies on AAES to identify and secure<br />
placements based on the student’s interests and skills. The organization also arranges<br />
placement interviews for students, conducts an on-site visit <strong>of</strong> the intern, provides an<br />
orientation program for student interns when they arrive in London and serves as a<br />
lifeline in case students experience problems with their placements. AAES also<br />
distributes and collects the final evaluation forms UWSP wants work supervisors to<br />
complete as they assess the interns.<br />
Communication placements have included positions at Bell Pottinger, Monro &<br />
Forster Communications, Premier PR, Brand Republic, Resonate, InterContinental Hotels<br />
& Resorts, Chase PR, the London bureau <strong>of</strong> NBC News, AP Radio London, Bang On PR<br />
and Waterwise (a substantial NGO). Arts Management majors have benefited from<br />
placements with organizations such as the British Museum, the English National Opera<br />
and Royal Festival Hall.<br />
Though a larger university might be able to place a full-time internship<br />
coordinator in London, UWSP, which typically has some eight to 20 interns abroad<br />
during the same term, cannot do that. Because <strong>of</strong> their extensive contacts, utilizing a firm<br />
such as AAES gives UWSP students a wide range <strong>of</strong> impressive placement options.<br />
Screening Interns<br />
The university needs to screen internship candidates carefully. Improper<br />
screening can result in students assuming positions that are a bad match for their needs<br />
and skill sets. The Division <strong>of</strong> Communication at UWSP requires applicants for London<br />
internships to be seniors with an overall GPA <strong>of</strong> at least 2.75 (on a 4 point scale) and<br />
should have at least a 3.0 average for coursework in their major. Though these standards<br />
are useful requirements to employ, screenings also should include at least two other<br />
factors. First, students must be recommended in writing by their academic advisor.<br />
Second, students must be interviewed and approved for the experience by the internship<br />
director. Considerations that weigh heavily in the interview process are student<br />
247
achievements in and out <strong>of</strong> the classroom (grades received, extracurricular<br />
accomplishments and other work experience), the types <strong>of</strong> courses a student has taken<br />
and the personal goals they have for the internship. The university’s international<br />
programs <strong>of</strong>fice also requires interns to provide three reference letters (one from their<br />
academic advisor, another by a pr<strong>of</strong>essor, and the third by someone who knows the<br />
student well).<br />
Students sometimes try to qualify for the experience before they have had the<br />
coursework they need to be successful in the internship assignment. For example, a<br />
student who hasn’t taken the advanced public relations writing class is a poor candidate<br />
for a PR placement. Sometimes, juniors hope to go abroad before they have had the<br />
proper training and experiences to qualify for London. A student’s application and<br />
transcript can be reviewed carefully during an interview to ferret out weak candidates.<br />
Student Orientation<br />
Preparing the student for the international experience is also an important<br />
consideration. The orientation for UWSP students takes place in several ways. The<br />
international programs <strong>of</strong>fice provides a group orientation session on campus with all<br />
students planning to take part in the internship program. When students arrive in<br />
London, another orientation session is <strong>of</strong>fered by AAES.<br />
The division’s internship director also counsels students one-on-one during the<br />
personal interview session. Topics covered in this conversation include how to<br />
communicate with your work supervisor, advice on taking advantage <strong>of</strong> the great<br />
opportunities London provides and how to prepare for the high cost <strong>of</strong> living they will<br />
experience. Since many UWSP students come from small towns in the Midwest, alerting<br />
them to the conditions they will face and giving them a chance to ask questions and<br />
address their fears one-on-one is critical. Students are reminded during the interview that<br />
they have been selected for an elite program and they must live up to the high standards<br />
expected <strong>of</strong> them as ambassadors <strong>of</strong> the university and the United States.<br />
Most students also take part in a two-week study tour <strong>of</strong> the European continent<br />
prior to their arrival in London. This gives the interns and other students participating in<br />
the university’s traditional semester abroad program in the UK a chance to bond before<br />
entering the workplace and see other areas <strong>of</strong> Europe.<br />
Legal Considerations<br />
Students working abroad must comply with U.S. and British laws. Passport and<br />
visa requirements must be met. This process has become more rigorous since 9/11. A<br />
state criminal history background check and a retinal eye exam are required <strong>of</strong> all interns.<br />
UWSP students also must enroll in a comprehensive insurance policy that covers all<br />
university students studying abroad.<br />
Students working in London prior to 2009 could earn 12 academic credits for fulltime<br />
work (40 hours per week) for 12 weeks, or 10 credits when working fulltime during<br />
10 weeks in the summer, British law changed last year. Now U.S. students are restricted<br />
to part-time employment (only 20 hours per week). (3) Interns now can earn six<br />
academic credits for their work assignments (usually serving as interns three days per<br />
week). All are required to take other academic courses while in London. A course in<br />
British life and culture and courses that give students a chance to learn from the<br />
outstanding museums and entertainment <strong>of</strong>ferings in the city are frequently provided.<br />
Interns can take some <strong>of</strong> their courses with traditional UWSP study abroad students<br />
248
living in London. Because visa and other travel policies are constantly changing, relying<br />
on the university’s international programs <strong>of</strong>fice and/or a pr<strong>of</strong>essional educational<br />
services firm to stay current on the applicable regulations is highly advisable.<br />
Meaningful Support and Lifelines<br />
UWSP tries to provide a number <strong>of</strong> useful support mechanisms for student interns<br />
working in London. First, they can contact the division internship director via e-mail or<br />
telephone. This lifeline is appropriate for questions about academic requirements or<br />
issues related to communicating in the workplace. Second, contacts at AAES and the<br />
university’s international programs <strong>of</strong>fice are available to help with emergencies or<br />
worksite placement issues. A third safety net is provided by a UWSP faculty member<br />
who is leading the traditional semester abroad program in London. The faculty member,<br />
who is usually not in the communication discipline, resides with the other UWSP<br />
students and the interns at the International Students House near Regents Park in London<br />
and can provide important guidance for students with questions or concerns. Though this<br />
lifeline exists during the fall and spring semesters, summer interns usually do not have a<br />
UWSP faculty member on site.<br />
Sending students to a foreign country without appropriate lifelines could be<br />
disastrous. Even good students can encounter questions and problems when they are in a<br />
different culture so providing reliable sources when help is needed is important. If your<br />
university can have full-time staff in London, that would be ideal. If that is impossible,<br />
other forms <strong>of</strong> valuable support can be developed.<br />
Evaluating Academic Performance in an Internship<br />
When interns are thousands <strong>of</strong> miles away, it is impractical to have frequent, if<br />
any, firsthand observations <strong>of</strong> the students in action. That doesn’t preclude meaningful<br />
evaluations to help the internship coordinator assign a grade. The UWSP communication<br />
and arts management internships provide students a written course syllabus just like any<br />
other class. The internship coordinator seeks four types <strong>of</strong> evidence when assessing the<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> the interns.<br />
All students must maintain a journal from the time <strong>of</strong> their arrival in London until<br />
the conclusion <strong>of</strong> the internship. Journal entries should be made regularly – either daily<br />
or once every two or three days. Students are asked to document what they are doing,<br />
how they feel about the experience and how they are adapting to workplaces and living<br />
conditions. The first half <strong>of</strong> the journal is e-mailed to the division’s internship director<br />
about midway through the term and the second half is submitted at the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
semester.<br />
Students are required to provide a few examples <strong>of</strong> the work they produced during<br />
their internships. Some have more examples <strong>of</strong> work products to share than others.<br />
Nevertheless, all have a few items they can submit for documentation <strong>of</strong> the contributions<br />
they made in their jobs.<br />
As the internship concludes, students must write and submit a 4-6 page reflection<br />
paper on the experience. The paper assesses the strengths and weaknesses <strong>of</strong> their<br />
internship and the skills they developed through their assignments. Students also must<br />
discuss how they adjusted to the workplace and how they adapted to the culture.<br />
The final form <strong>of</strong> assessment data is in the form <strong>of</strong> two evaluations. One is<br />
usually provided by a UWSP pr<strong>of</strong>essor or international programs <strong>of</strong>ficial who visits the<br />
intern and his or her supervisor midway through the term. This report is a quick<br />
249
summary <strong>of</strong> how the student appears to be doing. The more important evaluation<br />
document is the final review provided by their workplace supervisors. These evaluations<br />
assess the student through 16 questions on a six point scale on subjects such as<br />
attendance, creativity, communication skills, demeanor and their abilities to work with<br />
clients and the public. Supervisors provide an overall assessment <strong>of</strong> the intern on a scale<br />
<strong>of</strong> zero to five (five being outstanding). The form also seeks comments from supervisors<br />
to explain their ratings. Some supervisors provide more detail than others, but all <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
a clear indication <strong>of</strong> how the student performed.<br />
Final Thoughts<br />
The vast majority <strong>of</strong> UWSP students who have completed internships in London<br />
have found the experience to be highly rewarding and consistently site supervisors say<br />
they appreciated the work ethic and skill sets the students demonstrated on the job. The<br />
few interns who have not excelled were either unclear about the kind <strong>of</strong> placement they<br />
desired and were matched with an inappropriate position, or experienced personal<br />
problems while abroad (such as long distance relationship troubles).<br />
Administering an internship program is not easy and requires a strong team effort<br />
with an internship director, international programs <strong>of</strong>fice and placement service that work<br />
well together. Commitment to academic rigor, clear screening processes, appropriate<br />
orientations, a solid support network for the students and substantial academic evidence<br />
for evaluation at the end <strong>of</strong> the experience also are vital. If well constructed, an<br />
international internship can provide students valuable work experience and some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
critical skill sets needed to compete in a global society.<br />
Steven Greenhouse, “The Unpaid Intern, Legal or Not,” The New York Times, April 2,<br />
<strong>2010</strong>, p. B1.<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> International Education, “Open Doors 2008 – Report on International<br />
Educational Exchange: Table 28B,” available at http://opendoors.iienetwork.org.<br />
UK Border Agency Home Office, available at http://www.ukba.home<strong>of</strong>fice.gov.uk.<br />
250
Using the Case Study approach to analyze crisis communication practices by<br />
Emergency Management Association volunteers in a small community: An engaged<br />
learning experience<br />
Ann D. Jabro, Ph.D.<br />
Robert Morris University<br />
jabro@rmu.edu<br />
The Problem<br />
It was early when the freezing snow began to blanket the town. Sidewalks, streets<br />
and lawns intersected; void <strong>of</strong> distinguishing features. Temperatures dipped below zero.<br />
Howling winds whirled snow like a tornado flashes across a barren field. Excited<br />
homebound children chattered about building snowmen, parents checked to see if they<br />
had enough milk and bread to sustain the storm. Some townspeople were alone -<br />
concerned they would be unable to manage the aftermath <strong>of</strong> the big storm. Newscasters<br />
shared weather warnings and asked listeners and viewers to stay <strong>of</strong>f the roads and keep<br />
warm. Power outages throughout the county and in the tiny borough <strong>of</strong> 5,000 wreaked<br />
havoc. Twelve hours <strong>of</strong> no electricity, sub-zero temperatures, and a broken plow altered a<br />
community’s ability to protect its own. Power companies indicated that some sections <strong>of</strong><br />
the county could be without power for two to three days. To address the community’s<br />
more than 40% elderly population who had been sharing their concerns with the 9-1-1<br />
operator, the Emergency Management Team was activated and assembled to relocate<br />
residents without power to warmer and safer accommodations. The emergency response<br />
plan was activated and emergency responders braved the dangerous conditions on snow<br />
mobiles, ATV’s, skis, and in 4-wheel drive trucks. The plan unfolded as scripted:<br />
residents were rescued and taken to the appropriate locations only to find their keepers<br />
were ill-informed about their roles and responsibilities and thus, incapable to performing<br />
their specific duties. The emergency plan lacked clarity with respect to the specific<br />
actions necessary for the second level responders’ to perform effectively. While the first<br />
tier <strong>of</strong> emergency response worked like a charm, the training opportunities and<br />
coordination <strong>of</strong> services after that tier was lacking. A crisis situation with the potential to<br />
scar the untarnished reputation <strong>of</strong> emergency response efforts in general and emergency<br />
responders specifically, in the community emerged. This crisis was rich with analysis<br />
from a public relations, organizational communication and crisis communication<br />
perspective.<br />
The Course<br />
This paper presents a service learning project performed by graduate students<br />
enrolled in the course, “Case Studies in Communications and Information Systems.” The<br />
project was designed to <strong>of</strong>fer students an experiential learning opportunity that integrated<br />
course content from three separate areas: The first content area was Grunig’s “Excellence<br />
Theory” which has been consolidated to eight principles by Bowen (2005): 1) value <strong>of</strong><br />
communication; 2) contribution to strategic organizational functions; 3) perform the<br />
management role; 4) use the two-way symmetrical model <strong>of</strong> public relations; 5) potential<br />
to practice the ideal model; 6) activism as positive energy; 7) organizational culture and<br />
structure; and 8) diversity as a strength. The second content area was general crisis<br />
framed using Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Benoit, 1995; Benson, 1988;<br />
Coombs, 1995; Hearit, 1994) which posits characteristics <strong>of</strong> the crisis situation determine<br />
251
the appropriate response strategy. The third area <strong>of</strong> synthesis was the organizational<br />
problems dimensions using Bolman and Deal’s (2007), Reframing Organizations. The<br />
authors’ establish four frames through which an organization can be analyzed: structure,<br />
situation, culture and political. After students read the appropriate texts, discussed the<br />
theory/information in class and demonstrated comprehension <strong>of</strong> the content, an<br />
application exercise was designed to provide opportunities for students to link content to<br />
practice. These exercises served as a prelude to the actual course task.<br />
The Task<br />
The instructor worked with a service-learning community partner on numerous<br />
projects. She was made aware <strong>of</strong> the crisis and asked if her students wanted to assist the<br />
community with understanding what happened in the emergency response effort that<br />
rendered volunteers ill-prepared as well as how to avoid the situation in the future. After<br />
contemplation and assessment <strong>of</strong> how the task would benefit students, support sound<br />
pedagogy and complement the theoretical framework and readings in the course, the<br />
instructor approached the class, comprised <strong>of</strong> adults who worked fulltime, to request<br />
permission to pursue an analysis <strong>of</strong> the situation using the aforementioned theoretical<br />
base. Students agreed unanimously that application <strong>of</strong> theory and information was their<br />
desired course <strong>of</strong> action. Comments in students’ journals are best summarized by this<br />
quote: “This was an amazing experience and a really interesting way to learn theory and<br />
apply it to a situation that will benefit me personally for years to come as well as the<br />
community.” An additional goal <strong>of</strong> enhancing students’ appreciation for research was<br />
realized when the students expressed interest in preparing the results for presentation at a<br />
conference.<br />
The Outcome<br />
According to Creswell (2007), case study research involves the study <strong>of</strong> an issue<br />
explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (p.73). The bounded system<br />
or setting was the specific response effort attempted on that cold day in January <strong>of</strong> <strong>2010</strong>.<br />
Observations, interviews, audiovisual material, documents and reports were data that<br />
contributed to the analysis <strong>of</strong> the case. After the instructor provided instruction on case<br />
study methodology, primary research was performed using depth interviews with 5<br />
individuals from the community representing both primary and secondary response<br />
efforts. Secondary research included analysis <strong>of</strong> the community’s emergency response<br />
plan, library research on the local, state and federal emergency response guidelines, a<br />
rigorous review <strong>of</strong> academic and popular publications on emergency response and an<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> excellence theory, situational crisis communication theory and Bolman and<br />
Deal’s organizational frames. There were six students in the course. Each was assigned a<br />
different component <strong>of</strong> research collection and analysis: history <strong>of</strong> the community,<br />
federal emergency management guidelines, state emergency management guidelines, and<br />
local response efforts, and analysis <strong>of</strong> the community’s emergency plan.<br />
Students made oral presentation on the key findings <strong>of</strong> their research and then applied<br />
this knowledge to Excellence Theory, Situational Crisis Communication Theory and<br />
Bolman and Dean’s frames. Each student presented another oral presentation <strong>of</strong> their<br />
analysis which led to significant discussion and consensus.<br />
Results<br />
After thorough analysis <strong>of</strong> the data and reflection <strong>of</strong> course content, the students<br />
concluded the first tier <strong>of</strong> the emergency response plan was effective. However, second<br />
252
tier responders hadn’t participated in drills or been called to act in the past and were<br />
unaware <strong>of</strong> the specific responsibilities they held. For example, emergency responders<br />
were to rescue those in need and bring them to the High School to sleep and eat. While<br />
the second tier responder understood he was to be at the High School, he was unaware<br />
that he was responsible for obtaining the beds, setting them up and ordering food for<br />
those in his shelter. Further, there was a lack <strong>of</strong> communication between first tier and<br />
second tier responders when the transition began. A second tier responder stated, “I never<br />
felt so incompetent. I represented an organization devoted to helping others, but I didn’t<br />
understand the magnitude <strong>of</strong> my role. I didn’t prepare.”<br />
The following assessments were made regarding the tenets <strong>of</strong> Excellence Theory as<br />
they relate to emergency response efforts in this community:<br />
1) value <strong>of</strong> communication - limited to a restricted group focused on one tier <strong>of</strong><br />
emergency management; 2) contribution to strategic organizational functions – not<br />
observed beyond first tier responders. Because second tier responders didn’t participate<br />
in emergency drills, they had no voice; 3) perform the management role - FEMA<br />
establishes a structure that is mimicked by PEMA. The structure is utilized at the local<br />
level, but doesn’t require scaled-up drills; 4) use the two-way symmetrical model <strong>of</strong><br />
public relations - emergency management personnel are not effective public relations<br />
practitioners, and support staff performs one-way symmetrical public relations. One<br />
responder commented, “As long as my people understand the goal and deliver on the<br />
goal, we have been effective.” When the researcher asked about the people who weren’t<br />
able to be sheltered in the Emergency Plan’s specified location, he responded, “That’s not<br />
my problem. We did what we were supposed to do; someone else can figure that out. My<br />
people responded and we have established contacts that work to cover our backs.” The<br />
Fire Chief commented, “This is a highly complex process. We perform our job and who<br />
has oversight for the other emergency responders’ role is out <strong>of</strong> our jurisdiction.” 5)<br />
potential to practice the ideal model - There was limited potential because the second tier<br />
responders are not organized and had no voice; 6) activism as positive energy - The<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> the response effort is the first effort by second tier responders to address the<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> inclusion in the emergency management process; 7) organizational culture and<br />
structure – see Bolman and Deal analysis; and 8) diversity as a strength - The local<br />
emergency response team is a bonded group <strong>of</strong> males who have been together for years.<br />
They interact and support other emergency responders in neighboring communities. As<br />
was <strong>of</strong>ten mentioned, “We deal with the specifics <strong>of</strong> the plan; we don’t worry about the<br />
external community during a response.” The emergency management coordinator was<br />
focused on performing a response effort according to the plan. The only reputation he<br />
appeared interested in preserving was that <strong>of</strong> his volunteer responders. He discussed the<br />
array <strong>of</strong> crises types he managed on a regular basis: victim, accidental and preventable.<br />
He and his support team consistently discussed the reinforcing strategies they employed<br />
during and after each crisis. “When the bodies are bagged and we’ve taken a head count<br />
<strong>of</strong> our own and find that we all made it, we’re content with the job we’ve done.”<br />
An analysis <strong>of</strong> Bolman and Deal’s framing conventions supported the following:<br />
adhocracy for the structural frame; ecosystems embedded in multi-level external systems<br />
(FEMA, PEMA, LEPC) for the political frame, responders needs are met at the first tier<br />
response level and the group is cohesive while second tier responders are disjointed<br />
describe the analysis <strong>of</strong> the human resources frame, and myths <strong>of</strong> emergency responders<br />
253
eing unstoppable and an exclusive group <strong>of</strong> highly trained and specialized individuals<br />
characterizes the cultural frame.<br />
Best Practices were identified as training for second tier responders such as<br />
representatives from local churches, schools, and the Salvation Army. The training is<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered free through the <strong>America</strong>n Red Cross.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Pedagogy/Service-learning assessment<br />
Graduate students embraced this experience, worked independently and<br />
collaboratively while developing an area <strong>of</strong> expertise with respect to emergency response<br />
and course content. Each student made two oral presentations <strong>of</strong> their findings and the<br />
class reached consensus on the perspectives presented in this paper. The instructor<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered on-going and regular feedback to perfect the process and the product. The final<br />
product was presented to the emergency management coordinator and the response<br />
community which generated open dialogue and opportunities for community residents to<br />
understand the impact <strong>of</strong> volunteer work and the intricate nature <strong>of</strong> emergency response.<br />
Students indicated the experience was positive, interesting, engaging and a perfect<br />
opportunity to learn public relations, communications and information systems theory in<br />
a challenging and meaningful context. This project was completed in an 8-week semester<br />
and required intense supervision and occasional use <strong>of</strong> class time. The instructor believes<br />
a 15-week semester would provide for more opportunities to reflect and collect additional<br />
data.<br />
References<br />
Benoit, W.L. (1995). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: a theory <strong>of</strong> image<br />
restoration. Albany: State University <strong>of</strong> New York Press.<br />
Benson, J.A. (1988). Crisis Revisited: An analysis <strong>of</strong> the strategies used by Tylenol in the<br />
second tampering episode. Central States Speech Journal, 38, 49-66<br />
Bolman, L.G. & Deal, T.E. (2007). Reframing Organizations, Artistry, Choice and<br />
Leadership (4 th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />
Coombs, W.T. (1995).Choosing the right words: The Development <strong>of</strong> guidelines for the<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> the “appropriate” crisis response strategies. Management<br />
Communication Quarterly, 8, 447-476.<br />
Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design, (2 nd ed.). Thousand<br />
Islands, CA: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Grunig, J.E. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management.<br />
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum<br />
Hearit, K.M. (1994, Summer). Apologies and public relations crises at Chrysler, Toshiba,<br />
and Volvo. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 20 113-125.<br />
254
Harnessing the Web for Teaching Writing for the Web:<br />
A New Media Makeover <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Writing Course Pedagogy<br />
Beth A. Kuch and Abbey Blake Levenshus<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Maryland<br />
Bkuch@umd.edu and ABL@umd.edu<br />
New media technologies have exploded in recent years, changing the landscape<br />
for public relations practitioners, educators and students. Social or new media are<br />
generally viewed as Internet-based tools and platforms that allow for user-generated<br />
content and two-way communication. In their fifth annual survey <strong>of</strong> public relations<br />
practitioners, Wright and Hinson (<strong>2010</strong>) found that 85% <strong>of</strong> practitioners reported that<br />
social media had changed the way their organizations communicated. Ninety-nine<br />
percent <strong>of</strong> practitioners stated they interact with some aspect <strong>of</strong> blogs or social media in a<br />
given workday. While public relations practitioners have acknowledged the potential<br />
benefits <strong>of</strong> using new media to achieve organizational public relations objectives, many<br />
report slow adoption and struggling to incorporate new media to its fullest potential<br />
(Avery et al., <strong>2010</strong>; Jo & Kim, 2003; Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007). Today’s students, part <strong>of</strong><br />
the “Millennial generation,” have grown up with the Internet. According to recent<br />
research on Millenials by the Pew Internet and <strong>America</strong>n Life project (Lenhart, Purcell,<br />
Smith, & Zickuhr, <strong>2010</strong>), 93% go online; 72% use social networking sites like Facebook<br />
and MySpace; and a third update their statuses on platforms like Twitter and Facebook.<br />
Despite personal use, students may have little knowledge <strong>of</strong> how to use these platforms<br />
and tools in a strategic organizational capacity.<br />
<strong>Public</strong> relations educators, therefore, face a difficult challenge <strong>of</strong> finding<br />
innovative ways to teach this digital generation (Swalbe, 2009). In addition to pedagogy,<br />
educators are also challenged to update public relations curriculum and course content to<br />
equip students to succeed in the new media infused workplace (Barry, 2005; Gower &<br />
Jung-Yul, 2001). New media skills must not come at the expense <strong>of</strong> core public relations<br />
education tenets such as writing and strategic planning. Even innovative educators face<br />
barriers to making changes, including limited faculty support, funding, equipment, and<br />
time (Davenport, Fico, & DeFleur, 2002; Voakes, Beam, & Ogan, 2003). Some educators<br />
are working to meet the challenges through experiential learning. This paper analyzes<br />
those efforts and <strong>of</strong>fers suggestions for a public relations course focused on writing new<br />
media pieces while using new media to deliver course content.<br />
Method<br />
Using the top three search engines, Google, Yahoo, and MSN/WindowsLive/Bing<br />
(The Nielsen Company, <strong>2010</strong>), we searched for syllabi for college courses focusing on<br />
public relations and new media. The search terms included “public relations,” “syllabus,<br />
“social media” and “new media.” The top 100 links found by each search engine were<br />
evaluated to determine if it linked to a full syllabus, which included lecture topics for a<br />
communication course with a significant focus on social media. “Communication<br />
courses” were identified as public relations, journalism, or mass communication. A<br />
“significant focus” was demonstrated by having more than two class sessions discussing<br />
new media. The search resulted in 11 syllabi for courses taught between Summer 2009<br />
and Spring <strong>2010</strong> or scheduled to be taught in Fall <strong>2010</strong> at U.S. universities. A content<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> the syllabi was performed to determine if course objectives, lecture topics and<br />
255
coursework covered the core public relations skills, specifically writing.<br />
Results<br />
The syllabi provided a range <strong>of</strong> examples from focusing primarily on journalism<br />
to concentrating on public relations to centering on media and mass communication.<br />
Course titles included “Social Media Skills for Journalists,” “Social Media for <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong>,” and “Social Media Communication, Community, and Literacy.” The<br />
objectives for eight syllabi (three did not list objectives) were analyzed for core public<br />
relations skills, including understanding the tools, writing, and strategic application.<br />
Objectives in eight syllabi focused on tool knowledge, including “to understand the social<br />
media environment” and to be able to answer “what is social media?”. Objectives<br />
centered on writing were found in three courses: “to write and edit for online users,” “edit<br />
your own writing for online use,” and “applying selected social media writing<br />
techniques.” Five syllabi had a strategy objective, including “understand[ing] the<br />
strategic PR functions social media can perform,” “strategies for using the internet as a<br />
platform to communicate through multiple channels with consistent messages,” and<br />
“understand[ing] strategies for successfully using social media in both proactive and<br />
reactive situations.”<br />
Lecture topics were categorized into nine categories. The level <strong>of</strong> detail <strong>of</strong> each<br />
lecture varied across syllabi. Each <strong>of</strong> the 340 lecture topics was singularly categorized<br />
based on the lecture topic listed. Tools were listed 146 times, the most out <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
categories. Strategies to use new media were listed the second highest at 102. Writing<br />
was only listed 13 times as a lecture topic. Other topics included trends (24), career<br />
development (23), ethics (15), measurement (9), strengths and weaknesses <strong>of</strong> new media<br />
(4), and concepts (4).<br />
The most common assignment in the syllabi involved students participating in an<br />
online conversation through a blog. They were required to post comments and respond to<br />
others’ posts or comments about in-class discussions, readings, social media and public<br />
relations, students’ interests, and career issues. Depending on the class, students were<br />
required to participate in a private class blog, create a personal blog, or comment on<br />
public blogs. Other assignments that appeared in multiple syllabi included using Twitter,<br />
audio (podcast)/video development, social media audits and monitoring, social media<br />
strategic plans, and online portfolios/resumes.<br />
Pedagogy tools that were used to deliver course content primarily were class<br />
blogs, wikis, and class intranets such as Blackboard. One unique method that instructors<br />
used was to hold virtual <strong>of</strong>fice hours through Skype, Wimba Live Classroom or web<br />
conferencing. Additionally Twitter and Del.ici.ous were also incorporated including<br />
using tags to maintain a unique area for course content. Social media sites including<br />
Facebook, LinkedIn and Ning also provided forums for students to develop their skills.<br />
Audio and visual tools did not appear to be popular with the instructors except for the<br />
mention <strong>of</strong> downloading videos from Vimeo.com or podcasts.<br />
Discussion<br />
Although the majority <strong>of</strong> the courses focused on using new media tools and the<br />
strategy associated with public relations, none <strong>of</strong> the classes significantly focused on<br />
creating content or writing for new media. With the Millennial generation already<br />
familiar with many social media tools and their personal use, it seems that public<br />
relations writing courses should focus on creating or critiquing organizational use <strong>of</strong><br />
256
these tools and platforms. With writing only a topic in six <strong>of</strong> the 313 analyzed lectures,<br />
there was an apparent lack <strong>of</strong> focus on new media writing.<br />
While the tools and platforms may change, the critical functions <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations still need to be taught. New media must be integrated into these skill sets and<br />
knowledge bases, rather than as stand-alone “tools” lessons. We argue that new media<br />
writing courses should teach new media writing skills tied to core public relations writing<br />
functions (e.g., strategy planning, crisis management, relationship management,<br />
environmental scanning and research, and execution, etc.). A new media writing course<br />
can focus on how new media help facilitate online conversations with key publics,<br />
develop an organizational voice, and write consistent messages across diverse channels<br />
and platforms. Course content can go beyond press releases to writing for websites,<br />
blogs, and viral videos. Pedagogy can move beyond PowerPoint and incorporate<br />
multimedia user-generated content, course social networking sites, and Skyped-in guest<br />
speakers. Students can critique and analyze organizational messages across platforms like<br />
Facebook fan pages, <strong>of</strong>ficial Web sites, organizational blogs, and Twitter and try their<br />
hands at writing for multiple platforms and strategizing the best platforms for an<br />
organization’s message.<br />
Recommendations<br />
The following recommendations can help build a course that integrates new media in<br />
both course content and delivery for a public relations new media writing course:<br />
Pedagogy objectives:<br />
• Deliver content using new media that engages students<br />
• Model pr<strong>of</strong>essional use <strong>of</strong> new media<br />
• Encourage student experiential learning <strong>of</strong> new media writing<br />
In-class platforms for course delivery:<br />
• Skype for <strong>of</strong>fice hours as well as have non-local guest speakers<br />
• Ning.com or other social networks<br />
• Discussion forum (preferably private) per class section and across all class<br />
sections<br />
• Chat including chat <strong>of</strong>fice hours, in-class exercises, during guest speaker<br />
presentations<br />
• Twitter monitoring<br />
• Videocast and Slidecast presentations<br />
• Wikis and intranets provided by university online classroom s<strong>of</strong>tware such as<br />
Blackboard<br />
Course assignments:<br />
• Presentations on new media tools/platforms focused on organizational uses,<br />
strengths, weaknesses, case examples<br />
• White paper and blog post drawn from presentation material written from a public<br />
relations agency perspective to a potential client<br />
• New media environmental scanning / audit analyzing an organization’s use <strong>of</strong><br />
new media<br />
• Writing translations <strong>of</strong> a standard press release into different new media written<br />
forms (e.g. website content, organizational blog, Facebook post, Twitter update)<br />
• Audio/visual Script that asks students to develop concept and script for a podcast,<br />
online video, webinar, or slidecast<br />
257
• Critique and make strategic recommendations for an organization’s new media<br />
use written from the perspective <strong>of</strong> an external new media consultant<br />
Limitations and Conclusion<br />
A limitation <strong>of</strong> this study is the small number <strong>of</strong> syllabi analyzed. This likely does<br />
not represent the total number <strong>of</strong> social media courses taught. Rather, it may demonstrate<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the challenges faced by instructors in updating curriculum. These courses also<br />
may exist but are not easily found or shared online despite the social media trend <strong>of</strong><br />
generating and sharing content. Pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations like the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
<strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>America</strong>, its Educators Academy, and the Association for Education in<br />
Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) play a critical role in speeding new<br />
media integration into curriculum and pedagogy by creating venues for exchanging best<br />
practices and syllabi, such as the site recently launched by AEJMC<br />
(www.aejmc.blogspot.com) to highlight social media in the classroom. By tying new<br />
media writing skills to core public relations functions and incorporating new media in<br />
pedagogy, instructors can better engage students and prepare them for pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
success.<br />
References<br />
Avery, E., Lariscy, R., Amador, E., Ickowitz, T., Primm, C., & Taylor, A. (<strong>2010</strong>).<br />
Diffusion <strong>of</strong> social media among public relations practitioners in health<br />
departments across various community population sizes. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research, 22(3), 336-358.<br />
Barry, W. (2005). Teaching public relations in the information age: A case study at an<br />
Egyptian university. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 31(3), 355-361.<br />
Davenport, L., Fico, F., & DeFleur, M. (2002). Computer-assisted Reporting in<br />
Classrooms: A Decade <strong>of</strong> Diffusion and a Comparison to Newsrooms. Journalism<br />
& Mass Communication Educator, 57(1), 6-22.<br />
Gower, K., & Jung-Yul, C. (2001). Use <strong>of</strong> the Internet in the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Curriculum. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 56(2), 81-92.<br />
Jo, S., & Kim, Y. (2003). The effect <strong>of</strong> Web characteristics on relationship building.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research, 15, 199–223.<br />
Lenhart, A., Purcell, K., Smith, A., & Zickuhr, K. (<strong>2010</strong>, February 3). Social media and<br />
young adults. Pew Internet & <strong>America</strong>n Life Project, Retrieved from<br />
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/<strong>2010</strong>/Social-Media-and-Young-Adults.aspx<br />
Schwalbe, C. (2009). Leveraging the Digital Media Habits <strong>of</strong> the Millennials: Strategies<br />
for Teaching Journalism Courses. Southwestern Mass Communication Journal,<br />
25(1), 53-68.<br />
Seltzer, T., & Mitrook, M. A. (2007). The dialogic potential <strong>of</strong> weblogs in relationship<br />
building. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, 33, 227-239.<br />
The Nielsen Company (July 13, <strong>2010</strong>). Top U.S. Search Sites for June <strong>2010</strong>. Retrieved<br />
from: http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/online_mobile/top-u-s-search-sites-forjune-<strong>2010</strong>/<br />
Voakes, P., Beam, R., & Ogan, C. (2003). The Impact <strong>of</strong> Technological Change on<br />
Journalism Education: A Survey <strong>of</strong> Faculty and Administrators. Journalism &<br />
Mass Communication Educator, 57(4), 318-334.<br />
Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. (<strong>2010</strong>). An analysis <strong>of</strong> new communication media use in<br />
public relations: Results <strong>of</strong> a five-year trend study. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Journal, 4(2),<br />
258
article 2.<br />
259
The Causal <strong>Relations</strong>hip between Math Apprehension and Curricular Choices<br />
among Communication Students: An Experiment<br />
Alexander Laskin, Ph.D., and Hilary Fussell Sisco, Ph.D.<br />
Quinnipiac University<br />
Alexander.Laskin@quinnipiac.edu and Hilary.FussellSisco@quinnipiac.edu<br />
Student’s communication-related anxiety has been extensively studied in the field<br />
<strong>of</strong> communication. It has been established that this type <strong>of</strong> apprehension affects<br />
students’ performance in the discipline and beyond. On the other hand, there is little<br />
evidence about how communication students are affected by their apprehension <strong>of</strong><br />
mathematics. Since the undergraduate research course has become a standard in the<br />
communication curriculum almost every communication student will encounter some<br />
form <strong>of</strong> math in his or her educational careers.<br />
Apprehension in the classroom encompasses more than just public speaking.<br />
Specifically, a few studies have highlighted the appearance <strong>of</strong> mathematics anxiety in<br />
communication students. Maier and Curtin (2005) proclaimed that students pursued<br />
mass communication studies “in part because they thought they could avoid doing math”<br />
(p. 356). Math apprehension is simply the fear or anxiety associated with approaching<br />
math problems. Scholars believe that one <strong>of</strong> the inherent issues <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong><br />
apprehension is a lack <strong>of</strong> self-efficacy. Students, whether founded or not, believe they<br />
don’t have the capabilities to handle math problems therefore they impede their own<br />
performance. Research (Maier & Curtin, 2005) supports that self-efficacy in<br />
mathematics effects classroom performance, grades, course enrollment and even choice<br />
<strong>of</strong> major. A lack <strong>of</strong> self-efficacy (Richmond & Roach, 1992) has also been shown to limit<br />
student’s educational and career choices. Students may be missing opportunities to excel<br />
in certain fields based on the misperception that they aren’t good at math. This type <strong>of</strong><br />
anxiety needs to be addressed in disciplines that focus on math as well as those that don’t.<br />
Students need to be given the encouragement to expand their opportunities and reduce<br />
their math apprehension.<br />
In their assessment <strong>of</strong> current undergraduate research courses Frey and Botan<br />
(1988) found that the largest problem across the board in teaching the course was<br />
“statistical apprehension/bias” (p. 253). Stacks and Hickson (1992) explain this type <strong>of</strong><br />
anxiety further, in that “many communication students really fear statistics and relate the<br />
research methods course to a statistics course” (p. 353) even though statistics generally<br />
play a minor role in the undergraduate research course. In the research methods course,<br />
statistics is typically supplemental and only emphasized in final analyses. Furthermore,<br />
the statistics covered in this course rarely advances past the basic mathematics skills<br />
students are required to obtain in their general education curriculum. Regardless, Maier<br />
and Curtin (2005) found that “math anxiety is a real and relevant force that needs to be<br />
reckoned with in the research methods course” (p. 357). These authors support the<br />
argument that it is important for instructors to address math apprehension in their<br />
communication courses. Educators need to prepare students for multiple opportunities in<br />
their field. Apprehension in the field <strong>of</strong> communication has primarily been studied either<br />
as a case study (Maier, 2003; Maier & Curtin, 2005) or survey (Frey & Botan, 1988;<br />
Baus & Welch, 2008) with a student sample.<br />
260
Experimental methods may be better suited to measure the impact <strong>of</strong> math anxiety<br />
on student’s educational choices. Stacks explains “experimental designs allow the<br />
researcher the control necessary to precisely specify and manipulate the source or<br />
message characteristics he or she is interested in comparing” (2002, p. 265). This study is<br />
interested in establishing a causal relationship between math anxiety and the choice that<br />
students make in selecting a class or selecting their careers after college.<br />
Simply speaking, we propose that students might avoid a certain pr<strong>of</strong>ession or<br />
specialization simply because they believe it is math intensive and they perceive that they<br />
cannot take such a class, they cannot make a career in such a pr<strong>of</strong>ession, they are not<br />
capable to succeed in such a pr<strong>of</strong>ession and that such pr<strong>of</strong>ession is not a good<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional choice for them. If the math component was removed we believe students<br />
would be more likely to enroll in such a class, pursue a career in such a pr<strong>of</strong>ession, feel<br />
more confident in their capabilities to succeed in such pr<strong>of</strong>ession and perceive such a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession to be more suitable for them.<br />
This study, thus, proposes the following hypotheses:<br />
H1. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to enroll in a<br />
class perceived to be math intensive.<br />
H2. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to pursue a<br />
career in a pr<strong>of</strong>ession perceived to be math intensive.<br />
H3. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to perceive<br />
themselves as more capable <strong>of</strong> succeeding in a pr<strong>of</strong>ession perceived to be math intensive.<br />
H4. After math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to consider a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession perceived to be math intensive as a good choice for them.<br />
To test these hypotheses, the study uses a sub-specialization <strong>of</strong> public relations,<br />
investor relations. The choice <strong>of</strong> investor relations as a pr<strong>of</strong>ession to test these<br />
hypotheses is based on three main reasons. First, there is lack <strong>of</strong> understanding among<br />
students about what investor relations as a pr<strong>of</strong>ession involves. Laskin (2009) reports that<br />
education in investor relations in virtually non-existent – there are no majors or minors in<br />
investor relations, standalone classes in investor relations are largely non-existent, and<br />
even mentions <strong>of</strong> investor relations in corporate communication and public relations<br />
classes are rare. Second, despite this lack <strong>of</strong> education, investor relations as a pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
function has risen as one <strong>of</strong> the top communication functions in modern companies.<br />
Investor relations is the highest paid specialization among all corporate communication<br />
functions, investor relations is <strong>of</strong>ten considered part <strong>of</strong> the top-management team and has<br />
a seat at the table when key decisions are made, and investor relations has a significant<br />
impact on the corporate bottom-line (Laskin, 2007). Finally, there is anecdotal evidence<br />
that students perceive investor relations as a math-intensive and finance-intensive<br />
specialization. Although the research to support this claim does not exist, it would not<br />
hinder the experiment, as the goal <strong>of</strong> such experiment is to identify causal relationship<br />
between variables rather than to describe the static perceptions <strong>of</strong> students about investor<br />
relations as a course or as a pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
Methodology<br />
To test its hypotheses, the study relies on the experimental design. The selection<br />
<strong>of</strong> experiment as a research method for this study is based on the need to prove causality<br />
between math anxiety and students’ choice <strong>of</strong> a class or a career. The study employs<br />
261
classical experiment with pre-test and post-test as well as control and experimental<br />
groups.<br />
The subjects were given a pre-test questionnaire with four questions asking them<br />
how likely they would be to enroll in an investor relations class, how likely they would<br />
be to have a career in investor relations, how likely they would be to consider investor<br />
relations as a good choice for them, and how capable they perceive themselves <strong>of</strong><br />
working in the investor relations field. All the questions were measured on a 10-point<br />
scale with 0 being strongly disagree and 10 being strongly agree. Then, students received<br />
a print-out about investor relations – although, all the print-outs seemed to be the same,<br />
there were actually two types <strong>of</strong> print-outs: one for the control group and one for the<br />
experimental group. The assignment <strong>of</strong> students to these groups was random. The printout<br />
for the experimental group included an extra paragraph designed to minimize math<br />
anxiety <strong>of</strong> students about investor relations. The paragraph read:<br />
Investor relations does not involve any math or calculations – it is a<br />
communication function. The calculations are done by accounting and financial<br />
specialists - investor relations practitioners help package the information<br />
contained in the numbers for presentation to the financial publics. Thus, investor<br />
relations course does not involve any arithmetic or mathematics.<br />
After that, subjects in both control and experiment groups received a new questionnaire<br />
that contained the same four questions as the pre-test questionnaire measured using the<br />
same ten point scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree.<br />
Results<br />
The study recruited 48 participants with 24 being randomly assigned to an<br />
experimental group and 24 to a control group. The first hypothesis asked whether<br />
students will be more likely to enroll in the investor relations class, if their math anxiety<br />
was minimized. Based on the results <strong>of</strong> the experiment, the likelihood to enroll in the<br />
investor relations class was higher for students who were exposed to the experimental<br />
treatment (M = 7.33; N = 24) than for students who were in the control group and thus<br />
were not exposed to the experimental manipulation (M = 4.83; N = 24). To analyze if the<br />
difference in the means between these two groups was statistically significant, the<br />
independent samples t-test was conducted. The results <strong>of</strong> the t-test indicated that the<br />
difference between the groups was statistically significant (t(46) = 3.54; p ≤ .001). As a<br />
result, Hypothesis 1, after math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to<br />
enroll in a class perceived to be math intensive, was supported.<br />
The second hypothesis asked whether the students will be more likely to pursue a<br />
career in investor relations if their math anxiety was minimized. Based on the results <strong>of</strong><br />
the experiment, the likelihood to pursue a career in the investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession was<br />
higher for students who were exposed to the experimental treatment (M = 5.58; N = 24)<br />
than for students who were in the control group and thus were not exposed to the<br />
experimental manipulation (M = 3.21; N = 24). To analyze if the difference in the means<br />
between these two groups was statistically significant, the independent samples t-test was<br />
conducted. The results <strong>of</strong> the t-test indicated that the difference between the groups was<br />
statistically significant (t(46) = 3.57; p ≤ .001). As a result, Hypothesis 2, after math<br />
anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to pursue a career in pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
perceived to be math intensive, was supported.<br />
262
The third hypothesis asked whether the students will be more likely to perceive<br />
themselves as capable <strong>of</strong> performing duties <strong>of</strong> the investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals if their<br />
math anxiety was minimized. Based on the results <strong>of</strong> the experiment, the likelihood to<br />
feel capable about the investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession was higher for students who were<br />
exposed to the experimental treatment (M = 6.33; N = 24) than for students who were in<br />
the control group and thus were not exposed to the experimental manipulation (M = 4.96;<br />
N = 24). To analyze if the difference in the means between these two groups was<br />
statistically significant, the independent samples t-test was conducted. The results <strong>of</strong> the<br />
t-test indicated, however, that the difference between the groups was not statistically<br />
significant (t(46) = 2.14; p > .001). Thus, although the means for the experimental group<br />
are higher than the means for the control group as the hypothesis was predicting, this<br />
difference could occur simply by chance. As a result, Hypothesis 3, after math anxiety is<br />
minimized, students will be more likely to perceive themselves as more capable <strong>of</strong><br />
succeeding in a pr<strong>of</strong>ession perceived to be math intensive, was not supported.<br />
The last hypothesis asked whether students will be more likely to perceive the<br />
investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession as a good choice for them, if their math anxiety was<br />
minimized. Based on the results <strong>of</strong> the experiment, the likelihood to perceive investor<br />
relations as a good choice was higher for students who were exposed to the experimental<br />
treatment (M = 5.46; N = 24) than for students who were in the control group and thus<br />
were not exposed to the experimental manipulation (M = 3.67; N = 24). To analyze if the<br />
difference in the means between these two groups was statistically significant, the<br />
independent samples t-test was conducted. The results <strong>of</strong> the t-test indicated that the<br />
difference between the groups was statistically significant (t(46) = 2.99; p ≤ .001). As a<br />
result, Hypothesis 4, after math anxiety is minimized, students will be more likely to<br />
consider a pr<strong>of</strong>ession perceived to be math intensive as a good choice for them, was<br />
supported.<br />
Conclusions<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> the experiment lead to the conclusion that math apprehension does<br />
influence students in choosing their classes. In fact, students became more likely to enroll<br />
in the investor relations class once they knew that no math was involved and the<br />
difference was statistically and meaningfully significant as it represented more than a<br />
quarter <strong>of</strong> the scale used for the measurement.<br />
The same was true for the selection <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>ession. Once students learned that<br />
no math skills were required to work in the investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession, all other<br />
variables held equal, they became more likely to pursue a career in investor relations and<br />
more likely to view investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession as a good choice for them.<br />
These findings suggest an important implication for educators. Students should<br />
not limit themselves in their potential career choices. It becomes an important task for<br />
educators to help students cope with their math anxiety and choose their classes and<br />
career paths based on their interests rather than based on a fear <strong>of</strong> math. Investor<br />
relations, for example, is the highest paid specialization in public relations and corporate<br />
communications with vacancies available even during the toughest job market<br />
environments (Iacono, 2006). Thus, it represents a lucrative career opportunity for current<br />
public relations and communication students.<br />
Minimizing math anxiety, however, did not cause subjects in the experimental<br />
group to view themselves as more capable to carry out duties <strong>of</strong> an investor relations<br />
263
pr<strong>of</strong>essional in comparison with subjects in the control group. Perhaps it indicates that<br />
other anxieties may exist that hinder students’ perception <strong>of</strong> their capabilities. Or perhaps<br />
it once again confirms the fact that investor relations is a little known specialization and<br />
thus without sufficient information about it students have hard time judging their own<br />
capabilities in regard to this pr<strong>of</strong>essional choice. More research is needed to address this<br />
assumption.<br />
Apprehension in the classroom has proven to be a significant problem for<br />
educators. It seems that math anxiety is also limiting student’s educational and<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional opportunities. It is important for instructors, in public relations, or any<br />
communication field to address student apprehension. Baus and Welch (2008) suggest<br />
that instructors should encourage group projects, assert learning outcomes and give pep<br />
talks to increase students’ self-efficacy about mathematics. The findings <strong>of</strong> this study<br />
would also suggest that simply informing students <strong>of</strong> the mathematical nature <strong>of</strong> courses,<br />
majors and pr<strong>of</strong>essions might help to reduce their apprehension. Future research should<br />
explore the effect <strong>of</strong> apprehension in the various subfields and specializations <strong>of</strong><br />
communication majors. As educators, we should provide students with information<br />
therefore they can diminish their apprehension and make clear choices based on their<br />
own interests.<br />
References<br />
Babbie, E. (<strong>2010</strong>). The practice <strong>of</strong> social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth<br />
Baus, R. D. & Welch, S. A. (2008). Communication Students' Mathematics Anxiety:<br />
Implications for Research Methods Instruction. Communication Research<br />
Reports, 25(4), 289-299.<br />
Iacono, E. (2006, February 20). Salary survey 2006: A rising tide in the job pool.<br />
PRWeek, 16-22.<br />
Frey, L. R., & Botan, C. H. (1988). The status <strong>of</strong> instruction in introductory<br />
undergraduate research methods. Communication Education, 37, 249–256.<br />
Laskin, A.V. (2007). The value <strong>of</strong> investor relations: A Delphi panel investigation.<br />
Gainesville, FL: Institute for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>.<br />
Laskin, A.V. (2009). A descriptive account <strong>of</strong> the investor relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession: A<br />
national study. Journal <strong>of</strong> Business Communication, 46(2), 208-233.<br />
Maier, S.R. (2003). Numeracy in the Newsroom: A Case Study <strong>of</strong> Mathematical<br />
Competence and Confidence. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 80,<br />
921-36.<br />
Maier, S. R., & Curtin, P. A. (2005). Self-efficacy theory: A prescriptive model for<br />
teaching research methods. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 59,<br />
352–364.<br />
McCroskey, J. C. (1976). The problem <strong>of</strong> communication apprehension in the classroom.<br />
Western Speech Communication 40(1), 115-133.<br />
Richmond, V P., & Roach, K. D. (1992). Willingness to communicate and<br />
employee success in U.S. organizations. Journal <strong>of</strong> Applied Communication<br />
Research, 20, 95-115.<br />
Stacks, D. W., & Hickson, M. (1991). The communication investigator: Teaching<br />
research methods to undergraduates. Communication Quarterly, 39, 351–357<br />
Stacks, D. W. (2002). Primer <strong>of</strong> public relations research. New York: Guilford.<br />
264
Crisis in the Classroom:<br />
A cross-departmental approach prepares PR students as spokespeople<br />
Colleen Pope Lemza<br />
State University <strong>of</strong> New York, Plattsburgh<br />
colleen.lemza@plattsburgh.edu<br />
Introduction<br />
Much has been written about the value <strong>of</strong> service learning in the public relations<br />
education curriculum. Just from last year’s conference proceedings Bartoo & Slater and<br />
Muhtaseb all discussed the positive benefits to the public relations industry, the service<br />
learning clients and mostly, the students. However, service learning, born from<br />
experiential learning, isn’t new. John Dewey discussed its benefits in his 1959 paper<br />
entitled Experience and Education (Dewey, 1959). Educators agree there’s value in<br />
experiential classroom learning, but incorporating all aspects <strong>of</strong> public relations into the<br />
classroom can be difficult or even damaging to the client.<br />
Any public relations practitioner who’s been responsible for handing a crisis<br />
situation knows that doomsday isn’t the right time for a student to be calling the shots in<br />
an experiential learning course. It takes significant skill and experience, not to mention a<br />
cool head, to come out on the other side <strong>of</strong> a hot issue with your reputation intact. This<br />
isn’t a learning opportunity most companies would turn over to an intern or a project<br />
team in a service learning class.<br />
The Challenge<br />
So the question becomes how do students learn this important aspect <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations to gain an appreciation for the preparation and composure it takes to handle the<br />
pressure? Think back to your first heated interview with that first microphone in your<br />
face. I’m sure like most you watched the evening news and asked yourself why you said<br />
that. Or just as common, screamed “That’s not what I meant!” at the television.<br />
Who wouldn’t have appreciated an opportunity to be in the hot seat without any<br />
negative ramifications to your organization or career before it was showtime? Certainly<br />
there are day-long to week-long media training courses available to teach these valuable<br />
skills, but not at a price recent college graduates can afford.<br />
<strong>Relations</strong>hip-Building<br />
Another aspect <strong>of</strong> crisis communication that can’t be easily learned from a<br />
textbook or even a campaigns course is how to develop, use and retain those important<br />
relationships with the media. Granted, the landscape has changed drastically in this area<br />
<strong>of</strong> media relationships with all the new technologies. However, in most small towns<br />
across the country, a phone call or email from the local newspaper or television affiliate<br />
still make public relations practitioners want to return messages.<br />
How can students learn about culturing that relationship before they get burned on<br />
their first job? Opening the newspaper in the morning and reading a quote not truly<br />
intended for print is one way to learn your lesson. If nothing else, exposing too much<br />
information once is a good incentive to master those media/practitioner relationship skills<br />
so it doesn’t happen again. Being caught <strong>of</strong>f-guard in a media interview, whether in<br />
crisis mode or not, will prevent one from being ill-prepared the next time. This is exactly<br />
the lesson I try to leave on my students by creating full-blown crisis scenarios in the<br />
classroom involving television, print and audio journalists.<br />
265
If this crisis scenario does nothing else, it awakens fear in the students to realize<br />
the need to be taken seriously. Josh Preston, a business student who took the <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Principles class related how useful it was. “It was an awesome experience. It<br />
was exactly what I’ll need to know when I’m a CEO and facing the media,” he said.<br />
Learning Outcomes<br />
But my hope is, it’ll do much more than just make students take notice. The main<br />
outcomes <strong>of</strong> this experience are to:<br />
• Provide a no-negative consequences opportunity for students to be inside a<br />
live public relations crisis;<br />
• Illustrate the importance <strong>of</strong> issues-management and having a crisis<br />
communications plan in place;<br />
• Allow students to experience first-hand the chaos and loss <strong>of</strong> media<br />
control that can <strong>of</strong>ten happen in a crisis;<br />
• Provide students with an opportunity to craft key messages based on their<br />
role in the scenario, then read or view what could have appeared in the<br />
media had the situation been real;<br />
• Learn from their mistakes…enough to know that once they graduate they<br />
will need to be prepared.<br />
Underneath it all though, is that this is fun. It makes learning fun and interactive.<br />
It combines true elements <strong>of</strong> the field by involving television, print journalism and audio<br />
students in a classroom with public relations students.<br />
Implementation<br />
This scenario finds its home in an introductory principles class instead <strong>of</strong> a more<br />
advanced public relations course for a couple reasons. The first is that since this is<br />
students’ first PR class, most don’t know each other. It also allows business and political<br />
science students to take the course without having to take any pre-requisite courses.<br />
To gain the involvement <strong>of</strong> journalists, I work with a Journalism pr<strong>of</strong>essor who<br />
also used this as an opportunity for a real-life assignment with her classes. In addition, I<br />
recruit one or two television production or broadcast journalism students to come to class<br />
with cameras and microphones.<br />
The first crisis scenario, the biggest one with the most initial impact, fits in nicely<br />
with a discussion about issues management and crisis communication. I try to create<br />
scenarios that are large enough so there would be a number <strong>of</strong> departments or<br />
organizations involved to give half <strong>of</strong> the class spokesperson roles. In the second<br />
scenario, the other half gets the spokesperson roles. By this point in the semester, I have<br />
a good idea who the serious students are and I dole out the crucial roles to the ones I<br />
know will fully prepare. I also try to make the scenario revolve somewhat around the<br />
campus so it will have more <strong>of</strong> a personal impact on them. They might not care about a<br />
nursing home in town, but if their sorority house burns down, they tend to take it more<br />
emotionally.<br />
One week before Crisis Day, roles are given out and they’re told to fully research<br />
them. They don’t know what the crisis will be at this point but they need to understand<br />
the organization, who reports to whom, research past incidents, what’s currently in the<br />
media about their organization, etc. Two students are named for each role: Student A<br />
and Student B. However, they don’t know which one <strong>of</strong> them will be the actual<br />
spokesperson on the day they walk into the classroom. That way they both have to<br />
266
prepare and do the research. I provide four possible scenarios for the students to<br />
research. I’ve found that this provides better research for the students and the better the<br />
research the more successful the scenario tends to be.<br />
On crisis day they tend to come to class a bit early, all dressed up in their<br />
spokesperson attire. As they arrive in class, I hand out their roles, whether they’re the<br />
spokesperson role or not. They’re provided with the initial scenario information and told<br />
they’ll have about 15 minutes before the media start coming in.<br />
Throughout the class, updates are provided. These are twists and turns that help<br />
to thicken the plot and make the scenario more enticing. Students have to learn to roll<br />
with the information and change their messages accordingly. Occasionally there are<br />
leaks to the media, and other unpredictable events that <strong>of</strong>ten happen in a real situation.<br />
About 10-15 minutes after they’re given the information, the media begin to<br />
invade, naturally before students seem fully ready. The media have been given the<br />
scenario ahead <strong>of</strong> time and sworn to secrecy. By preparing in advance, they know what<br />
questions to ask so the PR students can’t fool them. The media however, aren’t provided<br />
with the updates prior to class. Everyone hears the scenario unfold at the same time.<br />
Media cover the room finding spokespeople to answer their questions. When chaos is<br />
unbearable, students are reminded they have the option <strong>of</strong> holding a media conference.<br />
The following class, students must hand in a reflection piece that includes who<br />
they thought their main audiences were, what their key messages for those audiences<br />
should have been and how they felt about the scenario overall. We then watch the video<br />
that was compiled <strong>of</strong> all the recorded interviews and read some the more interesting<br />
newspaper stories that were submitted in the journalism class.<br />
The best part by far is having students watch what they said and did on camera, or<br />
listening to them complain that “that isn’t what I told her” when they read the newspaper<br />
stories from the journalism students.<br />
“Alumni” Involvement<br />
Because students who’ve been through the class seem to still want to play a role, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
“alumni” <strong>of</strong> the 311 class come back for the scenarios to play the role <strong>of</strong> distraught<br />
parents or community residents. They add to the chaos <strong>of</strong> the classroom and the drama is<br />
fun. Also, since they’re older than those going through the class, they tend to be<br />
somewhat intimidating.<br />
Final Thoughts<br />
Although these scenarios aren’t complete with blood and fire trucks, they allow me to<br />
bring an opportunity into the classroom for students to experience the pressure <strong>of</strong> a crisis<br />
first hand. Short <strong>of</strong> being allowed to watch a crisis on the sidelines during an internship,<br />
I can’t think <strong>of</strong> a more effective way to put students in the hot seat and make them take<br />
notice <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> preparing for crisis communication after they graduate.<br />
References<br />
Dewey, J. (1986). Experience and Education. The Educational Forum, 50(3), 241-252.<br />
Muhtaseb, A. (2009). Service Learning as a Structured Pedagogial Strategy in Teaching<br />
the PR Practicum Class. PRSA Educator’s Academy Conference Proceedings<br />
(pp. 179-182).<br />
White Bartoo, C., & Slater, J. (2009). Tribulations and Triumphs <strong>of</strong> Teaching Real-<br />
World, client-Based PR: An Assessment <strong>of</strong> the Campaigns Course Pedagogy.<br />
PRSA Educator’s Academy Conference Proceedings (pp. 176-177).<br />
267
Crisis Scenario<br />
Preliminary Research<br />
Date <strong>of</strong> Crisis: Thursday, March 25th, <strong>2010</strong><br />
Due Date <strong>of</strong> Reflection Piece: Tuesday, March 30 th , <strong>2010</strong><br />
Research the following points:<br />
• Assigned role<br />
• Your organization and department (how they would handle a crisis, what’s their<br />
chain <strong>of</strong> command, etc.<br />
• Current issues and past history for your organization/department? Media search.<br />
• College’s and city’s emergency action plans for a variety <strong>of</strong> crisis-type situations.<br />
*Students will be paired up and expected to research and work together to fully<br />
understand the role they have been assigned. Each student will find out his/her specific<br />
role the day <strong>of</strong> the crisis but is expected to work as a team in preparing and handling the<br />
crisis.<br />
Roles for Student A: ‘Student A’ will be the <strong>of</strong>ficial spokesperson <strong>of</strong> the organization in<br />
which their team represents. They are to work in collaboration with Student B.<br />
Role for Student B: Student B will have no verbal role with the press/media on the day<br />
<strong>of</strong> the crisis, but is to help and assist in preparing Student A who will be speaking directly<br />
to the media.<br />
Possible Scenarios Include:<br />
Recent outbreak <strong>of</strong> an infectious disease<br />
ROTC is experiencing opposition from campus faculty and administrators<br />
Fire Alarms have been going <strong>of</strong>f more frequently than ever in M<strong>of</strong>fitt Hall<br />
NCAA is inspecting Plattsburgh State’s Men’s Hockey and Basketball teams for<br />
suspected drug use.<br />
Roles:<br />
SUNY Plattsburgh President:<br />
City <strong>of</strong> Plattsburgh Fire Chief<br />
Director <strong>of</strong> Resident Life<br />
Plattsburgh City Mayor (understanding <strong>of</strong> city operations)<br />
Director <strong>of</strong> CVPH<br />
Director <strong>of</strong> Maintenance and College Facilities<br />
University Police<br />
Dean <strong>of</strong> Students<br />
Plattsburgh State Men’s Hockey Coach<br />
Clinton County Emergency Medical Services<br />
CRISIS SCENARIO<br />
TIMELINE:<br />
• August 2009 – Freshman students set <strong>of</strong>f the Fire Alarms <strong>of</strong> Wilson Hall<br />
frequently from Thursday through Sunday on a weekly basis.<br />
o Resident Assistants are aware <strong>of</strong> the situation and attempt to punish the<br />
students for their negligence. RA’s are aware that the main <strong>of</strong>fenders<br />
caused the alarms to go <strong>of</strong>f due to smoking.<br />
268
• September 2009 – More students in Wilson Hall set <strong>of</strong>f the Fire Alarms through<br />
out the week due to students not being mindful <strong>of</strong> their cooking techniques.<br />
o Resident Director is then called upon to address the entire dormitory about<br />
the lack <strong>of</strong> awareness <strong>of</strong> students actions in regards to the fire alarms.<br />
o November 2009 – As the weather gets colder, the same freshman students<br />
as before, are continuing to set <strong>of</strong>f the fire alarms. Resident Assistants<br />
assume it is because <strong>of</strong> them smoking.<br />
o Wilson Hall has become fed up with the fire alarms because <strong>of</strong> the colder<br />
weather and students many are becoming very lax in vacating the building<br />
during alarms-due to their frequency.<br />
• December 2009 – Students wrap up their semester in Wilson Hall; fire alarms are<br />
subdued as a result. However, the attitude toward them is lackadaisical.<br />
• February <strong>2010</strong> – Students still experience frequent fire alarms. Resident<br />
Assistants and Resident Directors are concerned with the issue as it could lead to<br />
more problems in the future.<br />
FACTS:<br />
• Each dorm building has a “control box” to monitor the Fire Systems. Not many<br />
Resident Assistants are trained on how it works…<br />
• Students have not been caught with drugs or alcohol in conjunction with the fire<br />
alarms being set <strong>of</strong>f yet. However, that does not mean that the students were not<br />
using any illegal substances…<br />
• Parents and guardians are annoyed at the dormitory’s attitude towards this<br />
situation and are considering alternative living situations for their children in the<br />
future.<br />
• The City <strong>of</strong> Plattsburgh Emergency Services is fed up with the “boy who cried<br />
wolf” fire alarm scenarios that Wilson Hall has had this academic year.<br />
• The Fire Alarms have gone <strong>of</strong>f over 30 times this academic year. All <strong>of</strong> which<br />
have been because <strong>of</strong> negligent and irresponsible students.<br />
• Members <strong>of</strong> the Men’s Hockey Team, who live in Wilson Hall, are reported to be<br />
involved in the ongoing problems that started at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the academic<br />
year.<br />
So…who’s in charge? What do you need to think about in terms <strong>of</strong> your constituents,<br />
plan <strong>of</strong> action, key messages? What questions do you think will be asked <strong>of</strong> you? Is<br />
there a crisis plan for the city, for the county, for the college, for the hospital? Who has a<br />
plan? Also, whoever the class decides is “in charge” can assign whatever work<br />
assignments he/she thinks is necessary to get the situation under control and to<br />
communicate with your constituents.<br />
The media will be coming in shortly. You also have the option <strong>of</strong> scheduling a media<br />
conference. You may use the computer, the board, me, each other…whatever resources<br />
you have for today in class.<br />
THIS JUST IN!<br />
• The Fire Alarms have gone <strong>of</strong>f yet again in M<strong>of</strong>fitt Hall, however this time many <strong>of</strong><br />
the students exiting the building smelled smoke. People outside could see smoke<br />
coming from the building as well.<br />
o The Resident Assistant for that section <strong>of</strong> the building was not present at the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> the fire alarm being activated<br />
269
o No one has seen the students from the suite that set the fire alarm <strong>of</strong>f since<br />
evacuation began<br />
• The City <strong>of</strong> Plattsburgh Fire Department is assisting on a large structure fire outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> town and have been delayed in responding to M<strong>of</strong>fitt Hall. They will be arriving<br />
as soon as possible…<br />
THIS JUST IN!<br />
• By the time the fire department arrives, the suite that started the fire is engulfed in<br />
flames. Heavy smoke has filled the building and outside region.<br />
• Fire department crews are actively searching the building for students<br />
THIS JUST IN!<br />
• 10 students who were found in the suite that caused the fire alarm to go <strong>of</strong>f have just<br />
been taken to CVPH unconscious. EMT crews fear that the students have suffered<br />
from excess smoke inhalation.<br />
• The Fire Department has experienced difficulty in assessing the fire alarm situation<br />
due to the Control Panel malfunctioning. The Resident Assistant on duty was not<br />
able to assist in the analysis <strong>of</strong> the situation due to lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge with the Control<br />
Panel.<br />
THIS JUST IN!<br />
• The students who were admitted to CVPH have just been declared deceased by the<br />
county coroner. Autopsies have shown that the 10 students were found with drug and<br />
alcohol in their blood upon death.<br />
• The Fire Department has analyzed the scene <strong>of</strong> the fire and has concluded that<br />
Marijuana was present at the origin <strong>of</strong> the fire.<br />
270
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Leadership Through Social Networking: An Analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
Undergraduate Use and Attitudes<br />
Bonita Dostal Neff, Ph.D., IEL Fellow, and Jennifer Halbert<br />
Valparaiso University, Indiana<br />
Bonita.neff@valpo.edu<br />
Introduction<br />
Social media is clearly a factor in the public relations communication process.<br />
Students on the undergraduate level view their involvement or emersion in the social<br />
media from a variety <strong>of</strong> perspectives. Informal responses during classroom discussion<br />
seem to indicate a wide variety <strong>of</strong> approaches to social media. Perhaps with the college<br />
undergraduate group, the Facebook site is as close to home as you can get. What this<br />
means in terms <strong>of</strong> training those who will be in the public relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession is not<br />
exactly clear yet. Academics in the classroom will see some students tied to their<br />
mobiles unable to disconnect during class. Sometimes the computer is used as a guise for<br />
this behavior. Others are totally not interested. Emerging discussion suggests the<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> public relations is considered to be the leader in the area <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
usage. But are the students ready and willing to accept this leadership? What is this<br />
“use” <strong>of</strong> social media mean for the emerging public relations leaders? The evolution <strong>of</strong><br />
the technological interface on Facebook, Twitter, FourSquare, LinkIn, and a myriad <strong>of</strong><br />
other approaches is obviously becoming an ongoing challenge in the educational process.<br />
Literature<br />
As noted in Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation <strong>of</strong> Digital Natives,<br />
the authors point out “this is the most rapid period <strong>of</strong> technological transformation<br />
ever….” Meanwhile, the landscape for social media is nascent and very complex. There<br />
is on one hand the bare usage <strong>of</strong> social media individually vs. the organizational usage <strong>of</strong><br />
social media. Taylor and Kent in their “Anticipatory socialization in the use <strong>of</strong> social<br />
media in public relations: A content analysis <strong>of</strong> PRSA’s public relations tactics” present<br />
a rather strong contrasting argument <strong>of</strong> the need for better research in presenting the<br />
social media impact to students. For public relations educators simple hype does not<br />
work. The fact remains at the moment that publications, especially academic research, is<br />
also nascent and this makes sense since the social media process per se is just catching<br />
on.<br />
The first public relations and social media journal dedicated to this topic features<br />
a variety <strong>of</strong> substantive articles including: how social media is affecting the practice <strong>of</strong><br />
media relations (Waters, Tindall, and Morton, <strong>2010</strong>), organizational image based on<br />
social media (Gilpin, <strong>2010</strong>), nondisclosure as a barrier to relationships (Sweetser, <strong>2010</strong>),<br />
social media usage in political campaigns (Levenshus, <strong>2010</strong>), and the use <strong>of</strong> social media<br />
by health practitioners (Avery, Lariscy, Amador, Icowitz, Primm, and Taylor, <strong>2010</strong>).<br />
Another research presentation focused on a twitter content analysis and analyzed the “40<br />
Best Twitter Brands” in terms <strong>of</strong> “usage and authenticity/transparency <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organizational tweeters”(McCorkindale, <strong>2010</strong>) Such a study provides instructive<br />
guidelines for developing more critical approaches to social media, especially for the<br />
students entering the pr<strong>of</strong>ession. These recent and very well-designed studies <strong>of</strong>fer a<br />
271
more solid learning basis for social media as an emerging area for both the present and<br />
future practitioners to study more critically.<br />
A more comprehensive study <strong>of</strong> the status acknowledges that the literature<br />
addresses social media more in light <strong>of</strong> marketing and/or advertising than public relations<br />
(Kent, <strong>2010</strong>) This already sets the stage for contemplating the need for a more definitive<br />
approach to public relations in relationship to social media, especially in terms <strong>of</strong> ethical<br />
issues. Most importantly, public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essionals should not be used to extend the<br />
marketing outreach or be used as a “less costly: option. <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> should be<br />
focused on public relations’ unique functions—such as in developing relationships (Ibid).<br />
Neff incorporated technology into the discussion on developing the identity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
public relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession. Suggesting perhaps that a more IC (Integrated<br />
Communication) approach is needed to highlight the leadership <strong>of</strong> the public relations<br />
functions in the communication process and, most importantly, within the social media<br />
arena (Neff, <strong>2010</strong>). Thus if public relations functions are truly based on a highly<br />
interactive communication process, the role <strong>of</strong> practitioners should be reflective <strong>of</strong> this<br />
highly prized functionality. With these thoughts in mind, undergraduates were involved<br />
in a survey experience to assess the nature <strong>of</strong> their involvement with social media.<br />
Social Media Assessment<br />
This study involved an electronic survey <strong>of</strong> undergraduates enrolled in public<br />
relations classes <strong>of</strong> a private university. <strong>Public</strong> relations classes involved in the survey<br />
yielded a total <strong>of</strong> 40 completed questionnaires. The questions focused on the equipment<br />
owned or used (mobiles or computers) for social media, the applications available, and<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> social media in terms <strong>of</strong> personal and/or pr<strong>of</strong>essional application. Specific<br />
attention was focused on the identification <strong>of</strong> news sources, global outreach, and the<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the myths about privacy. Some research questions were based on the<br />
discussions developed at the Edelman Social Media Summit in June 2009 at Washington<br />
D.C.<br />
Overview <strong>of</strong> Study<br />
Population: Students responding were 50% male and 30% female with 20% not<br />
responding to the question. No student was a freshman (courses usually not enrolled<br />
until introductory survey courses are completed in communication). Other levels: 10%<br />
sophomores, 30% juniors, and 50% seniors.<br />
Usage: Only 20% <strong>of</strong> the class owned a “smart phone.” The applications for these<br />
students were primarily for Facebook and Twitter interface. A fuller overview <strong>of</strong> social<br />
networking sites revealed no blog applications (neither Blogger or WordPress). Blog<br />
sites for classroom use such as Blackboard were excluded from the study as these were<br />
more assigned than personally utilized. Content-sharing sites included: YouTube 50%,<br />
Flicki 0%, Wikis 0%. Social network sites covered: Facebook 90%, MySpace 10%,<br />
LinedIn 30%. Tagging sites included: Del.icio.us 0% and Stumbleupon 10%. Microblogs<br />
described: Twitter 70%, Google Buzz 10%, FourSquare 0%.<br />
Outcome <strong>of</strong> Experience: Another question asked the respondent to provide three<br />
phases that “best described your experience in social media.” These primary categories<br />
emerged: 1) A connection, for example: “way to connect with friends at other schools,”<br />
“thrilling to connect with classmates,” “excited to be able to locate friends all around the<br />
U.S.,” “makes it easier to plan family get-togethers with in-laws in different cities.” 2)<br />
Fun, for example: “fun,” “gossip.” 3) Usage, for example: “learner,” “student,” “went<br />
272
from using it multiple times a day to checking maybe once daily, “have gone with one<br />
social media site to another, usually creating an account on another site because other<br />
people told me how great and easy it was,” “I only check it when I get an e-mail update.”<br />
Last primary category focused on critical evaluations and/or concerns: “primarily a<br />
positive experience,” “watch what I say.” The responses tended to be more general. The<br />
comments reflected more nascent users and fewer indicated a critical analysis. No one<br />
mentioned public relations functions or application. This lack <strong>of</strong> public relations<br />
connection would suggest the social media at this point is primarily for social application.<br />
Global Outreach: Global outreach is important to our university and the<br />
opportunity to use social media could enhance the university’s mission. 60% <strong>of</strong> the<br />
students were contacting nonUS countries. 10% <strong>of</strong> the respondents were nonUS students<br />
and so their outreach was expected.<br />
Myths About Social Media: A series <strong>of</strong> true or false questions were developed<br />
about the myths surrounding social media. These questions focused on “privacy settings”<br />
(30% trusted) secure sites (10% trusted), no responsibility for online contributions (10%<br />
believed), and for success one must go viral (30% supported statement).<br />
Social vs. Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Usage: The sample averaged 77% social usage and 23%<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional usage with self reporting responses.<br />
Assessment Reflects Newer Trend<br />
With the many concerns about students no longer reading newspapers or print<br />
publications, the interest in this research was to identify the “source for daily news<br />
updates.” Students did provide evidence <strong>of</strong> a major shift. The results indicated the<br />
students were still pursuing news but from a wider variety <strong>of</strong> sources. Specifically the<br />
respondents indicated that news was important but the sources varied. These sources<br />
included (note multiple responses were acceptable): Internet-100%, Twitter 30%, Print<br />
Media 50%, Other: 20%-cable news, Fox News. So no lack <strong>of</strong> news. Although it should<br />
be noted in the introductory courses in public relations current events are always the first<br />
focus <strong>of</strong> each session. True this ongoing class assignment is to emphasize this is to be<br />
developed into a habit—not just an assignment. So the impact remained with the seniors<br />
who represented 50% <strong>of</strong> the sample.<br />
Finally, it should be noted that although the students were enrolled in public<br />
relations classes as major or minor, their majors reflected a range <strong>of</strong> liberal arts including<br />
sports management, music enterprise, political science and geo science.<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> Results<br />
The results provided some insight into the intersect <strong>of</strong> those studying public relations<br />
with a social media focus. The students largely reflect the newness <strong>of</strong> the technological<br />
advances. Coupled with the constraints <strong>of</strong> expense and issues <strong>of</strong> access (cell reception),<br />
the option to rely on mobiles can be at times daunting. Generally, the conclusions seem<br />
to focus on the following:<br />
1. Undergraduate students are still largely enamored with the technology as<br />
“new.” The attraction to the social media is mainly with the “thrill” not the<br />
critical analysis <strong>of</strong> the experience.<br />
2. When students are asked about the most precious item to them—the response<br />
is more likely to be “my mobile phone.” So the social connection is strongly<br />
felt.<br />
273
3. Students remain Facebook users with very few venturing into the Twitter<br />
arena. YouTube is fast becoming easier to utilize but then, again, not for<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional uses.<br />
4. Although most <strong>of</strong> the students are aware <strong>of</strong> the myths about social media<br />
usage, at least one-third are holding two or more myths as “truths.” This<br />
indicates the mentions about social media concerns have mediated the support<br />
<strong>of</strong> myths but not entirely. This could also be due to the fact that not everyone<br />
is yet experiencing a variety <strong>of</strong> social media.<br />
5. Further reinforcing the conclusion about more prominent social use emphasis<br />
is the question about the phrase that best describes their social media usage.<br />
No one mentioned public relations functions or a specific pr<strong>of</strong>essional usage.<br />
Comments centered around “fun,” “staying connected with friends,”<br />
“technical usage as in checking e-mail,” and a “positive and/or negative<br />
concern/experience. So the usage in terms <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional support is largely<br />
not addressed.<br />
6. Finally, the low 23% usage for pr<strong>of</strong>essional reasons is probably not really<br />
intense engagement with the process. Students may be just “lurking,”<br />
“following blogs,” “checking a computer Twitter site” but not really<br />
participating. There were no specific mentions <strong>of</strong> what the students learned<br />
other than 10% mentioned “learning.” The interpretation <strong>of</strong> this area <strong>of</strong><br />
response seems to probably mean the students are picking up new ways <strong>of</strong><br />
using the media but are not truly interactive on the content from a pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
perspective.<br />
7. News interest is high but not primarily or even significantly from print. The<br />
Internet reigns as the primary source<br />
8. The global contact via social media is at a high <strong>of</strong> 60% and suggests these<br />
newer<br />
channels <strong>of</strong> communication are supporting one <strong>of</strong> the primary aspects <strong>of</strong> the<br />
University’s mission.<br />
The social and/or pr<strong>of</strong>essional use analyzed the student’s primary responses to<br />
their use <strong>of</strong> social media. The survey occurs at a time where social media is becoming<br />
more present in the classroom as a topic if not a factor in the communication process,<br />
including teaching. However, the primary modes <strong>of</strong> operation are more texing over e-<br />
mailing and Facebook as home base with Twitter as the outlier and a form <strong>of</strong><br />
communication becoming more attractive to the student population.<br />
References<br />
Avery, E. Lariscy, R., Amador, E., Icowitz, T., Primm, C., and Taylor, A. (<strong>2010</strong>).<br />
Diffusion <strong>of</strong> social media among public relations practitioners in health<br />
departments across various community population sizes. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong> Research. Vol 22, No. 3, 336-355.<br />
Edelman Social Media Summit, June 2009, Washington D.C.<br />
Gilpin, D. (<strong>2010</strong>). Organizational image construction in a fragmented online media<br />
environment. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 265-287.<br />
Halbert, J. (Spring, <strong>2010</strong>). <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Leadership in the Development <strong>of</strong> Social<br />
Networking. Refereed poster session presented at the annual Undergraduate<br />
Scholarship Celebration, Valparaiso University, Indiana.<br />
274
Kent, M. (<strong>2010</strong>). Directions in social media for pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and scholars, Handbook <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>. Belmont: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Levenshus, A. (<strong>2010</strong>). Online relationship management in a presidential campaign: A<br />
case study <strong>of</strong> the Obama campaign’s management <strong>of</strong> its Internet-integrated<br />
grassroots effort. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 313-335.<br />
McCorkindale, T. (August <strong>2010</strong>). Twitter me this, Twitter Me That: Analysis<br />
Quantitative Content Analysis <strong>of</strong> the 40 Best Twitter Brands. Paper presented at<br />
the annual conference <strong>of</strong> the Association for Educators in Journalism and Mass<br />
Communication, Denver, Colorado.<br />
Palfrey, J. and Gasser, U., (2008). Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation <strong>of</strong><br />
Digital Natives, 3.<br />
Neff, B. D. <strong>2010</strong>). <strong>Public</strong> relations identity evolving from academic and practitioner<br />
partnerships, Handbook <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong>. Belmont: Sage <strong>Public</strong>ations.<br />
Sweetser, K. (<strong>2010</strong>). A losing strategy: The impact <strong>of</strong> nondisclosure in social media on<br />
relationships. Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 288-312.<br />
Taylor, M. and Kent, M., (September <strong>2010</strong>). Anticipatory socialization in the use <strong>of</strong><br />
social media in public relations: A content analysis <strong>of</strong> PRSA’s <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Review, <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Review, Vol. 36. No. 3, 207-214.<br />
Waters, R. (<strong>2010</strong>). Media catching and the journalist-public relations practitioner<br />
relationship: How social media are changing the practice <strong>of</strong> media relations.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, 241-264.<br />
275
Poetry: A Surprisingly Powerful Teaching Tool for <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
Robert J. Petrausch, Ph.D.<br />
Iona College<br />
“Those heights by great men, won and kept,<br />
Were not achieved by sudden flight,<br />
But they, while they companions slept,<br />
Were toiling in the night”<br />
Those words echoed by Longfellow in another time have relevance today for PR<br />
practitioners in the competitive global marketplace. The message: Stay awake and be<br />
alert. Your competitors are not asleep.<br />
What Poetry Brings to <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong><br />
The benefits <strong>of</strong> reading and studying poetry in the classroom may surprise and<br />
intrigue the pr<strong>of</strong>essional, the educator and the student. It helps prepare the ground for<br />
creativity and breaking the rules, particularly in courses where public relations students<br />
must step out <strong>of</strong> their comfort zones. It provides insight for students who someday will<br />
have to make smart business and ethical decisions. Finally, it can be useful for shaping<br />
the thinking strategies <strong>of</strong> students that are entering a changing workplace.<br />
Another great poet T.S. Eliot in writing about the social function <strong>of</strong> poetry said:<br />
“There is always the communication <strong>of</strong> some new experience, or some fresh<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the familiar, or the expressions <strong>of</strong> something we have experienced but<br />
have no words for, which enlarges out consciousness or refines our sensibility” (p.7). So<br />
what poetry brings to the public relations and business is fresh perspectives on how to<br />
look at the world with a new set <strong>of</strong> eyes that can make old problems appear solvable and<br />
new problems open to a creative solution. Poetry opens the creative mind to different<br />
ways <strong>of</strong> looking at things and gives the PR practitioner a new template for presenting<br />
ideas to client. It also gives pr<strong>of</strong>essors and students an opportunity to step out <strong>of</strong> their old<br />
silos <strong>of</strong> learning and try new approaches for the very first time. Clients, after all, are<br />
turning more and more to PR agencies and consultants for the “big idea” that will help<br />
them navigate in a marketplace <strong>of</strong> change and turbulence.<br />
To present new ideas, the pr<strong>of</strong>essor and student must polish their prose so that it<br />
can be understood and made meaningful for diverse audiences. This means making words<br />
and conceptual ideas more economical and to the point. The art <strong>of</strong> writing, critiquing, and<br />
presenting poems in class can give students an alternative way <strong>of</strong> sharing their ideas with<br />
other students and the faculty instructor. Writing is considered one <strong>of</strong> the most useful<br />
skills <strong>of</strong> the PR practitioner. Therefore, any new approach that faculty can use to get their<br />
students to write more concisely and strategically will pay <strong>of</strong>f when the students enter the<br />
workplace.<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Oxford, UK and Boston Consulting Group<br />
Two unlikely partners, The University <strong>of</strong> Oxford and the Boston Consulting<br />
Group have joined forces to make the case that poetry can improve an understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
complex issues. The partners believe that poetry has relevance in business and<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional school subjects and can help both pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and students develop<br />
analytical and cognitive skills.<br />
276
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Clare Morgan at Oxford notes that poetry is valued for the business<br />
strategist in ways that are not normally understood in the business world. She states: “<br />
Reading poetry, for example, generates conceptual spaces that may be different from the<br />
spaces available to business strategists. These spaces are different because they are<br />
associative rather than causal; are imaginative rather than deductive; <strong>of</strong>fer new ways <strong>of</strong><br />
assessing relations between things; and encourages a radical skepticism about the nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> fact,” (Morgan, <strong>2010</strong>, p. 23).<br />
The Boston Consulting Group decided to join forces with Oxford to promote<br />
poetry in the pr<strong>of</strong>essions because it recognized the discipline <strong>of</strong> strategy has <strong>of</strong>ten been<br />
reduced to a narrow toolbox, and what was needed was a broader appeal that poetry can<br />
bring to business problems. Poetry is starting to make its way in the field <strong>of</strong> advertising<br />
and public relations. An ad for the Wonderbra states: Wonderbra for the way you are.<br />
This is communicated with a device T.S. Eliot coined as the auditory imagination. It has<br />
suggestions and meanings that resonate with the words <strong>of</strong> the ad that go beyond mere<br />
logic. Morgan et al (<strong>2010</strong>) notes “ that the beyond logic message goes something like<br />
this: If you don’t buy this bra, before long you may find you are a non-woman.” This<br />
device <strong>of</strong> auditory imagination helps the writer <strong>of</strong> ads or public relations material expand<br />
his or her message to the consumer that does not depend solely on logic or fact. In short,<br />
the poetic words in the ad for the Wonderbra reaches the consumer’s mind in a totally<br />
pleasing way that can affect the decision to purchase the product.<br />
From the research at Oxford and the work <strong>of</strong> the Boston Consulting Group, it<br />
appears that one can also teach aspects <strong>of</strong> values and ethics with poetry. For instance, the<br />
researchers believe that poetry can help strip away the old ways <strong>of</strong> seeing events and help<br />
an executive review the situation with the freedom <strong>of</strong> a new perspective. The Frost poem<br />
“ The Road Not Traveled” is a very good example <strong>of</strong> complex decision-making at a<br />
critical junction in life. In the case <strong>of</strong> business leaders from Toyota and BP, for example,<br />
they could examine recent decisions that led to dire consequences for the public by not<br />
taking alternative roads albeit more expensive and time consuming. This approach could<br />
be the springboard <strong>of</strong> a large-scale public airing on topics important to the <strong>America</strong>n<br />
consumer and global citizens.<br />
Poetry, Values and Decision Making<br />
Poetry, in many ways, can help shape or reframe our values. It is the power <strong>of</strong><br />
poetry to move a pr<strong>of</strong>essional by showing him or her an alternative viewpoint and giving<br />
him or her a chance to practice moral courage. The image, rhythm, sound pattern and<br />
syntax <strong>of</strong> the poem give rise to feelings that help us think deeply about important issues<br />
or messages. And, it may make us also look at issues and messages from different angles<br />
as a detached observer.<br />
In his book Changing Minds, Harvard educator Howard Gardner argues “artists<br />
changes minds different from scientists and leaders <strong>of</strong> nation. Artists rather than<br />
employing theories, ideas, and concepts, tend to introduce new ideas, skills, and<br />
practices” (Morgan et al <strong>2010</strong>, p 166). New movements and shifts in art, music, and<br />
poetry <strong>of</strong>ten change the way we see ourselves in the world, a good reason to study poetry<br />
and make it part <strong>of</strong> our working life. At West Point, the study <strong>of</strong> poetry has become part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a cadet’s life on campus. Cadets at the Point spend sixteen weeks studying poetry from<br />
the ancients to the present day. Lt. General James Lennox who has responsibility for the<br />
West Point curriculum believes that poetry is important to the development <strong>of</strong> the highest<br />
277
possible military leader. He believes that it gives cadets a new way to see the world and<br />
look at issues and values from differing perspectives because the Academy must train<br />
cadets to go to war. The General notes that poetry can strip away the romance <strong>of</strong> war and<br />
make one see the clear reality <strong>of</strong> what war can do to a nation and society, (Morgan et al<br />
<strong>2010</strong>).<br />
West Point wants the nation’s future leaders to be humble and bring wellinformed<br />
perspectives to decisions related to life and death on the battlefield. If one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>America</strong>’s top military institution understands the value <strong>of</strong> poetry for its future leaders,<br />
business leaders in the U.S. could take a page from the West Point learning manual and<br />
make the study <strong>of</strong> poetry a part <strong>of</strong> the leadership development curriculum at corporate<br />
universities and training centers.<br />
Poetry is not just for leadership training as illustrated by what is taking place at<br />
West Point. As noted, it can help leaders and executives step out <strong>of</strong> their comfort zone. A<br />
poem, as Morgan points out, stretches itself out beyond its own borders. A poem can<br />
address issues related to change in a world that has been turned upside down by a global<br />
financial crisis, global warning, and global terrorism. It can give executives some tools to<br />
discover what is happening in the global marketplace where boundaries are difficult to<br />
define and whose meanings are difficult to categorize. For business leaders to be<br />
effective, they must stretch beyond their internal boundaries to find solutions to problems<br />
that are complex and daunting in a global world.<br />
Poetry, Creativity and Thinking Differently<br />
Creative pr<strong>of</strong>essionals are <strong>of</strong>ten challenged to leave their comfort zones for a<br />
chance at coming up with better ideas. Poets have the same challenge as creative<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, the opportunity to step away from ordinary prose and come up with lines<br />
<strong>of</strong> poetry that will reach the heart and not just the mind <strong>of</strong> the reader. When students<br />
study the work <strong>of</strong> great poets, they typically find that the best poets create words that<br />
make a poem come alive and have real meaning for its intended audience. Poets like T.S.<br />
Eliot want readers to have a special experience that will capture the spirit <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
In the same way, PR and marketing pr<strong>of</strong>essionals want their audiences to have<br />
special experiences with words, concepts, and ideas. They know that the bureaucracy can<br />
zap the creative life in organizations. Groupthink prevails in many organizations so that<br />
no original idea can surface that can make a difference. To counter the bureaucracy in<br />
many large organizations, the public relations and marketing teams are turning to poets<br />
and poetry to help improve the way customers and clients perceive them, making this<br />
endeavor part <strong>of</strong> the public relations function. Daimler-Chrysler sponsored poetry<br />
readings in five cities to show that it has creative spark in its teams. AT&T and Blue<br />
Cross have brought in poets to speak to their marketing departments with the hope that<br />
their insights could lead to new ways <strong>of</strong> approaching problems, creating new products,<br />
and sharing ideas with others.<br />
Recent topics in the Harvard Business Review are encouraging executives to<br />
improve how they shape their interpretive outlooks and not just rely on “factualist”<br />
thinking strategies. Dana Gioia, a closet poet, helped turn Jell-O from a seven million<br />
dollar loss to a twenty million dollar pr<strong>of</strong>it venture by changing the way the public and<br />
mothers looked at the product, by making it have more appealing shapes and associating<br />
it with more fun activities. He used imaginative engagement to change the way the<br />
consumer felt about the product. While he was creating this new strategy, he spent his<br />
278
evenings at home working on his poetry (Morgan et al <strong>2010</strong>). Despite Gioia’s enthusiasm<br />
for poetry and strategic thinking benefits, most business executives still have a hard time<br />
with s<strong>of</strong>t subjects such as poetry in the workplace. But some are beginning to understand<br />
that facts do not always speak for themselves. Just relying on the facts alone can put a<br />
company in extreme jeopardy that will not only hurt its reputation, but also its bottom<br />
line. Enron and others in recent years have learned this lesson the hard way: they went<br />
out <strong>of</strong> business.<br />
The work at Oxford and the Boston Consulting Group point to evidence that<br />
learning to read poetry can make one think differently is starting to surface, especially in<br />
matters dealing with ambiguity. Morgan et al (<strong>2010</strong>) note that if you learn to handle<br />
ambiguity, you will have more options to understand the fine points <strong>of</strong> a business<br />
problem or text. The ability to think beyond the facts and come up with creative solutions<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten available to people who read and study poetry. In test studies with a controlled<br />
group <strong>of</strong> literary pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and students balanced by non-literary trained practitioners,<br />
the literary trained pr<strong>of</strong>essionals were better able to perceive subtle differences and<br />
variations in poetry text than the non-trained pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. These non-trained people<br />
lacked a set <strong>of</strong> skills to detect the subtle differences in the complex text whose meaning<br />
was not obvious (Morgan et al <strong>2010</strong>, p 38).<br />
Poetry may not always change the mind <strong>of</strong> business executives or PR<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. Its power lies in the way the poem evokes emotion using its image,<br />
rhythm, and sound pattern to trigger a change in thought. We are moved by poetry. It<br />
helps us think deeply about things that facts by themselves could never do. It may well be<br />
the catalyst for making change in organizational life. More and more organizations are<br />
turning to poetry as a way to help inspire new ways <strong>of</strong> thinking and generating ideas for<br />
the future.<br />
References<br />
Eliot, T.S. (1957) On Poetry and Poets, New York: The Noonday Press<br />
Hamill, S. (1992) The Infinite Moment: Poems from Ancient Greek, New York: New<br />
Directions Publishing<br />
Morgan, C., Lange, K., & Buswick, T., (<strong>2010</strong>) What Poetry Brings to Business, Ann<br />
Arbor: University <strong>of</strong> Michigan Press<br />
Packard, W (1992) The Art <strong>of</strong> Poetry Writing, New York: St Martin’s Press<br />
279
Hope for Uganda:<br />
How a PR Portfolio Honors Class gave hope to children in Rural Uganda:<br />
Thirteen Students Work to Bring Education and Sustainability to a Small Village<br />
Gemma Puglisi<br />
<strong>America</strong>n University<br />
puglisi@american.edu<br />
Project Description<br />
Client: “Arlington Academy <strong>of</strong> Hope”<br />
Students in this special class, the PR Portfolio Group, worked with a local<br />
nonpr<strong>of</strong>it that helps children in Uganda with education and medical/health needs. The<br />
education system in Uganda is facing many challenges. Students don’t have basic items<br />
such as books, pencils, food, or uniforms. Many travel over an hour in mud and<br />
hazardous road conditions to attend school.<br />
Many teachers never show up. Ten years ago, John and Joyce Wanda arrived in the<br />
United States from a small village in Uganda called Bumwalukani. They never forgot<br />
their homeland and promised to help the children and people there by creating AAH,<br />
Arlington Academy <strong>of</strong> Hope. For very little funds, children can be fed, educated, and<br />
finally have some type <strong>of</strong> medical help. Thus, the mission <strong>of</strong> AAH is to provide children<br />
with a great education, a better life and a bright future.<br />
Objective<br />
There were various goals. They included: getting the word out to college<br />
students, the media, and potential volunteers. Students also hoped to raise funds by<br />
hosting entertainment events <strong>of</strong>f campus and special events on campus. They also sent<br />
pitch letters to the media and created bracelets for fundraising purposes and visibility.<br />
Finally, the students wanted to leave a legacy for the organizations. They prepared media<br />
lists; a list <strong>of</strong> perspective organizations that may want to help the nonpr<strong>of</strong>it; and<br />
marketing materials for the organization to use long after the class is over.<br />
Challenge<br />
This past year has been a difficult time for many nonpr<strong>of</strong>its. And, there are many<br />
that are in need <strong>of</strong> help and support. Despite this, the students did an extraordinary job<br />
and left their legacy.<br />
Process<br />
The class was divided into two groups: “Marketing and Outreach” and “Events<br />
and Media”<br />
Marketing and Outreach<br />
As mentioned, students in this group worked on a variety <strong>of</strong> marketing materials to raise<br />
visibility for the client. Some <strong>of</strong> these included a “Get Involved” fact sheet; how to host<br />
a screening <strong>of</strong> a small film about children in the AAH program; talking points about<br />
AAH; and a sheet how to “stay in touch.”<br />
For outreach, students sent e-mails and letter to U.S. Senators and Congressmen<br />
about a mudslide that took place several miles away from the village. Students also<br />
targeted these politicians to educate them on the great progress AAH has made and how<br />
they can support the organization. Students also contacted those members <strong>of</strong> Congress<br />
who were on the Subcommittee for Africa and Global Health and those on the<br />
Subcommittee on African Affairs.<br />
280
Another strategy for the students was to contact local builders and members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
local Business Association to help purchase bricks for another possible school. Students<br />
also felt that elementary schools in the area would want to help other children. One<br />
student in the class went back to one <strong>of</strong> her former schools in the area and suggested a<br />
possible “Penny Challenge.”<br />
This student also compiled a list <strong>of</strong> schools in Arlington County, where AAH is<br />
based, to help with future projects. One <strong>of</strong> the most successful marketing tools the<br />
students used was having a bracelet made (spurred <strong>of</strong>f the success <strong>of</strong> “Live strong” and<br />
Lance Armstrong) that had “AAH-Hope for Uganda” imprinted. They sold these for a<br />
dollar and raised $150 for the organization.<br />
Media and Events Group<br />
This group contacted various media for both the mudslides and for AAH in<br />
general. Though the students may not have gotten any “hits” regarding the mudslides,<br />
their outreach was important. They pitched founder John Wanda, as an expert on Uganda<br />
who could discuss the devastation that mudslides bring to the region. Students also<br />
reached out to blogs, newspapers, as well as television and radio programs.<br />
Perhaps the greatest contribution the students made for the project was their<br />
successful events. Their passion and hard work truly paid <strong>of</strong>f for AAH. Some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
events the students organized and created included:<br />
Panel Discussion: “Sustainable Development: The Many Facets <strong>of</strong> Community<br />
• Empowerment”—the panelists included John Wanda, Nicole Hewitt with the<br />
“Institute for Sustainable Communities; and Andrea Bachmann, an <strong>America</strong>n<br />
University student who went to Colombia during Alternative Break. (This<br />
event raised $ll0.)<br />
• Students also had a couple <strong>of</strong> “get togethers” at local bars to help raise funds.<br />
One was at the Town Tavern in Washington and the other was at another bar.<br />
The Tavern event raised $541 and the other event raised $245.<br />
• The students also put together a wonderful event on our QUAD on campus. They<br />
called this “Recess for Hope.” Students played games on the Quad to raise<br />
visibility. They also sold ice-cream the bracelets, and took contributions. That<br />
event raised $255.<br />
Discussion<br />
1) How did the project come to us?<br />
This PR Portfolio class is quite popular now and many people do come to me for<br />
help. I had heard about AAH through friends and family. For several years they<br />
were mentioned and I had learned that another school had helped them with<br />
research (School <strong>of</strong> International Service). It was also important because AAH<br />
deals with children, sustainability, health and education. All important topics that<br />
students want to learn about and help—and make a difference.<br />
2) Why was the project a challenge?<br />
Working to help a nonpr<strong>of</strong>it is always a challenge. Nonpr<strong>of</strong>its are having a very<br />
tough time now because <strong>of</strong> the economy. We wanted to make a difference. Also,<br />
this was work we were doing to help children in Uganda. Students didn’t get a<br />
chance to meet any <strong>of</strong> the children, but their passion was there regardless. Also,<br />
sometimes, nonpr<strong>of</strong>its aren’t aware <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the important things they can do to<br />
raise their visibility. Convincing them can be a challenge.<br />
281
3) How did the students feel about the project?<br />
This class was treated as a special class or “topics” class. Students were invited.<br />
The requirement was that they had to receive at least an A- in both PR Writing<br />
and <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> classes. Students were very passionate about helping the<br />
children and AAH. They felt there was so much they could do to help AAH.<br />
They also wanted to leave a legacy. It was wonderful to watch their hard work<br />
and passion.<br />
4) How did AAH feel about the students’ work?<br />
It was so wonderful to see the reaction <strong>of</strong> many members <strong>of</strong> the board from AAH<br />
hear all the great things the students achieved for them. The students also came<br />
up with a strategic plan on how the organization can grow their annual gala. The<br />
students also told AAH how much it would have cost the nonpr<strong>of</strong>it had they billed<br />
the client for their work: about $70,000. That was wonderful and got the crowd<br />
excited and very grateful for all the work. The students left such an important<br />
legacy. One student, decided on her own, to go to Uganda after graduation. It<br />
was very a rewarding class and I was grateful to the students for their passion.<br />
Evaluation<br />
Arlington Academy <strong>of</strong> Hope was the perfect project for students who learned how<br />
to make a difference globally by helping a small organization here at home that provides<br />
help to children in Uganda. Helping others in a remote part <strong>of</strong> the world is not a<br />
challenge. The students also left a lasting gift to the organization by raising not only<br />
funds but visibility for AAH.<br />
Overall accomplishments for the students:<br />
Increased the visibility <strong>of</strong> the organization via:<br />
Impressions<br />
--AU Campus media, The Eagle (print and online) and ATV<br />
--Blogs<br />
The Arlington Academy <strong>of</strong> Hope<br />
Brightest Young Things<br />
The Sweetest Thing-DC<br />
A Local Foodie’s Fight<br />
Hey Jess<br />
--Social Media<br />
TOTAL:<br />
l6,000 plus<br />
1,000 plus<br />
4,000 plus<br />
2l,000 plus<br />
With all the activities listed earlier, students raised about:<br />
$l,30l.00<br />
(Students told the organization they could use this to educate students or use<br />
the funds to help with AAH’s annual gala.)<br />
Students left a legacy:<br />
--created marketing materials<br />
promotional, informational, and business<br />
--compiled contact lists—<br />
Related DC area student organizations<br />
Local elementary schools<br />
282
Media list and crisis media list<br />
Sources <strong>of</strong> potential grants<br />
--preliminary research and preparations for gala<br />
--initial contact with potential donors, volunteers and sponsors<br />
--one student’s mother works at a medical school in Berkeley, California<br />
and she will recruit young med students to work in Uganda<br />
Contents for the Poster<br />
• Elements from the power point presentation the students put together for last class<br />
• Some marketing materials students created<br />
• Poster created by students for the final presentation<br />
• Several <strong>of</strong> the media hits students got on campus from working on the project<br />
283
Best Practices in Teaching Client-Based Courses<br />
Donna Simmons, Ph.D.<br />
California State University, Bakersfield<br />
dsimmons2@csub.edu<br />
Jean Jaymes West, Ph.D.<br />
California State University, Bakersfield<br />
jjaymes@csub.edu<br />
Best Practice #1. Finding clients who recognize and accept their roles in educating<br />
future pr<strong>of</strong>essionals.<br />
Clients who are willing to give student consultants the extra time needed to learn<br />
as they go make a significant difference in the achievement <strong>of</strong> course learning objectives.<br />
Instructors <strong>of</strong> client-based courses need to ensure that the client understands that the<br />
students and pr<strong>of</strong>essor are treating this client just as a pr<strong>of</strong>essional consultant group<br />
would treat the client. However, the instructor must also make sure the client understands<br />
that students are doing the project to learn about public relations or marketing – that this<br />
is a learning process for the students so they cannot be held to the same level as paid<br />
consultants.<br />
In our experience good clients meet two major criteria:<br />
• Know the business and are enthusiastic and can spark interest and enthusiasm for the<br />
business when talking to students. Clients should have sufficient knowledge about what<br />
they want students to accomplish for their business so that they are able to clearly<br />
verbalize what they want in several ways. They must have a sense <strong>of</strong> the “big picture”<br />
and convey that to students. One client brought handouts for the students with detailed<br />
explanations <strong>of</strong> the structure <strong>of</strong> the organization and the mission statement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organization to provide the big picture. Clients must be clear on the general, end goals<br />
<strong>of</strong> what they want to clearly outline their expectations. Clients also must have some<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> what they do NOT want and able to convey that to students as well—with an<br />
explanation <strong>of</strong> why. The client and instructor must sell the project to the students. Even<br />
if, on the surface, the business may seem like something students might not get excited<br />
about, a “good” client can “sell” the project and no matter how mundane the tasks are<br />
that students must undertake, the client can pitch the project in a way that makes<br />
students eager to work on it when first coming to class. The instructor must sell the<br />
client and the business to the students before the client comes to the class so the client<br />
is well-received and students are receptive to the client. For example, the instructor<br />
might describe the history <strong>of</strong> the company or explain what it contributes to the<br />
community.<br />
• Are willing to be available as necessary and as arranged prior to the implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
the project. . Clients must understand that students have deadlines to meet to complete<br />
the work based on the length <strong>of</strong> the course. Clients must be willing to be available via<br />
email or phone to address questions that might arise as the students develop the project.<br />
The student contact can be limited to the student project manager only (one appointed<br />
student per team), to reduce a flood <strong>of</strong> emails or phone calls to the client. The instructor<br />
can explain to students that the clients are busy pr<strong>of</strong>essionals with real-world work<br />
responsibilities, and therefore direct contact must be limited. The client must<br />
284
understand that knowledge <strong>of</strong> the client’s business and industry does not replace the<br />
content and learning objectives established for the course by the instructor.<br />
An important caveat applies to the role <strong>of</strong> the client in educating students. Clients<br />
should not be under-involved or over-involved, but sufficiently involved. At times<br />
clients can take their teacher role so seriously that they can take over the class. Clients<br />
who want to come to the classroom regularly or hold meetings with students, i.e., once<br />
a week or even every couple <strong>of</strong> weeks fit into the over-involved category. Sufficiently<br />
involved clients are willing to come to class as invited by the instructor or student team<br />
– generally not more than three times during the course. The first visit by the client is to<br />
sell the business. The second visit by the client is to review the project to date and<br />
provide feedback to the students. The third visit is for the student team’s presentation <strong>of</strong><br />
the project to the client.<br />
Best Practice #2. Connecting course learning goals with the realities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
We have found that clients are <strong>of</strong>ten not public relations or marketing experts and<br />
do not know what to expect from students’ projects or how to guide them with regard to<br />
public relations or marketing activities. Students will be learning about public relations<br />
and marketing as they work with their clients. To emphasize the realities <strong>of</strong> the real<br />
world, instructors need to<br />
• Understand what knowledge, experiences, and skills the client can provide to the<br />
students and explain this information to the students.<br />
• Explain to clients that their roles are to guide students using the clients’ unique<br />
organizational experiences.<br />
• Develop a clear understanding between the client and instructor that the course learning<br />
goals are the primary focus <strong>of</strong> the class and how the client project helps achieve these<br />
learning goals. This can be done by going over the course syllabus, evaluation process<br />
<strong>of</strong> the students’ work with the client and matching the client’s expectations and course<br />
learning objectives prior to the beginning <strong>of</strong> the course.<br />
• If the instructor is planning to use a textbook along with the “real world” experience, it<br />
is essential to periodically refer to the project as you present and discuss each segment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the text. Sometimes it is difficult for students to make the connection clearly between<br />
specific text principles and specific pieces <strong>of</strong> the project. The pr<strong>of</strong>essor must make<br />
these connections with real-world examples.<br />
• We have also found that requiring exams and analyses <strong>of</strong> real-world cases during the<br />
first half <strong>of</strong> the course forces students to learn the basics <strong>of</strong> the course text so that<br />
students will, in theory, have learned all the principles <strong>of</strong> the course and can better<br />
incorporate them into their project work during the final phase <strong>of</strong> the course.<br />
• Clients’ feedback to the students as they would give it to their employees at the midway<br />
point <strong>of</strong> the client project provides students with a much better sense <strong>of</strong> the realities <strong>of</strong><br />
the pr<strong>of</strong>ession. If at this point clients give honest feedback as to their assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
whether the teams have devoted enough effort toward their projects, the teams gets a<br />
taste <strong>of</strong> the performance level expected in the real world. Clients can let teams know if<br />
they sense a lack <strong>of</strong> focus or if ideas need to be developed further. The instructor can<br />
facilitate the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> this feedback by emphasizing to students that the more<br />
well-developed ideas they bring to the midpoint meeting, the better their work will be at<br />
the end.<br />
285
Best Practice #3. Motivating students and clients to fulfill their roles.<br />
The client-based course <strong>of</strong>fers some obvious motivators for students to commit to<br />
the course and the client. We use four techniques to motivate students.<br />
• One key to motivating students to fulfill their roles is to emphasize the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
making a good impression on the real world pr<strong>of</strong>essionals who come into the<br />
classroom. The instructor should emphasize that these are “connections” to the real<br />
world—and these “connections” work in real companies/organizations who are their<br />
future potential employers. While students might believe the project is only a “school”<br />
project, the instructor should emphasize that any impression made throughout their<br />
completion <strong>of</strong> this project will remain in that potential employer’s mind for long into<br />
the future. If the impression is a positive one, the connection can be valuable. If the<br />
impression is a negative one, the valuable opportunity to network and make a<br />
connection that might help in future job hunting is lost. To emphasize opportunities that<br />
can arise, we use examples <strong>of</strong> students who worked on projects that led to internships<br />
that led to jobs. Even though this is rare, it has happened for several <strong>of</strong> our students.<br />
• A field trip to the client’s place <strong>of</strong> business can be powerfully motivating. In one<br />
project students visited an animal control facility. Their tour through the facility gave<br />
them a reason for why what they were doing for the client was important. Not all<br />
clients’ places <strong>of</strong> business can create such strong emotional reactions. But just going to<br />
a client’s location gives students the sense that this is a real client, and that what the<br />
students produce matters to this organization.<br />
• Another motivation for students, although it might have to be emphasized and clearly<br />
explained by the instructor, is that the project the team produces can go into students’<br />
portfolios and resumes as a type <strong>of</strong> experience entry-level pr<strong>of</strong>essionals are expected to<br />
have while in college.<br />
• Finally, we create peer-pressure motivation with individual accountability reports and<br />
individual grades on group projects. Students rate themselves and other team members<br />
on attitude, production, deadlines, and support at the end <strong>of</strong> the project. These<br />
individual accountability reports are considered when assigning individual grades for<br />
the project. While the team receives a grade for its final project, each member receives<br />
an individual grade that is determined by the instructor’s evaluation and evaluation <strong>of</strong><br />
the student’s work by team members. It is important to let students know that the<br />
instructor has the ultimate decision on student grades.<br />
Motivating clients has to be done in the initial client meeting. Clients must know<br />
before they make the commitment to the project what time will be required <strong>of</strong> them for<br />
the project. Instructors must emphasize the importance <strong>of</strong> the client project to the learning<br />
outcomes <strong>of</strong> the course. Client roles must be clearly explained, particularly the three faceto-face<br />
meetings. Most importantly, if instructors do not feel comfortable after the initial<br />
interview that clients are able or willing to follow through on the project, the instructor<br />
needs to be able to turn down the client after the first meeting.<br />
Best Practice # 4. Structuring student teams for the best outcomes for students and<br />
clients.<br />
First, a decision must be made about whether the class as a whole works on the<br />
client project or student teams work for separate clients. The first option is to identify one<br />
client for the course, and use teams <strong>of</strong> students to work on separate parts <strong>of</strong> the project.<br />
Another option is to create 5-6 member teams who work with separate clients.<br />
286
If creating separate teams for one client project, it is important to ensure that the<br />
teams that must present the proposal and write the proposal have good presentation and<br />
writing skills. One way to manage this is to ask each student who wants to present to<br />
prepare a 1-2 minute presentation to the class about why that student is a good choice to<br />
do the presentation. Then class members vote for 2-3 people to be on this team. For the<br />
team that writes the proposal, instructors can save themselves grief if they identify those<br />
who are the best writers in the class and assign them to the proposal team. For the other<br />
teams working on the project it has worked well to ask students to identify the three<br />
teams they would like to work on and rank order their choices. Students generally get<br />
their first or second choices <strong>of</strong> the teams they want. This method does not discourage<br />
friends from trying to get on the same team, however, as long as there are enough<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the team, the negatives associated with friends working on teams are<br />
generally avoided. If students feel they have a choice <strong>of</strong> a team, i.e., research or tactics,<br />
that appeals to them, it can help with motivation.<br />
When using 5-6 member teams to complete client projects, several strategies can<br />
help toward the productivity <strong>of</strong> the teams. One <strong>of</strong> the key strategies is to NOT allow<br />
students to select their own team. Structuring in this way makes the team experience<br />
much closer to the realities <strong>of</strong> the work world. Students are far more accountable to their<br />
teammates when they don’t know other team members. Students seem much more likely<br />
to let someone they are good friends with miss team deadlines, dismiss poor attendance at<br />
team meetings, and overlook lack <strong>of</strong> work in general. Another strategy is to create teams<br />
that are evenly matched. Instructors should survey students at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the course<br />
to evaluate their academic/team strengths and weaknesses. Then members can be<br />
assigned to teams in a manner that reduces the likelihood that all <strong>of</strong> the best writers, best<br />
oral presenters, and best leaders will be on the same team. Another strategy for helping<br />
the teams to be successful is to create a project manager system. The project manager is<br />
someone who, based on the survey results, is willing to be in charge, but more like a<br />
“lead worker. The ideal manager is someone whose strength is motivating and inspiring<br />
other people to do something. Within the project manager structure, any team member<br />
who the rest <strong>of</strong> the team believes is not performing as expected can be reprimanded or<br />
fired. Once a student is fired from a team, the student has three options: (1) ask to join<br />
another team—but that team must be advised <strong>of</strong> their “fired” status with the original<br />
team; (2) the student can complete an entire project alone; or (3) do nothing and receive<br />
an “F” for the project portion <strong>of</strong> the course grade (which is usually 30-50 percent <strong>of</strong> that<br />
final grade).<br />
Best Practice #5. Managing client and students expectations.<br />
A key in managing client expectations is to stress that the client’s level <strong>of</strong><br />
involvement is key to the success <strong>of</strong> what the students produce as a final product. In other<br />
words, the more they give to students (within reason) the more they will get back at the<br />
end in terms <strong>of</strong> results. As we have noted, the instructor must take time to meet with the<br />
client well before the course begins and describe the course learning objectives. It is<br />
important for the instructor to emphasize the importance <strong>of</strong> the client project in the<br />
course. Instructors must also ensure clients understand that the three class visits are<br />
essential to the learning that will take place and the outcome <strong>of</strong> the project for the client.<br />
By providing clients with a course syllabus and detailed description <strong>of</strong> the client project<br />
287
that the students receive, instructors can more clearly explain what clients can expect<br />
from the project and emphasize the client’s importance to the success <strong>of</strong> the course.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> students, instructors must stress that satisfied clients create good<br />
connections between the campus and all <strong>of</strong> the community—not just that one client. It is<br />
key to stress to students that the impression each one <strong>of</strong> them makes will reflect on<br />
everyone else. It is sometimes beneficial to give them real examples <strong>of</strong> how this is the<br />
case based on clients from the past—giving examples <strong>of</strong> both positive and negative team<br />
results and what the overall final effect was on them as students, the department and<br />
school, and the university as a whole.<br />
It is also crucial to impress upon students that the work they are about to embark<br />
upon is “real.” Therefore, while they may see themselves as “just students” completing a<br />
project “just for the grade,” this kind <strong>of</strong> school experience is different. This experience is<br />
a glimpse <strong>of</strong> what they will encounter in the real work world. Instructors can emphasize<br />
the following benefits to students. Students can expect to:<br />
• have a form <strong>of</strong> real work tied to their future pr<strong>of</strong>essional goals to list on their resume at<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> the course<br />
• have enhanced confidence going into that field because they have done far more than<br />
merely read books about the subject matter—they have actually experienced the<br />
process<br />
• be better prepared for interviews going into the field because they have a real work-like<br />
experience to draw from<br />
• have at least one pr<strong>of</strong>essional contact upon leaving the course and completing the<br />
project—but <strong>of</strong> course that means the contact will really only be beneficial IF they do a<br />
satisfactory job. It is <strong>of</strong>ten good to say that the better their work on the project, the more<br />
beneficial the contact will be—the contact is only “good” if the client is pleased with<br />
their work<br />
288
Integrating ethics into the undergraduate public relations curriculum<br />
Jonathan R. Slater, Ph.D.<br />
SUNY Plattsburgh<br />
jonathan.slater@plattsburgh.edu<br />
Deborah Silverman, APR, Ph.D.<br />
Buffalo State College<br />
silverda@buffalostate.edu<br />
Ethics are intrinsic to the identity <strong>of</strong> the public relations pr<strong>of</strong>essional. They define who<br />
public relations practitioners are, what they do and what they stand for. Ethics guide the<br />
practitioner’s behavior in relationships with clients, help to determine which projects to<br />
undertake and which to refuse, and assist practitioners in daily decision-making<br />
processes. A crucial obligation therefore <strong>of</strong> the public relations curriculum and <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations instruction is to lead students <strong>of</strong> public relations – especially at the<br />
undergraduate level – into a meaningful and ultimately useful understanding <strong>of</strong> what<br />
exactly constitutes ethics.<br />
Unfortunately, the overt teaching <strong>of</strong> ethics has sometimes been treated as ancillary<br />
to the public relations curriculum. For example, until very recently, many communication<br />
and public relations textbooks typically placed chapters about ethics toward the end <strong>of</strong><br />
the book and publishers rarely infused ethical lessons into the overall content <strong>of</strong> each<br />
chapter.<br />
Such a treatment <strong>of</strong> ethics in the undergraduate public relations classroom is particularly<br />
counterproductive to the constructive training <strong>of</strong> young public relations practitioners.<br />
The public relations curriculum <strong>of</strong>fers instructors a significant opportunity to impart<br />
positive ideals and impress purposeful behaviors upon students, beyond merely making<br />
sure that they are graduating with the requisite technical skills and competencies.<br />
Two-fold challenge<br />
The challenge <strong>of</strong> effectively teaching ethics to students <strong>of</strong> public relations is tw<strong>of</strong>old.<br />
First, students <strong>of</strong>ten do not have a clear understanding <strong>of</strong> what is meant by ethics.<br />
The post-modern bias and ensuing cultural relativism that have been the hallmarks <strong>of</strong> 20 th<br />
and early 21 st century Western societies have done little to reinforce absolute ethical<br />
notions in the home, at school or at work. Ethics are therefore <strong>of</strong>ten viewed as what is<br />
right for the individual and in fulfillment <strong>of</strong> a person’s own individual needs. One only<br />
has to visualize the deleterious effects <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong> thinking to comprehend that it leads<br />
to dysfunction – or worse, malfunction – at virtually all levels. Witness the disintegration<br />
<strong>of</strong> fundamental moral values in the executive suites <strong>of</strong> such infamous firms as Enron and<br />
Adelphia, or even the more recent ethical missteps by BP, and one realizes how easy it is<br />
for organizations to be set ethically adrift. If there is a single lesson students <strong>of</strong> public<br />
relations can extract from these fiascos, it is perhaps this: Having a moral anchor is an<br />
essential pre-requisite to building trust among people and between organizations and<br />
people. Further, a moral compass is imperative to establishing reliable interpersonal,<br />
group and organizational relationships. And not by chance, these are basic tenets <strong>of</strong> the<br />
public relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession, grounded in the pragmatic principle that the ability to earn<br />
trust and build relationships is core to the communicator’s capacity to influence attitudes,<br />
opinions and behavior.<br />
289
The second challenge is, in fact, posed by the first. In light <strong>of</strong> students’ possibly<br />
inadequate or even fallacious notions <strong>of</strong> ethics, what tools and methods can a public<br />
relations instructor bring to the classroom in order to engender a thorough and<br />
comprehensive ethical mindset among students? However, the most important technique<br />
in constructing an ethical framework within the minds <strong>of</strong> students is for the instructors to<br />
start asking students unsettling questions with the goal <strong>of</strong> having them then ask the same<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> questions later, in their careers.<br />
Macroethics, normative ethics and applied ethics<br />
To this end, the first question ought to go something like this: What are we talking<br />
about when we refer to ethics? And the second question should perhaps be: What is an<br />
ethical obligation?<br />
There is, unfortunately, neither a simple nor totally satisfying answer to either<br />
question. To understand what ethics are and what one means by ethical obligations, we<br />
must first break the concept <strong>of</strong> ethics into three components: macroethical ideas,<br />
normative ethics and applied ethics.<br />
A macroethical view is one that focuses on broad, encompassing values that shape and<br />
even determine the moral dimensions <strong>of</strong> human communication. A macroethical<br />
approach implies a self-conscious examination <strong>of</strong> the effects <strong>of</strong> our communication<br />
behaviors. An example <strong>of</strong> a macroethical principle might be Aristotle’s Golden Mean,<br />
which counsels people to avoid extremes <strong>of</strong> behavior in favor <strong>of</strong> moderation and self<br />
restraint, or Kant’s belief that other human beings should not be used as a means to an<br />
end, or even Rawls’s veil <strong>of</strong> ignorance, advocating a social contract in which individual<br />
rights cannot be bargained away. The purpose <strong>of</strong> introducing students to such ideas is not<br />
necessarily to transform them into philosophy scholars, but rather to acquaint them with<br />
the starting points for an appreciation <strong>of</strong> fundamental ethical conduct.<br />
A normative approach assumes that – despite the existence <strong>of</strong> macroethical<br />
principles – social prescriptions for how we ought to act in virtually any situation are<br />
frequently informal, implicit and internalized. In other words, we <strong>of</strong>ten do not have clear<br />
explanations for our ethical decision-making. The purpose therefore <strong>of</strong> normative ethics<br />
is to expose and explicate normative rules <strong>of</strong> behavior in a manner that provides both<br />
students and practitioners with accessible and identifiable guidelines, in both public and<br />
private settings. Religious tenets, employee handbooks and pr<strong>of</strong>essional codes <strong>of</strong> conduct<br />
are but three cases <strong>of</strong> such an ethical framework. The PRSA Member Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics is<br />
an excellent example – for the public relations pr<strong>of</strong>ession – <strong>of</strong> normative guidelines<br />
spelling out in some detail the ways one ought to think and act in practical public<br />
relations matters.<br />
An applied approach – <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as situational ethics – puts students’<br />
macroethical understandings and normative knowledge to the test. Ethical behavior, from<br />
the most mundane organizational contexts to the most stressful crises, ought not to be a<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> random guesswork. On the contrary, ethical responses must be an outcome <strong>of</strong><br />
thoughtful, considered reflection even in the most fast-paced organizational contexts.<br />
Situational ethical inquiry should provide students and practitioners alike with intelligible<br />
reasons for intelligent decisions. This sort <strong>of</strong> introspective inquiry can only routinely<br />
come about as a result <strong>of</strong> wise instruction over time and plentiful training opportunities –<br />
two processes that the undergraduate public relations classroom traditionally seem wellsuited<br />
to promote.<br />
290
Three-step approach<br />
The present authors recommend a three-step approach to examining ethics in the<br />
public relations classroom. The first step includes introducing students to some basic<br />
macroethical and normative ideas and leading them through a historical survey <strong>of</strong><br />
precedents that led the pr<strong>of</strong>ession to craft normative guidelines in public relations, and<br />
bringing them up-to-date on what the pr<strong>of</strong>ession sees as the crucial developments in the<br />
fostering <strong>of</strong> public relations ethics. Instructors then should take the time to introduce<br />
students to the PRSA Member Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics and, section-by-section, analyze and<br />
deconstruct the precepts and principles embodied in the Code. This method is particularly<br />
useful in introductory public relations courses, where students have not yet had the<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> the real-world experience they will receive in advanced public relations<br />
management and campaigns courses, as well as through internships. But even for students<br />
who have a service-learning background, the meticulous study <strong>of</strong> the Member Code can<br />
prove valuable and formative. Once students have absorbed the Code, the instructor<br />
might wish to lead students through a credible scenario or larger, classic case study in<br />
order to evaluate how well they have applied their learning to the resolution <strong>of</strong> the<br />
scenario or case in hand and integrated normative thinking into that resolution. The<br />
instructor should conduct a cross-examination <strong>of</strong> the students – perhaps with the<br />
collaboration <strong>of</strong> a local practitioner – soliciting active participation and feedback in a<br />
rapid-fire, free-wheeling, but nonetheless structured dialogue around the ethical issues<br />
posed by the scenario or case. The instructor can then bring the dialogue to a close by<br />
inviting students to meta-communicate about their conclusions.<br />
The present authors strongly recommend the above pedagogical approach in the<br />
teaching <strong>of</strong> public relations ethics for four compelling reasons: (1) This is a technique<br />
that <strong>of</strong>ten presents students with ethical issues in public relations in which scholars,<br />
critics and industry practitioners typically have taken sides – which means these<br />
individuals have devoted time to examining, analyzing and publicly commenting on such<br />
issues; (2) teaching ethics in this way allows instructors to concertedly guide students<br />
into postulating and defending positions on ethical concerns; (3) this approach provides<br />
the philosophical, normative and other contextual frameworks that will permit students to<br />
render their own critical assessments <strong>of</strong> the ethical issues presented; and (4) a dynamic<br />
delivery format for teaching public relations ethics has the potential to help students to<br />
more easily assimilate and interiorize important and enduring lessons they can call upon<br />
in their pr<strong>of</strong>essional careers.<br />
291
<strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Pedagogy to Practice: Perceptions and Realities <strong>of</strong> Student<br />
Preparedness to Enter the <strong>Public</strong> <strong>Relations</strong> Workforce<br />
Natalie T.J. Tindall, Ph.D.<br />
Georgia State University<br />
drnatalietjtindall@gmail.com<br />
Trayce B. Leak, APR<br />
Clark Atlanta University<br />
trayceleak@gmail.com<br />
With steady growth in the public relations industry and in public relations as an<br />
academic discipline, pr<strong>of</strong>essional-preparation pedagogy has become critical. Educators<br />
must align public relations curriculum with industry standards, while meeting student<br />
needs. The purposes <strong>of</strong> this study are to understand student and pr<strong>of</strong>essional practitioner<br />
expectations and perceptions <strong>of</strong> public relations education and to pre-test an assessment<br />
tool that measures those perceptions.<br />
To evaluate the perceptions <strong>of</strong> student preparedness to enter the workforce upon<br />
graduation, the researchers surveyed recent graduates and public relations practitioners.<br />
Recent graduates rated their abilities and their perceived preparedness against the skill<br />
sets most valued by employers. Practitioners rated the importance <strong>of</strong> certain skills in<br />
today’s workforce and how they perceive new hires’ preparedness to execute those skills.<br />
Recent graduates <strong>of</strong> a local university and Atlanta-area practitioners pre-tested the<br />
questionnaire; their feedback will be incorporated into the revised questionnaire, which<br />
will launch regionally in spring 2011.<br />
The implications <strong>of</strong> this project can be extended to curriculum development and<br />
revisions, classroom teaching styles and techniques, and learning outcomes assessment.<br />
Through this examination <strong>of</strong> student perceptions <strong>of</strong> preparedness and pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
practitioners’<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> necessary skills and new hire preparedness, public relations educators will<br />
gain an instrument specifically designed to evaluate how well curriculum, teaching styles<br />
and techniques, and learning outcomes are aligned with industry standards and how well<br />
curricular efforts provide the technical, theoretical, and analytical skills necessary for<br />
students to successfully transition into the workforce and make immediate contributions.<br />
292
Putting Theory, Research and Strategic Thinking to Practice in Writing Courses<br />
Tia C. M. Tyree<br />
Howard University<br />
ttyree@howard.edu<br />
Many educators teach students to produce PR tools setting them up to become<br />
entry level works able to execute their technician roles well. Yet, the challenge is creating<br />
students who are strategic thinkers who write effective PR tools that take into account PR<br />
theories, research and fold within a well-developed strategic plan.<br />
In my PR Writing I course, students to do it. Students select a “client” based on a<br />
real for-pr<strong>of</strong>it, nonpr<strong>of</strong>it or government entity. They develop a complete “8-Point” * plan.<br />
Plan components - from completing research to develop the situation analysis to<br />
identifying the audience and writing the tools within the tactic section - help students put<br />
their tools into proper context. Each tool must relate to an objective, thus teaching<br />
students how to make proper connections between the development and execution <strong>of</strong> a<br />
tool and its ability help the client reach its objectives. Further, students must complete a<br />
“writing assignment assessment sheet” for each completed assignment forcing them to<br />
look critically at their work by identifying which PR theory or concept drove the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> or content within the tool as well as outline the strengths and weakness in<br />
their writing.<br />
Overall, a student’s final project is the submission <strong>of</strong> a strategic plan with the PR<br />
tools, which could include blogs, website text, press releases, media advisories, pitch<br />
letters and more. In essence, this course acts as the training ground for students to ensure<br />
they are able to meet the expectations <strong>of</strong> their real clients when they reach our Capstone<br />
Course their senior year.<br />
* The plan is based on the one outlined by Dennis L. Wilcox in the 5 th Edition <strong>of</strong> <strong>Public</strong><br />
<strong>Relations</strong>: Writing and Media Techniques published by Allyn and Bacon.<br />
293