2012 PROCEEDINGS - Public Relations Society of America

2 0 1 2
P R O C E E D I N G S
S A N F R A N C I S C O , C A
O C T O B E R 2 0 1 2
E D I T E D B Y :
M A R C I A W . D I S T A S O
P E N N S Y L V A N I A S T A T E U N I V E R S I T Y
M W D 1 0 @ P S U . E D U

Introduction
On Saturday, October 13, 2012, academics and practitioners attended the pedagogical poster
session and research roundtable presentations at the Public Relations Society of America
Educators Academy Research Session. During the two-hour event, 16 scholars displayed and
discussed their tips for successful public relations teaching in a poster session while scholars
presented 10 competitive research articles in a roundtable format. Tina McCorkindale from
Appalachian State University and Marcia DiStaso from Pennsylvania State University served as
moderators for the sessions.
The top faculty paper was ―An Intertwined Future: Exploring the Relationship between the levels
of Professionalism and Social Roles of Public Relations Practitioners‖ by Juan-Carlos Molleda
and Sarabdeep Kochhar, University of Florida; and Angeles Moreno, Universidad Rey Juan
Carlos, Spain.
The Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Award went to Tina Malott, San Diego State
University for her paper ―Communication Excellence and Public Relations Agencies.‖
In all, 18 peer-reviewed research papers were submitted, and 10 were accepted for a 55.6%
acceptance rate. A total of 23 poster abstracts were submitted, and 16 were accepted for a 69.6%
acceptance rate.
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Table of Contents
Research Papers
An evaluative measure for outputs in student-run public relations courses and applied firms
Rebecca A. Deemer, University of Indianapolis………………………………………………..
Hope for the Future: Millennial PR Agency Practitioners‘ Discussion of Ethical Dilemmas
Tiffany Derville Gallicano & Kelli Matthews, University of Oregon…………........................
Looking back, looking forward: A thematic review of three decades of research in public relations and
new media
Sandra Duhé, Southern Methodist University…………………………………………………..
Nonprofit organizations and public relations practitioners: Room for growth and professional
development
John E. Forde, Mississippi State University & Bey-Ling Sha, San Diego State University…...
Tuning in to the rhythm: The role of coping in strategic management of work-life conflicts in the
public relations profession
Yan Jin, Virginia Commonwealth University; Bey-Ling Sha, San Diego State University;
Hongmei Shen, San Diego State University; & Hua Jiang, Towson University ………………
A time-series analysis of international public relations expenditure and economic return: A study of
Japan, Liberia, Belgium, and Philippines
Suman Lee & Byung Wook Kim Iowa State University……………………………………….
Can Twitter be an effective crisis communication tool? A study of organizational and parody twitter
use in crisis communication
Liang Ma, University of Maryland ……………………………………………………………...
Communication Excellence and Public Relations Agencies
Tina Malott, San Diego State University………………………………………………………..
An Intertwined Future: Exploring the Relationship between the levels of Professionalism and Social
Roles of Public Relations Practitioners
Juan-Carlos Molleda & Sarabdeep Kochhar, University of Florida; Angeles Moreno,
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain……………………………………………………………..
Leadership development: Where do PRSSA faculty advisers stand?
Cathy Rogers, Loyola University New Orleans ………………………………………………..
6
31
47
72
88
106
118
119
128
146
Poster Presentations
Using real world experience to develop public relations students‘ writing skills
Rochelle R. Daniel, Bowie State University ……………………………………………………
Professional development assignment
Rebecca Deemer & Christi D. Larimer University of Indianapolis………………………...
Mobile learning and perceptions of risk: Using communication technology to teach crisis management
Sandra Duhé, Southern Methodist University ………………………………………………….
158
159
162
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Building student networking skills: Facilitating meaningful interactions between students and public
relations professionals
James M. Haney, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point……………………………………...
Populating the e- portfolio: Reflections on the ―Builders‘‖ service-learning project
Ann D. Jabro, Robert Morris University………………………………………………………..
Teaching web analytics as a public relations skill
David Kamerer, Loyola University Chicago……………………………………………………
Preparing Backgrounders and Proposals in the PR Writing Class Using Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) and Community & Business Analyst
Jennifer M. Keller & Brad Howard, Western Washington University ……………………….
Teaching and Mentoring through Social Media
Elizabeth D. Kerns, Central Washington University …………………………………………..
Measuring student self-perceptions of writing skills in programs of journalism and mass
communication
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University ………………………………………………………….
A university‘s PRSSA chapter‘s persona(s): Assessing publics to create a social media recruitment
strategy
Bonita Dostal Neff, Valparaiso University ……………………………………………………..
How a graduate practicum class helped promote the ‗best museum that doesn‘t exist yet?‘
Gemma Puglisi, American University, Washington, DC ……………………………………….
How do media work? College radio project leads to student insights
Margaret Rakus, Albright College ……………………………………………………………..
A stronger foundation for the industry‘s future: Integrating evidence based practices into public
relations education
David Remund, Drake University; Kathy Keltner-Previs, Eastern Kentucky University;
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville ……………………………………………………….
Agency Operations: empowering students with knowledge of industry practices
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University …………………………………………………..
Assessing the State of Public Relations Ethics Education
Deborah Silverman, Buffalo State College & Karla K. Gower, The University of Alabama…
Developing students‘ research skills in the undergraduate public relations writing course: A
framework for ‗real world‘ success
Douglas J. Swanson, California State University, Fullerton ……………………………………
163
167
173
179
183
185
190
191
194
198
202
205
206
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RESEARCH
PAPERS
5

An Evaluative Measure for Outputs in
Student-Run Public Relations Courses and Applied Firms
Rebecca A. Deemer
University of Indianapolis
rdeemer@uindy.edu
Abstract
A valid, reliable survey instrument was created to be used by public relations student-run firms
and other applied public relations courses to gauge client satisfaction. A series of focus groups
and pilot tests were conducted to ascertain themes, improve questions, and then to refine the
entire instrument. Six constructs to be measured, including strategies used by the students,
project management, communication tools, professional demeanor, communication skills, and
overall effectiveness, emerged as themes needing to be assessed. The final instrument included
40 scale questions, six follow-up questions (one for each set of scale questions), and four openended
questions. As an outputs evaluation within General Systems Theory, this evaluative tool
provides a valid, reliable feedback loop that did not exist prior for public relations applied
courses and student-run firms. This survey, when used by public relations educators, will
provide a standardized tool from which discussions can ensue and pedagogy may advance.
Keywords: public relations, public relations education, survey instrument, evaluation
Introduction
Functionally, ―public relations as a discipline encompasses far more generalists in small
organizations than specialists in large organizations‖ (Brody, 1990, p. 46). This, of course,
becomes a challenge for public relations educators, as various aspects of several areas need to be
taught to ensure student readiness. The quandary of time constraints versus the need for a vast
curriculum is a hefty challenge.
Although still true, this is not a new concern. In the past, several scholars and
practitioners alike have cited that there has been strong opposition for years regarding public
relations being part of (or within) a journalism or communication program, the location where
they are typically found (Bernays, 1978; Brody, 1991; Fischer, 2000; Walker, 1989). These
complaints include an overemphasis in journalism, (Gibson, 1987) lack of business experience,
(Walker, 1989), and lack of relationship management abilities (Fischer, 2000). Practitioners
frequently view themselves as liaison persons and educators yet they are not trained for such
roles (Grunig & Hunt, 1984). This training would usually occur in business courses or social
science courses such as Bernays (1978) suggested.
To effectively address the aforementioned issues, courses that include these elements
need introduced in all public relations curricula, making the placement issue less of a discussion
point. One such course that was constructed for this exact reason will be used as an example.
Applied Public Relations (COMM140) is a course that is taught every semester at a small
Midwestern university. Students not only construct public relations tactics for clients, but
strategize and execute plans. The students are in a business relationship with the client for the
duration of the semester. The student managers must learn to manage not only the client
relationship, but the teams as well. Having five to six members per group, the subordinate
students also gain valuable experience in working with a team and performing public relations
and business activities. Those who are engaged in the course are by default a member of the on-
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campus public relations agency.
Working constantly with clients and team members, an applied course teaches about
human behavior via experience. Business skills, including managerial competencies, and social
science foundations, including relationship management and liaison practices are constantly
utilized as the ongoing relationships with group members and clients ensure these experiences.
As can be seen, a course such as this can help eliminate many complaints about, and deficiencies
in, public relations education.
This course, like any other, needs evaluative measures to ensure continual growth and
maturation for student and course development. Such evaluation is a large part of fostering and
ensuring positive growth (Allen, 2004). Applied, or hands-on courses, can be especially
problematic to aptly evaluate, as many of these courses operate as stand-alone public relations
firms for which the traditional classroom evaluative methods alone will not suffice. As many of
these courses or student-run agencies exist nationally, a study to construct a reliable instrument
for this unique educational setting will help further public relations education and aid in
sustaining these courses that remedy the deficiencies in public relations education discussed
above.
Framework
A system is defined by Bertalanffy (1969) as a group that functions as a set of
interdependent parts or elements that form a whole. Understanding how these parts are
interrelated and how they can better work is the major reason for studying General Systems
Theory (GST). Knowledge of this theory benefits both individuals in the system and the system
as a whole as such knowledge can better the policies, procedures, and communication within a
given system, helping to ensure improvement and sustainability. COMM140 fits very well into
GST. In this instance, GST provides a framework to help foster growth and to prevent system
failure.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to produce an instrument that could confidently be used to
evaluate outputs, as defined in GST, for COMM140. Furthermore, it will provide a solid
example for others needing to do like evaluation, with adaptation of the instrument created.
Significance of the Study
This study will allow effective evaluation for COMM140 and provide a model of a
standardized measurement scale for outputs evaluated by external clients in regard to public
relations work completed by students. This tool will be useful in fostering public relations
educators‘ abilities to have a common ground from which to work, and to compare their results.
Literature Review
Instrumentation
Holden and Zimmerman (2009) stated that evaluation is ―an art form that relies heavily
on the evaluator‘s intuition, perceptions, and ability to access what will best address the concerns
of those involved with the evaluation‖ (p. 7). This evaluation includes standardized
measurement. ―Standardized measurement that is consistent across all respondents ensures that
comparable information is obtained about everyone who is described. Without such
measurement, meaningful statistics cannot be produced‖ (Fowler, 2009, p. 3), and evaluation
will not be thorough. The American Evaluation Association (AEA) (2011) stated that
evaluation, including instrument construction, is imperative for growth and sustainment of
systems. In an effort to aid this endeavor, the AEA (2010) has created a survey that may be used
7

to gauge the effectiveness of originally generated questionnaires by surveying the survey. This
tool touches upon the many things that a researcher must be concerned about regarding survey
construction. Researchers working with survey instruments look at not only at what to measure,
but also at designing and testing questions that will be good measures.
Reliability. Reliability was defined by Reinard (2001) as ―the internal consistency of a
measure‖ (p. 202). It is the ―amount of error coders make when placing content into categories‖
(Stacks, 2011, p. 128). Producing stability, reliability provides consistent measures in
comparable situations (Fowler, 2009). For example, something may be seen as reliable when
two respondents are in the same situation, and answer a given question in the same way. It is the
―extent to which results would be consistent, or replicable, if the research were conducted a
number of times‖ (Stacks, 2011, p. 345). Many suggestions are given to ensure reliability in
survey instruments, most stemming from ensuring excellent word usage, word meaning,
eliminating a neutral or non-response option, and term usage (Fowler, 2009). When considering
ways to ensure reliability during instrument construction, there are three very common types of
reliability frequently noted that must be addressed. Inter-rater reliability, test/retest reliability,
and internal reliability are often found in research sources (Fink, 2009).
Internal. Internal reliability, or internal consistency, is the extent to which the instrument
is internally consistent as it measures knowledge or retention (Stacks, 2011). Testing internal
reliability usually involves dissecting an instrument to see if questions regarding the same
construct score in the same manner for respective respondents. This type of reliability is
instrument focused.
External. External reliability is reviewed to see at what levels a respective measure
varies from use to use and is respondent focused (Fink, 2009). There are two types of external
reliability that are commonly sought for. One is inter-rater or inter-coder reliability and the other
is test/retest. Inter-coder reliability is ―the reliability of content analysis coding when the coding
is done by two or more coders‖ (Stacks, 2011, p. 336). Furthermore, it is the degree to which
different raters or observers give consistent estimates to the same phenomenon; sometimes it is
used to ascertain which survey questions measure which constructs (McDavid & Hawthorn,
2006). Test/retest reliability ―involves giving the measure twice and reporting consistency
between scores‖ (Reinard, 2001, p. 203). It is seen as a measure of reliability ―over time‖
(Stacks, 2011, p. 349).
Validity. Validity ―is the term that psychologists use to describe the relationship between
an answer and some measure of the true score‖ (Fowler, 2009, p. 15). Valid questions provide
answers to correspond with what they were meant to answer, or ―the degree to which a measure
actually measures what is claimed‖ (Reinard, 2001, p. 208). Stated differently, validity tests to
see if the coding system ―is measuring accurately what you want to be measured‖ (Stacks, 2011,
p. 127). For example, the answer to any given question should correspond with what the
researcher is trying to measure (Fowler, 2009). This process is seen by many as subjective
(Stacks, 2011). When discussing validity, Fowler (2009) suggested that ―reducing measurement
error thorough better question design is one of the least costly ways to improve survey estimates‖
(p. 112). Furthermore, ―for any survey, it is important to attend to careful question design and
pretesting and to make use of the existing research literature about how to measure what is to be
measured‖ (p. 112). Researchers must be concerned with both internal and external validity
when relevant.
Internal. Internal validity ensures that an instrument‘s questions are sound. This includes
face validity, content validity, construct validity and criterion related validity. Face validity
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involves researchers reviewing the content of their respective measurement items and advancing
an argument that they seem to identify what is claimed (Reinard, 2001). McKnight and
Hawthorn (2006) offered that ―this type of measurement validity is perhaps the most commonly
applied one in program evaluations and performance measurement‖ (p. 139). Reviewers, usually
the evaluator or other stakeholders, make judgments about the questions posed and to what
extent they were well written.
Reinard (2001) cited value in content validity as it involves and includes more experts
than face validity. Babbie (1995) stated that this validity uses experts and refers ―to the degree to
which a measure covers the range of meanings included within the concept‖ (p. 128). McDavid
and Hawthorn (2006) offered that ―the issue is how well a particular measure of a given
construct matches the full range of content of the construct‖ (p. 140). There is no external
criterion for the validity of subjective questions (Fowler, 2009) and usually, one must ask experts
in the respective area to review the work and serve as impartial judges of this subjective content
(Stacks, 2011). The respondents must understand the question, they most know the answer to
enable them to answer the question, they must be able to recall the answer, and they must desire
to tell the truth (Fowler, 2009).
Construct validity is based on the ―logical relationships among variables‖ (Babbie, 1995,
p. 127). ―Developing a measure often involves assessing a pool of items that are collectively
intended to be a measure of a construct‖ (McDavid & Hawthorn, 2006, p. 140). Reviewing how
well those respective subparts measured the construct is indeed construct validity (Stacks, 2011).
Criterion related validity is the degree to which something is measured against some
external criterion (Babbie, 1995). This, of course, is used in instances where research is
attempting to make predictions about behavior or is trying to relate the research to other
measures (Stacks, 2011).
External. External validity is about ―generalizing the causal results of a program
evaluation to other settings, other people, other program variations and other times‖ (McDavid &
Hawthorn, 2006, p. 112). Some types of research aim to make inferences, calling for external
validity.
Methodology
Data Collection Procedures
Table 1 illustrates the data collection procedures of this study. Ten total focus groups
were conducted as well as four pilot tests. In the initial stages of survey construction, three focus
groups were conducted with public relations practitioners. These professionals gave input by
answering questions about what should be measured to gauge client satisfaction and how those
things should be asked. To ensure well-run focus groups, they were kept small, as Brown (2009)
suggested. As organization is imperative, pre-determined questions were generated for said
groups and professionals gave input about said questions. After three separate focus groups, a
first draft of the survey questions were constructed based on common themes that surfaced
during the conversations. These themes were found by reviewing the tapes of the focus groups
and by reviewing memos and focus group documents.
General questions, in support of the themes found, were then constructed. These
questions were then presented to five more focus groups. These groups aided in the evolution of
the questions by critically reviewing them and giving feedback. Again, these groups were
recorded. The researcher observed and interacted with participants in an effort to see how the
questions were interpreted and if they were perceived to measure worthwhile aspects of client
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satisfaction matching the themes that surfaced in the initial focus groups. When the researcher
was confident in the quality of the questions, an entire draft of the instrument, including the
directions and the formatted questions, was completed. A small example of the evolution of the
questions, from initial theme suggestions to those that were used in the pilot tests, is shown in
Table 2. During the study, several pages of tables were constructed showing this evolution and
improving the instrument.
This preliminary instrument was introduced to two more focus groups of public relations
professionals. These participants were asked to utilize an instrument used by the American
Evaluation Association (AEA) in an effort to survey the clarity and quality of the constructed
instrument (AEA, 2010). Specifically, the AEA‘s Independent Consulting Topical Interest
Group uses the ―Peer Review Rubric‖ to ascertain input about newly created survey instruments
and to help them develop into reliable and valid instruments. Participants‘ input, along with
memos from the focus groups, was reviewed, and changes to the survey were made based on
participant feedback. This pilot process was repeated as necessary until a point of saturation was
reached.
To implement pilot tests, the researcher drafted a final survey and a former client of
COMM140, as well as clients from other firms/applied courses at other universities, were
observed while utilizing the instrument. This happened in individual instances. As the purpose
of pilot testing is to reveal if both the directions that the researcher provides and the questions
that the researcher asks are clear (Fowler, 2009), this last phase ensured that those that have been
in an actual client/student relationship understood the instrument, the questions, and had little
negative feedback about the instrument. If relevant negative feedback existed, the instrument
was revised as necessary and pilot tests were repeated, again, until a point of saturation was
reached. Again, the interaction with the former clients was audio recorded for more thorough
review, and the AEA instrument was utilized again.
Participants
The sample of this study for focus groups and pilot tests, respectively, was a purposive
sample of practitioners and former clients of COMM140 and other like clients at different
universities. Purposive sampling is constructed for a unique reason and is meant to serve a
specific purpose (Fink, 2009). It is ―a nonprobability sample in which individuals are
deliberately selected for inclusion based on their special knowledge, position, characteristics, or
relevant dimensions of the population‖ (p. 344).
The focus group participants for this study, totaling 44, were public relations practitioners
having experience ranging from 1.5 to 40 years, with over 360 total years of experience, with no
participants being repeated. The pilot test participants were clients of four different universitys‘
public relations program. Table 3 illustrates the participant breakdown.
Data Analysis Procedures
For this study, memos and recordings from focus groups were reviewed. Thematic
analysis was used while coding concepts that surfaced in the first focus groups. Specifically, this
analysis involved ―looking for similar word or statement clusters‖ (McDavid & Hawthorn, 2006,
p.174) that guided question construction and tool construction of this evaluative tool. The same
qualitative grouping-style analysis took place for all focus groups and for the pilot tests.
Results
A valid and reliable instrument was produced. The instrument, the Appendix, also
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showed generalizibility. Therefore, this tool can be used by other student-run firms or applied
courses to help their evaluative efforts as well.
Validity
This instrument meets face validity, content validity, construct validity, and external
validity. The researcher met face validity by way of scholarly review, review of other
instruments, and by working objectively with the questions throughout the entire study. Content
validity involves and includes more experts than face validity (Reinard, 2001). To best meet
content validity in this project, 44 experts in public relations were used to review the themes,
words, questions, and the entire survey, by serving as impartial judges of this subjective content,
as Stacks (2011) suggested. Then, four former clients of various institutions further helped to
demonstrate content validity via pilot testing. Thomas (2004) contended that this type of validity
is the ―one that is appropriate for most questionnaires‖ (p. 80). The reason for this is that it
demonstrates that the questions are appropriate for the objective of the survey, or in alignment
with the purpose. Content validity also requires that participants understand questions thereby
enabling them to answer them (Fowler, 2009). The focus groups helped evolve the questions
until little to no negative feedback existed and until positive things were said repeatedly about
how easily understandable the questions were. It was evident from discussions and from use of
the AEA instrument that the participants understood the questions as they were intended. A
summary of the results of the AEA instrument is shown in Table 4.
Reviewing how well subparts measured the construct is indeed construct validity (Stacks,
2011). This type of validity was met by focus group review and pilot testing. Specifically, the
focus groups helped evolve the questions into the correct groups to define appropriate constructs
and appropriate questions within each construct to exhaust the line of questioning. By the end of
the pilot testing phase, every participant agreed that the questions were indeed good
comprehensive measures of the construct that they were trying to encompass, with no duplicates
existing. External validity is about ―generalizing the causal results of a program evaluation to
other settings, other people, other program variations and other times‖ (McDavid & Hawthorn,
2006, p. 112). It can be inferred through the pilot tests, that other institutions can indeed use this
survey to gauge client satisfaction, especially others with students who planned and brought an
entire strategic public relations plan to fruition. Furthermore, even programs with different ways
of conducting their applied courses or public relations student-run firms can still adapt and use
many parts of this survey, again, as seen in the pilot testing phase. The instrument scored
extremely high, even with the clients who had engaged in projects that were conducted much
differently than the researcher‘s student firm‘s projects. These results can be seen in Table 5.
Reliability
A reliable instrument in this case is one that can pose questions that are interpreted the
same way by each respondent. As demonstrated by the instrument review and pilot testing
phases, these questions asked the same things to each person. This could be heard and seen with
detailed discussions ensuing about the questions and how the participants were understanding
each of them. A suggestion beyond testing word and term usage to help ensure a higher
reliability rate is to avoid giving the respondent an option that will let them avoid answering the
question (Fowler, 2009). This is one of the primary reasons that the final scale used in this
instrument does not include a non-applicable option, or even a neutral option, further
contributing to the reliability of the instrument.
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Recommendations for Use and Future Research
As public relations education evolves, so too must the general thinking that where a
public relations program is placed within an academic school or department is an important issue
of debate. Placement should become a moot conversation piece if applied courses and firms are
used to supplement students‘ educational endeavors in public relations. These courses and firms
can aid in giving students the experience in business, management, communication, tactical
work, strategy, psychology of working with clients, and many other areas that could otherwise be
lacking. These courses and firms are systems and must be evaluated as such to ensure system
survival as Bertalanffy (2009) described. The survey constructed in this study is an outcome
evaluation that can be (and should be) used in such a system. As this tool is now a solid
measurement of client satisfaction of public relations student-run firms or project-based client
work, it can be used to ensure a feedback loop that did not sufficiently exist before. If adopted
nationally, these surveys can actually benefit public relations education. Educators can begin
discussions about what their firms or courses score well on, and educate others about how they
teach such elements. Effectively, public relations education could be furthered by use of this
instrument, consistently, as standardized data would exist that has never existed before. If public
relations educators begin to utilize this instrument, and share pedagogical practices based on the
results, advancements can be made.
On a more local level, if this instrument is adopted and used by individual educators,
improvements can be made to their own respective programs due to client feedback. This
survey, when taken by clients, provides detail that may not have existed before and should
improve processes of the individual system.
The researcher‘s recommendation for future research includes planning for an evaluative
tool to be constructed to gauge outcomes. In a system such as an applied course or a firm,
inputs, throughputs, outputs, and outcomes, all need evaluated (and feedback loops must exist) to
ensure survival and growth of the system (Bertalanffy, 2009). With creation of this instrument,
inputs, throughputs, and outputs can all be evaluated properly. Outcomes are the intended results
of the system (McDavid & Hawthorn, 2006). Although a direct result of outputs, outcomes are
the effect that the outputs had on the external environment. Output evaluation must also be
pursued with partnership of former clients, but it has to be done when enough time has lapsed to
gauge outcomes, or the effect that the student work has had on the organization. Once this
evaluative measure is created, ensuring the final feedback loop, total system improvement can be
made. Output evaluation may not be able to be assessed for years after a given project, therefore,
planning for such a survey will be much different than the process used to construct this
instrument. The researcher learned much about preparing and conducting focus groups and this
knowledge will undoubtedly help in the creation of the next survey tool to assess outcomes.
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References
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Table 1
Data Collection Procedures
Theme Participants Objective Activity
Theme finding
Question
refinement
Instrument
refinement
Pilot tests
Public relations
practitioners
Public relations
practitioners
Public relations
practitioners
Former clients of
COMM140 and
other applied
courses/student-run
firms
Find the themes/categories
that should be included in a
survey on outputs of
student-run public relations
firms and applied courses
Refine the questions based
on the themes and
establish/refine question
categories
Refine the instrument,
including instructions,
packaging, and question
improvement
To ensure usability of the
instrument in different
situations and to continue
instrument refinement
Focus groups,
memoing, observation,
tape review, coding
Focus groups,
memoing, observation,
tape review, coding
Focus groups, use of
AEA instrument,
memoing, observation,
tape review, coding
Interviews, use of
AEA instrument,
memoing, observation,
tape review, coding
14

Table 2
Small sample of the evolution of questions
Original aspects
from the themefinding
groups
Category for
Researcher‘s Notes
Questions resulting
from revisions due
to additional focus
groups and
scholarly research;
posed to the fifth
group meeting on
questions
Questions resulting
from the last group
meeting on questions,
posed to the two
focus groups on
instrumentation
Questions resulting
the instrumentation
focus groups and
posed to the first pilot
test
S10
Measurable
objectives
Previously
withdrawn;
measured by S6
S11
Adding a
different
perspective
Their plan added a
fresh perspective to
our organization
Withdrawn; measured
by T1, T8, O6
S12 Critical thinking The plan was
thorough
They developed an
effective plan to meet
the goals and
objectives
They developed an
effective plan to meet
the goals and
objectives
S13
Understanding of
budget
constraints in
planning process
The students
understood budget
constraints and took
them into account
They understood
resource constraints
and considered them
They understood
resource constraints
and considered them
15

Table 3
Participant Details of all Focus Groups and Pilot Tests
Focus group Number of
participants
Average
years industry
experience
All areas of profession represented
Theme finding (T groups)
T1 5 18 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
consultation, sports/entertainment
government, other
T2 5 6 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
sports/entertainment, government
T3 3 10 Corporate, nonprofit, government
Question refining (Q groups)
Q1 5 11 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
consultation, sports/entertainment
government, other
Q2 2 8 Nonprofit, other
Q3 5 3 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
sports/entertainment government, other
Q4 6 4 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
sports/entertainment government
Q5 4 13 Corporate, nonprofit, agency
Instrument refining (I groups)
I1 6 4 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
sports/entertainment government
I2 3 10 Corporate, nonprofit, agency,
consultation, government
Pilot test Details--program Length of Type of project
number serving client client service
Pilot testing (P groups)
P1
Small, private,
Indiana institution
One semester Full strategic services; PRSSA
affiliated firm
P2
Large, public, Indiana
institution
Six semesters Full strategic services; PRSSA
affiliated firm
P3
Large, public, Ohio Five Task-oriented services; student firm
P4
institution
Medium, public,
Kentucky institution
semesters
Half of a
semester
Program planning (presenting a plan for
the client to implement); class project
16

Table 4
Instrument Refinement Data Collected from Focus Groups
Data collected in the instrumentation refinement focus groups (the 9 th and 10 th focus groups)
based on results of the ―American Evaluation Association‘s Independent Consulting Group‘s
Instrument Peer Review Rubric.‖ Data illustrates participants‘ perceptions of the instrument
created to assess client satisfaction of student public relations firms, or other client coursework
completed for clients.
Question Results Description of comments for nonanswers,
fair, poor, or very poor
Alignment to the
purpose
Appropriateness for
target population
Instructions
Appearance
Layout and order of
questions
Close-ended question
wording
6-very good
2-good
0-fair
1-poor
0-very poor
8-very good
1-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
4-very good
5-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
5-very good
4-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
5-very good
3-good
1-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
9-very good
0-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
The participant who noted ―poor‖
felt that there should be more on
evaluation of the actual campaign
and if the objectives were met than
about how the client felt about the
project. As these things can be
measured by the instructor, the
suggestion was not used.
The respondent who noted ―fair‖ felt
that the outcomes section should be
asked before questions such as
professional demeanor.
(continues)
17

Table 4 (continued)
Answer options for
close-ended questions
Open-ended
questions
Totals
4-very good
4-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
1-did not answer
5-very good
3-good
1-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
46-very good
22-good
2-fair
1-poor
0-very poor
1-did not answer
The respondent who did not answer
did note in the discussion that the
answer construction was very good.
The respondent who noted ―fair‖ felt
that the yes/no questions should also
be scale questions, but felt that the
true open-ended questions were
well-done.
18

Table 5
Instrument Refinement Data Collected from Pilot Tests
Data collected in the pilot tests based on results of the ―American Evaluation Association‘s
Independent Consulting Group‘s Instrument Peer Review Rubric.‖ Data illustrates participants‘
perceptions of the instrument created to assess client satisfaction of student public relations
firms, or other client coursework completed for clients.
Question Results Description of comments for nonanswers,
fair, poor, or very poor
Alignment to the
purpose
1-very good
3-good
0-fair
0-poor
Appropriateness for
target population
Instructions
Appearance
Layout and order of
questions
Close-ended question
wording
0-very poor
3-very good
1-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
2-very good
2-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
2-very good
2-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
1-very good
2-good
1-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
2-very good
2-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
The respondent who noted ―fair‖ felt
that the questions specific to
communication should be kept
together. However, it was
commented that the order of the
questions within the sections was
very well done.
(continues)
19

Table 5 (continued)
Answer options for
close-ended questions
Open-ended
questions
Totals
3-very good
0-good
1-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
3-very good
1-good
0-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
17-very good
13-good
2-fair
0-poor
0-very poor
The respondent who noted ―fair‖ felt
that a ―non applicable‖ option should
be offered in the scale, although also
commenting that such an option
could invite respondents to avoid
answering tough questions.
20

Appendix
Firm‟s Logo
Client Satisfaction Survey for
Public Relations Work Completed by
Top Dog Communication
Recently you interacted with a student public relations team from Top Dog
Communication to assist in your PR efforts. We need feedback from you about this
experience. The information you provide will improve our overall process and direct the
way that we teach and prepare our students. Your input is valued!
Rebecca Deemer
Top Dog Communication
University of Indianapolis
1400 East Hanna Avenue
Indianapolis, Indiana 46227
rdeemer@uindy.edu
317-791-5720 (office)
317-788-3490 (fax)
(contact information)
UNIVERSITY LOGO
21

Client Satisfaction Survey for
Public Relations Work Completed by
Top Dog Communication
Thank you for serving as a client of Top Dog Communication. We continuously look for ways
to improve. Our clients are instrumental in this process. By completing this form, you are
providing valuable feedback that will be used to improve the quality of our services to both
clients and students.
If you have questions, contact Rebecca Deemer at 317-791-5720 or e-mail at
rdeemer@uindy.edu
This survey will not be shared directly with the student group, unless you give permission
for it to be shared by noting below.
Please provide the following information.
Name of your organization:
Your name:
Date:
Student account manager‘s name:
Have you worked with student groups in
this capacity before? Please mark.
Have you worked with professional public
relations firms before? Please mark.
Yes____
No____
Yes____
No____
Do you wish for this feedback to be
shown to the student group? Please
mark.
How long has the project relationship
between the student group and your
organization existed?
Yes____
No____
Directions
On this page and the following pages, please answer all questions by inserting an ―X‖ in the box
that corresponds with your response. Please try to answer all questions; if no answer is
appropriate, please leave it blank. Please remit by (date) to rdeemer@uindy.edu or fax to 317-
788-3490.
Strategies Suggested or Used by the Students
22

This section addresses how you feel about the strategies that the students suggested or used for
your project. While answering these questions, please reflect upon the students’
understanding of the direction and the scope of the project. Please insert an “X” in the box
that corresponds with your response.
Questions/Response Scale
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
1. They understood the mission of
our organization.
2. They adequately researched our
organization.
3. They understood the goals and
objectives of the project.
4. They developed an effective plan
to meet the goals and objectives.
5. They understood how this project
related to our ultimate business
goal.
6. They understood the messaging
that we wanted our materials to
have.
7. They understood the look that we
wanted our materials to have.
8. Is there anything else regarding strategies suggested or used by the students that
you would like to add? This includes, but is not limited to, expanding upon any
of your answers above.
This area, as all, will expand when you begin to type.
Section 1 out of 7
23

Project Management Skills Used by the Students
This section addresses how you feel about how the students managed your project. While
answering these questions, please reflect upon how the students planned, organized, secured,
and managed resources to complete your project. Please insert an “X” in the box that
corresponds with your response.
Questions/Response Scale
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
9. They understood resource
constraints and considered them.
10. An overall evaluation component
was included in the plan.
11. They met deadlines.
12. They were adaptable in situations
when needed.
13. They seemed comfortable with
the project and tasks at hand.
14. They were able to find answers
needed to keep the project
progressing well.
15. They acted upon my suggestions,
or if not, explained why to my
satisfaction.
16. The project was well organized.
17. Is there anything else regarding project management skills used by the students
that you would like to add? This includes, but is not limited to, expanding upon
any of your answers above.
Section 2 out of 7
24

Communication Tools/Tactics Created by the Students
This section addresses how you feel about the communication tools or tactics that the students
created for your project. While answering these questions, please reflect upon all tactics
created and/or executed by the students. Examples of such communication tools/tactics include,
but are not limited to, PowerPoint presentations, brochures, fact sheets, press releases,
promotional videos, event plans, and other promotional materials. The exact list of tactics
varies. Please insert an “X” in the box that corresponds with your response.
Questions/Response Scale
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
18. The writing was professional
quality.
19. The design was professional
quality.
20. They suggested an ample amount
of different tactics/ideas to meet
the objective.
21. The tactics created showed a high
level of creativity or ―out-of-thebox‖
thinking if appropriate.
22. Is there anything else regarding the communication tools/tactics created by the
students that you would like to add? This includes, but is not limited to,
expanding upon any of your answers above.
Section 3 out of 7
25

Professional Demeanor of the Students
This section addresses how you feel about the students‟ professional demeanor. While
answering these questions, please reflect upon the students’ conduct and competence while
they were engaged with you in this project. Please insert an “X” in the box that corresponds
with your response.
Questions/Response Scale
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
23. They handled criticism
professionally.
24. They understood the professional
expectations of business culture.
25. They were able to think ―on their
feet‖ in discussions.
26. They were punctual.
27. They dressed appropriately.
28. Is there anything else regarding the professional demeanor of the students that you
would like to add? This includes, but is not limited to, expanding upon any of
your answers above.
Section 4 out of 7
26

Communication Skills of the Students
This section addresses how you feel about the students‟ communication skills. While answering
these questions, please reflect upon how the students articulated their own ideas, and how they
interacted with you and others while working on the project. Please insert an “X” in the box
that corresponds with your response.
Questions/Response Scale
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
29. They listened well.
30. They were able to articulate ideas
verbally.
31. They were able to articulate ideas
through their writing.
32. The e-mails/texts that I received
were well-written.
33. Telephone conversations were
well-conducted.
34. The project updates were good
quality.
35. The frequency of project updates
met my expectations.
36. They asked good questions.
37. They had good interpersonal
communication skills.
38. They wrote well in a variety of
different writing
styles/contexts/tones.
39. When necessary, they
collaborated well with others
beyond you about the project.
40. Is there anything else regarding communication skills of the students that you
would like to add? This includes, but is not limited to, expanding upon any of
your answers above.
Section 5 out of 7
27

Effectiveness of the Project and the Students‟ Work
This section addresses how you feel about the effectiveness of the project and the students‟ work.
While answering these questions, please reflect upon the expected results that you had for the
project and the students. Please insert an “X” in the box that corresponds with your response.
Questions/Response Scale
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
41. They worked well independently.
42. They had a good work ethic.
43. The project met my expectations.
44. I would recommend Top Dog
Communication to other clients.
45. The amount of work and time that
I (and others in my organization)
put into this project was worth the
work that we received from the
students.
46. Is there anything else regarding effectiveness of the project and the students‘ work
that you would like to add? This includes, but is not limited to, expanding upon
any of your answers above.
Section 6 out of 7
28

Additional Comments
This section allows you to provide additional comments, in your own words, about your overall
experience with, and impression of, Top Dog Communication. While answering these
questions, please reflect upon your entire experience, from your initial application to project
completion. Please provide as much information as you feel necessary.
47. Please reflect upon the process of your project. With those thoughts in mind, how
would you improve the project process? Please feel free to discuss any part of the
process.
This area, as all, will expand when you begin to type.
48. How would you describe your experience with Top Dog Communication?
49. Hypothetically, would you consider hiring any of the Top Dog Communication
students who worked on your project? Why or why not?
50. What items created by the students will be used? Please explain the use and the
benefit, if any, to your organization.
Section 7 out of 7
29

Please e-mail the completed survey to Rebecca Deemer at
rdeemer@uindy.edu or fax to 317-788-3490.
Thank you again for taking the time to complete this survey! Your feedback will help us ensure
the most positive client experience for others like you in the future and guide our students‘
educational process so that they can be more prepared for the professional world. If you have
any questions about this survey, please feel free call Rebecca Deemer at 317-791-5720 or e-mail
rdeemer@uindy.edu
PICTURE OF FIRM LEADERS
SCHOOL LOGO
30

Hope for the Future: Millennial PR Agency
Practitioners‟ Discussion of Ethical Dilemmas
Tiffany Derville Gallicano
derville@uoregon.edu
Kelli Matthews
University of Oregon
Abstract
Through the use of online discussion groups, this study explores ethical dilemmas that Millennial
agency practitioners confront, as well as ideas for the profession to improve ethical decision
making. The results have implications for students, Millennial agency practitioners, senior
agency executives, clients, and professional associations. Conceptually, this study fleshes out
Berger and Reber‘s (2006) rational argumentation option for dissent and extends Kelleher‘s
(2007) concept of distributed public relations.
Introduction
A survey of 808 PRSA members concluded that practitioners younger than 30 were less
likely than any other age category to talk with management about a questionable decision, and
they were more likely than any age group to stand by and do nothing about poor organizational
decisions (Berger & Reber, 2006). Furthermore, practitioners with fewer than 10 years of
experience were less likely than their peers to talk with management about an inappropriate
decision. In terms of how practitioners express dissent, those younger than 30 were the least
likely of any age group to articulate dissent and were more likely to use antagonistic/latent
dissent (i.e., talking with people inside the organization who are unlikely to make a difference)
than any other age group (Berger & Reber, 2006). Berger and Reber (2006) offered the following
explanation:
The lack of will among young practitioners and early-career practitioners to rock the boat
is understandable. They are working to curry favor with their superiors and build a career.
They, therefore, do not want to make trouble through dissension. (p. 197)
Berger and Reber‘s (2006) research is supported by a study of Millennial public relations
agency practitioners; most respondents to the survey preferred to ―avoid an issue rather than take
a stand‖ and ―for those who took a stand, more followed the boss‘ orders than not‖ in the
hypothetical scenarios presented to participants (Curtin, Gallicano, & Matthews, 2011, p. 13).
Berger and Reber explained, ―Educators and professional organizations can play a role…by
teaching students and new practitioners the value of dissent to an organization, as well as
teaching appropriate dissent tactics in specific scenarios.‖ Although extant literature addresses a
range of ethical dilemmas (e.g., Fitzpatrick & Bronstein, 2006; Parsons, 2008; Seib &
Fitzpatrick, 1995), research is needed to examine the pressing ethical dilemmas that entry-level
practitioners face today from the perspectives of entry-level practitioners. Textbooks offer
contemporary examples of ethical dilemmas; however, many ethical dilemmas do not become
public enough to make it into books.
In this study, fresh examples of common ethical dilemmas from the perspectives of
Millennial public relations agency practitioners are explored for several reasons. First, the
resulting data can help educators, employers, and industry groups understand which dilemmas to
focus on when training students and agency employees. Also, educators, employers, and industry
31

groups can use the recent real-world examples as powerful teaching tools for people who have
not encountered the issues yet, especially given that people are most likely to retain ethics
lessons that incorporate concrete stories with unexpected information, rather than abstract
discussions of principles and generic dilemmas (see C. Heath & D. Heath, 2007). Improved
training could lead to increased confrontation regarding ethically questionable decisions by
management and ultimately, more responsible decision making by organizations. In addition to
using this study‘s results as a training tool for students and new agency employees, public
relations agencies can use the results as a form of environmental scanning to identify potentially
weak areas they might need to fortify through various tactics such as all-staff meetings, ethics
advisories, ethics courses for all employees, and organizational codes of ethics.
This study not only provides contemporary examples of common ethical dilemmas but
also investigates Millennials‘ opinions about how the profession could improve ethical decision
making. Millennials tend to have the least amount of institutional authority in their organizations,
so it is especially important to see what can be done from their perspectives to facilitate ethical
decision making.
This study focuses on Millennial employees in public relations agencies to achieve depth
and saturation with the findings (a hallmark of qualitative research) by narrowing the context and
avoiding confounding variables. Although many ethical dilemmas exist across different work
settings, each work setting also has unique dilemmas to explore. Also, research suggests that age
influences people‘s approaches to ethical judgments (e.g., Kim & Choi, 2003; Lieber, 2005,
Pratt, 1994; Wright, 1985). The public relations agency context is an important area to explore
because most of the employees‘ co-workers are also public relations practitioners, and many
entry-level practitioners start their careers at public relations agencies (Gallicano, in press). For
the purpose of this study, Millennials are defined as those born after 1981 (e.g., Curtin,
Gallicano, & Matthews, 2012; Gallicano, in press).
Literature Review
Millennial Agency Employees
The appropriateness and potential effectiveness of several recommendations in this study
can be assessed, in part, based on existing knowledge about the nature of Millennial agency
employees and the relationships they have with their employers. In a qualitative study,
Millennial public relations agency employees characterized their generation of public relations
practitioners as wanting experiential learning; pioneering social media and easily adapting to
change; feeling entitled due to unique qualifications at the entry level (i.e., a public relations
education and several public relations internships); craving immediate feedback and being
motivated by feeling appreciated; advocating a work-life balance; and possessing the personal
skills and characteristics needed for success, including getting along well with people and
valuing ethics (Gallicano, in press).
A recent survey concluded that Millennial agency respondents have a fairly good
relationship with their employers based on trust, satisfaction, and mutual control, although
commitment was low as compared to the other measures (using the scale from Hon & Grunig,
1999; Curtin et al., 2012). A follow-up qualitative study revealed key strategies Millennials
identified as improving their commitment to agency employers: being groomed; constantly
learning; feeling appreciated; being cared for as a whole person; working in a good environment,
including an environment with a philosophy and values that matches their own; and having
interests and preferences accommodated (Gallicano, in press). Millennials want to make a
32

difference with their work, and they also reported feeling irritated when they do not think they
have the power to say anything when disagreeing with a decision and when they believe they are
not being heard (Gallicano, in press).
Frameworks for Ethical Decision Making
As Millennials discuss dilemmas in the workplace, it is important to pay attention to how
they justify whether a decision is appropriate; therefore, two broad ethical frameworks are
important to review. The first framework is deontology. People using deontological reasoning
believe that how something is done determines the ethicality of the decision (Curtin & Boynton,
2001). According to Bowen‘s (2005) Kantian model for ethical decision making, which
represents a deontological approach, decisions must be made without regard to how the
organization will benefit and without regard to pressures from workplace politics, personal
ambition, and financial influence (including job security).
The second framework is teleology, which refers to determining the ethicality of a
decision based on the good that can result from it (Curtin & Boynton, 2001). In other words,
someone adopting a teleological approach believes that the ends can justify the means (e.g., lying
was ethical when used to protect people in hiding from Nazis), whereas someone adopting a
deontological approach would not make a decision based on potential outcomes (e.g., it is never
justifiable to lie; Curtin & Boynton, 2001).
A preliminary study suggested that many Millennial agency practitioners use a
deontological approach to ethics and often rely on transparency as a guiding principle (Curtin et
al., 2011). Respondents to this survey perceived that they had a significantly better relationship
with their agency employers when they also thought that that their workplaces gave them the
autonomy to make ethical decisions, which supports Bowen‘s (2005) deontological model.
Several Millennials in the study applied a teleological approach by judging whether the
outcomes would be potentially harmful.
Ethical codes also provide a general framework for ethical decision making. Although
they do not appear to be useful to seasoned public relations practitioners (Lee & Cheng, 2011,
also see the discussion by Curtin & Boynton, 2001), nearly half of the Millennial agency
respondents to a survey expressed that the PRSA Code of Ethics is a helpful resource (Curtin et
al., 2011). A study of top public relations professionals concluded that well written codes of
ethics are important for junior practitioners; however, employers must focus on taking actions to
ensure that employers practice what they preach (Lee & Cheng, 2011), which is a point
emphasized by extant research (e.g., Bowen, 2010; Curtin et al., 2011; Seeger, 1997; Shen &
Kim, 2012). One way to do this is to focus on ―individual accountability on the part of public
relations managers and executives‖ and to focus on teaching ethical decision making by example
(Lee & Cheng, 2011, p. 68). Employers need to enforce their codes of ethics and should be
specific with their guidelines (e.g., Curtin & Boynton, 2001; Seib & Fitzpatrick, 1995).
Approaches for Influencing Ethical Decision Making
Practitioners need to learn how to effectively influence ethical decision making in
organizations to give themselves a voice (which improves job satisfaction) and to improve
organizational decisions (Garner, 2009; Kang, 2010). Not surprisingly, an ethical orientation is a
key dimension of public relations leadership and best practices (Bowen, 2004a; Kang, 2010;
Meng, 2012). A study of public relations students‘ internships concluded that new practitioners
need more guidance about how to voice their opinions when asked to implement bad decisions:
―It is a very intimidating and compromising position to be in, especially when you are…trying to
33

have everyone like you and think that you are doing a good job‖ (Lubbers, Bourland-Davis, &
Rawlins, 2007/8, p. 9).
To influence ethical decisions in an organization, a public relations practitioner must
have the ear of senior management and be persuasive (Berger & Reber, 2006). Public relations
practitioners have identified effective ways to persuade senior management. The top three
approaches that are also acceptable to employers (i.e., approaches that avoid unsanctioned tactics
such as leaking information to the media) include rational argument, coalition building with
other employees, and pressure (e.g., ignoring a supervisor‘s request or being assertive until
management listens; Berger & Reber, 2006). Public relations practitioners commonly express
dissent in response to unethical courses of action; in fact, in a survey of PRSA members, a little
more than half of all respondents expressed that they would always object to unethical decisions
(Berger & Reber, 2006).
Research Questions
Preliminary research about student public relations interns lends insight into ethical
dilemmas in the workplace at the entry level. Interns conveyed their concerns about media
relations (e.g., maintaining fairness and integrity in the face of intense media interest in a story),
client relations (e.g., being tempted to inflate measurements of success), observations of ethical
breaches and not knowing what to do, and issues unique to nonprofits as ethical dilemmas they
faced (Lubbers et al., 2007/8). More in-depth research is needed in the focused context of public
relations agencies to understand the pressing ethical dilemmas Millennials confront, how they
make meaning of them, and how they respond to them. Therefore, the following research
question is investigated:
RQ 1: What ethical dilemmas do Millennials confront in their PR agencies?
Recent research has focused on seasoned professionals‘ perspectives about how to
improve ethical decision making (e.g., Lee & Cheng, 2011). To complement existing research,
this study provides a view from the bottom rung of the ladder:
RQ 2: How do Millennial agency practitioners think the profession could improve ethical
decision making in the industry?
Method
To explore the research questions, five asynchronous online discussions with
approximately 10 people per group were conducted, and one person participated by email to help
obtain a more diverse sample (N=51 participants). There are several advantages to asynchronous
online discussion groups. The lack of face-to-face interaction and the assignment of a
pseudonym mean that participants can share more openly than they might otherwise do, which is
especially important for discussions of sensitive topics (Houston, 2008; Oringderff, 2004;
Valaitis & Sword, 2005). Asynchronous online discussion groups tend to result in deeply
reflective monologues, in addition to more disclosure of personal stories and emotions than
would occur in a face-to-face focus group (Graffigna & Bosio, 2006). The balance of talk tends
to be more equal in an asynchronous online discussion group, and every participant responds to
every question asked (Graffigna & Bosio, 2006).
Drawbacks of this method include the lack of visual and verbal signs to convey meaning,
the risk that participants will be so comfortable that they will lack discretion and tact when
interacting, access issues could exclude people from participation, and there is no way to verify
that people are who they say they are (Oringderff, 2004). Fortunately, participants‘ meanings
seemed to be straightforward, follow-up questions were asked as needed, there were no problems
34

with participants lacking discretion or tact, and Millennials who work for PR agencies are
unlikely to have Internet access challenges (i.e., they could even participate from their phones).
In addition, it was unlikely that someone other than the recruited Millennial agency employees
were answering the questions based on the quality of the content and the coherence of the data,
although this is always a risk with online methods, and every method has drawbacks. In addition,
preliminary research suggests that asynchronous online discussion groups result in less frequent
interaction than face-to-face and online synchronous focus group methods provide; however, the
quality of discourse is just as rich as it is with other methods, as measured by studies that
compared results (Graffigna & Bosio, 2006; Turney & Pocknee, 2005). There was a fair amount
of interaction during this study.
Study Procedures
Participants were asked demographic questions when they registered for the study,
including the year when they were born to confirm that they were Millennials. Next, participants
received log-in information and a confidential name based on a color and number (e.g., Blue5),
which appeared next to all comments, along with an avatar (i.e., an animal or object) of the
participant‘s choice. Each participant received a computer-generated password to log in to the
group. The data were protected by bank-level encryption security. The online discussion groups
were conducted through Focus Forums. This interface involved a discussion board that was
organized by tabs. Participants were required to answer questions in order and were not allowed
to see future questions. They were not able to see anyone‘s answer to a question until they had
responded. Once they had responded, they could read and comment on other people‘s answers,
and they later responded to our follow-up questions.
The asynchronous discussion groups required approximately an hour a day from
participants for three days; some participants reported that they spent 90 minutes a day. Each day
focused on a theme. Due to space constraints, the abundance of communication participants
provided, and the desire to incorporate rich details to achieve quality, this study includes data
from the second day, which was focused on ethics. The first day was focused on organizational
culture.
Recruitment and Demographics
For a prior component of this study (see Gallicano et al., 2012), a survey was conducted
and respondents were invited to participate in a discussion group that would include a $100
incentive. Of the 51 discussion group participants, 40 volunteered from the survey. The survey
recruitment involved an email from PRSA to members with two years of experience or fewer,
and the survey recruitment included solicitation via Twitter, Facebook, and blogs. The remaining
spots were filled through word of mouth by participants who had already signed up, and the last
few spaces were filled by the researchers‘ former students who worked for agencies.
About 78% of the participants were women and about 22% were men. Approximately
75% were Caucasian (29 women and 9 men), 12% were African-American (5 women and 1
man), 8% were Asian (4 women), almost 4% were Latino (2 men), and nearly 2% were
Caucasian-Latino (1 man). All participants were age 27 or younger. Responses were analyzed
through descriptive codes, followed by interpretive codes and pattern codes (see Miles &
Huberman, 1994).
Results
RQ 1: What Ethical Dilemmas Do Millennials Confront in Their PR Agencies?
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The ethical dilemmas described by Millennials are offered below in order of prominence,
beginning with the dilemmas most commonly discussed. The most significant pressure
participants faced involved breaches of responsibility to clients in attempt to look better,
maximize profits, or both. Breaches of responsibility included helping competitors, committing
malfeasance, overpromising, using the bait and switch, padding media coverage, covering up
mistakes and bad news, and wrongfully billing.
Helping competitors. Numerous participants discussed situations in which there was a
temptation to share private client information:
A coworker of mine was asked by a former boss who was now at a competing agency for
some confidential client documents to help with a pitch for a competitor. All I can figure
out is she wanted to impress this former boss or in some way felt an obligation because
she shared the documents. In the end, she got fired.
Several participants identified the possibility of helping competitors and addressed the dilemma
by not sharing insider information:
Knowing that I had insider knowledge on the competition, I know that it would be wrong
to share that. … In the end, I did participate in the new business pitch. I still feel like this
was, in part, not ethical. But I also was careful not to share any of the ―insider
information‖ I had on my client and on the new business prospect.
Participants had various views about whether insider information could be shared. For example,
one participant wrote
We have, on two different occasions, retained on an account team an individual who had
worked for a competitor to that account less than a year earlier. This type of information
sharing does not sit well with me, but as a relative junior there is little I can do. I
understand that this is commonplace in the industry and is actually looked upon as a
selling point in certain new business situations, but it does seem unethical to me.
Another participant responded, ―If your co-worker didn‘t have to sign a non-disclosure
agreement before leaving the competitor then technically there‘s nothing wrong with this.‖
Another participant discussed working ―under a different company name in order to do work for
a competing client.‖ In this case, the conflict was that the parent companies competed; however,
the product categories were different. In addition, a participant discussed a co-worker who did
freelance work for a client‘s competitor, which was ―not only unethical but a poor decision as it
was not worth the risk of losing the client.‖
Committing malfeasance. Many participants discussed their discomfort with malfeasance:
My agency‘s worst offense in my opinion is knowingly selling services and products that
a client does not need. I understand the pressure of profitability in a rough economy, but
ultimately the services a client does not need will only work to hurt the agency/client
relationship and hinder our results. … My agency needs to stop this practice.
Some people, such as the participant featured above, positioned their discomfort in terms of
long-term effectiveness, and others positioned the issue in term of ethics: ―Pitching them things
or services they don‘t need just to get money for our agency is unethical in my opinion.‖
In addition to stories in which agencies committed malfeasance, other stories showed
agencies that at least initially resisted it or fired employees for it. For example, one participant
discussed her agency‘s unsuccessful attempts to dissuade a client from public relations services
that would result in a ―very low return on investment.‖ The agency ultimately complied with the
requests to avoid losing the account. The Millennial involved reflected, ―I thought this situation
was both damaging to us and to our clients. It is our job as public relations professionals to
36

advise on the best strategy, not to blindly carry out requested tasks.‖ Although this agency
attempted to dissuade the client, another participant noted that her agency embraces the mantra
that ―the client is always right.‖ In another case, a participant discussed a supervisor who the
agency fired for ―upselling the client on something they did not want and would probably not
work‖ and then ―stringing them along‖ by lying about the results. The participant noted, ―She
should have been fired earlier.‖
Overpromising. Overpromising can occur throughout the client relationship, beginning
with the client pitch: ―I feel we overstate our capabilities in order to win business. Just because
everyone does it, doesn‘t make it right.‖ Another participant commented, ―You should never
overpromise, but it can happen in your aim to please the client.‖ He noted that in situations
where he is not confident with an immediate recommendation, he has learned to respond to the
client by stating, ―I‘m not sure. I‘ll need to explore that more to see if this (option, campaign,
tactic) will work here.‖ He added, ―Clients usually don‘t want to hear this or they are at least
surprised when they do.‖ Some participants discussed their success with keeping their agencies
from overpromising by talking with their managers:
I sometimes take issue with the way my managers change the words of my emails to the
client. …I think my managers sometimes hedge on how frank they are with the client
about a journalist‘s interest. … The last time I was concerned about the manner in which
we were presenting an opportunity to the client, I expressed my concerns to my manager
and the email was rephrased to language I felt more comfortable using.
Using the bait and switch. In addition to misleading some clients about what can be
accomplished, some clients have also been misled about which person on the account team
performs the bulk of the client work:
This is a hugely unethical practice that is very commonplace in the large agency world.
The old bait and switch with personnel assigned to a particular client. This is also a
practice that ends up costing agencies a lot of money in client turnover. Again, thinking
short term and unethically affects the bottom line in the long run.
Another participant agreed and added, ―If we assign people to that account that honestly can‘t do
the job, it‘s like we‘re intentionally misleading them. We‘re happy to take their money for a
mediocre outcome when the agreement calls for better.‖
Padding media coverage. Several participants expressed their objection to what they
referred as padding coverage:
Padding coverage happens too much. There is so much pressure to make the numbers
bigger than the year before, even if budgets have been cut. It‘s too bad, because when we
go along with this, we are watering down the field of PR by making things about
numbers of hits and impressions, not about relationships and thought leadership.
Another participant agreed: ―To me, a robot syndicating my press release is not coverage. To
become a ‗hit,‘ at the very least I think a release must pass through an editor‘s eyes.‖ One
participant explained that her agency does not count ―press release pick up or article reposts as
coverage…which can be frustrating when you compare against other agencies, or in my case, our
offices in other countries.‖
Covering up mistakes and bad news. Several participants also discussed cover-ups:
A coworker never sent the appropriate prep materials for a media opportunity that was
scheduled with the client the next day, and the client blew up, very angry, that such a
basic account management step wasn‘t executed. The client called the president of my
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company and the president told my coworker to lie and say that he did send the
document, must‘ve just gotten lost. I think lying is lying and it isn‘t necessary.
Another cover-up involved a printing error on materials in various countries:
I was told that if the other countries hadn‘t noticed the error yet, that there was no need to
reprint the materials or notify the client. I continued to bring up the fact during internal
meetings and with co-workers that we should reprint the materials. Although we did not
reprint all the countries, we did reprint a few of the countries.
Cover-ups can also occur with bad news ―when there is news that does not meet their [clients‘]
expectations.‖ The participant explained, ―I believe this is a problem, because I believe in being
upfront to clients and telling them the news straight up, good or bad.‖
Wrongfully billing. One participant addressed a situation in which her agency shifted
funds between accounts:
Supervisors purposely alter a correct budget that I have sent to fit within the guidelines.
When I bring up that we‘re not able to do the project for the budget laid forth, they will
say, ―We‘ll transfer the money from another bucket.‖ Granted I‘m not in the position to
deal with our client budgets closely, this seems like this could come back and bite us if a
real audit was performed by the client.
Following the most discussed area of ethical conflict, which involved breaches of
responsibility to clients, the next most commonly discussed dilemma involved astroturfing and
disguised environmental scanning.
Astroturfing and disguised environmental scanning. Many participants offered an
astroturfing story that is similar to the one below:
When a client or my organization lands some great media coverage, my boss wants me to
make comments online as if I were a third party. He‘s suggested that I use an alias and try
to hide my connection. At first I just told him no. It just made me uncomfortable. But
after a few times, I worked to find an alternative. One of these is that I offer to find
someone not connected who would genuinely be impressed or interested and ask them to
comment. This has worked well. I don‘t feel bad for bringing the story to the attention of
those people, and my boss gets his desired result of positive comments.
Some participants also identified this type of situation as unethical but refused to perform the
work: ―I refused to do the tasks because I said that I didn‘t think it was an ethical choice. They
just asked someone else to do the task.‖ Just one participant expressed approval of astroturfing,
and she wrote the following response to a participant who was against it:
On the flip side, I find myself doing a lot of defending [of] my clients from other interest
groups/competitors/etc. who are manipulating facts for their own gain. Maybe I'm
drinking the Kool-Aid, but that‘s one aspect of my job where I do take a lot of pride. …I
get to set the record straight about what the company is doing. … Because others are
manipulative, you have to be too—just to even the playing field.
Also, one participant discussed disguised environmental scanning:
We had a client dealing with layoffs…the news was leaked. One of the team VPs asked
me to monitor lots of message boards online in addition to regular news and social media.
For some of the message boards, you had to be a member to gain access, and my VP
asked me to create an account with my personal email address.
The practitioner explained, ―I was not a big fan of this personally, but there wasn‘t a lot of time
to give my feedback, and what really guided my decision of whether or not to disagree with this,
was that this particular VP is pretty mean and also has some bearing on my advancement
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opportunities.‖ She also added that she complied with the request because she ―didn‘t have to
lie‖ about who she was and did not have ―to call someone up pretend to be [someone else].‖
Giving gifts without transparency and purchasing ad space with editorial demands.
Another common dilemma addressed by participants involved gift giving to the media, bloggers,
and consumers:
One ethical conflict I confront on a daily basis is transparency. I work with many
different teams that often involve paid spokespeople or bloggers who were given free
product. I feel that while I always put my best foot forward, not all of my colleagues and
media I work with follow the same guidelines, and it frustrates me.
This participant relies on helpful senior executives to gain influence:
Unfortunately, without a VP attached to my name, I sometimes face struggles that people
don‘t value my POV [point of view]. Fortunately, I always have the support of my older
mentors/supervisors who are not just looking out for my well-being but the agency‘s too.
Examples involving the media included cases in which editors would request gifts in exchange
for product placement. In addition, a participant discussed pressure her friend faced to demand
editorial placement due to advertising purchases: ―A friend/co-worker of mine who recently got
laid off… was told to call publications that the client advertised in and basically hint that because
they had advertising they owed the client editorial space, as well.‖ Her friend refused, and the
VP relented: ―I think she too knew that it was completely inappropriate for her to suggest this.
When the junior staffer threw out the word ‗unethical,‘ I think our VP got the hint and dropped
it.‖
Ghostwriting. Participants had mixed opinions about whether ghostwriting was
acceptable. A Millennial shared her story about dissuading her agency and client from ghost
blogging:
When developing a new media strategy for a client, we were intending to have our
spokesperson start a travel blog about a trip they were taking. In planning sessions, the
client desired to control the message and wanted us to draft the blog posts, approve them
with the spokesperson, and then post them. I interjected during these discussions and
insisted that the blog be genuine, insisting that no one could tell the story like the person
himself. I explained in length how blogs are a conversational medium and a clear
deception like this, if found out, would not be well received. Eventually, everyone agreed
and the project went on to be a grand success.
He also emphasized that it was important to get influential senior executives on his side: ―It was
a very hard fought battle that lasted for at least three meetings. I was forced to get other people
on the account team on my side (more senior people, primarily) who had more impact on the
client.‖ The client initially resisted because ―they wanted to retain control; they were very
concerned about getting off message and having the spokesperson say things that were factually
inaccurate. They also thought that they could provide more brand focused messages if they
controlled the content.‖ The Millennial was successful and noted, ―The primary client contact
and I joke about that little clash now, he is 20 years my senior, and says that I taught him a good
lesson on that one.‖ Another Millennial defended ghostwriting:
The client is consulted at every step of the writing process, they must approve of the final
product, and I have done extensive research to write in a voice true to the client and to the
campaign. Although the words are mine, they cohesively reflect the ideals of the
organization and the thoughts of the person I am writing for.
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After a participant complimented the rationale above, the Millennial who wrote the justification
explained how she arrived at the decision: ―I read a few articles (and blog entries!) on the topic,
and my current opinion is a result of this research.‖
Voting for clients in contests. A few participants discussed their discomfort with requests
to vote for clients in contests:
Colleagues frequently send out emails asking everyone to go to X website and vote for
our client. I don‘t feel voting for our client is ethical for two reasons. 1) If this person
wasn‘t my client, I wouldn‘t be voting for them. 2) There‘s no way for me to disclose
when I‘m voting that I work for that client.
All three participants explained that they ducked the situation and did not address it with
managers: ―If I don‘t want to speak the truth, but I don‘t want to tell a lie, it comes in handy.
Although it does carry its own implication.‖ One participant pointed out that employee voting is
―padding the stats‖ and might suggest that the agency isn‘t really doing its job ―to increase
visibility for the company.‖
Performing work that conflicts with personal beliefs. A handful of practitioners discussed
issues that resulted from conflicts with ideology. For the few cases about ideology that were
mentioned, participants agreed that it was important to represent the other side, ―similar to a
lawyer defending a client,‖ which could be performed by ―creating materials that are true,‖
despite ideological differences. Another participant‘s agency screened out new hires based on
―how they would feel working on a client where they might have to, for example, pitch a
publication such as Playboy.‖
RQ 2: How Do Millennial Agency Practitioners Think the Profession Could Improve Ethical
Decision Making in the Industry?
Although some participants adopted a futile perspective, believing that people are
―already set in their moral ways,‖ the most common response was to call for more training by
educators, employers, and associations such as PRSA.
Educators. Many participants emphasized the importance of ethics in the public relations
curriculum: ―It should be taught in the schools. I‘ve noticed that students who are taught ethics in
their college courses are a lot more likely to be ethical than those who are not.‖ Another
participant noted, ―Continue to hold ethical courses in school; I believe the generation of
practitioners with PR degrees have a better understanding of ethics.‖
PRSA. In addition, participants asked for additional leadership from PRSA, such as
holding ―some type of annual ethics ‗class‘ presented online or by video from PRSA that
agencies could present for free.‖ One participant criticized her local chapter for not doing more
to focus on ethics: ―Our industry should start making ethics part of the conversation if they want
to improve them. When‘s the last time you went to a luncheon and the topic was ethics?‖
Another participant, on the other hand, praised her local chapter for its annual ethics meeting:
―Our local PRSA chapter does one program each year on ethics. It‘s usually great subject matter
– and relevant.‖
Employers. Participants‘ responses demonstrated a range of efforts by agencies to assist
employees with ethical decision making. Many participants explained that they have an ethics
training as part of their employee orientation. Also, participants praised their agencies for annual
ethics classes and tests, especially those with real cases and ―situations where your client or boss
may ask you to do something you don‘t agree with.‖ Another participant noted, ―It‘s good to
have regular reminders to always act with integrity‖ and ―recognize what the proper decision
should be.‖ Other participants did not see as much effort by their agencies: ―I feel after
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answering all of these questions that maybe my agency doesn‘t discuss ethics often enough. And
if every agency did so, it wouldn‘t be a question as to whether something is right or wrong – it
would just be second nature.‖ Several participants also explained their interest in training to
―make it clearer where we should draw the line and what we should do.‖ One participant added,
―Ethics are incorporated into our review metrics (judged on honesty, integrity, etc.),‖ which she
said shows that ―the company takes this very seriously.‖
Although several participants thought their employers did not need to engage in
additional efforts, others disagreed: ―My company does not make us review a code of ethics after
orientation, and I saw someone else did. I think that is a good idea.‖ Similarly, respondents who
did not have reminders about ethics or check-ins did not seem to retain their initial employer
training: ―When I was initially hired I was presented with a large employee handbook and
required to sign the last page agreeing to the contents. I am sad to say that I have little
recollection as to what was included.‖ Several participants expressed the following suggestion:
―It would be great if we had regular sessions, probably on a yearly basis, at our agency to address
ethics in communications.‖
Participants were about evenly split on the usefulness of establishing ethics codes at the
employer level. A participant who found her agency‘s code to be useful explained, ―I consider it
valuable in terms of understanding where our agency‘s position is on things like interacting in
social media space, how we represent sponsors, etc. ...That way, there‘s no room for
misunderstandings or discrepancies.‖ Some participants expressed that their ethics code was not
a resource they used, but ―it is nice that it is written out and expressed... I appreciate that.‖
Others thought their ethics code was ―too broad,‖ ―too long,‖ or not useful, especially because it
―fails to address how to work with new media.‖
Motivation for training. Several participants focused on the importance of motivating
practitioners to attend training opportunities, whether these opportunities come from graduate
classes, local PRSA meetings, conferences, or employers. As one participant summarized, ―The
trick… is how to interest people in participating in the first place.‖ Another participant noted that
it is imperative for senior staff to attend, as well as juniors: ―Agencies and employees need to
play a better role educating ALL staff (not just juniors, sometimes senior staff have developed
bad habits and don‘t realize that industry standards have changed) as the primary driver of
ethical change.‖ Several participants offered ideas for promoting training that involve linking
ethics with effectiveness:
The professional associations provide great guidance in regards to ethical conduct.
Perhaps if they commissioned studies aimed at finding out a connection between ethical
conduct and bottom line productivity (if such a study is possible), it would help people
realize the folly of non-ethical conduct.
Another participant commented, ―I think the more we can publicize the effects of poor ethical
decision making, the better. Let‘s learn from others‘ mistakes and discuss ethics openly. Let‘s
debate what‘s right, what‘s wrong and why.‖
Training tips. Many participants focused on the importance of ―real life‖ examples:
―There should be real-life case studies (even if given anonymously by changing agency and
client names) so that people can get a real sense of how ethical dilemmas play out and how they
affect everyone involved.‖ Similarly, a participant stated, ―Practitioners should walk through real
situations (stressing real), talk about the range of options, share the different thought processes,
and come up with a group solution.‖ Participants also suggested scenarios that ―pit their will to
41

do good communications work against their will to profit.‖ They also expressed interest in
understanding ―how managers make ethical decisions.‖
In addition, there was a focus on the need to understand the ethical course of action for
social media dilemmas: ―With the rise of social media as a dominant outlet for our industry.
…we need to be well versed in the emerging media and the hypothetical dilemmas that may
arise.‖ Similarly, a participant explained, ―I think lines are blurrier than ever with new media. …
There needs to be a loud discussion, a media campaign maybe, to make modern PR ethics a key
industry topic, more than just pointing out the bad examples.‖ Another practitioner disagreed,
explaining that companies and agencies will learn the ethics of social media as they get punished
for transgressions, such as ―the fake Wal-Mart blog created by another agency a few years ago.‖
Discussion
Ethical Issues in Agencies
The results of the first research question point to the persistence of a variety of ethical
issues, especially those involving client management and social media. Other areas include gift
giving, ghostwriting, voting for clients in contests, and performing work that conflicts with
personal beliefs. One possible reason why client management was the most significant source of
ethical problems for participants is that people think they can get away with it, which reinforces
the importance of the recommendation to hold individuals accountable for their decisions (Lee &
Cheng, 2011). Some agencies hold their employees accountable for poor client management
practices, which was evidenced by participants‘ descriptions of people getting fired. The
potential concealment of unethical client management practices suggests that clients might
consider asking more questions of their agencies based on the problems described in the results,
such as confirming who is doing which work on an account team.
Requests for Support
In response to the second research question, many Millennials focused on the importance
of ethical training by educators, employers, and public relations associations, although some
participants did not think further training would help. Some Millennials explained that the
content of ethics classes and codes must be consistent with what an agency actually does, which
is the same thing that many senior public relations executives expressed in a recent study
(see Lee & Cheng, 2011). One reason why ethics codes and classes can be useful to Millennials
is that they can use the content to persuade their supervisors to do the right thing. Previous
research suggests that Millennials want to be mentored and groomed for senior positions
(Gallicano, 2012), so approaches that tie ethical training into mentorship and professional
development are advised.
Dissent
Although Millennials sometimes observed ethical infractions, in many cases (even
outside of social media), they stood their ground, which provides good news in light of research
that suggests that practitioners under the age of 30 are less likely than other generations to
express dissent (Berger & Reber, 2006). This study provides preliminary evidence that many
young practitioners stand their ground at times, even if young practitioners speak out less often
than seasoned professionals. The contextual details of this study explain why young practitioners
speak out less often, beyond the initial explanation offered by Berger and Reber (2006) about not
wanting to rock the boat. In addition to this explanation, young practitioners also speak out less
often when they perceive a decision to be out of their hands, which could help explain why
Millennial respondents to a survey tended to duck ethical dilemmas when possible (Curtin et al.,
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2011). The lack of control some Millennials perceive with ethical dilemmas can also hurt the
relationship they have with their employers (Curtin et al., 2011), which is not surprising given
the importance of control mutuality to many organization-public relationships. Thus, it is
important for employers to encourage employees to voice their ethical concerns.
Social media dissent. Given that Millennials tend to identify social media leadership as a
defining characteristic of their generation of practitioners and are eager to leverage this
experience into opportunities to make a difference (Gallicano, in press), it is also not surprising
to discover that most respondents hold their ground on social media dilemmas, despite research
suggesting that many tend to avoid confronting employers about other ethical dilemmas (e.g.,
planting questions at a public meeting, attending activist meetings undercover, and not revealing
the real sponsor for an unbranded campaign, Curtin et al., 2011). As one participant explained,
the industry is slowly beginning to figure out where to draw the line on social media issues and is
primarily doing so as public relations practitioners observe others getting negative publicity for
particular tactics.
Forms of rational argument. This study builds upon Berger and Reber‘s (2006)
framework for dissent in the workplace by fleshing out the area of rational argument in a way
that is easy to recall. This is an important contribution because it can help employees consider a
range of arguments available to them when expressing dissent through rational argument, and it
is useful for teaching public relations leadership. Three forms of rational argument are presented
below, and they can be used in isolation, or they can be combined.
As found in this study, one form of rational argument is to show an employer how he or
she can get the same results or better by using an ethical solution. A shorthand name for this line
of rational argument is the better path argument. The path is inherently better because it is
ethical, it does not jeopardize the organization‘s reputation, and it can deliver at least the same
quality of results. One example is the Millennial who argued successfully against ghost blogging
by explaining that no one could tell the spokesperson‘s story in a genuine way other than the
spokesperson. To prepare students, public relations instructors can introduce ethical dilemmas
and ask students to come up with creative solutions for the better path argument.
Another line of argumentation for rational appeals can be referred to as the safe path
argument. This argument is a fear appeal that involves explaining the damage that can occur to
the organization‘s immediate success, long-term success, or both when people find out what
happened. This line of argument can be especially useful for persuading people who are
unmoved by direct appeals to moral or ethical concerns. Although many participants in this study
abstractly referred to long-term success in accounts of their safe path arguments, ideally, this
argument should be accompanied by concrete examples of similar situations in which an
organization was caught and suffered from the results. It is not surprising, then, that several
participants suggested that ethics trainings focus on real-world examples of the damaging
outcomes that result from various unethical decisions. In public relations classes, instructors can
present ethical dilemmas and ask students to construct a safe path argument, which would
include finding examples of similar cases.
An additional line of argumentation for rational appeals can be referred to as the moral
path argument. The moral path argument involves making appeals based on moral principles,
ethics, or both. This line of argumentation can be especially effective with people who have
publicly expressed their commitment to ethics through their words, actions, or both. Merely
objecting to a decision because it was unethical worked well for some of our participants;
however, in a couple cases, the questionable decision was still implemented because a supervisor
43

would ask someone else to do it. In these cases, a better path argument, safe path argument, or
both could have also been used to try to dissuade the supervisor. People using a moral path
argument can consider their employers‘ ethics codes, public relations association codes, public
relations models for ethical decision making (e.g., Bowen, 2005; Lieber, 2005), and extant
discussions about public relations ethics (e.g., Bivins, 2009; Fitzpatrick & Bronstein, 2006;
Parsons, 2008; Seib & Fitzpatrick, 1995). Public relations instructors can help prepare their
students by requiring them to develop a moral path argument to persuade an employer to take the
ethical high ground.
Many participants‘ responses showed a commitment to deontological reasoning, such as
objecting to lying and wanting to be transparent with social media use, which supports results
from Curtin et al.‘s (2011) study. Several participants successfully used the moral path by
incorporating deontological reasoning in their rational appeals, which suggests a shared
commitment between several Millennials and their supervisors to ethical solutions. There were
exceptions, such as a participant who advocated for astroturfing and a participant who thought it
was fine to use insider knowledge to benefit a competitor if no legal document was signed about
keeping the information confidential.
Distributed Public Relations
In a better path appeal, a Millennial was able to turn down his boss‘ request to engage in
astroturfing by offering to find people who genuinely like his client and asking them to post
comments in response to his client‘s media coverage. This practice is close to the concept of
distributed public relations, so this study proposes an extension to distributed public relations,
which Kelleher (2007) defined as the ―intentional practice of sharing public relations
responsibilities among a broad cross-section of an organization‘s members or employees,
particularly in an online context‖ (p. 98). Distributed public relations can be extended by
including not only members (i.e., of a nonprofit) and employees but also consumers (i.e., for
companies). A public relations practitioner who asks consumers to promote a client, of course,
should also request that the consumers explain that the client encouraged them to engage in the
promotion, disclose any conflict of interest, and disclose any incentives that they received.
Transparency is critical with online public relations.
Limitations and Future Research
As a qualitative study, the results cannot be generalized; nevertheless, saturation with the
research questions was achieved, which suggests a thorough identification of prominent themes.
By having Millennials identify the ethical dilemmas they faced, as opposed to triangulating the
data through participant observation, this study‘s identification of ethical dilemmas is
constrained by Millennials‘ ability to recognize them. Similar to the study by Lubbers et al.
(2007/8), some participants stated that they had never faced an ethical dilemma, which could
suggest a failure to recognize ethical issues. Future research could incorporate participant
observation to identify dilemmas that participants might overlook, which could result in
additional ethical dilemmas for the industry to explore. Additional research is also needed to
explore the ethical dilemmas that are unique to other public relations contexts. Also, participants
themselves called for research that connects ethics with effectiveness. Although studies relating
these areas exist, additional research is needed, along with outreach efforts to publicize these
studies.
44

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46

Looking Back, Looking Forward:
A Thematic Review of Three Decades of Research in Public Relations and New Media
Sandra Duhé, Ph.D., APR
Associate Professor and Director, Public Relations Program
Southern Methodist University
sduhe@smu.edu
Abstract
An examination of articles published in four public relations journals (Public Relations Review,
Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Relations Journal, and PRism) across a 31-year
timeframe (1981-2012) revealed the bulk of new media research has focused on applications
(49%) and perceptions (28%) much more than proposing theoretical frameworks for relationship
building (11%), raising legal/risk/ethics concerns (7%), or addressing usability (3%). Six primary
themes found in the literature are discussed, as are suggestions for future research in a public
relations environment that is increasingly social, temperamental, and influenced by publics
external to organizations.
Introduction
Although the term ―new media‖ is frequently used in contemporary discourse to describe
emerging communication technologies, scholars and practitioners have investigated how
technology has affected the practice and study of public relations for the past 31 years. This
paper describes the primary themes found in a three-decade (1981-2012) span of public relations
research related to new media. The purpose of this research was to examine how communication
technologies have been addressed in the public relations literature over time so that practitioners,
scholars, and educators can better understand not only current thinking about emerging media,
but also an intellectual history of this pervasive topic and its possible directions for future
research.
The approach used is best described as thematic analysis, a qualitative methodology that
―focuses on identifiable themes and patterns‖ (Aronson, 1994, para. 3) and aids in reducing a
volume of data into a more manageable, understandable format. The steps are fairly
straightforward, though time consuming: collect the data, identify themes, categorize data
according to those themes, and then provide justification for choosing those themes. Ultimately,
the thematic analysis should result in ―a developed story line [that] helps the reader to
comprehend‖ (para. 10) whatever process the researcher is trying to convey. In this case,
thematic analysis was applied to describe 31 years of public relations research related to new
media. The unit of analysis was a peer-reviewed journal article.
Four public relations journals were chosen for the investigation: Public Relations Review,
Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Relations Journal, and PRism. These were
selected because of their specialized focus on public relations (versus other areas of mass
communication), the accessibility and depth of their archives, the variety of their formats (print
and online), and their frequently observed citations in the public relations literature (rather than
any formal ranking system). Searches dated back to 1975 for Public Relations Review, 1989 for
Journal of Public Relations Research 1 , 2003 for PRism, and 2007 for Public Relations Journal.
The oldest article selected was from a 1981 volume of Public Relations Review, and the most
1 The 1989-91 archives of Public Relations Research Annual, the predecessor of Journal of Public Relations
Research, were included in the search.
47

ecent articles were gathered from published issues available in May 2012 (not including in-press
articles).
Articles were selected based only on the content of their titles. The titles in each volume
and issue of each journal were reviewed using either a university-based database or archives
available online. If a title included keywords such as computers, new technology, information
age, Web, Internet, virtual, digital, cyberspace, online, new media, social media, Facebook,
Twitter, or blog, the article was included in the study. Articles focusing on educational, internal
communication, or practitioner-to-practitioner communication (e.g., PRForum) practices related
to new media were not included. A total of 185 articles, published over a 31-year time period
(1981-2012), was analyzed. The author relied primarily on the abstract, discussion/implication,
and conclusion sections of articles to record a summary of and general theme for each. Articles
were reviewed in chronological order to get a better sense of how theories, methodologies, and
findings changed (or did not change) over time.
Once summaries and themes were recorded for all 185 articles, the author undertook an
iterative, reductive process of creating mutually exclusive themes so that each article would fall
under one theme that best described its primary intent and contribution. Ultimately, six themes
emerged: Early Predictions, Theoretical Frameworks for Relationship Building, Usability,
Applications, Perceptions, and Concerns. Literature related to each is discussed in this same
order.
Theme 1: Early predictions
The four articles in this theme comprised only 2% of the dataset but were significant in
that the authors made bold predictions of how new communication technologies and the
increasing use of computers in public relations would affect the practice.
In 1981, BITNET, a cooperative network that allowed email and file transfers, was
established at City University of New York and made its first connection to Yale (Zakon, 2010).
During this time, Chester Burger (1981) aptly predicted new communication technologies would
change corporate America in fundamental ways, including lower communication costs,
vanishing paper trails, streamlined communication networks, reduction in the frequency of faceto-face
meetings, and a newfound ability to direct messages to specific audiences.
Betsy Plank (1983), then assistant vice president of corporate communications for Illinois
Bell, also saw a coming revolution in communication technologies – particularly for public
relations practitioners. In a lecture, she spoke of changes in daily work habits, a coming increase
in research and measurement capabilities, and new systems for the customization and delivery of
messages. She warned practitioners to ―brace yourself for the mixed blessing of immediate
reaction to our messages‖ (p. 7) in regard to the instant, sometimes thought-lacking, feedback
technology would allow. She expressed concerns about a decrease in human interaction, an
information divide between rich and poor, privacy, education, language and writing skills, and
information overload. She reassured her audience, however, saying ―we are a creative,
resourceful breed‖ (p.7) and stressed that public relations practitioners should be the catalyst,
steward, and architect of the coming communication revolution to ensure ―technology will
improve the quality of American life‖ (p. 3).
Seventeen years after Burger‘s (1981) prediction, Robert Heath (1998) and Timothy
Coombs (1998) published the now frequently cited articles about the expected impact of new
technologies on issues management. Heath acknowledged that technology offered both
opportunities for and threats to relationship building. He argued that the interactive nature of the
48

Internet and Web would help democratize discussions, providing participants with a shared
―platform of fact and opinion much earlier in issues dialogues‖ (p. 288) compared to
conventional media. Coombs described the Internet not only as a ―new weapon‖ (p. 289) for
confronting corporate irresponsibility, but also as a ―potential equalizer‖ (p. 289) that would
enhance the power of activists (who were initially regarded in stakeholder theory as being
relatively weak) and significantly affect issues management and corporate social performance.
Theme 2: Theoretical frameworks for relationship building
A variety of theories from communication and other disciplines guided research reported
in the articles analyzed. The articles that fell under this particular theme, however, focused on
providing theoretical frameworks or medium-specific guidance for the study of how Web-based
communication contributed to relationship building with external publics. Two (often
overlapping) sub-themes surfaced: dialogic communication and interactivity. Twenty articles
were categorized under this theme, comprising 11% of the dataset.
In 1998, e-commerce, e-auctions, portals, e-trade, XML, and intrusion detection were
coming into vogue (Zakon, 2010). It was a banner year for public relations scholarship as well.
In addition to Heath‘s (1998) and Coombs‘(1998) previously discussed predictions about the
effect of new communication technologies on issues management and stakeholder influence,
Kent and Taylor (1998) published the first theoretical framework (among the four public
relations journals studied) for building dialogic relationships through the World Wide Web.
Throughout the 30-year time span studied, their framework of five website design principles
(dialogic loop, useful information, generation of return visits, ease of interface/navigation, and
conservation of visitors) was prominently referenced and/or tested by researchers. Kent and
Taylor distinguished two-way symmetrical communication as a ―process‖ and dialogic
communication as a ―product‖ in which a relationship exists (p. 323). They explained that
without dialogue, ―Internet public relations becomes nothing more than a new monologic
communication medium‖ (p. 325). Five years later, Kent, Taylor, and White (2003) proposed
that ―the more an organization depends upon its publics for achieving its mission, the more it
should employ dialogic features into its Web site design‖ (p. 75).
Also in 2003, the concept of interactivity, and its connection to relationship building, was
woven into the public relations literature examined. Jo and Kim (2003) suggested that the
interactive, participatory nature of the Web distinguished it from traditional media, noting its
―intrinsic interactivity…can enhance the mutual relationship and collaboration between the
message sender (the organization) and the receiver (public)‖ (p. 202). Using relationship
dimensions proposed by Hon and Grunig (1999; i.e., trust, control mutuality, commitment,
satisfaction, exchange relationships, communal relationships) and Kim (2001; i.e., community
involvement, reputation), Jo and Kim tested the interactivity levels of corporate websites and
concluded that enhanced interactivity would lead to improved public relationships. They were
among the first to note what became a recurring theme in the literature reviewed - that ―public
relations practitioners do not fully use the Internet to enhance interactions between organizations
and their publics‖ (p. 217) 2 . Gustaven and Tilley (2003) used Dholakia, Zhao, Dholakia, and
Fortin‘s (2000) dimensions of interactivity (i.e., user control, responsiveness, real-time
2 In her 10-year literature review McAllister-Spooner (2009) concluded that ―the dialogic
promise of the Web has not yet been realized‖ (p. 321).
49

interaction, connectedness, personalization, playfulness) in their attempt to operationalize the
concept and likewise found that corporate websites were not as interactive as they could be.
Galloway (2005) approached the concepts of dialogue and interactivity when he proposed
that public relations practitioners should focus more on designing virtual experiences as part of
relationship building with publics. He drew upon psychology and ergonomics to argue that
―dynamic communicative touch‖ (p. 573) was not limited to the physical realm and could be
achieved online through cyber-haptics, or experiences that stimulate ―feelings such as
connectedness, involvement, appreciation, and meaningfulness‖ (p. 573). He suggested that
cyber-haptics could occur through venues such as online polling, games, voice and video
messaging, email, or live chats. He acknowledged his article as an initial step in what he hoped
would be the beginning of continuing research into actual applications of this approach. Cyberhaptics,
per se, was not the primary focus of any other articles in the dataset, however.
It was Seltzer and Mitrook (2007) who suggested that weblogs, more commonly known
as blogs, were potentially more effective for relationship building than websites because of their
inherently responsive design. Kent (2008), too, recognized the potential of blogs, but mainly for
research, framing, persuasion, issue monitoring, and environmental scanning. He discussed the
dialogic and interactive nature of blogs, but also highlighted ―the exaggerated significance‖ (p.
37) associated with blogs as a public relations tool as well as the risks involved with blogging.
Kent concluded: ―A blog will only be useful to an organization if it has someone to maintain it,
someone trained in effective dialogic communication, and someone who has the trust of
individuals and publics‖ (p. 39).
Yang and Lim (2009) proposed and empirically tested a theoretical model of Blog-
Mediated Public Relations (BMPR) that included relational trust as an outcome of effective
blogging practices. They found that bloggers who exhibited a ―dialogical self‖ (p. 345)
enhanced interactivity, which, in turn, enhanced trust. A dialogical blogger, they explained,
focused on mutual understanding rather than persuasion. Yang and Kang (2009) validated a
four-dimensional scale to measure blog engagement and found that interactivity positively
enhanced one‘s connection to, attitudes toward, and word-of-mouth intentions about a company.
In her analysis of mommy bloggers, Stansberry (2011) suggested social network analysis as a
means to increase understanding of online publics.
Interestingly, Xifra and Huertas (2008) found that although most public relations blogs
were written by public relations professionals, they lacked development in interactive resources,
and research was rarely addressed. Similarly, Xifra and Grau (2010) observed that Twitter
discourse related to public relations contributed more to practice than theory. Wakefield (2008)
called for a reconstruction of international public relations theory in light of Internet-based
effects on communication.
Hickerson and Thompson (2009) suggested that wiki sites were untapped sources for
dialogic communication and relationship building but were somewhat risky in that creation of
content is a shared process. In their investigation of health wikis, sites perceived by respondents
to be more dialogic were also perceived to be more valuable. Respondents additionally
expressed ―a significantly higher commitment to future usage for wikis than non-wikis‖ (p. 8).
Waters, Amarkhil, Bruun, and Mathisen (2012) introduced two theoretical frameworks (i.e.,
entertainment persuasion and PodCred) to assess the communicative purpose and design of
podcasts.
50

In 2010, Smith (2010b) used Twitter involvement in Haitian earthquake relief to propose
a social model of public relations and expand thinking about interactivity. He differentiated a
social model from a dialogic model as follows:
In this social model, public relations-related activities are initiated by an online public,
facilitated by communication technology, and based on user interactivity (or the
searching, retrieval, and distribution of information online). Whereas other online models
consider the organization as source {i.e., the dialogic web model (Kent et al., 2003)},
social public relations are based on user-initiation and comprise three concepts: viral
interaction, public-defined legitimacy, and social stake. (p. 333)
Smith observed that communication power was shifting away from public relations practitioners
to social media users whose organizational interests or roles may not be well defined. What
results, then, ―is a social model of public relations in which traditional public relations
responsibilities are distributed to social media users‖ (p. 329). He stressed, too, that scholars
―move beyond efforts to simply translate public relations models into the online sphere…[and]
consider this an opportunity to consider new levels of risk, relationship, and interactivity‖ (p.
334). In 2011, Lovari, Kim, Vibber, and Kim proposed a new framework for classifying publics
(i.e., inactive, analogical, hybrid, and digital) based on their adoption and use of emerging
communication technologies.
Grunig (2009) admonished the practice of using new media in the same way traditional
media have been used for ―dumping messages on the general population‖ (p. 1). He asserted that
the use of social media could make the practice of public relations more dialogic and interactive
and argued that any ―illusion of control‖ (p. 4) is misplaced in a paradigm that views public
relations as a messaging, rather than a strategic, function in organizations. In his review of
interdisciplinary Web 2.0/3.0 research, Macnamara (2010) emphasized the need for
organizations to abandon the control paradigm in light of ―social and cultural shifts‖ (p. 1) taking
place in communication. He suggested that ―relinquishing control is a much greater challenge
for practitioners and the management groups in which they operate than adapting to new
technologies‖ (p. 8). Although neither Grunig nor Macnamara was proposing new theoretical
models for relationship building in new media environments, they emphasized paradigmatic
shifts in thinking that are relevant to and necessary for theory building.
Theme 3: Usability
Five articles were categorized under this theme, accounting for 3% of the dataset. The
thematic distinction between interactivity (as discussed in Theme 2) and usability is an important
one. Gustavsen and Tilley (2003) explained that usability refers to ease of operation whereas
interactivity refers ―to the levels of reciprocity provided by a site‖ (p. 2) while using it.
Therefore, a site may be highly interactive but difficult to navigate, or vice versa. Usability and
interactivity are not synonymous.
Articles falling under this theme discussed how a ―trial and error‖ approach to website
development was more commonly found than one based on research, planning, and evaluation
(White & Raman, 1999); how usability research used in product and software development could
be applied to examine the effectiveness of websites (Hallahan, 2001); how XML could be
customized for public relations (Gregory, 2004); how an experience-centered methodology could
test the usability of websites (Vorvoreanu, 2006); and how usability software could assist in
online data gathering (Moayeri, 2010).
51

Theme 4: Applications
The largest number (91, or 49%) of articles studied fell under the applications theme,
with the sub-theme of corporate applications (27 articles) being the most popular, followed by
crisis/risk applications (20 articles), nonprofit applications (13 articles), activist (11 articles) and
government/political (12 articles) applications, and college/university applications (8 articles).
The primary focus of each of these articles was how new media were used in a particular
communication environment.
Corporate applications
The popular sub-theme of corporate applications began in 1982 with Glenn, Gruber, and
Robin‘s finding that the adoption rate of computer-based technology as a ―new management
skill‖ (p. 34) was slow among companies. Nelson and Heath (1984) were the first in the dataset
to use ―new media‖ in a title and discussed how the use of emerging cable networks allowed
corporations to circumvent Fairness Doctrine restrictions on commercial networks for corporate
advocacy and advertising messages.
Esrock and Leichty (1998) were the first in the dataset to examine how corporate social
responsibility (CSR) was conveyed on websites, finding the predominant corporate model was
―top-down/information push communications‖ (p. 317) rather than interaction between
organizations and publics. Nine years later, Capriotti and Moreno (2007) found CSR website
communication still to be unidirectional and lacking in interactivity. In their study of corporate
websites in Asia, Europe, and North America, Kim, Nam, and Kang (2010) found most to be
lacking in dialogic features for communication of environmental responsibility. Pan and Xu
(2009) observed that U.S. corporations were more likely than Chinese corporations to highlight
social responsibility on their websites. In 2011, Gomez and Chalmeta found that although most
U.S. companies had operational CSR websites, interactive features were uncommon.
Esrock and Leichty (2000) were also the first in the dataset to study the relationship
between corporate Web pages and publics, finding investor/financial publics to be a primary
audience. Kim, Park, and Wertz (2010) likewise found shareholders, compared to other
stakeholders such as consumers and activists, to be a priority for corporate websites. Ki and
Chung (2011) examined investor relations practices on corporate websites.
Research investigating corporate use of the Internet for media relations began with
Callison‘s (2003) finding that dedicated press rooms were ―a rarity‖ (p. 40). In the first
international analysis of virtual press rooms, Alfonso and Miguel (2006) found shortcomings in
reliability and timeliness. Four years later, Pettigrew and Reber (2010, and again in 2011)
reported that use of dialogic components was improving and suggested a sixth principle,
relationship initiation and enhancement, be added to Kent and Taylor‘s (1998) framework. In
2010, Waters, Tindall, and Morton introduced the idea of ―media catching‖ based on their
observation of how reporters sought information for stories on Twitter, thus illustrating a reversal
of traditional communication patterns in media relations for a variety of organizations, including
corporations.
Cultural influences on corporate Web use were examined in Maynard and Tian‘s (2004)
study of how global companies ―glocalized‖ (p. 284) websites by incorporating cultural,
political, and economic nuances into their brand strategies for local audiences. A few articles
explained how corporations attempted to manage their image and/or reputation online, including
Connolly-Ahern and Broadway (2007) and Gilpin (2010). DiStaso and Messner (2010) were the
first in the dataset to analyze how corporate image was shaped on Wikipedia. DiStaso (2012)
52

ecently reported implications of Wikipedia‘s ―bright line‖ rule that prevents public relations
practitioners from editing articles related to their companies or clients.
Park and Reber (2008) found that higher ranking companies (in the Fortune 500) utilized
dialogic features but made only moderate use of feedback or response capabilities. Other
corporate application articles focused on how organizations communicated with sports fans on
message boards (Woo, An, & Cho, 2008), monitored public opinion through social media
(Lariscy, Avery, Sweetser, & Howes, 2009b), used Facebook (D‘Aloisio, 2011; McCorkindale,
2010) and Twitter (Rybalko & Seltzer, 2010; Wigley & Lewis, 2012), and practiced stewardship
with virtual stakeholders (Waters, 2011). Many of these findings indicated that corporations
were using online venues more so for one-way than two-way communication.
Crisis/risk communication applications
The opportunity to leverage just-in-time information technology before, during, and after
a crisis was first proposed in the dataset by Calloway (1991). Thereafter, articles focused on use
of the Internet as a crisis management tool for Y2K (DiNardo, 2002); how airlines utilized online
communications after 9/11 (Greer & Moreland, 2003); best practices for Internet use in crisis
response (Taylor & Perry, 2005); how Spanish companies conveyed chemical-related risks
through the Internet (Capriotti, 2007); how companies used the Web in the aftermath of
Hurricane Katrina (Greer & Moreland, 2007); the role of emotion in online bulletin boards
during a toy recall (Choi & Lin, 2009); the interrelationship between crisis type, online media
type, and public trust (Oyer, 2010); and the importance of government officials establishing
online dialogues with citizens before crises occur (Tirkkonen & Luoma-aho, 2011). Crisis
communication studies in the past year focused on traditional versus social media use during the
2009 H1N1 pandemic (Liu & Kim, 2011); reporters‘ reliance on user-generated content related
to the shooting of U.S. Representative Gabrielle Giffords in Tucson, Arizona (Wigley &
Fontenot, 2011); application of Benoit‘s image repair theory in the highly publicized divorce of
reality TV stars Jon and Kate Gosselin (Moody, 2011); and FEMA-sponsored disaster
preparedness websites for children (Hilyard, Hocke, & Ryan, 2011).
The study of blog use during crises started with Sweetser and Metzgar (2007) and later
included how emotional support was sought in blogs during a pet food recall (Stephens &
Malone, 2009) and how newspapers compared to blogs in their crisis coverage (Liu, 2010). In
2010, Jin and Liu introduced the first Blog-Mediated Crisis Communication Model, which was
―based on the assumption that engagement is the most effective way to manage crises‖ (p. 450).
An updated version of the model, the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model, was used
to examine the roles of information form and source in organizational responses to crises (Liu,
Austin, & Jin, 2011). The role of Facebook and Twitter in crisis communication was examined
by Muralidharan, Rasmussen, Patterson, and Shin (2011), and Muralidharan, Dillistone, and Shin
(2011).
Nonprofit applications
Nonprofit use of the Web was first discussed in the dataset by Kang and Norton (2004),
who found that nonprofits were effective in presenting traditional public relations materials
online but ―were largely unsuccessful in making interactive and relational communications with
publics‖ (p. 279). Subsequent articles examined how nonprofits used websites (Ingenhoff &
Koelling, 2009; Jun, 2011), text messaging (Weberling & Waters, 2011), and email (Weberling,
2012) for fundraising; dialogic website design (Auger, 2010); online social good networks
53

(Branston & Bush, 2010); and social media for relationship building (Briones, Kuch, Lin, & Jin,
2011; Curtis et al., 2010; Hovey, 2010; Waters, Burnett, Lamm, & Lucas, 2009).
In their study of nonprofits‘ use of Facebook, Waters et al. (2009) remarked on
organizations‘ failure ―to take advantage of the interactive nature of social networking‖ (p. 105),
and this sentiment was repeated in later studies of nonprofit organizations‘ Twitter use (Lovejoy,
Waters, & Saxton, 2012; Waters & Jamal, 2011). Likewise, Ingenhoff and Koelling (2009)
observed that although Swiss nonprofit organizations were efficient at serving the information
needs of their donors online, their use of dialogic technologies was lacking.
Activist applications
In the dataset, Taylor, Kent, and White (2001) first examined how activist organizations
were using the Internet to build relationships. Although they found most activists met technical
and design requirements for dialogic communication, they observed that activists did not fully
engage publics in two-way communication. Several studies found activist organizations,
including NGOs and advocacy groups, good at providing information but lacking online
interactivity with their publics (Bortree & Seltzer, 2009; Naudé, Froneman, & Atwood, 2004)
and doing little to activate offline participation in social movements (Yang & Taylor, 2010).
Reber and Kim (2006) found that activist groups were more likely to be dialogic with the general
public than with journalists. Zoch, Collins, Sisco, and Supa (2008) and Zoch, Collins, and Sisco
(2008) argued that activists were underutilizing the potential of framing techniques on their
websites.
In contrast, Han and Zhang (2009) highlighted a successful case of activist use of the
Internet to close a Starbucks site in Beijing‘s Forbidden City, thus exposing public relations
complexities related to the interplay of ―new communication technology and globalization‖ (p.
400). Seo, Kim, and Yang (2009) found promoting organizational image and funding were the
two most important functions of new media for NGOs. Sommerfeldt (2011a) discovered that
―activist groups most often take a reactionary or confrontational approach to establishing
identification with publics‖ (p. 87) and later conducted a review of their online resource
mobilization practices (Sommerfeldt, 2011b).
Overall, analysis of articles in this sub-theme revealed that, similar to corporations, many
activist groups were foregoing online opportunities to improve relationship building by not being
interactive. Bortree and Seltzer (2009) succinctly captured this point:
Most of the advocacy groups in our study seem to adopt the position that the mere
creation of an interactive space via a social networking profile is sufficient for facilitating
dialogue. However, these organizations are missing a significant opportunity to build
mutually beneficial relationships with stakeholders by failing to effectively utilize the full
gambit of dialogic strategies that social networking sites offer. (p. 318)
Government/political applications
Harris, Garramone, Pizante, and Komiya (1985) were the first in the dataset to discuss
how computers could provide a two-way flow of information between elected officials and their
constituents. Articles that followed explained how 1996 U.S. presidential candidates used the
Web to reach voters during the general election (McKeown & Plowman, 1999), how blog-based
attacks were utilized during the 2004 U.S. election (Trammell, 2006), how the Obama campaign
utilized the Internet for grassroots efforts in 2008 (Levenshus, 2010), how Middle East (Curtin &
Gaither, 2004) and UAE (Ayish, 2005; Kirat, 2007) governmental organizations used the
54

Internet, as well as the role of culture in country-sponsored tourism websites (Kang & Mastin,
2008), the diffusion of social media in public health communication (Avery et al., 2010), and the
impact of transparency laws on Latin American government websites (Searson & Johnson,
2010). More recent studies included governmental use of interactive media in public relations
efforts (Kim & Molleda, 2011) and an analysis of the U.S. State Department‘s Apps4Africa
contest (Milam & Avery, 2012).
The Obama campaign (Levenshus, 2010) was noted as one that fully leveraged the
Internet‘s potential, but not every government/political application focused on interactivity.
Several studies that did, however, found communication to be primarily asymmetrical in nature
and lacking in dialogic features (e.g., Curtin & Gaither, 2004; Kirat, 2007; McKeown &
Plowman, 1999).
College/university applications
In the dataset, Kang and Norton (2006) investigated how colleges and universities used
the Web to accomplish public relations goals. Other studies found prospective donors to be the
primary audience targeted on university sites (Will & Callison, 2006) and historically black
colleges and universities missing opportunities to present themselves adequately online (Brunner
& Boyer, 2008). Several studies found interactivity and two-way communication lacking,
including McAllister and Taylor‘s (2007) analysis of community college websites; Gordon and
Berhow‘s (2009) study of dialogic features on university websites; and Chung, Lee, and
Humphrey‘s (2010) study of Web-based recruiting efforts by universities in the US, UK, and
South Korea. Kelleher and Sweetser (2012), however, found university communicators
classified as ―believers‖ in social media adoption were more apt to partake in two-way
communication online.
McAllister and Taylor (2007) cautioned that presence alone of dialogic principles does
not make a website dialogic ―if it does not offer and follow through with two-way
communication‖ (p. 232). They added, ―The absence of feedback opportunities essentially
makes these sites one-way communication tools. They are not much different than a printed
brochure. This sender-to-receiver focus is not helping to build relationships among key publics‖
(p. 232). In a recent study, McAllister (2012) discovered that although many of the world‘s top
universities have Facebook pages, more than half do not allow visitors to post comments or
photos.
Theme 5: Perceptions
Articles focusing on the perceptions of various participants in the public relations/new
media process comprised the second largest theme with 52 articles, or 28% of the dataset. Five
sub-themes were identified, with practitioner perception studies being the most popular (33
articles), followed by consumers (8 articles), college students (4 articles), journalists (4 articles),
and bloggers (3 articles). The primary aim of these articles was to ascertain how certain
users/audiences felt about some aspect of new media use.
Practitioner perceptions
Practitioner perceptions were assessed in 1993 when Ramsey found issues management
practitioners highly likely to use ―advanced communication technologies‖ (p. 261) on the job 3 .
3 The first article in the database that appeared to study practitioner perceptions was Anderson,
55

In recent years, Wright and Hinson (2008b; 2009a; 2009b; 2010a; 2010b; 2011) have provided
continuous updates to streams of longitudinal data regarding how public relations practitioners
around the globe are using new and social media 4 .
Several studies reported that practitioners perceived improvements in their managerial
(vs. technician) status, involvement in executive decision-making, personal power, and/or
motivation as a result of using new media, including Thomsen (1995); Johnson (1997); Sallot,
Porter, and Acosta-Alzuru (2004); Porter and Sallot (2005); Porter, Sweetser-Trammell, Chung,
and Kim (2007); Diga and Kelleher (2009), and Sweetser and Kelleher (2011). Other
researchers found Web-based tasks to have a low priority in the workplace (Hill & White, 2000);
discovered the importance of the Web and email in science public relations (Duke, 2002);
explored the roles of practitioner gender and institutional types (Ryan, 2003); assessed the extent
to which practitioners who blog are more accommodative to publics (Kelleher, 2008); reported
publicists‘ perceptions of how online communication positively impacts reputation (Aula, 2011);
revealed agreement among executive-level practitioners that Twitter is a useful communication
tool (Evans, Twomey, & Talan, 2011); provided practitioner insight into how technology has
impacted the practice of crisis communication (Young, Flowers, & Ren, 2011; Wigley & Zhang,
2011), media relations (Bajkiewicz, Kraus, & Hong, 2011), and blogger relations (Smith, 2011);
and described what public relations executives expect and need in regard to social media use and
measurement (DiStaso, McCorkindale, & Wright, 2011). Other studies investigated how new
and/or social media are used by practitioners in certain geographies, including Singapore (Fitch,
2009), Israel (Avidar, 2009), Greece (Kitchen & Panopoulos, 2010), Turkey (Alikilic & Atabek,
2012), and across Europe (Verhoeven, Tench, Zerfass, Moreno, & Verčič, 2012).
A revealing study conducted by Sommerfeldt, Kent, and Taylor (2012) explored the
longstanding question as to why activist practitioners consistently fail to utilize dialogic
principles in their website designs. Interestingly, the authors found that:
The answer appears to be that the organizations included in this study do not view
websites as a dialogic tool….We feel that there is enough evidence to date to say that
websites are not dialogic and they are not dialogic because practitioners do not see them
as tools for dialogue. This disconnect between public relations researchers and
practitioners is really where we must focus our future energies. (p. 311, emphasis added)
Consumer perceptions
In the dataset, Park and Lee (2007) first examined consumer perceptions of information
provided through new media. They found that positive comments about a company in an online
news forum led to positive consumer perceptions of the company. Alternatively, Cho and Hong
(2009) found online readers were cynical about CSR activities, including monetary donations,
undertaken by companies in the aftermath of a crisis.
In her study of expectations of college websites, McAllister-Spooner (2010) found that
active use of dialogic features could increase high school student applications to colleges. Hong
and Rim (2010) observed a direct, positive link between consumers‘ use of corporate websites,
perceptions of a company‘s CSR, and trust in the company.
Reagan, Hill, and Sumner (1989), but it was not accessible through the author‘s Science Direct
account.
4 Eyrich, Padman, and Sweetser (2008) examined practitioners‘ use of social media, but the
article was not accessible through the author‘s Science Direct account.
56

In 2011, Freberg, Graham, McGaughey, and Freberg suggested that public perception of
social media personalities could affect organizational responses to social media influencers.
Schultz, Utz, and Göritz (2011) tested user perceptions of crisis-related messages in social versus
traditional media. Dou (2011) discovered culturally based differences in consumers‘ use of Mixi
versus Facebook. Most recently, Hwang (2012) found young consumers‘ attitudes about CEO
Twitter use had a positive influence on perceptions of leadership.
College student perceptions
Kiousis and Dimitrova (2006) observed no significant differences in how college students
perceived online stories from public relations versus news sources. Kennan, Hazleton, Janoske,
and Short (2008) found college students highly attached to new communication technologies,
particularly for maintaining their social contacts.
In her analysis of community college websites, McAllister-Spooner (2008) reported that
undergraduates reacted negatively to a lack of dialogic loop features. Lewis (2010) found that
public relations and advertising majors had a more positive view of social media compared to
other majors.
Journalist perceptions
Hachigian and Hallahan (2003) were the first in the dataset who studied how journalists
used sponsored websites for newsgathering. Their survey research discovered computer industry
journalists were only ―moderately reliant‖ (p. 59) on websites for information. In 2007, Chen
found that websites could enhance the political candidate-journalist relationship but asserted that
―websites have a long way to go before being accepted by journalists as newsgathering tools‖ (p.
105). Pettigrew and Reber (2011) found that although print journalists observe corporate
websites becoming more dialogic, they still distrust corporations to some extent.
As social networking sites were gaining popularity, Lariscy, Avery, Sweetser, and Howes
(2009a) stated that ―journalists embrace the concept of social media more than they enact the
practices‖ (p. 316). The authors found that business/financial journalists actually preferred ―noninteractive
online information sources‖ (p. 316) such as websites for their work.
Blogger perceptions
Sweetser (2007) was the first in the dataset to study bloggers. In her analysis of their
coverage of the 2004 U.S. presidential nomination conventions, she discovered party-based bias
in credentialed bloggers‘ reports. Steyn, Salehi-Sangari, Pitt, Parent, and Berthon (2010)
surveyed active B2B bloggers, finding 57.5% of their 332 respondents had not yet seen a social
media release.
Based on interviews with bloggers from a variety of fields, Smith (2010a) outlined ―an
evolutionary process‖ (p. 175) that bloggers experienced (introduction, community membership,
and then autonomy), which in turn affected their willingness to work with public relations
practitioners. Smith suggested that ―practitioners may find optimal reception from bloggers in
the community membership stage, because desires for new content make a practitioner-blogger
relationship mutually beneficial‖ (p. 177).
57

Theme 6: Concerns
Thirteen articles, or 7% of the dataset, were categorized as relaying some type of concern
about the use of new communication technologies in public relations. Three sub-themes
emerged: legal (5 articles), risk (5 articles), and ethics (3 articles).
Legal
Hallahan (2004) identified ―five major culprits‖ (p. 255) that posed legal problems to
organizations via the Internet: ―attackers, hackers, lurkers, rogues, and thieves‖ (p. 255). For
each, he described legal ramifications and possible means of protection.
Other articles discussed the role of the Internet in litigation public relations (Reber,
Gower, & Robinson, 2006), the dangers of assuming business blogging is fully protected by the
First Amendment (Terilli, Driscoll, & Stacks, 2008), commercial speech concerns related to
CEO blogging (Terilli & Arnorsdottir, 2008), and cautions in responding to anonymous Internet
speech (Terilli, Stacks, & Driscoll, 2010).
Risk
Using a cultural studies approach, Mickey (1998) took a critical look at the relationship
between the technology industry and education. He warned: ―In the 1930s many argued that
television would make for a more educated society but television became a vehicle to sell goods
and services. The Internet is moving along the same path‖ (p. 335). Strobbe and Jacobs (2005)
raised concerns about news becoming commodified through online press release services.
In a BledCom keynote address, Hiebert (2005) suggested that new communication
technologies could ―save democracy‖ (p. 1) but cautioned that ―the pathway ahead for public
relations is strewn with landmines‖ (p. 1). Included in his landmines were privacy invasion,
identity theft, information inequities, and cyberterrorism. He also acknowledged that new media
could ―become tools of tyranny and suppression‖ (p. 8) but that ―what happens will ultimately
depend on what we let happen, how vigilant we will be, how much we listen, and how much we
participate in the world around us‖ (p. 8).
Robards (2010) wrote about privacy concerns in his examination of how young
Australians used social media. In their content analysis of PRSA‘s Public Relations Tactics, a
publication widely distributed to college students, Taylor and Kent (2010) observed a blatant
lack of discussion of the risks associated with using social media in public relations practice and
called for a reconsideration of how the profession is socializing students.
Ethics
In 1995, Judd wrote about the role of ethics in the information age: ―While we may view
it as amoral, a means to an end, technological innovation unsettles old values and creates new
views of the world. Practitioners face a challenge‖ (p. 36). He went on to suggest ways to
establish credibility for organizations in the midst of technological change.
Related articles revealed that nondisclosure harms relationship building in social media
environments (Sweetser, 2010) and the importance of corporations not only discussing ethical
parameters on websites, but also building relationships with publics beyond just shareholders
(Bowen, 2010).
58

Conclusion
Figure 1 on the following page provides a pictorial representation of how six major
themes have been distributed across 31 years of journal articles addressing new media and public
relations. Clearly, application and perception studies comprise the bulk of our body of
knowledge, with theory building at a distant third.
Early
Series1, Concerns,
Predictions
7%,
7%
2% Series1, Theory
Building, 11%, 11%
Series1, Usability, 3%,
3%
Series1, Perceptions,
28%, 28%
Series1, Applications,
49%, 49%
Figure 1. Thematic Distribution of Public Relations Journal Articles on New Media,
1981-2012
Admittedly, it is tempting to call for more theory building as it relates to building
relationships online, as many authors have done. But, some caveats are in order. Of important
note is that the distribution of scholarship shown in Figure 1 represents what has been published
through the peer-review process of four public relations journals. This study examined articles
from only select journals and not books, additional journals, or other scholarly venues (e.g.,
theses and dissertations) that are advancing our theoretical understanding of new media. It is
also important to note that application and perception studies can and do contribute to theory
building, though they were not necessarily classified as such in this particular analysis that
focused on the title and primary intent of each article.
There are other limitations to this study. The author was the sole reviewer and coder for
these articles. Despite a conscientious effort to include every eligible article with a new media
focus/title and accurately capture its primary intent, the potential for human error in this process
is notable. Any oversight was certainly unintentional, though possible. Others conducting this
analysis may have chosen different articles, different themes, different ways of selecting and/or
organizing the articles, or different publications to study. This research looked only at general
themes, leaving open the possibility for others to survey theoretical frameworks or research
methodologies employed over time. This analysis, which is unique to the author‘s knowledge,
will hopefully be of benefit in understanding where public relations has been as a discipline and
where practitioners and scholars have yet to explore in new media.
With these caveats in mind, this literature review alludes to opportunities for future
research. Studies focusing on applications and perceptions of new/social media are popular, and
their methodologies and ―lessons learned‖ are undoubtedly instructive for scholars and
59

practitioners alike. There is a rich array of literature upon which to build. Research that offers
new theoretical frameworks, addresses various concerns regarding new media, or suggests how
to improve usability is less populated, leaving room for new contributions to be made. If recent
trends continue, there will be no shortage of ―new‖ media to analyze in years to come.
Certain calls to action caught the author‘s attention during this analysis because of their
unique, repetitious, or compelling nature. This paper concludes by addressing each of these as a
research question.
What is interactivity?
A recurring theme in the literature is that organizations – both profit-seeking and nonprofit – are
not taking advantage of the interactivity new technologies allow. That point is clear. But, as is
the case with CSR, there are multiple definitions of interactivity afloat, making
operationalization of the concept difficult. Having some consistency in a definition of
interactivity as it relates to public relations would be helpful, particularly in regard to the next
research question.
How do we measure interactivity?
A rigorous, valid measurement of interactivity, and the related concept of engagement, eludes a
number of disciplines for which online communication is relevant. There is a broad, eager
audience waiting to learn how to measure this essential concept beyond hits, likes, followers, and
views. How can we determine if and when interactive communication converts to actual
behavior that benefits both organizations and society? When organizations have a business case
for engaging in social media, they will be more likely to commit the resources required to
genuinely participate in two-way communication with publics.
What can other disciplines offer to help advance our understanding of new media?
Some authors have drawn upon intriguing theoretical concepts found in sociology, psychology,
technology, management, linguistics, ergonomics, and other fields to examine new technologies,
but many of their studies appear to be ―one-hit wonders.‖ Responses to calls to continue their
line of thinking seem to be lacking in published literature. If we as a field expect organizations to
think broadly and relinquish illusions of control, should not we, as scholars, welcome and seek
alternative perspectives?
What effect do emerging technologies have on our public relations theories?
The dialogic features of website design introduced by Kent and Taylor (1998) remain prominent
in our literature. Subsequent research has examined the dialogic potential of blogs, wikis, and
social networking sites using their framework. But, as Pettigrew and Reber (2010) suggested,
―operationalized elements of dialogic theory as it applies to the Web should be continually
revisited as technology develops‖ (p. 404). And, as stated by Smith (2010b), ―the development
of public relations will be defined by scholar willingness to reconsider traditional notions of what
public relations are in light of an ever-growing technologically empowered world of
communicators‖ (p. 334). Our field is best served when we continue to test, refine, and expand
existing theoretical frameworks and boldly propose new ways of thinking that better fit changes
in our communication environment.
60

How can new media be used to increase quality of life?
Betsy Plank‘s (1983) challenge is a broad-reaching one but certainly falls into the realm of
public relations practice. Ultimately, the relationships we establish, maintain, and steward on
behalf of organizations should have benefits that overflow into society. The places our
organizations reside should be improved by our presence and our assistance in fulfilling various
social responsibilities. Public relations practitioners, equipped with courage and resources, are
uniquely positioned to lead this mission.
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71

Nonprofit Organizations and Public Relations Practitioners:
Room for Growth and Professional Development
John E. Forde, Ph.D., APR, Fellow PRSA
Mississippi State University
JForde@comm.msstate.edu
Bey-Ling Sha, Ph.D., APR
San Diego State University
bsha@mail.sdsu.edu
Recent research indicates that many nonprofits have grown tremendously in the past few
years. Over 200 nonprofits (excluding hospitals and schools) have now surpassed the $50 million
annual revenue level. Some experts believe that four general themes demonstrate what led to this
increase. The first focus has been on ―single-engine growth,‖ or nonprofits focusing on one
dominant source to provide the vast majority of their funding. The second theme is for these
huge nonprofits to focus development efforts on large organization support (termed
―heavyweight stability‖). Primarily in this category is government funding nonprofits via grants
and fees, followed by corporate donations. Researchers termed the third overall theme as
―magnet fields,‖ which included three major program areas: international, health care, and
human services. Nonprofits focused in these areas typically had more growth than those in other
specialties. The fourth theme has been termed ―big bettor philanthropy.‖ Some of the most
successful nonprofits found a major philanthropist (often a business leader) who would
champion their causes and provide long-term commitments. These dedications often led to other
benefactor-related contacts donating to the same organization or similar nonprofits benefitting
from the original donors additionally (Kim & Bradach, 2012).
Nonprofit organizations have used public relations or related practices for decades with
varying success. These important institutions have characteristics that are often unique to the
field. Nonprofits exist typically to serve society, or some segment thereof, while simultaneously
applying at least somewhat of a business model to raise funds and stay in operation. However,
nonprofits often must survive and strive to thrive with insufficient staff, equipment, and other
resources. Volunteers, who can‘t exactly be fired, often are the technicians or assistants to fulltime
or part-time practitioners who are attempting to practice public relations in a challenging
setting. If the practitioner and organization as a whole are overly successful, then they can all
possibly work themselves out of existence. For example, when a disease is cured or a social
problem is solved, then there may be no need for the specific organization to continue existing.
For these multi-role requirements and other reasons, practicing in a nonprofit environment is
perhaps one of the most challenging areas in public relations. Thus, the purpose of this study was
to examine characteristics of public relations practitioners working in nonprofit organizations, to
capture a snapshot of their demographic background and work responsibilities.
Strategic Focus and Perceptions of Nonprofit Competence
Experts have stated for decades that public relations in all sectors should take a
management approach. Bernays (1966) indicated in one of his many writings that public
relations should continue as ―an adviser‘s service to top-level management on how it should
behave, how it should act to win public favor‖ (p. 34). He also added that public relations is not
simply a business function because it is so much broader. Bernays additionally emphasized that
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effective public relations practitioners in the future would need to be generalists and specialists.
In perhaps one of the most profound statements in this article, Bernays added that ―no computer
machine can substitute for judgment based on knowledge and experience‖ (p. 36). He continued
by emphasizing that practitioners should be broadly educated in order to understand the world
and function in a democratic society. Perhaps this broadness of mind and function is most
demonstrated in the practice of nonprofit public relations practitioners.
Strategic planning must be an integral part of any public relations practitioner‘s focus
(Broom, 2009). All public relations professionals must understand the definitions, specific
elements and operational importance of goals, situation analyses, research, problems and
opportunities, target audiences/key publics, key messages, goals, objectives, strategies, tactics,
and evaluation (Daugherty, 2003). Since nonprofit practitioners often have very broad duties that
encompass public relations, although they sometimes do not have public relations backgrounds,
special care must be taken to be sure they become versed in thorough public relations practice. If
too much emphasis is only placed on tactics, then the organization may not prosper at the desired
level. Conversely, many efforts could potentially be very successful, but there may not be
sufficient evidence provided by a novice practitioner without research/evaluation to support this
invisible prosperity.
As with all organizations, having a specific strategic public relations focus is key for
nonprofit organizations. They must identify key stakeholders, focus on making these important
publics aware of central messages, probably plan special events, and prove their value through
research. In addition, today‘s nonprofit leaders must also be adept at new technologies, such as
social media (Selnick, 2005). Again, this author demonstrates the necessity for nonprofit leaders
in public relations to understand the broad scope of the field.
However, not all perceptions of nonprofit organizations are positive. One study
demonstrated that many ―consumers‖ view nonprofit organizations as warm, but not particularly
competent. However, for-profit organizations conversely are often viewed as competent and not
very warm. Authors based their conclusions on three experiments testing hypotheses concerning
consumers‘ overall views of organizations and their related willingness to buy. One of their
models indicated that warmth multiplied by competence equals admiration, which in turn leads
to willingness to buy (Aaker, Vohs, & Mogilner, 2010).
Another study found that practitioners in nonprofit organizations appeared to have
deficiencies in public relations professional practice compared to for-profit counterparts. This
was based on a survey of practitioners in the Cleveland metropolitan area (Rouner & Camden,
1988). Also, nonprofits may have challenges in attracting relatively young workers in the future.
Generation Y workers are those born between the late 1970s and early 1990s. They tend to value
compensation or monetary rewards more than some other previous generations. Since nonprofit
organizations typically pay less than many other sectors, leaders of these organizations should be
aware that Generation Y employees may be challenging to keep without increasing their
financial incentives (McGinnis, 2011).
Roles and Responsibilities
Nonprofit organizations do serve a valuable purpose that can often be overlooked. Levy
(2001) highlighted opportunities in public relations related to nonprofits (especially medical) in
categories of prevention, detection, and research/progress. Within these classifications,
communicators should focus on actions being taken by organizations and/or what publics can do
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to impact these broad topics. Especially when dealing with diseases or related maladies, this
framework can provide direction to practitioners on where to focus communication.
Another study found that many nonprofit leaders in charge of public relations are
additionally responsible for numerous other duties. Only one-third of the respondent practitioners
were dedicated just to public relations. Respondents also indicated that they perceived many of
their employee colleagues to be involved as partners in public relations activities because of the
small business approach that relies on limited resources. This particular study focused on 21
nonprofits in the Midwest where a leader from each in charge of public relations was interviewed
for 30-60 minutes. According to their study, nonprofits are often particularly unique in various
focus areas. Many still followed a public information model of emphasizing sharing information
with various publics. Additionally, some felt their target publics were everybody. A shotgun
approach was often taken in distributing information. Additionally, some leaders had public
relations training or backgrounds, while others had none or very little. Fundraising is also
normally an additional responsibility, as demonstrated in this study. In most opinions of these
nonprofit respondents, volunteers were also a key component to public relations and overall
organization effectiveness (Dyer, Buell, Harrison, & Weber, 2002).
Trends in Leadership and Partnerships
In the nonprofit sector, many of the top executives are women, who are more than twice
as likely than men to lead these organizations. The multi-faceted duties and responsibilities for
nonprofit practitioners seem to fit many successful mid-career women well as they transition out
of corporate, media, or similar settings typically viewed as more stressful than nonprofit settings.
For many, this change also allows them more time to spend with family and to feel more in tune
with their highest personal priorities. ―In many cases, they are trading money for meaning and
profit for passion; they‘re reinventing themselves, and they‘re not looking back‖ (p. 32). One
new nonprofit leader decided to leave her newspaper editor position because of her reluctance to
deal with the upcoming massive layoffs in that industry. She also worked in south Mississippi to
help with cleanup soon after hurricane Katrina. Her perspectives on work and life in general
changed after realizing she understood her true priorities. She and many others are able to use
their communication and management skills in work with nonprofits (Ryckman, 2010).
Scholars in public administration warn against too much emphasis on a market-driven
focus for nonprofit organizations. This particular study emphasized that many corporate-related
aspects often now incorporated into nonprofits‘ activities are incompatible with nonprofits‘
traditional targets on outcomes for public good. In addition, they cautioned that too much of an
entrepreneurial focus by nonprofits can limit the potential collaboration between these groups
and public or government entities. They also emphasized the importance of nonprofit
organizations working both together with each other and with government agencies to provide
the best results for their constituencies. Often too much focus on sheer competition between
groups does not result in the best progress for society as a whole (Eikenberry & Kluver, 2004).
As nonprofit organizations take on more corporate and public relations firm partners, as
they often must to meet financial objectives, their societal service roles may become more
blurred. They must balance maintaining their nonprofit missions by serving their constituencies,
but simultaneously they must necessarily focus on goals and objectives more traditionally
aligned with the business sector. At the same time, many nonprofits are also linked with
government agencies, often by design and necessity. Therefore, they often walk a balance
between sheer nonprofit, business entity, and government subsidiary.
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Additionally, many public relations firms and corporations are now seeking out nonprofit
partners, both in organizations and individuals. Corporate social responsibility has become an
important focus for most large for-profit organizations, and they are assertively searching for
partners to help them reach specific initiatives. Two examples among many companies, FedEx
has teamed with Environmental Defense to develop more environmentally friendly delivery
trucks, and Citigroup has taken a direct focus on becoming more environmentally conscious
when funding public works projects. Major public relations firms also have implemented
initiatives to integrate social responsibility focus areas for their clients and overall organizations.
This effort has included hiring high-level executives from the nonprofit sector to work at the
firms. Leaders of these firms and corporations have realized that organizational reputation
enhanced through corporate social responsibility practices (often gained in partnerships with
nonprofits) positively affects business success (Van Der Pool, 2003).
Focus on Fundraising and Tactics
Rankings of important issues in public relations appear to be perceived differently by
those working in nonprofit organizations as compared to other types of practitioners. Depending
on the organization‘s focus, issues such as aging or accountability may impact nonprofits more
than issues affecting corporations or firms, such as economic globalization or corporate
responsibility (McCleneghan, 2005).
The inclusion of the fundraising function as part of public relations continues to be
debated. Some experts believe that development is a vital element of many public relations units
or roles, while others believe that raising money is a separate (but often related) role. In a study
on where fundraising is taught and educators‘ perceptions of the importance, authors found that
about 73% of respondents from Association of Schools of Journalism and Mass Communication
(ASJMC) schools surveyed believed fundraising is a specialization in public relations. Similarly,
71% at the time incorporated fundraising concepts into introductory PR courses, and 68% agreed
that this is where the focus should be taught (Kelly, 1992). These comments are very logical
based on the educators‘ knowledge of the effective integration of fundraising or development
into comprehensive public relations campaigns. However, leaders in nonprofits may not have
specific public relations backgrounds or public relations education.
Other authors further specify in a strategic sense what types of actions will typically
result in enhanced donations through public relations strategies. Waters (2005) surveyed 800
donors and received a 70% return rate with 556 respondents. It was found that enhanced
relationships do in fact increase the chances for increased donations. When organizations apply
reciprocity (acknowledge donations), reporting (express how donations are used), responsibility
(consider donor perceptions on fund uses) and relationship nurturing (give broad attention),
donors typically react very positively.
Other researchers found that nonprofit organizations use websites for a variety of
purposes. Specifically, target publics typically include media, donors, and volunteers. At the time
of this study of 100 top nonprofit organizations, these organizations typically had not provided a
specifically labeled media room friendly to journalists on websites. However, over 96% of
organizations with any type of press room provided news releases, and almost two-thirds
provided archived documents. Other highly used features overall included a search function
(83.7%), registration for readers (62.2%), and a request for e-mail addresses. Clearly, some of
these nonprofits are using websites to attempt to interact with patrons through a two-way
symmetrical approach (Hye, Youjin, & Kiousis, 2005).
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Research Questions
This study sought to answer several research questions:
RQ1: What is the distribution of public relations practitioners across employer types?
RQ2: How does the distribution of practitioners across employer types vary by demographic
backgrounds?
RQ3: How, if at all, do practitioners working in the nonprofit sector differ from their corporate
and agency counterparts in terms of frequency of engagement in public relations work
categories?
RQ4: How, if at all, do practitioners working in the nonprofit sector differ from their corporate
and agency counterparts in terms of frequency of using various knowledge, skills, and abilities?
Method
To answer these research questions, the authors undertook an online survey of 9,950
randomly selected members of the Public Relations Society of America; the response rate was
16.4% (n=1,634).
The survey instrument asked respondents a variety of demographic and job-related
questions, including employer type, gender, education level, race, ethnicity, age, years of
experience, and accreditation status. In addition, the survey asked respondents their frequency of
engagement with 12 work categories and 10 areas of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs),
replicating work categories and professional competencies examined by Sha (2011). Response
options to frequency of engagement questions were coded with ―none‖=system missing, ―a
little‖=1, ―some‖=2, and ―a great deal‖=3.
To answer RQ1, frequency data are reported. For RQ2, the authors conducted crosstabulations
for categorical data and ANOVAs for continuous data. For RQs 3 and 4, the authors
conducted ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to compare practitioners in nonprofit, corporate, and
agency settings.
Findings
Findings from this study indicated that practitioners working for nonprofit and
association employers differed significantly from their counterparts working for other employer
types, with respect not only to practitioners‘ backgrounds, but also to practitioners‘ frequency of
engagement with eight of 12 work categories and six of 10 professional competencies.
Employer Types
The first research question examined the distribution of public relations practitioners
across employer types. As shown in Table 1, practitioners in this study worked for a variety of
employer types, with nonprofits and associations ranking third behind corporations and public
relations agencies.
Demographics
The second research question examined whether the distribution of practitioners across
employer types varied by respondents‘ demographic backgrounds. To answer this research
question, practitioners working for the two lowest-ranking employer types (―other‖ and
professional services) were dropped from analysis, as were independent practitioners, who
technically work for themselves rather than an ―employer type.‖ No significant differences were
found by race or ethnicity. Statistically significant research results are reported in Tables 2-5.
Gender. The literature reviewed above indicated that nonprofit organizations tend to have
women in top executive roles more so than for-profit organizations. Furthermore, anecdotal
76

evidence has suggested that public relations practitioners working in the nonprofit sector are
more frequently women than men. Results from the present study lend statistical evidence to the
anecdotes. As shown in Table 2, women are significantly more likely than are men to work for
nonprofit employers, whereas men are significantly more likely than are women to work for
public relations agencies, as well as for the government or the military (Chi-square = 12.67; df =
4; p < .05).
Education Level. As shown in Table 3, holders of bachelor‘s degrees are significantly
overrepresented among practitioners working in the nonprofit sector, whereas holders of master‘s
degrees (and higher) are underrepresented (Chi-square = 28.10; df = 8; p < .001). This finding
suggests that nonprofit sector work, like agency work, may attract more entry-level practitioners
fresh out of undergraduate degree programs, whereas those with higher levels of education work
in the government or military, for educational institutions, or in corporations.
Accreditation Status. Perhaps related to education levels, accreditation status also varies
significantly across employer types, as shown in Table 4. Accredited practitioners are
significantly less likely to work in the nonprofit sector, but significantly more likely to work in
public relations consultancies or agencies (Chi-square = 16.15; df = 4; p < .01).
Age and Experience. In this study, practitioner age and years of professional experience
were strongly correlated (Pearson‘s r (1339) = .81; p < .001). As shown in Table 5, practitioners
working for nonprofits had the youngest average age across employer types, with the mean age
being 41.6 years (SD = 11.5 years; n=287). Analysis of variance indicated that the differences in
age across employer types was statistically significant (F = 2.59; p < .05).
Similarly, as shown in Table 6, practitioners working for nonprofits had the fewest years
of professional experience across employer types, with the mean experience being 14.6 years
(SD = 9.3 years; n=298). Analysis of variance indicated that the differences in years of
experience across employer types was statistically significant (F = 2.65; p < .05). Furthermore,
the Scheffe test for differences between specific employer types indicated that the difference in
years of experience between practitioners working in nonprofits and those in agencies was
particularly significant (mean difference = -2.64; SE = .82; p < .05).
Given the finding that women tend disproportionately to work in nonprofits and men tend
disproportionately to work in agencies, the significant differences in years of experience between
nonprofit and agency practitioners may be attributable as much to gender as to experience. Thus,
an analysis of covariance was conducted to determine the impact of gender, versus the impact of
employer type, on experience. Results indicated that, although both gender and employer type
affected differences in years of experience, the effect was more due to gender than to employer
type, with F = 36.98, p < .001 for gender and with F = 6.34, p < .05 for employer type. For
practitioners working in nonprofits, the unadjusted mean for years of experience was 14.6 years,
whereas the mean experience after adjusting for both gender and employer type was 14.9 years
(n=298). For practitioners working in agencies, the unadjusted mean for years of experience was
17.2 years, whereas the mean experience after adjusting for both gender and employer type was
17.0 years (n=307).
Employer Types and Work Categories
The third research question asked how practitioners working in the nonprofit sector differ
from their corporate and agency counterparts in terms of engagement in public relations work
categories. Analysis of variance found that nonprofit practitioners differed significantly from
their counterparts in the frequency of their engagement with eight of the 12 work categories.
These results are reported in Table 7.
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Specifically, practitioners in the nonprofit sector engaged with the least frequency
(compared to those in corporations and agencies) in account/client management, strategic
planning, public relations programming planning, and stakeholder relations. Nonprofit
practitioners engaged in project management and in social media relations with greater frequency
compared to corporate practitioners, but with less frequency compared to agency practitioners.
For internal/employee communication, the pattern was reversed, with nonprofit practitioners
engaging in this work category with greater frequency compared to agency practitioners, but
with less frequency compared to corporate practitioners. The one work category with which
nonprofit practitioners engaged with greater frequency than either corporate or agency
practitioners was special events, conferences, and meetings. Clearly, these results shed some
light on the ways in which public relations practitioners working for nonprofit employers are
spending their time.
The work categories for which practitioners in nonprofit and for-profit employers did not
differ in the frequency of their engagement were media relations, issues management, crisis
management, and community relations.
Employer Types and KSAs
The last research question asked how practitioners working for nonprofit employer types
differ from the counterparts working for corporations and public relations agencies. Analysis of
variance found that nonprofit practitioners differed significantly from their counterparts in six of
the 10 professional competency areas, as shown in Table 8.
Compared to corporate and agency practitioners, nonprofit practitioners engaged with the
least frequency in the four-step strategic planning of public relations (research, planning,
implementation, and evaluation), in the application of communication models and theories to PR
work projects, in the incorporation of business literacy skills into PR duties, in management
skills and issues, and in the use of advanced communication skills. On the other hand, nonprofit
practitioners were in between agency and corporate practitioners in the frequency of their use of
information technology and new media channels. These findings show several specific areas in
which practitioners working for nonprofit employer types might enhance their professionalism.
The KSAs for which nonprofit practitioners and for-profit practitioners did not differ in
the frequency of their engagement were public relations ethics and legal issues, crisis
communication management, media relations, application of the historical knowledge of the field
of public relations to work projects.
Discussion, Implications, and Recommendations
Nonprofit organizations continue to be a major sector in public relations practice. As
demonstrated in this study, only corporations and agencies had higher percentages of
practitioners. Additionally, professionals do often transition from one category of employer type
to others. This shifting from sector to sector suggests that all practitioners should be cognizant of
a multitude of knowledge, skills, and abilities that can lead to long-term career success. Working
in one sector does not preclude one from changing into a different type of public relations work
that may often incorporate a different priority of focus areas. Nonprofits are also, out of necessity,
partnering with increasing frequency with corporations and public relations firms, and these
entities are now frequently seeking out nonprofits to enhance their corporate social responsibility
efforts. This linking of sectors further necessitates a broadness of perspectives and public
relations expertise for nonprofit leaders.
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As indicated in the literature review and survey results, women are very often the leaders
of nonprofit organizations, and they must especially work hard to emphasize management,
research, evaluation, and other accountability measures to demonstrate their worth individually
and that of their organizations. Even though some may view application of an overall business
model to nonprofits as almost unethical, leaders must demonstrate a positive return on
investment for employees, donors, and volunteers. This ROI includes the financial elements
often associated with other sectors, but especially for nonprofits this also includes the value of
the time or other resources donated by various groups. The attractiveness for many of the more
relaxed nature and priority on personal relationships for nonprofits can be maintained, but
women in leadership roles should still maintain a management-oriented professionalism for
themselves and their organizations that will enhance their individual and corporate reputations
and therefore likely increase organization profits and overall viability.
Education levels for nonprofit practitioners in this study tended to be lower than in other
sectors. This could indicate trends that should be assessed by nonprofit leadership. Often entrylevel
workers just finishing bachelor‘s degrees take positions at nonprofits and then transition out
to agencies or corporations when they have gained experience. While having relatively new
graduates can be very positive, such as their probable knowledge of newest practices and
technologies, not having experience could lead to more potential mistakes that seasoned
practitioners would know to avoid. Nonprofits could encourage their public relations
practitioners to pursue advanced degrees and possibly pay for part of the degrees through in-kind
donations from corporations or educational institutions. In addition, nonprofits should actively
seek those with advanced degrees to lead their organizations. This could lead to increased
credibility and productivity, which in turn would lead to more success.
This study also demonstrated that nonprofit practitioners are much less likely to be
accredited than those in other sectors. Because of the wide variety of responsibilities now linked
to most nonprofit leaders and the need for diverse knowledge and perspectives, it is more
important than ever for public relations professionals in these key roles to become accredited.
Not only does the APR indicate to other nonprofit leaders that the practitioner has successfully
learned about and how to apply a diverse array of knowledge, skills, and abilities, but this
accomplishment also demonstrates to others in diverse sectors of public relations (often who will
become partners) that he or she has taken the initiative to understand the field from a broad
perspective.
Additionally, even those volunteers, media, and nonprofit constituents who are not
familiar at all with the accreditation credential specifically will appreciate it generally when
important leaders have made an effort to enhance their professionalism through additional study
and credentialing. Increased efforts in this area could also enhance the perceived competence
levels of nonprofits by various publics, which studies have shown needs improvement. They
should seek to keep the passion for the cause or perceived ―warmth,‖ but increasing perceived
expertise could only increase their relationship opportunities with all publics. In addition,
pursuing the APR credential by studying with those in other public relations areas could enhance
partnership potential.
As mentioned above concerning gender and education level, nonprofits do tend to attract
practitioners who are younger and have less experience than practitioners in other sectors.
Nonprofits should focus on providing growth opportunities to young professionals as many start
to feel they must ―move out to move up‖ and leave this important area of practice. With
Generation Y employees often looking for monetary enhancements, this must be considered.
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Where possible, the organizations must also try to increase pay and other benefits, not only to
keep these effective young employees, but also to attract mid-level leaders and top-level
executives. Similarly, for public relations positions, nonprofits should strive to hire those with
extensive backgrounds in the field who will understand the importance of broad applications of
the practice.
Considering the work categories from this study, nonprofit organizations frequently have
to hold special events, conferences, and meetings to raise awareness and funds. These activities
continue to be vital, as indicated in this study and beyond. However, as discussed in other
contexts, an effort should be made to more thoroughly incorporate other leadership areas such as
account/client management, strategic management, public relations programming, planning, and
stakeholder relations. This does not discount the importance of the special events that are so
often linked with nonprofits, but these other management focus areas more often linked with
corporations and agencies could be more intertwined with the traditional nonprofit tactics to
demonstrate greater impacts. As discussed earlier, it is very logical to view nonprofits with a set
of business glasses as well now, with many reaching over $50 million in annual revenues.
Similarly, the knowledge, skills, and abilities categories evaluated in this study indicated
that nonprofit practitioners tended to engage in many of the management-focused areas less
frequently than did their counterparts in corporations or agencies. Again, consideration must be
made to enhance practitioners‘ use and perceived importance of research, planning,
implementation and evaluation of public relations programs; application of communication
models and theories to public relations work projects; incorporation of business literacy skills
into public relations duties; management skills and issues; and the use of advanced
communication skills.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of this study show that the nonprofit sector is the third leading
employer type for public relations practitioners, behind corporations and agencies. The results
also indicate clear differences in the backgrounds of public relations practitioners working in the
nonprofit sector, with respect to gender, educational level, accreditation status, age, and years of
professional experience. In short, nonprofit practitioners tend to be women with bachelor‘s
degrees who are not accredited in public relations. Also, nonprofit practitioners are the youngest
and least experienced among practitioners working for various employer types. These differences
in years of professional experience remained even after the effects of gender and employer type
were partialed out.
With respect to their frequency of engagement in public relations work categories and
professional competencies, nonprofit practitioners differed from their corporate and agency
counterparts in several areas. With respect to work categories, significant differences between
nonprofit and for-profit practitioners were found in frequency of engagement with account/client
management, strategic planning, public relations program planning, project management, social
media relations, stakeholder relations, internal/employee communication, and special events,
conferences, and meetings. With respect to KSAs, significant differences between nonprofit and
for-profit practitioners were found in frequency of engagement with the four-step strategic
planning process of public relations, application of communication models and theories to public
relations work projects, incorporation of business literacy skills into public relations duties,
management skills and issues, use of information technology and new media channels, and use
of advanced communication skills.
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This study shows several areas in which public relations practitioners working in the
nonprofit sector could enhance their professionalism, which would benefit not only their
nonprofit employers, but also their personal careers, given the increasing collaborations between
businesses and nonprofits, as well as the likelihood of moving among employer types over the
course of one‘s professional life.
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Table 1: Distribution of Practitioners Across Employer Types
Employer Type Frequency Percent
Corporation 324 23.5
Educational institution 133 9.7
Government or military 126 9.2
Independent practitioner 100 7.3
Nonprofit or association 298 21.6
Professional services 49 3.6
Public relations consultancy or agency 307 22.3
Other 40 2.9
Total 1,377 100.0
Table 2: Distribution Across Employer Types by Gender
Employer Type Male % (N) Female % (N) Total % (N)
Corporation 28.0% (90) 27.0% (234) 27.3% (324)
Educational institution 9.3% (30) 11.9% (103) 11.2% (133)
Government or military 13.4% (43) 9.6% (83) 10.6% (126)
Nonprofit or association 19.6% (63) 27.1% (235) 25.1% (298)
Public relations consultancy or agency 29.8% (96) 24.4% (211) 25.8% (307)
Total 100.0% (322) 100.0% (866) 100.0% (1188)
Notes: Pearson Chi-square = 12.67; df = 4; p < .05
Table 3: Distribution Across Employer Types by Education Level
Employer Type
Associate‘s & Bachelor‘s Master‘s & Total % (N)
Below % (N) Degree % (N) Above % (N)
Corporation 18.2% (4) 26.8% (201) 28.6% (118) 27.3% (323)
Educational institution 4.5% (1) 9.9% (74) 14.1% (58) 11.2% (133)
Government or military 22.7% (5) 8.3% (62) 14.1% (58) 10.6% (125)
Nonprofit or association 13.6% (3) 27.4% (205) 21.6% (89) 25.1% (297)
Public relations consultancy or 40.9% (9) 27.6% (207) 21.6% (89) 25.8% (305)
agency
Total 100.0% (22) 100.0% (749) 100.0% (412) 100.0% (1183)
Notes: Pearson Chi-square = 28.10; df = 8; p < .001
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Table 4: Distribution Across Employer Types by Accreditation Status
Employer Type Accredited % (N) Not Accredited % Total % (N)
(N)
Corporation 28.3% (114) 26.8% (210) 27.3% (324)
Educational institution 11.4% (46) 11.1% (87) 11.2% (133)
Government or military 9.9% (40) 11.0% (86) 10.6% (126)
Nonprofit or association 19.1% (77) 28.2% (221) 25.1% (298)
Public relations consultancy or
31.3% (126) 23.1% (181) 25.8% (307)
agency
Total 100.0% (403) 100.0% (785) 100.0% (1188)
Notes: Pearson Chi-square = 16.15; df = 4; p < .01
Table 5: Comparison Across Employer Types by Age
Employer Type Mean Age in Years SD N
Corporation 41.8 11.1 311
Educational institution 44.3 11.2 130
Government or military 44.6 10.4 124
Nonprofit or association 41.6 11.5 287
Public relations consultancy or agency 42.0 12.8 303
Total 42.4 11.6 1,155
Notes: F = 2.59; p < .05. Scheffe test yielded no significant differences between specific employer types
by age.
Table 6: Comparison Across Employer Types by Years of Professional Experience
Employer Type Mean Experience in Years SD N
Corporation 15.7 9.7 324
Educational institution 15.8 9.6 133
Government or military 15.7 9.5 126
Nonprofit or association 14.6* 9.3 298
Public relations consultancy or agency 17.2* 11.4 307
Total 15.8 10.1 1,188
Notes: F = 2.65; p < .05. *Scheffe mean difference = -2.64; SE = .82; p < .05.
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Table 7: Frequency of Engagement in Work Categories by Employer Type
Work Category Employer Type Mean SD N
Account / Client Management 1 Corporation 2.02 .82 231
Nonprofit / Association 1.88 .79 190
Agency 2.80 .48 304
Total 2.31 .81 725
Strategic Planning 2 Corporation 2.36 .75 321
Nonprofit / Association 2.27 .76 291
Agency 2.66 .59 303
Total 2.43 .72 915
Public Relations Program Planning 3 Corporation 2.38 .75 317
Nonprofit / Association 2.25 .75 284
Agency 2.72 .51 306
Total 2.45 .70 907
Project Management 4 Corporation 2.40 .71 311
Nonprofit / Association 2.48 .72 287
Agency 2.61 .66 304
Total 2.50 .70 902
Media Relations Corporation 2.44 .76 297
Nonprofit / Association 2.57 .64 289
Agency 2.54 .68 302
Total 2.52 .70 888
Social Media Relations 5 Corporation 2.02 .82 293
Nonprofit / Association 2.35 .78 289
Agency 2.40 .70 298
Total 2.26 .79 880
Stakeholder Relations 6 Corporation 2.03 .80 281
Nonprofit / Association 2.00 .78 263
Agency 2.16 .77 265
Total 2.06 .79 809
Issues Management Corporation 2.03 .78 293
Nonprofit / Association 1.91 .77 253
Agency 2.06 .80 266
Total 2.00 .79 812
Crisis Management Corporation 1.78 .74 279
Nonprofit / Association 1.69 .74 250
Agency 1.71 .74 264
Total 1.73 .74 793
Internal / Employee Communication 7 Corporation 2.28 .82 295
Nonprofit / Association 2.20 .82 271
Agency 1.84 .75 249
Total 2.12 .82 815
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Table 7: Frequency of Engagement in Work Categories by Employer Type (cont.)
Work Category Employer Type Mean SD N
Special Events, Conferences,
Corporation 2.05 .77 293
Meetings 8 Nonprofit / 2.21 .77 276
Association
Agency 2.04 .76 278
Total 2.10 .77 847
Community Relations Corporation 2.09 .80 268
Nonprofit / 2.18 .79 267
Association
Agency 2.08 .79 283
Total 2.12 .79 818
Notes: 1 F = 134.43, df = 2, p < .001
F = 25.41, df = 2, p < .001
F = 38.55, df = 2, p < .001
F = 7.37, df = 2, p < .01
F = 20.23, df = 2, p < .001
F = 3.20, df = 2, p < .05
F = 23.31, df = 2 , p < .001
F = 4.12, df = 2, p < .05
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Table 8: Frequency of Use of KSAs by Employer Type
KSA Employer Type Mean SD N
Research, planning, implementation &
Corporation 2.32 .74 314
evaluation of PR programs 1 Nonprofit / Association 2.23 .77 293
Agency 2.62 .61 305
Total 2.39 .73 912
Public relations ethics & legal issues Corporation 1.86 .78 293
Nonprofit / Association 1.74 .76 257
Agency 1.80 .75 285
Total 1.80 .76 835
Application of communication models &
theories to PR work projects 2 Corporation 1.73 .73 264
Nonprofit / Association 1.62 .72 234
Agency 1.81 .75 247
Total 1.72 .74 745
Incorporation of business literacy skills
Corporation 2.44 .71 305
into PR duties 3
Nonprofit / Association 2.06 .75 265
Agency 2.31 .74 291
Total 2.28 .75 861
Management skills & issues 4 Corporation 2.60 .70 318
Nonprofit / Association 2.55 .67 291
Agency 2.68 .58 302
Total 2.61 .65 911
Crisis communication management Corporation 1.81 .78 281
Nonprofit / Association 1.67 .72 257
Agency 1.73 .72 267
Total 1.74 .74 805
Media relations Corporation 2.41 .73 299
Nonprofit / Association 2.49 .67 292
Agency 2.51 .70 299
Total 2.47 .70 890
Use of information technology & new
media channels 5 Corporation 2.45 .69 317
Application of historical knowledge of
the field of public relations to work
projects
Nonprofit / Association 2.62 .59 297
Agency 2.65 .57 304
Total 2.57 .63 918
Corporation 1.60 .74 181
Nonprofit / Association 1.53 .68 154
Agency 1.53 .72 184
Total 1.55 .71 519
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Table 8: Frequency of Use of KSAs by Employer Type (cont.)
KSA Employer Type Mean SD N
Use of advanced communication skills 6 Corporation 2.39 .74 309
Nonprofit / Association 2.15 .81 275
Agency 2.42 .72 293
Total 2.32 .76 877
Notes: 1 F = 25.31, df = 2, p < .001
2
F = 4.26, df = 2, p < .05
3 F = 19.28, df = 2, p < .001
4 F = 3.13, df = 2, p < .05
5 F = 9.49, df = 2, p < .001
6 F = 11.15, df = 2, p < .001
87

Tuning in to the Rhythm: The Role of Coping in Strategic Management
of Work-Life Conflicts in the Public Relations Profession
Yan Jin, Ph.D.
Virginia Commonwealth University
yjin@vcu.edu
Bey-Ling Sha, Ph.D., APR
San Diego State University
bsha@mail.sdsu.edu
Hongmei Shen, Ph.D.
San Diego State University
hshen@mail.sdsu.edu
Hua Jiang, Ph.D.
Towson University
hjiang@towson.edu
Abstract
How public relations practitioners cope with work-life conflict was studied through a
national survey of a random sample of PRSA (Public Relations Society of America) members.
These active practitioners reported strong preferences in using more proactive conflict coping
strategies, such as rational action and positive thinking. Women and those with a graduate
degree tend to report more coping behaviors than others. Three types of stressors are identified as
sources of work-life conflict: behavior-driven, work-driven, and life-driven.
According to our findings, while behavior-driven work-life stressors are associated with
proactive coping strategies such as rational action and positive thinking, work-driven stressors
tended to trigger more avoidance. Non-work driven stressors seem to predict more passive
coping tendencies, such as denial and avoidance.
Organizational factors are found to be important in understanding how practitioners cope
with work-life conflict. As organizational demands increased to separate life from work, more
instructions seemed necessary for employees to better cope with work-life conflicts. Positive
thinking, as a type of cognitive coping, tends to increase when there is more immediate
supervisor support and to decrease when an organization‘s work-life culture is skewed toward
promoting work as the sole priority.
Introduction
Work-life balance has been a critically important issue in business management and
employee communication. In the past decade, business and communication professionals have
discussed this topic and its impact on employee performance and business outcomes from
different perspectives. Some perceived it as a constraining factor, as a The Strategist (2006)
article mentioned, ―The overriding factor in [senior executives] choosing not to be CEO is the
absence of a positive work/life balance‖ (p. 19). Some framed it as ―a myth‖ (Gordon, 2012, p. 7)
in the sense that many professionals might have never been able to balance the scales of work
and life on a day-to-day basis. The more constructive view may be that ―the dance between work
and life is more about rhythm than balance‖ and to compare ―the rhythms of work and life with
the rhythms of nature‖ (Gordon, 2012, p. 7).
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In the context of the public relations profession, Jin (2010) pointed out that although
public relations practitioners often effectively help organizations handle stressful situations
internally and externally, they nevertheless are themselves often caught in work-life conflicts.
Those conflicts bring stress. If not managed or coped with effectively, these work-life conflicts
could negatively affect practitioners‘ work efficiency and life satisfaction.
Research has been conducted to explore the nature of work-life balance, as well as the
determinants and outcomes thereof in different circumstances. For example, Bloom, Kretschner,
and van Reenen (2011) studied the determinants and consequences of a family-friendly
workplace, emphasizing human capital as a potential firm resource. They found that familyfriendly
cultures do not directly affect the workplace, but rather enhance the ability of employees
to combine their work and personal life. Wang and Verma (2012) emphasized that different
industries vary in the adoption of work-life balance programs, which supports the institutional
theory of organizational responsiveness to work-life balance issues.
As Sha (2011a) summarized, the public relations profession has changed greatly over the
years in terms of the practice and required professional competencies, which emphasizes the
need for ―communication skills, knowledge of media and management, problem-solving abilities,
motivation, and intellectual curiosity‖ (Broom, 2009, p. 48). Among the knowledge, skills and
professional competencies for public relations practice (see Sha, 2011a), stress coping skills are
necessary for practitioners to better manage work-life conflicts (Jin, 2010). According to Jiang
(2012), the significance of work-life conflict and how to manage it has been recognized by
increasingly numbers researchers. However, there is still a scholarship gap when it comes to
systematically exploring work-life conflict and how the public relations profession should
address it effectively (Aldoory, Jiang, Toth, & Sha, 2008).
One key facet of this scholarship gap is to fully understand coping and the role of this
complex psychological process in practitioners‘ effective management of work-life conflicts, in
contrast or in addition to the existing predominant theoretical framework based on the
institutional theory of organizational responsiveness (see Wang & Verma, 2013). Coping, as a
relatively new construct in public relations research, has been integrated and applied primarily to
understanding crisis and strategic conflict management (e.g., Jin, 2009, 2010; Jin & Hong, 2010).
In Aldoory et alia‘s (2008) pioneering work on work-life conflict, practitioners‘ coping strategies
were studied and examined qualitatively.
Literature Review
Defining Work-Life Conflict and Balance
Work-life conflict, with varied degrees, occurs when the requirements from employees‘
work and the obligations from their personal life become incompatible (Reynolds, 2005). The
definition of work-life conflict is grounded in conflict theory (see ten Brummelhuis & van der
Lippe, 2010), which provides a theoretical perspective to assess effectiveness of work-life
policies. As ten Brummelhuis and van der Lippe (2010) stated, ―Conflict theory proposes that
using human time and energy in one role (e.g., family) decreases the time and energy remaining
for other roles (e.g., work), thereby undermining performance in that role (Edwards & Rothbard,
2000; Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 2002)‖ (p. 175).
According to Aldoory et alia (2008), work-life conflict and work-life balance ―describe
efforts by male and female employed persons who juggle various personal, home and work
responsibilities‖ (p. 2). As Aldoory et alia (2008) specified, ―While ‗balance‘ is not necessarily
the result of this juggling, it is often a desire, and thus, researchers continue to include ‗balance‘
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in conceptualizing the intersections between personal and work life‖ (p. 2). From the view of
gendered discourse, Aldoory et alia advocated that public relations professionals must ―negotiate
their organizational roles with their personal conflicts between work and life outside of work‖ (p.
2).
Institutional vs. Psychological Approach to Work-Life Conflict Management
Organizational support was found to increase organizational commitment and to motivate
employees to expend effort in their work (ten Brummelhuis, & van der Lippe, 2010). Grounded
in organizational communication theories, Jiang (2012) proposed and tested a model of work-life
conflict and quality of employee-organization relationships (EORs), examining how work-life
conflict types contributed to EOR outcomes. The findings suggested that senior management
and constructive supportive initiatives should be incorporated as a constitutional ingredient of
organizational strategic planning. Jiang (2012) further suggested two types of institutional
support (p. 243): first,non-content based and intangible (transformational leadership and
organizational procedural justice); and second, content-based and tangible (family-supportive
workplace initiatives). These institutional support types support what ten Brummelhuis and van
der Lippe (2010) identified as work-life policies that facilitate work-family balance among
employees.
In addition to organizational support, personal engagement in work-life balance strategies
is critical for individual employees. Four general types of such strategies were identified
qualitatively by Aldoory et alia (2008): resolution strategies, resistance strategies, use of new
technologies, and formalized and structured strategies.
Based on Duhachek‘s (2005) model, Jin (2010) introduced different coping options in
dealing with stress caused by work-life conflict. Coping processes describe the typical routes
practitioners can choose, consciously or unconsciously, when they are stressed by work and life.
These proposed coping options include: 1) to use more rational thinking and positive thinking
during stressful situations, which are the opposite of other not-so-effective cognitive coping
patterns such as avoidance and denial, which might temporarily relieve stress, but in the long
term do not help resolve the problem; 2) to use emotional support and emotional venting to
provide self support in stressful work-life conflicts; and 3) to take proper actions with effective
instrumental support.
The Role of Coping in Strategic Management of Work-Life Conflict
According to the psychological research on stresses of harm or loss and the prevalence of
emotions associated with the negative affective reactions to those stressors, there is a common
need for individual human beings to cope with their stress (Lazarus, 1991). One of the central
arguments of cognitive appraisal theory is that people cope with stressful situations differently
(Lazarus, 1991). In addition, coping itself is a pervasive and complex psychological process
(Duhachek, 2005, p. 41), which is embedded in the multitude of strategies people enact
(Duhachek, 2005). A coping model accounting for this multitude of coping strategies was
formulated and tested in a consumer consumption stressful situation setting (Duhacheck, 2005),
which delineated the processes by which individuals engaged in different patterns of coping
according to different situational stressors. This coping inventory has proven to be applicable to
publics‘ coping strategies in organizational crisis situations (see Jin, 2009, 2010; Jin & Hong,
2010).
Multidimensional work-life conflict coping. There are various ways individuals cope with
stress as well as competing theories about the hierarchical structure of the coping construct.
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Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed two types of coping. First, problem-focused coping (an
attempt to manipulate the environment to reduce stress)involves efforts to modify the problem at
hand and typically includes elements such as generating options to solve the problem, evaluating
pros and cons of different options, and implementing steps to solve the problem. Second,
emotion-focused coping (re-appraisal of the environment stimuli) is defined as aiming to manage
the emotional distress that is associated with the situation. Emotion-focused strategies range
from denial, venting of emotions, positive interpretation of events, to seeking out social support
(Baker & Berenbaum, 2007).
Recently, there has been a call for research addressing the limitations inherent in this
problem-focus/emotion-focus dichotomy. As Carvier, Scheier and Weintraub (1989) posited, the
effectiveness of emotion-focused coping depends on the particular form of emotion-focused
strategy employed. Duhacheck (2005) defined coping as ―the set of cognitive and behavioral
process . . . in response to emotionally arousing, stress inducing interactions with the
environment aimed at bringing forth more desirable emotional states and reduced levels of stress‖
(p. 42). To extend the knowledge of coping structure, Duhachek (2005) developed a
multidimensional scale to measure the coping construct as it emerges as a consequence of
emotion, embedded in dynamic, spanning cognitive, behavioral, and emotional domains of
responses. Therefore, in terms of individual practitioners‘ coping strategies as responses to worklife
conflict, this study posed the following question:
RQ1: What types of coping strategies do PR practitioners use in dealing with work-life
conflicts?
Factors Associated with Work-Life Conflict Coping
Existing literature on work-life issues suggested several key factors that might have
strong associations with PR practitioners‘ strategic coping with work-life conflicts.
Conflict type and stressors. From the cognitive appraisal theoretical framework (Lazarus,
1991), work-life conflicts are stressors (sources of stress) that need to be coped with. Typically,
these conflicts are time-based, strain-based, or behavior-based (Jiang, 2012). Time-based worklife
conflict refers to the situation that time committed to duties at work makes it physically
difficult for employees to perform activities required by their non-work roles (Pleck, Staines, &
Lang, 1980). Strain-based work-life conflict refers to the situation when employees are
psychologically preoccupied with work and are thus unable to fully meet those commitments in
their non-work roles (Netenmeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996). Behavior-based life-work
conflict demonstrates the incompatibility between employees‘ nonwork and work roles (Jiang,
2012). Therefore, this study posted the following question:
RQ2: How are different stressors of work-life conflict associated with PR practitioners‟
coping strategies?
Practitioner attributes. Demographics and other practitioner attributes have been important
factors in research on public relations practitioners. For example, gender, professional
experience, and education were identified as important contributors to the enactment of public
relations roles (Dozier & Broom, 1995). Gender, in particular, has been a key factor in existing
work-life studies. A recent professional report found that men are happier than are women with
their work-life balance (Captivate Network, 2011). According to Aldoory et alia (2008), workfamily
challenges have been primarily ascribed to women with children. This remains the case
even though nowadays men have taken on more responsibilities in negotiating family roles with
their work life and the expectations of both fatherhood and employment (see Brandth & Kvande,
2002; Nordenmark, 2002).
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Recently, in studying emotional leadership among public relations leaders, Jin (2011)
took gender, age, and years of professional experience into consideration. According to Briscoe,
Wardell, and Sawyer (2011), job characteristics, such as total work hours also affect public
relations practice. In addition, Sha (2011b) found that accredited and non-accredited
practitioners differ significantly on a range of demographic and job-related variables. Therefore,
this study posed the following question:
RQ3: How are work-life conflict coping preferences associated with public relations
practitioners‟ demographics and other personal attributes?
Organizational support. Strong evidence from public relations research has shown that
organizational support, primarily evidenced in transformational leadership, is essential to gaining
employee trust and organizational satisfaction (Jin, 2010, Jiang, 2012). The literature suggested
two levels of organizational support: 1) employees‘ immediate supervisors‘ supportive
leadership behaviors; and 2) organizational work-life culture.
First, van Daalen et alia (2006) suggested that supervisor support at work helps
employees balance work and family roles, as a supportive supervisor may ―help boost an
employee‘s energy level by discussing family-related problems, reinforce the employee‘s
positive self-image by giving feedback, and reduce stress by showing understanding for the
employee‘s family life (Halbesleben, 2006; Lapierre & Allen, 2006)‖ (cited by ten Brummelhuis
& van der Lippe, 2010, p. 177).More recently, Jiang (2012) explored how transformational
leadership behaviors of employees‘ direct supervisors were associated with work-life conflict.
Findings suggested that ―direct supervisors do play a critical role in organizations‘ effort to
enhance the well-being of employees in organizational life and cultivate quality internal
relationships‖ (p. 242). Therefore:
RQ4.1: How is immediate supervisor support associated with public relations
practitioners‟ work-life conflict coping preferences?
Second, organizational work-life culture, as one type of organizational responsiveness
(see Allen, 2001), plays a key role in how practitioners cope with work-life conflicts. ten
Brummelhuis and van der Lippe (2010) argued that, in addition to flexible work arrangement
(such as childcare, flexibility, and personal leave, etc.), family-responsive culture is an essential
factor that contributes to a supportive work environment. Therefore,
RQ4.2: How is organizational work-life culture associated with public relations
practitioners‟ work-life conflict coping preferences?
Last, to explore the combined effects of work-life conflict stressors as well as two types
of organizational support, respectively, this study asked:
RQ5: How do different stressors of work-life conflicts and organizational support
together predict public relations practitioners‟ coping preferences, after controlling for
demographics and job characteristics?
Method
An online survey was conducted from December 2010 to January 2011 with randomly
selected members of the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA). According to Hazleton
and Sha (2012), the PRSA membership can be used as a sampling framework because it contains
the necessary information allowing researchers to calibrate survey results against the larger
population of public relations practitioners. In the present study, the survey response rate was
18.6% (n = 876 of 4,714). Data analysis excluded practitioners who were retired, who self-
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identified as educators, and who skipped survey questions dealing with work-life conflict coping.
Thus, the final sample in this study comprised 565 active practitioners.
Instrumentation
The survey items relevant to the current study consisted of questions measuring four sets
of key variables, using 7-point Likert-type scales (see Table 1). Demographic and organizational
characteristic questions also were asked.
Work-life conflict coping strategies. A total of 24 measurement items were selected
from Duhachek (2005)‘s coping strategy inventory. Survey respondents were asked to ―think
about a recent or specific work-life conflict situation, where you experienced a conflict
between your work and your non-work life,‖ and then to indicate how they handled it
according to each listed item. All items were measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale where ―1
= strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree.‖
Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation was performed, which rendered
six different types of work-life conflict coping strategies, explaining 70% variance: emotional
expression (alpha = .91; M = 4.68, SD = 1.39), including both emotional support and emotional
venting; rational action (alpha = .82; M = 5.68, SD = .84), including both rational thinking and
action; positive thinking (alpha = .90; M = 5.39, SD = 1.18); denial (alpha = .87; M = 1.44, SD
= .88); instrumental support (alpha = .78; M = 4.18, SD = 1.61); and avoidance (alpha = .73; M
= 4.09, SD = 1.36).
Stressors of work-life conflict. A total of 18 measurement items were used, based on
Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (2000), which was used previously in public relations by Jiang
(2012). These items measuring time-, behavior- and strain-based work-life conflict asked
respondents to indicate the extent to which they agreed with each statement, with 1 being
―strongly disagree‖ and 7 being ―strongly agree.‖
Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation was performed, which rendered
three different types of work-life conflict stressors (the sources of conflict), explaining 70% of
the variance: behavior-driven stressor (alpha = .90; M = 2.69, SD = 1.28), work-driven stressor
(alpha = .92; M = 4.46, SD = 1.69) and nonwork-driven stressor (alpha = .79; M = 2.40, SD =
1.17). Five items failed to exhibit simple structure on any one factor and thus were deleted.
Corrected item-total correlations were again calculated with no further items were deleted.
Confirmatory factor analysis on the remaining items suggested a 13-item scale with three factors.
Organizational work-life culture. A total of 14 measurement items, based on Allen
(2001). These items examining the organizational environment asked respondents to indicate the
extent to which they agreed with each statements, with 1 being ―strongly disagree‖ and 7 being
―strongly agree.‖
Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation was performed, which rendered
two different types of organizational work-life culture, explaining 61% variance: pro-work
reward (alpha = .86; M = 3.63, SD = 1.50), and work-life separation (alpha = .92; M = 3.46, SD
= 1.34). Five items failed to exhibit simple structure on any one factor and were deleted.
Corrected item-total correlations were again calculated with no further items deleted.
Confirmatory factor analysis on the remaining items suggested a 9-item scale with three factors.
Immediate supervisor support. A total of 6 measurement items were adapted from
Anderson, Coffey, and Byerly (2002). These items measuring immediate supervisor support
asked respondents to indicate the extent to which they agreed with each statement, with 1 being
―strongly disagree‖ and 7 being ―strongly agree.‖ Factor analysis rendered only one factor,
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suggesting a single dimension of immediate supervisor support (alpha = .93; M = 5.40, SD =
1.47).
Data Analysis
MANOVAs and hierarchical regressions were used to examine how practitioners‘ worklife
conflict coping preferences were associated with conflict stressors, personal attributes, job
characteristics, and organizational support, as well as the combined effects of these factors.
Results
Respondent Characteristics
Of the 565 active practitioners completing the work-life conflict coping components of
the survey, 21% were male and 79% were female. The majority (89%) were white, with 6% of
Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin, 4% African American, and 2% Asian, Pacific Islander, or
Asian American. The mean age of the respondents was 42. The highest education received by
most of the respondents was some college or a bachelor‘s degree (51%), while 32% had a
master‘s degree and about 2% had a doctorate degree in philosophy, law or medicine. About 26%
of respondents were accredited in public relations (APRs).
A plurality of respondents reported working for a corporation (28%), while 22% worked
for a nonprofit or association, 17% worked in a public relations consultancy or agency, and 13%
were government or military workers. The distribution of respondents in public relations
specializations was internal/employee (37%), community relations (21%), media relations (14%),
financial/investor relations (12%), government/public affairs (8%), reputation management (6%)
and crisis management (2%).
In terms of work environment, the median of the number of practitioners working in the
public relations function in respondents‘ organizations was three people. The average years of
public relations experience of those respondents was 15. The majority (89%) of the respondents
reported having an immediate supervisor to whom they report at work, and 46% of those
immediate supervisors were reported as being in public relations.
In terms of the respondents‘ marital status, the majority (74%) reported having a live-in
partner or being married, 18% were single, 8% were divorced or separated, and 1% was
widowed. An average of 11 work hours in a typical workday was reported. More than half (59%)
of the respondents reporting bearing primary responsibility for children, with 12% of
respondents bearing primary responsibility for an older adult.
Work-Life Conflict Coping Strategies
RQ1 asked what types of coping strategies practitioners use in dealing with work-life
conflicts. Results of Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation suggested six
different types of work-life conflict coping strategies used by respondents: emotional coping
(including both emotional support and emotional venting), rational action (including both
rational thinking and action), positive thinking, denial, instrumental support, and avoidances.
Among the six types of work-life coping strategies, rational action (M = 5.68, SD = .84),
positive thinking (M = 5.39, SD = 1.18), and emotional expression (M=4.68, SD = 1.39) were
used more often than were others. Further, in a work-life conflict situations, among the three
more widely used coping strategies, rational action and positive thinking were utilized
significantly more than emotional expression (t = 15.81, df = 553, p < .001; t = 9.92, df = 554,
p < .001, respectively), while rational action was utilized significantly more than positive
thinking (t = 6.96, df = 550, p < .001). Therefore, rational action, as a combination of proactive
cognitive and conative coping, was reported as being the most-used coping strategy when
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practitioners were confronted with work-life conflicts.
Conflict Stressors and Work-Life Conflict Coping
RQ2 asked how different stressors of work-life conflicts are associated with practitioners‘
coping strategies. Hierarchical regression, after partialing out the effects of gender, age, years of
public relations experience, and average daily work hours, indicated that different types of worklife
conflict stressors were significantly associated and contributed to all coping strategies but
emotional expression.
For rational action, behavior-driven work-life stressor (beta = -.29, t = -6.24, p < .001)
and nonwork-driven stressor (beta = -.09, t = -2.05, p < .05) were significant predicting variables
(F = 9.87, p < .001, adjusted R square = .10). The more behavior and nonwork related stressors,
the less likely the respondents would resort to rational action to cope with stress.
For positive thinking, behavior-driven work-life stressor (beta = -.19, t = -4.01, p < .001)
was the significant predicting variable (F= 5.33, p < .001, adjusted R square = .06). The more
behavior-related stressors, the less likely the respondents would resort to positive thinking to
cope with stress.
For denial, behavior-driven work-life stressor (beta = .13, t = 2.86, p < .01) and nonworkdriven
stressor (beta = .21, t = 4.55, p < .001) were significant predicting variables (F = 6.37, p
< .001, adjusted R square = .07). The more behavior and nonwork related stressors, the more
likely the respondents would resort to denial to cope with stress.
For instrumental support, behavior-driven work-life stressor (beta = -.11, t = -2.22, p
< .05) was the significant predicting variable (F = 4.64, p < .001, adjusted R square = .05). The
more behavior-related stressors, the less likely the respondents would resort to instrumental
support to cope with stress.
For avoidance, both work-driven stressor (beta = -.10, t = -2.32, p < .05) and nonworkdriven
stressor (beta = .12, t = 2.55, p < .05) were significant predicting variables (F = 3.54, p
< .01, adjusted R square = .03). However, they predicted the outcome in opposite directions:
The more work related stressors, the less likely the respondents would resort to avoidance to
cope with stress; conversely, the more nonwork related stressors, the more likely the respondents
would resort to denial to cope with stress.
None of the work-life stressors was evidenced as significant predictors of the respondents‘
emotional expression as a coping strategy.
Personal Attributes on Coping Preferences
RQ3 asked how work-life conflict coping preferences are associated with practitioners‘
demographics and other personal attributes. MANOVAs revealed significant main effects of
gender and education on coping preferences.
In terms of gender effects, compared to male respondents, female respondents were
significantly more likely to use emotional expression (female: M = 4.86, SD = 1.36; male: M =
4.06, SD = 1.35; F = 29.46, p < .001, par. η 2 = .05), positive thinking (female: M = 45.43, SD =
1.16; male: M = 5.17, SD = 1.24; F = 4.48, p < .05, par. η 2 = .01), instrumental support (female:
M = 4.31, SD = 1.63; male: M = 3.65, SD = 1.48; F = 14.50, p < .001, par. η 2 = .03) and
avoidance (female: M = 4.21, SD = 1.32; male: M = 3.74, SD = 1.43; F = 10.53, p < .01, par. η 2
= .02) to cope with work-life conflict induced stress. There were no significant differences
among men and women in terms of the use of rational action and of denial coping strategies.
Education level was only significantly associated with emotional expression coping (F=
2.38, p < .05, par. η 2 = .02). Specifically, respondents whose highest level of education was the
bachelor‘s degree (M = 4.81, SD = 1.35) were more likely to use emotional expression to cope
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with work-life stresses, compared to those whose highest education was a master‘s degree (M =
4.41, SD = 1.42) (mean difference = .409, SE = .137, p < .05).
No significant main effects of accreditation or marital status were detected.
Organizational Support on Coping Preferences
RQ4.1 asked how immediate supervisor support is associated with PR practitioners‘
work-life conflict coping preferences. Hierarchical regression, after partialing out the effects of
gender, age, years of public relations experience, and average daily work hours, indicated that
immediate supervisor support served as a significant predictor for one type of work-life conflict
coping: positive thinking (beta = .11, t = 2.40, p < .05) (F = 2.43, p < .05, adjusted R square
= .02). More support from the immediate supervisor was associated with more positive thinking
coping among employees.
RQ4.2 asked how organizational work-life culture is associated with practitioners‘ worklife
conflict coping preferences. Hierarchical regression, after partialing out the effects of gender,
age, years of public relations experience, and average daily work hours, indicated that an
organizational culture promoting work as the sole priority was found to be negatively associated
with employees‘ positive thinking (beta = -.19, t = -3.29, p < .01) (F = 3.42, p < .001, adjusted R
square = .03) in dealing with work-life conflict, the increase of which was likely to reduce the
positive thinking coping. No significant associations were found for the culture that advocated
for work-life separation.
Joint Effects of Conflict Stressors and Organizational Factors
RQ5 asked how different stressors of work-life conflicts and organizational support
together predict practitioners‘ coping preferences, after partialing out demographics and job
characteristics. Hierarchical regression, after partialing out the effects of gender, age, years of
public relations experience, and average daily work hours, indicated that work-life conflict
stressors and organizational factors co-contributed significantly to all coping strategies except
emotional expression.
Behavior-driven work-life stressors demonstrated the same pattern of being associated
with rational action and positive thinking. Work-driven stressors was a predictor of using
avoidance as a type of coping, while nonwork-driven stressors predicted denial and avoidance
coping preferences (see Table 2).
Interestingly, an organizational culture strongly advocating for work-life separation was
found to be a significant predictor for employees‘ needs for instrumental support (beta = .13, t =
1.89, p < .06). The more organizational demands existed for separating life from work, the more
instructions seemed to be necessary for employees to better cope with work-life conflict.
Discussion and Implications
Practitioners reported strong preferences in using more proactive conflict coping
strategies, such as rational action and positive thinking. Women and those with a graduate
degree tend to report more coping behaviors than did others. Three types of stressors are
identified as sources of work-life conflicts: behavior-driven, work-driven, and life-driven, the
categorization of which is based on the perspective of a work versus life dichotomy and behavior
(in)consistency across work and life.
While behavior-driven work-life stressors are associated with proactive coping such as
rational action and positive thinking, work-driven stressors tended to trigger more avoidance.
Non-work driven stressors seem to predict more passive coping tendencies such as denial and
avoidance.
96

Organizational factors are important in understanding how practitioners cope with worklife
conflict. The more organizational demands existed for separating life from work, the more
instructions seemed to be necessary for employees to better cope with work-life conflict. Positive
thinking, as a type of cognitive coping, tended to increase when there was more immediate
supervisor support and to decrease when an organization‘s work-life culture was skewed toward
promoting work as the sole priority.
Organizational Support is Essential to Proactive Coping
According to the survey results, there are six distinct types of coping strategies that are
used by practitioners in work-life conflict situations. These coping strategies are largely
aligned with Duhachek‘s (2005) multidimensional coping model. Noticeably, along with
positive thinking, denial, instrumental support, and avoidance, emotional support and
emotional venting provide better data fit when combined into one factor, emotional coping,
while rational thinking and action explain the results better when grouped under one factor,
rational action. Female practitioners tend to use more, i.e., a greater variety of, coping
strategies across the board, compared to male practitioners.
Among all coping strategies, proactive ones such as rational action and positive
thinking are the most used coping strategies among the practitioners surveyed in this study.
Organizational factors, together with conflict stressors, play a core role in facilitating or
preventing practitioners from proactive work-life conflict coping:
Rational action. According to Jin (2010), this type of coping is most objective and
proactive, often evidenced by the following: analyzing what is going on with one‘s work and life;
stepping back from the stressful conflict and being objective; controlling emotions in order to
avoid acting rashly; concentrating on pondering how a given problem can be resolved and
making a plan of action, which involves generating and assessing different potential solutions.
According to our findings, practitioners tend to implement rational action coping
strategies when the work-life conflict is predominately caused by work-related pressures and
exhaustion. If the stress is caused by non-work or family pressures, or by the frustration of not
being able to apply what works at work to non-work matters, practitioners tend not to use as
much rational thinking or action-taking to handle the situation. In short, practitioners cope with
work stressors more rationally, compared to how they cope with nonwork stressors.
Positive thinking. The primary constraining factor for practitioners to resort to positive
thinking is behavior-driven work-life stressors, meaning practitioners try and yet are often
frustrated by the fact that problem-solving behaviors at work do not translate well to non-work
problems. When practitioners are stressed by behaviors or problem-solving plans not applying to
both work and life, they tend to stay away from positive thinking. It is important for
practitioners, when feeling behavior-driven stressors, to be more mindful of their thought
processes of looking at the bright side of things or focusing on the positive aspects in both work
and life so as to make the best of the situation.
Organizational support is most helpful in facilitating this type of proactive coping among
practitioners. As our findings show, when there is more support from a practitioner‘s immediate
supervisor at work, more positive thinking is likely to be used in coping with work-life conflict.
In addition, whether an organization‘s culture is open or closed to work-life balance also
influences how much practitioners use positive thinking under stress: If an organization strongly
believes and acts as if work is the only priority for an employee, then positive thinking route to
coping is likely to be closed. This suggests that if an organization would like to make
practitioners look at the bright side of work-life conflicts, institutionally, the organization needs
97

to have policies and programs in place to communicate a more pro-balance culture toward worklife
issues.
Instrumental support. Similarly to positive thinking coping, the same constraining factor
such as behavior-driven work-life stressors, also explains why practitioners do not use as much
instrumental support as they should or would like to. It is possible that when facing the
challenge of problem-solving behaviors at work do not transition well to non-work problems,
there are insufficient resources for practitioners to relieve the stress including, for example:
friends or family member with similar experiences are not available, or there is no mentor at
work to get advice from about what to do.
In terms of organizational factors, although the presence of immediate supervisor support
does not seem to matter for the usage of instrumental support as a coping mechanism, the
findings nevertheless suggest a reversed effect of an organization‘s advocacy for work-life
separation: the more organizational demands existed for separating life from work, the more
instructions seemed to be necessary for employees to better cope with the work-life conflicts.
Therefore, both personal and organizational resource support is critical for facilitating this type
of proactive coping.
Passive Work-Life Conflict Coping as a More Personal Approach
Emotional expression. This type of affective coping seems rather independent from
specific work-life conflict stressors. Any stressors, behavior-, work-, or life-based ones, could
trigger practitioners‘ emotional expression as a way to cope with stress. Compared to male
respondents, female respondents were significantly more likely to use emotional expression as a
coping strategy, as evidenced by the following behaviors (Jin, 2010): seeking out others for
comfort by telling them how one feels; sharing one‘s feelings with someone else; and venting
emotions to others.
Interestingly, the only other demographic factor that demonstrated significant association
with coping is education level. Practitioners with a master‘s degree tend to use less emotional
expression coping, compared to practitioners whose highest level of education was bachelor‘s
degree. Whether this difference can be attributed to graduate program education and training in
organizational behavior and management needs to be further explored.
Denial and avoidance. Denial and avoidance are the most passive, non-problem-focused
coping strategies. They might temporarily relive stress, but in the long term do not help resolve
the problem (Jin, 2010). Typical indicators of these coping strategies include taking one‘s mind
off of the issue by immersing oneself in more and more work, intentionally distracting one‘s self,
and finding satisfaction in other things.
Nonwork-driven stressors can trigger both denial and avoidance. While behavior-driven
stressors often lead to the shortcut of denial for coping, avoidance, on the other hand, can be
triggered by work-driven stressors. From a supervisor or manager‘s point of view, it is important
to identify and prevent employees from resorting to this passive coping option.
Future Directions
To further advance the body of scholarship on work-life issues in public relations, future
studies could take numerous forms. First, the present study takes a conflict approach in studying
work-life issues. Besides approaching work-life as a conflict, another body of scholarship has
studied work-life balance using the enrichment approach, arguing that family can also act as a
resource for work (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). As ten
Brummelhuis and van der Lippe (2010) argued, participating in both family life and work can
98

extend one‘s social capital; in contrast, employees who lack family resources can have limited
benefits in that regard. Therefore, future research should expand the theoretical framework of
work-life studies in public relations, exploring the resources that family or nonwork sources
could provide to practitioners to enrich and improve work-life balance.
Second, public relations practitioners‘ household structures should be taken into
consideration in future work-life research. While most organizations introduce work-life policies
with a primary focus on employees with a family (Young, 1999), ten Brummelhuis and van der
Lippe (2010) argued policy makers should take more detailed employee household structures
into consideration when considering appropriate support for balancing work and life roles, as
―singles and employees without children may face other demands in their personal lives than
dual-earner couples with children, including volunteer work or an active involvement in leisure
pursuits‖ (p. 174). For example, research has shown that an organization‘s work-family culture
improved work performance among parents but reduced performance among singles (ten
Brummelhuis and van der Lippe,2010). Therefore, to compare the relationship between work-life
conflict coping preferences among singles, couples, and parents, future studies need to examine
whether work-life conflict coping preferences differ by such household structures as single
practitioners, practitioners with a partner, and practitioners with a partner and children.
Third, the current findings suggest that U.S. practitioners use a combination of proactive
cognitive and passive coping. To further answer ―why‖ and ―so what‖ types of research
questions, in-depth interviews and focus groups should be used in future scholarship to
triangulate the findings of this study and provide more insight into the role of coping in
practitioners‘ work-life conflict. Also interesting would be cross-cultural studies to compare
how practitioners in different countries and regions vary in their work-life conflict coping, given
the different levels of public relations development, different organizational cultures, and varied
practitioner attributes.
Fourth, other personal and organizational factors and their association with work-life
balance and conflict coping need to be examined further. For example, according to Briscoe,
Wardell, and Sawyer (2011), other possible influencers in the work-life balance equation include
number of work hours, accommodating flexible work hours, working from home associated
with work-life needs, work place sizes, and employment status, i.e., salaried employees versus
independent contractors.
Fifth, there are also measurement-related considerations for future research. Although
items from existing work-life conflict types were used, our survey data rendered different
clusters of items via exploratory factor analysis. For instance, instead of yielding a time-based
versus strain-based work-life conflict dichotomy, our study identified three types of conflict
related to work-life balance, with a focus more on the source of conflict stresses: behavior-driven,
work-driven, and nonwork driven, raising the question of what causes the stress felt by
practitioners. This theoretical categorization, as well as the items‘ measurement validity and
reliability, need to be further tested and enhanced.
As the first quantitative study on how public relations practitioners cope with work-life
conflicts, this paper offers empirical evidence and practical insights that can guide successful
coping with work-life related conflicts, and it provides some research-driven answers to
Gordon‘s (2012) call for ―the ways to rethink the concept of work-life balance and find passion
and purpose in both arenas‖ (p. 8).
99

Summary
This study used a national survey of PRSA members to quantify work-life conflict and
explore the key role of coping in terms of how it is associated with other work-life variables and
factors. Results indicated work-life conflicts were derived from work-driven and life-driven
stressors, as well as from trying to seeking consistent behavior across work and life. Active
practitioners had strong preferences in using more proactive conflict coping strategies, as
opposed to more passive strategies. Organizational factors, such as immediate supervisor support
and work-life culture, were found to be important in understanding how practitioners cope with
work-life conflict. Furthermore, coping strategies were influenced significantly by such
demographic characteristics as gender and education level.
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Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Measures
Dependent Measures Mean SD
Work-Life Conflict Coping Strategy
1. Emotional Expression
I took time to express my emotions
I shared my feelings with others I trusted and respected.
I took time to figure out what I was feeling.
I told others how I felt.
I acknowledged my emotions.
I sought out others for comfort.
2. Rational Action
I analyzed the problem before reacting.
I tried to step back from the situation and be objective.
I tried to control my emotions.
I followed a plan to make things better or more satisfying.
I did what had to be done.
I concentrated on ways the problem had occurred.
Rational Action
3. Positive Thinking
I focused on the positive aspects of the problem.
I looked for the good in what happened.
I tried to look at the bright side of things.
4. Denial
I refused to believe that the problem had occurred.
I pretended that the situation never happened.
I denied that the event happened.
4.55
5.04
4.59
4.67
5.04
4.24
5.61
5.62
5.80
5.39
5.97
5.70
5.32
5.28
5.57
1.39
1.45
1.48
1.69
1.68
1.65
1.73
1.47
1.86
1.22
1.14
1.08
1.27
1.05
1.79
1.31
1.31
1.26
.87
1.02
1.05
102

5. Instrumental Support
I tried to get advice from someone about what to do.
I asked friends or family members with similar experiences what they
did.
I had a friend or family member assist me in fixing the problem.
6. Avoidance
I distracted myself to avoid thinking about it.
I tried to take my mind off of the situation by doing other things.
I found satisfaction in things other than this situation.
Stressors of Work-Life Conflict
1. Behavior-driven Stressor
The behaviors that work for me in my non-work life do not seem to be
effective at work.
Behavior that is effective and necessary for me in my non-work
activities would be counterproductive at work.
The problem-solving behavior that works for me while I perform my
non-work duties does not seem to be as useful at work.
The problem-solving behavior that works for me while I perform my
non-work duties doe not seem to be as useful at work.
Behavior that is effective and necessary for me at work would be
counterproductive in my non-work life.
The problem-solving behaviors I use in my job are not effective in
solving problems in my non-work activities.
2. Work-driven Stressor
The time I must devote to my job keeps me from participating equally
in my non-work responsibilities and activities.
My work keeps me from my non-work activities more than I would
like.
I have to miss non-work activities due to the amount of time I must
spend on work responsibilities.
3. Nonwork-driven Stressor
The time I spend on non-work activities often causes me not to spend
time in activities at work that could be helpful to my career.
The time I spend on non-work responsibilities often interferes with my
work responsibilities.
I have to miss non-work activities due to the amount of time I must
spend on work responsibilities.
Tension and anxiety from my non-work life often weakens my ability
to do my job.
4.69
4.34
3.53
3.46
4.18
4.64
2.83
2.73
2.59
2.79
2.61
2.61
4.58
4.51
4.29
2.49
2.78
2.12
2.24
1.87
1.99
1.92
1.70
1.73
1.61
1.66
1.62
1.55
1.58
1.51
1.52
1.79
1.82
1.83
1.49
1.67
1.40
1.39
103

Organizational Work-Life Culture
1. Pro-Work Reward
My organization thinks that long hours inside the office are the way to
achieving advancement.
My organization believes that work should be the primary priority in a
person‘s life.
According to my organization, the ideal employee is the one who is
available 24 hours a day.
In my organization, it is assured that the most productive employees
are those who put their work before their non-work life.
My organization believes that employees who are highly committed to
their personal lives cannot be highly committed to their work.
2. Work-Life Separation
My organization believes that individuals who take time off to attend
to personal matters are not committed to their work.
According to the philosophy of my employing organization, it is best
to keep non-work matters separate from work.
The way to advance in my organization is to keep non-work matters
out of the workplace.
In my organization, it is considered taboo to talk about life outside of
work while at work.
Immediate Supervisor Support
My supervisor is supportive when I have a work problem.
My supervisor is fair in responding to employee‘s personal needs.
My supervisor accommodates me when I have personal business to
take care of, for example, medical appointments, meeting with child‘s
teacher, etc.
My supervisor is understanding when I talk about personal issues that
affect my work.
I feel comfortable bringing up personal issues with my supervisor.
My supervisor really cares about the effects that work demands have
on my personal and family life.
3.69
3.88
3.97
3.79
2.81
3.75
4.23
3.62
2.26
5.79
5.69
6.10
5.29
4.62
4.93
1.86
1.81
2.04
1.90
1.71
1.71
1.74
1.74
1.46
1.52
1.60
1.32
1.71
2.07
1.93
104

Table 2
Hierarchical Regressions Predicting Coping via Demographics, Conflict Stressors, and
Organizational Support
Predictors
Emotional
Expression
Rational
Action
Positive
Thinking
Denial
Instrumental
Support
Avoidance
Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta
Block 1
Gender
Age
Years of PR Experience
Work Hours
.245***
-.019
-.122+
.059
.048
.046
.004
-.011
.102*
.116
-.036
.008
.015
-.086
.084
.009
.199***
-.080
-.002
.071
.170**
-.038
.010
-.027
R-square .092 .004 .015 .004 .057 .033
Block 2
Conflict Stressor
Behavior Stressor
Work Stressor
Life Stressor
-.058
.039
-.072
-.324***
.087
-.107*
-.225***
-.017
-.047
.130*
-.081
.197***
-.073
-.045
.034
.027
-.105+
.116**
Organizational Support
Supervisor Support
Pro-work Culture
Separation Culture
.022
.006
.071
-.035
.093
.034
-.081
.087
.046
-.001
.057
.009
-.084
.125+
.036
-.042
.008
-.072
R-square .108 .140 .091 .082 .075 .061
Total R-square .200 .144 .106 .086 .132 .094
R-square Change .016 .136*** .076*** .078*** .018 .027+
*: p < .05; **: p < .01; ***: p < .001; +: p < .10
105

A Time-Series Analysis of International Public Relations Expenditure and
Economic Return: A Study of Japan, Liberia, Belgium, and Philippines
Suman Lee, Ph.D.
Iowa State University
smlee@iastate.edu
Byung Wook Kim
Iowa State University
byungkim98@gmail.com
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the causal relationship between economic return and
international public relations expenditure by other countries in the U.S. Based on time-series
data analysis, this study found a sustainable lagged effect for Japan, a delayed lagged effect for
Belgium, early lagged effect for Liberia, and no lagged effect for Philippines between their
public relations expenditure in the US and the US imports from those countries.
Introduction
According to the Foreign Agent Registration Act (FARA, 22 U.S.C. §611) enacted by the
U.S. Congress in 1938, public relations firms serving for foreign clients are required to file their
contract information (e.g., content of agreement, income, and expenditures) to the US
Department of Justice and to update these details every six month. The FARA report is a reliable
source of information about public relations activities of other countries in the US for more than
sixty years (FARA, 2005).
In 2010, there were 378 active public relations contracts with 557 foreign clients from
137 countries. From 1997 to 2003, 661 foreign clients from 150 countries spent 4.2 million US
dollars on average for public relations in the US (Lee, 2006; Lee & Yoon, 2010). Foreign clients
enter into these contracts to attract American tourists, to encourage US consumers to buy their
products, and to draw American investments into their home countries (Lee & Yoon, 2010;
Wang, 2006). Then, the question is whether these investments in international public relations in
a target country (e.g., the US) can generate tangible economic outcomes as desired.
Public relations scholars have been interested in the bottom line effect of public relations,
but the outcomes of such efforts are, by nature, intangible and difficult to measure in dollar
terms. The demand for concrete contribution of public relations to organizations becomes
especially high during economic downturn when organizations are in search of all means to
reduce cost. Mainly due to methodological challenges, only a few studies have offered empirical
evidences of the economic outcomes of public relations efforts (Ehling, 1992). Kim (2000) tested
several models from advertising and found a positive relationship between an organization‘s
reputation and its revenue. Similarly, Kim (2001) found a positive association between public
relations expenditures and revenue mediated by company reputation. Lee and Yoon (2010) tested
the bottom line effect of international public relations at the country level and found that the
number of PR contracts in the US is positively related to US direct investments to a client‘s
home country, the number of US tourists, and the volume of US imports.
However, those studies have a fundamental limitation to detect a causal relationship
between public relations expenditure and economic returns because they used cross-sectional
data sets without considering time order in causality (Lee & Yoon, 2010). Time is a critical
factor in ascertaining causal relationship. Public relations scholars have assumed that public
106

elations effects are generally long-term rather than short-term (Dozier & Ehling, 1992; Grunig
et al., 1992; Signitzer & Coombs, 1992). Despite such recognition, few have attempted to test the
economic outcome of public relations over time. This study aims to fill this research gap by
applying a time-series analysis in examining economic returns of public relations expenditure at
international level.
Literature Review
Return on investment of international public relations
Scholars have argued that public relations contributes to organization‘s bottom line by building
and maintaining positive relationships with its publics (Broom, Casey & Ritchey, 1997;
Campbell, 1993; Grunig et al., 1992; Grunig et al., 2006; Haywood, 2005; Hon, 1997; Kim, 2000
& 2001). Building good relationships helps an organization attain its goals (Broom et al., 1997;
Grunig et al., 1992; Grunig et al., 2006). Public relations helps organizations make money by
establishing positive attitudes among investors, shareholders, and customers (Dozier & Ehling,
1992; Grunig et al., 1992; Grunig et al., 2006; Haywood, 2005). Public relations also helps
organizations save money by deflecting pressure from activist groups, government regulations,
litigation, and consumer boycotts and other negative reactions (Grunig et al., 1992; Grunig et al.,
2006; Hon, 1997).
There have been growing evidences to support the bottom line effect of public relations.
David, Kline and Dai (2005) found a positive relationship between corporate social
responsibility and purchase intention. Because purchase intention often determines actual
purchase, the authors claim that organizational reputation bolstered by corporate social
responsibility activities increased sales. Hauss (1993) observes that public relations affected
media coverage of products and services, generated inquiries from customers and improved
actual sales. Kim (2000; 2001) found a positive relationship between public relations expenditure
and revenue change mediated by corporate reputation.
Hon (1997) says that the impact of public relations may be observed in four levels: (1)
individual, (2) program, (3) organizational, and (4) societal. Individual level refers to how
individual attributes (e.g., gender and education) of public relations practitioner affect public
relations performance. Program level refers to whether the public relations program is relevant to
the attainment of corporate goals and whether the program does so in a cost-efficient manner.
Organizational level effectiveness looks at public relations contribution to overall organizational
goals. Societal level covers the role of public relations in the broader society, such as the degree
to which PR fosters democratic decision-making. Most studies of public relations‘ bottom line
effect, however, focused on corporation as a unit of analysis with an exception. Lee and Yoon
(2010) extended their inquiry beyond corporate setting and investigated return on investment of
international public relations level. They suggested international context as a new level of public
relations effectiveness.
The growing attention paid to international public relations can be attributed to the
increasing recognition of its contribution to ―the building of coalitions and alliances, the
achievement of international political objectives, the need to influence perceptions and purchase
decisions, and attract foreign investment or in-bound tourism‖ (Wang, 2006, p. 92). Scholars
have asserted a positive relationship between international public relations investments and
national reputation (Kunczik, 1997, 2002 & 2003; Manheim & Albritton, 1984; Sriramesh &
Vercic, 2003; Taylor & Kent, 2006; Wang, 2006; Wang & Chang, 2004). Lee and Yoon (2010)
are among the few who empirically tested economic returns of international public relations at
107

country level. They found that the number of public relations contracts was positively related to
the number of US tourists (beta = .51) visiting the client country, the amount of US imports from
client country (beta = .49), and US direct investments to client country (beta = .17).
The lagged effect of international public relations
Scholars have argued for the possibility of a time lag between people‘s exposure to a
message and the behaviors or actions they take as a result of that exposure. Dozier and Ehling
(1992) assert that public relations‘ effect on behavior is preceded by a sequence of knowledge
and attitude changes in a hierarchical fashion. That is, ―lower level criteria are easier to achieve
than higher level criteria such as getting people to engage in and repeat desired behaviors‖ (p.
168). This observation suggests a time lag between the initiation of public relations activities and
emergence of the desired outcomes.
Economists have examined the lagged effect of many causal relationships. Fisher (1925),
for example, explains that profits tend to increase when producers face higher production costs.
This is because total current expenditures also include expenses incurred before the prices went
up. Profits are defined as ―the excess of receipts over expenses‖ (Fisher, 1925, p. 180); lesser
expenses at an earlier point in time tend to generate larger differences between receipts and
expenses compared to those in the current period. These lags in expenses, therefore, are
distributed over time. According to Nerlove (1958), ―any economic cause (e.g., a price change or
an income change) produces its effect on, for example, the demand for goods…which is not only
felt all at once at a single point of time, but is distributed over a period of time‖ (p. 306).
Marketing studies also measure ROI in terms of the efficiency of the marketing budget
(Young & Aitken, 2007; Rust et al., 2004a), noting the importance of short-term from long-term
efficiency. The rationale is that short-term effectiveness may damage long-term returns.
Marketing experts refer to short-term results as those achieved within 6-8 weeks, medium-term
results are those observed in 2-12 months, and long-term results are typically seen over 12
months (Young & Aitken, 2007). ROI is also measured in marketing circles as returns on
marketing assets such as brand equity and customer equity, market position or market share, and
profitability (Rust et al., 2004a).
In marketing studies, the lagged effect has been shown to be an indicator of changes in
the current time period (Guo, Kumar & Jiraporn, 2004; Young & Aitken, 2007). Guo et al.
(2004) found that the indicator for lagged satisfaction has a positive relationship with current
satisfaction, and lagged sales is positively related to current sales. They also found that a
company‘s ability to satisfy customers in the past positively affects current returns on assets.
Their findings point to the possibility of lagged effects in investment returns.
The concept of distributed lags is also detected in advertising studies. Jastram (1955)
maintains that ―the effect of a given advertising expenditure on sales revenue is distributed over
time‖ (p. 36). Based on the concept of distributed lags, Jastram introduced the idea of
―cumulative effect.‖ In his study, the effect of an advertising expenditure on sales revenue at a
given time point accumulates or is combined with the current expenditure‘s effect on current
sales and the previous expenditure‘s lagged effect on current sales.
Researchers who examine such cumulative lagged effects attempt to determine (1) how
long the current expenditure‘s effects are lagged, (2) to what extent the current expenditure
affects current results, and (3) to what extent the current expenditure influences each lag. Palda
(1965) tested various advertising models to find the one that best predicts product sales in the
case of the Lydia E. Pinkham Company from 1907 to 1960. He found that Koyck‘s model, which
108

includes the effects of distributed lags, gave the most accurate predictions. This finding indicates
that lagged effects can explain the relationship between advertising expenditure and sales.
However, lagged effects in public relations may be explained differently from those
found in marketing and advertising. If the effect of expenditure is lagged and cumulated,
significant changes in outcome may be detected after a certain period of time. Theoretically,
there is a time difference between the initiation or implementation of public relations activities
and public behavior changes because the latter should is often preceded by changes in knowledge
and attitude following the conventional hierarchy of mass communication effects (Dozier &
Ehling, 1992). Generally, it is argued that actual behavioral changes resulting from public
relations take relatively longer than investments in other fields such as advertising and
marketing. Thus, it is more appropriate to predict how long it takes to show significant outcomes
or changes after the public relations investment. This study focuses on the lag-difference
between a public relations initiative and its economic outcomes. The actual time point that shows
significantly different outcomes is also considered an indicator of the lagged effect.
What has been missing from the previous studies on public relations economic outcomes
was a rigorous causality test including time order. Without proper measure and control of time
order, the relationships the previous studies found were simply based on covariance at best, not
―causal‖ relationships. To over this limitation, this study examines variations of international
public relations expenditure and its economic returns over time at country level. It attempts to
detect lagged effects and the lag-difference to show the economic returns to international public
relations investments. This study asks:
RQ1: To what extent does international public relations expenditure affect economic
returns over time?
Methods
Measures of international public relations expenditure
As FARA report is a unique record of the US government, the US is a target country in
this study. Other client countries spend money to sign public relations contracts to achieve their
goals in the US. Since the public relations expenditures of these client countries, listed in the US
Department of Justice‘s FARA report, cannot satisfy the assumption of homoscedasticity, this
study selected four countries based on mean dollar value of public relations expenditure and
GDP per capita. The second annual FARA reports for 1996, 2002, and 2009 were selected to
calculate the mean dollar value of public relations expenditure for 189 countries. The countries
with mean dollar value under $300,000 were eliminated because of the low variance in
constructing the time-series model. The GDP per capita was considered for a possible effect on
economic relationship between client countries and the US. Therefore, Japan was selected for
high public relations expenditure and high GDP per capita. Liberia was selected for high public
relations expenditure and low GDP per capita. Belgium was selected for low public relations
expenditure and high GDP per capita. Philippines was selected for low public relations
expenditure and low GDP per capita. Table 1 shows the details.
[INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE]
As FARA report is a semi-annual document updated by every six month, this study
selected six month as one time frame. Researchers collected the dollar amounts of four client
countries from 28 FARA reports from 1996 to 2009.
Measures of economic return
109

Economic return was measured by the US imports from the client country. Imports from the four
client countries to the US were collected from foreign trade data available at the US Census
Bureau. These data, which include government and non-government shipments of goods, were
collected from the documents of the US Customs and Border Protection Agency of the
Department of Homeland Security. The dataset ―reflects the total arrivals of merchandise from
foreign countries that immediately enters the consumption channels, warehouses, or Foreign
Trade Zones‖ (US Census Bureau, 2012). Although these datasets contain reporting and data
capture errors, these errors can be treated as random. Matching public relations expenditure data,
the semi-annual dollar amount of the US imports from Japan, Liberia, Belgium, and Philippines
from 1996 to 2009 were collected.
Time series analysis
Time-series test analyzes the data observed sequentially in time. The time-series is
assumed to be stationary if the trend of the series can be forecasted based on time and if the
covariance between two time points are equal for every equal time difference (Box, Jenkins, &
Reinsel, 2008). Otherwise, the series is called non-stationary. This study conducted a unit root
test, called the augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test, to examine whether each time-series (public
relations expenditure and the US imports) is stationary or non-stationary. To convert nonstationary
time series to stationary, the process called ‗difference‘ was applied (Box et al., 2008).
For the SAS procedure, the command, respectively, DIF (Variable) and DIF2 (Variable)
transform non-stationary series to 1 st order and 2 nd order difference of the series (SAS Institution,
2012).
After several tests, this study applied first order difference to the series of public relations
expenditure of and the US imports from Japan, the US imports from Belgium, and the US
imports from Philippines. Table 2 shows the result of the unit root test for each series. For the
model specification, this study checked the White Noise for the residuals after the model
constructed (Box et al., 2008; Brocklebank & Dickey, 2003).
[INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE]
This study focuses on the causal relationship between the four client countries‘ public
relations expenditure in the US and the US imports from those countries over 28 time points for
fourteen years. This study conducts a Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model to analyze the causal
relationship. The VAR model is suitable when the input series cannot be assumed to be
independent to each other and if the feedback from the output series to the input series is
expected (Brocklebank & Dickey, 2003). We chose this model because public relations
expenditure each year is hard to be independent to each other and it is not clear whether there is a
feedback from economic returns to public relations expenditures.
Based on VAR model, the Granger Causality Test and the Toda & Yamamoto Causality
Test were used for the analysis of causality. The Granger causality test is an effective tool to test
whether the direction of causal relationship is one-way or two-way. Toda and Yamamoto is an
effective tool to detect a long-term effect of time-series as it checks the result for all the different
lags.
Therefore, the present study tried both result for comparison and transformed time-series
of each country to natural logarithm in order to stabilize the variance, which is generally applied
to the analysis of the economic data (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). To select the optimal
lag length for the model, the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) is checked with VAR model
based on the result of the unit root test presented on Table 2. The result of the AIC is shown in
Table 3.
110

[INSERT TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE]
The Granger causality test model is constructed with the optimal lags. For the Granger
test, the model for Japan is constructed with VAR (2), the model for Liberia is created with VAR
(2), the model for Belgium is made with VAR (1), and the model for Philippines is built with
VAR (3).
The Toda and Yamamoto model includes two types of information. The one is related to
the lagged effect, which is the optimal lag information used in the Granger test. The other is
related to the maximum order of integration vector, d max . Instead of transforming the nonstationary
series to stationary series, the Toda and Yamamoto test conducts co-integration test,
which shows the maximum order of integration in the model. Table 4 shows the result of the
cointegration test.
[INSERT TABLE 4 ABOUT HERE]
Since every model contains the maximum integration vector, d max = 1, the process of each
country was modeled as VAR (2+1) for Japan, VAR (2+1) for Liberia, VAR (1+1) for Belgium,
and VAR (3+1) for Philippines.
Results
The results of the Granger causality test for all series and the comparison to the result of
the Toda and Yamamoto test on the optimal lag length are shown in Table 5. The null hypothesis
for the test is that variable 1 does not granger cause variable 2. When the null hypothesis is
rejected, there is a statistically significant causal relationship between variables.
[INSERT TABLE 5 ABOUT HERE]
The results showed that public relations expenditure granger caused the US imports from
Japan (p

other direction. This kind of robust test of causality with time-series data added a valuable
insight to public relations scholarship. Public relations can generate economic return over time.
Japan, one of richest countries in the world, has been ranked the top in spending money
on public relations in the US over time. The data showed that the variation in public relations
expenditure captured the changes in the US imports from Japan at every time lag. The economic
returns of Japanese public relations in the US were paid off and this lagged effect was stable over
time. Belgium, another rich country in GDP per capita showed an interesting lagged effect of
public relations. The economic returns were somewhat dormant at the first and the second lag
(six month and one year), but public relations effect appeared at later time (one and half year and
two years later). This type of lagged effect could happen because Belgium is a small and less
visible country in the US. The sustainable public relations expenditure can create economic
return but not right away. It takes some time to see tangible outcome. Liberia representing high
public relations expenditure and low GDP per capita revealed a relatively early lagged effect.
The lagged effect was high at the first lag (six month) and disappeared thereafter. Compared to
Japan and Belgium, Liberia‘s public relations effect did not last longer than six month. Even
though Liberia spent more money on public relations than Belgium, its impact on economic
return was relatively shorter than Belgium. So far, Philippines representing low public relations
expenditure and low GDP per capita did not show significant causal relationships between public
relations expenditure and economic returns at any time lag.
To practitioners in international public relations, the findings of this study support the
value of public relations at the country level. Like corporations, international public relations
budgets at the country level could be easily cut in times of economic downturn. This study
provides an evidence for the value of international public relations, specifically tangible outcome
of economic returns back to home country.
There are several limitations of this study. First, 28 semi-annual time points may not be
fully sufficient for ideal time-series analysis but this study achieved the best results based on
what FARA reports can provide. Second, there are many statistical approaches to analyze timeseries
data. The methods we chose was the best at our judgment, however, we cannot deny the
possibility that different approach and analysis strategy may show different results from ours.
Third, this study selected only four countries for analysis and interpretation should not be falsely
generalized to other countries. Finally, there must be many factors to affect the US imports from
other countries other than public relations. This study did not control potential alternative
variables for analysis.
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Table1
Public relations expenditure in the US and GDP per capita of selected client countries
PR expenditure GDP per capita (2011)
Samples
Rank Mean (US thousand dollars) Rank ppp (US dollar)
Japan 1 81,053 18 42,830.87
Liberia 7 8,818 208 246.92
Belgium 53 698 17 43,077.66
Philippines 49 803 145 2,140.12
114

Table 2
Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root test
Augmented Dickey-Fuller 1 st order differenced ADF value
Country
lnPR lnIMP ∇lnPR ∇lnIMP
Japan -2.23 -2.09 -3.77 -3.32
Liberia -3.20 -3.39 N/A N/A
Belgium -3.16 -3.15 N/A -5.35
Philippines -3.78 -2.75 N/A -2.65
Note. Augmented Dickey-Fuller values are displayed. The imports series for Belgium and
Philippines are not necessary but differenced for model specification.
Critical values(1% level: -3.54; 5% level: -2.91; 10% level: -2.59)
Table 3
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) to determine optimal lag length
Country
Lags
1 2 3 4
Japan -8.08753 -8.4299 -8.09239 -7.96679
Liberia -0.49208 -2.00227 -1.80358 -1.84228
Belgium -6.63317 -6.38537 -6.33404 -6.33767
Philippines -4.71935 -4.67716 -5.1164 -5.02873
Note. The minimum AIC indicates the optimal lag length.
Table 4
Johansen co-integration test
Country Null hypothesis Trace statistics 5% critical value d max
Japan
Liberia
Belgium
Philippines
None 22.8532 12.21
At most one 6.2099 4.14
None 18.6838 12.21
At most one 1.6224 4.14
None 25.6756 12.21
At most one 0.0363 4.14
None 12.6562 12.21
At most one 0.1172 4.14
1
1
1
1
115

Table 5
The result of Toda and Yamamoto causality on optimal lag and the Granger causality
Relationship Toda and Yamamoto Granger Causality
Japan
Liberia
Belgium
Philippines
PR → IMP
IMP → PR
PR → IMP
IMP → PR
PR → IMP
IMP → PR
PR → IMP
12.13**
(0.0069)
1.08
(0.7820)
6.62*
(0.0850)
2.02
(0.5678)
3.98
(0.1368)
0.53
(0.7662)
3.63
(0.4585)
8.76**
(0.0125)
0.11
(0.9461)
1.13
(0.5694)
2.41
(0.2996)
0.02
(0.8796)
0.52
(0.4722)
1.41
(0.7039)
4.76
0.76
IMP → PR
(0.3132)
(0.8600)
Note. Modified Wald chi-square statistics are displayed with probability values in parentheses.
The results are tested from the null hypothesis that PR (Imports) does not granger cause Imports
(PR).
* p

Table 6
The result of the Toda and Yamamoto causality test
Number of Lags
Relationship
1 2 3 4
Japan
PR → IMP
4.20**
(0.0405)
11.54**
(0.0031)
12.13**
(0.0069)
14.96**
(0.0048)
Liberia
Belgium
Philippines
IMP → PR
PR → IMP
IMP → PR
PR → IMP
IMP → PR
PR → IMP
1.35
(0.2455)
5.73**
(0.0166)
0.79
(0.3728)
0.21
(0.6489)
0.02
(0.8852)
0.81
(0.3683)
0.78
(0.6766)
1.50
(0.4719)
3.21
(0.2005)
3.98
(0.1368)
0.53
(0.7662)
3.56
(0.1684)
1.08
(0.7820)
6.62*
(0.0850)
2.02
(0.5678)
15.54**
(0.0014)
0.35
(0.9513)
2.39
(0.4955)
9.48*
(0.0501)
7.22
(0.1245)
2.29
(0.6826)
46.54**
(0.0000)
1.29
(0.8631)
3.63
(0.4585)
2.64
6.22** 5.80
4.76
IMP → PR
(0.1043) (0.0446) (0.1217) (0.3132)
Note. Modified Wald chi-square statistics are displayed with probability values in parentheses.
The results are tested from the null hypothesis that PR (Imports) does not granger cause Imports
(PR).
* p< .10 **p< .05
117

Can Twitter be an Effective Crisis Communication Tool?
A Study of Organizational and Parody Twitter Use in Crisis Communication
Liang Ma
Department of Communication
University of Maryland, College Park
liangm@umd.edu
The research on social media use in crisis communication has focused on websites and blogs,
and the use of other types of social media is hardly explored. This study looked into the effective
use of Twitter in crisis communication. On the one hand, this study explored the characteristics
that make some Twitter accounts and tweets more selected than other accounts and tweets during
crises. On the other hand, it looked into the reasons why parody Twitter accounts are more
selected than the organizations‘ official accounts during crises. Totally sixteen college students
from a mid-Atlantic university participated in two focus group discussions. The results showed
that the participants‘ main source of crisis-related information on Twitter was still their off-line
social circles, and this means that their source of information did not change, compared to noncrisis
times. Nevertheless, Twitter is a good link to news agencies‘ and organizations‘ websites
for more detailed information. Moreover, although many participants thought that parody Twitter
feeds are humorous and more realistic than the organizations‘ feeds, they would not follow or
retweet parody Twitter feeds due to different reasons.
118

Communication Excellence and Public Relations Agencies
Tina Malott
San Diego State University
tinamalott@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study explored the possibility of building on what is said to be the most dominant
theoretical paradigm in public relations, the Excellence theory. Communication excellence is the
ideal state in which knowledgeable communicators assist in the overall strategic management of
organizations. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the core concepts of the
Excellence theory from the perspective of a public relations agency environment, which was not
explored in the original Excellence study. Through in-depth interviews and open-ended
questionnaires of agency practitioners in San Diego, the research found that all agencies
participating in the study exhibited elements of an excellent organization: a strong
communications skill base, a participatory company culture, an influential role in strategic
planning, and an high value placed on well-defined expectations between dominant coalitions
within the agency as well as within clients‘ organizations. Since all agencies exhibited elements
of communication excellence, the study led the researcher to ponder whether all public relations
agencies are excellent based on the nature of their specialty. Furthermore, the researcher
speculates that organizations that use public relations agencies to augment communication
activities are more likely to achieve communication excellence.
Introduction
As the public relations discipline grows and academia lends its efforts to critically
question and develop strong theories, we have seen theories emerge and assist in identifying and
molding areas within the field to produce founded paradigms. Among those theories developed is
the theory of Excellence, which identified major factors that make public relations an effective
management function in organizations (Broom, 2009). The Excellence theory has been said to be
the most dominant theoretical paradigm in public relations, or the closest the discipline has come
to a paradigm (Curtin & Gaither, 2005; Marsh, 2008).
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore a significant aspect of the
communication practice that the Excellence study did not: the application of the Excellence
theory to public relations agencies. The authors of the Excellence theory illustrated universal
concepts of excellence that are said to be applicable to all industries, regardless of type of
organization. The authors claimed that the theory‘s core concepts are the same for corporations,
not-for-profit organizations, government agencies, and trade or professional associations (Dozier,
Grunig and Grunig, 1995).
However, the Excellence theory was not considered to apply to a public relations agency.
The reasons the Excellence study did not include public relations agencies in its exploration was
that agencies represent multiple clients, provide different services for each and play different
roles for each client. For instance, determining and measuring relevant organizational culture,
which is a strong focus of the Excellence theory, was thought to be problematic since an agency
plays a role in the multiple cultures of its clients (Dozier et al., 1995).
The Excellence study‘s authors suggested that agencies should regard the study findings
simply as a guide for offering additional services to clients (Dozier et al., 1995). This limited
benefit from the Excellence study‘s findings to public relations agencies could be regarded as a
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significant gap in the knowledge and application of the theory‘s principles to a considerable
portion of communication practitioners: those working in and managing public relations
agencies. The results of the Excellence study offered insight into effectively managing a
successful communication department for the benefit of the organization and, ultimately, its
external and internal publics. For these insights to not be realized by a public relations agency‘s
management of its internal structure and client relationships is inopportune.
Conceptualization
The Excellence theory grew out of the results of a research project called the Excellence
study. The Excellence study was a $400,000, three-nation study, which included a survey of 321
organizations. The project studied the aspects of excellence in organizations‘ communication
practices. Specifically, the study identified the characteristics of excellent communication
departments. In other words, the Excellence theory provided guidelines for how public relations
should be conducted, structured and implemented in order to contribute to overall organizational
excellence (Broom, 2009). In its entirety, it was an incredibly vast and in-depth study. However,
the purpose of this study did not necessitate a thorough reporting of the Excellence study, it
called for a summary of the key findings and basic concepts that were advanced from the study.
Communication excellence is the ideal state in which knowledgeable communicators
assist in the overall strategic management of organizations, seeking symmetrical relations
through management of communication with key publics on whom organizational survival and
growth depends (Dozier et al., 1995, p. x). According to Grunig, Grunig and Dozier (2002),
―The essence of the theory is that effective communication helps manage an organization‘s
interdependencies with its strategic constituencies – the publics that either support or constrain
organizations through their activism, litigation, or pressuring for government regulation‖ (p.
140).
The Three Spheres of Communication Excellence
To illustrate communication excellence, Dozier et al. (1995) identified key characteristics
of the concept and categorized them into a concentric representation called the spheres of
excellence. These three spheres represent the essence of the Excellence Factor. The Excellence
Factor represents the top 20 key characteristics found in excellent organizations. These
characteristics were grouped into three categories or spheres: knowledge, shared expectations
and a participative culture.
The knowledge core. Knowledge births new and different forms of power (Hardy and
Leiba-O‘Sullivan, 1998). The innermost sphere is the knowledge core (Dozier et al., 1995). The
knowledge core represents the knowledge base of the communication department. A requisite of
excellent communication departments is its employees‘ knowledge of basic technical skills such
as writing, editing, and graphic design. In addition to technical skills, an excellent
communication department requires a leader who has the expertise needed to conduct research
and contribute to an organization‘s strategic planning and management. The technical experience
of a department coupled with a leader who has knowledge of research tactics and strategic
management can allow for a two-way communication process, which is necessary to have
excellent communication practices (Dozier et al., 1995; Grunig et al., 2002).
A participative culture. The third and outermost sphere of communication excellence is
the sphere of a participative culture. Dozier et al. (1995) described an organization‘s culture as
the sum total of shared values, symbols, meanings, beliefs, assumptions, and expectations that
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organize and integrate a group of people who work together. A key characteristic of excellent
communication is an organizational culture that empowers employees, fosters teamwork, jointdecision
making, shared power, innovation and shared efforts toward a common mission. ―A
participative culture provides a nurturing soil in which communication excellence can grow‖
(Dozier et al., 1995; Hardy and Leiba-O‘Sullivan, 1998). An organization with a participative
culture, however, does not equate to communication excellence. The culture of organizations can
do little to nurture excellence if the other components of excellence are missing (Dozier et al.,
1995).
Shared Expectations. The middle sphere of excellence is the shared expectations sphere.
This sphere is built around the relationship between some key concepts such as the dominant
coalition, departmental power and authority.
Dominant coalition. The relationship that is most significant within the shared
expectations sphere is the one between the communication department and the pivotal dominant
coalition. The dominant coalition is the informal or formal groups of individuals who have the
power to affect the structure of the organization, allocate resources, shape organizational
ideologies, make strategic decisions, define its mission and influence the practice of public
relations (Berger, 2005, 2007; Dozier et al., 1995; Lauzen & Dozier, 1994; Reber and Berger,
2006; Toth, 2007). To provide effective communication and management, public relations
professionals must be in a position to interact with strategic decision makers, highlighting the
pivotal nature of the relationship with the dominant coalition (Berger, 2007).
In excellent organizations, the dominant coalition values the communication
department‘s input in strategic decision making and regards it as a vital management function,
rather than relegating it to simply a technical role that implements a strategy decided by others
(Broom, 2009). Some form of perceived power or influence is necessary for the communication
department to have access to, support from, and, most notably, a seat within the dominant
coalition. The concept of power is connected to each aspect of the theory as the resulting and
most notable characteristic of an excellent communication department.
Power and influence. Power and influence are closely related concepts (Toth, 2007).
Raven (1965) defined power to mean potential influence. If power is the capacity or potential to
get things done, then influence is the use, expression, or realization of power. Influence is the
process through which power is used to get things done, or to accomplish something, for some
purpose in organizations (Berger, 2007, p. 221).
From the perspective of the Excellence theory, power is conceptualized as empowerment
– the expansion of power throughout the organization and to its external stakeholders. Power
shapes what practitioners do, how they are perceived and what public relations is and might be
(Berger, 2007). The Excellence theory‘s authors describe the concept as the communicator‘s
ability to influence decisions about an organization‘s goods and services, its policies and its
behavior (Dozier et al., 1995).
The Public Relations Agency
Public relations agencies make up a significant portion of the industry environment.
According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, there were 320,000 people
categorized as public relations specialists in 2010. Broom (2009) estimated that more than 25
percent of specialists work in a public relations agency or as consultants. However, in several
studies of public relations practices and practitioners, distinctions are seldom made between
practitioners within an organization and practitioners acting as consultants or working at an
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agency. For instance, Reber and Berger (2006) conducted a study where 25 percent of the
participating practitioners worked in an agency or consulting firm. The study was measuring
what practitioners perceived to be the definition of influence as practicing public relations
specialists. However, the results did not make a distinction between the two types of
practitioners. Differences in perceptions of power and influence were not reported as attributed
to a difference in organization type.
Public Relations Agencies‘ Role in the Excellence Study
Grunig et al. (2002) began the Excellence study with only one preconception regarding
the use of external agencies. The authors assumed that whether the source is external or internal,
communication activities should be integrated in that they should all flow from the same source
of strategic management. The Excellence study only reported on the role of public relations
agencies as far as whether an organization used the services of outside agencies and, if they did,
what they used the agency for.
Grunig et al. (2002) found that excellent departments used outside firms significantly
more than less-than-Excellent departments did (Grunig et al., 2002). In many cases, public
relations agencies are an added source of technical skills and experience, which help develop the
knowledge base for the department as a whole.
Summary
A study that is said to be the foundation of the most dominant theoretical paradigm in
public relations, the Excellence study, could have better explored the application of the
Excellence theory to public relations agencies, the structured organizations whose sole function
is communication (Curtin & Gaither, 2005; Marsh, 2008).
Using the qualitative methods of in-depth interviews and open-ended questionnaires, this
study explored the following research questions:
RQ1: How do the principles of the spheres of excellence relate to excellence in a public
relations agency?
RQ2: How do the concepts of power and influence, as conceptualized in the Excellence
theory, relate to the conceptualizations of power and influence from the perspective of a public
relations agency?
The exploration of the application of principles of the Excellence theory to public
relations agencies could significantly broaden the theory‘s reach of application. This study could
grow the theory to include public relations agencies in the Excellence theory‘s analysis of the
industry. Additionally, this study can offer insights into the value of an organization using an
agency to supplement its communication efforts.
Method
The exploratory nature of the study harmonized well with qualitative research methods.
Using a researcher‘s guide to direct the conversation, in-depth interviews were conducted. The
interviews were recorded and transcribed for analysis. The in-depth interview guide was
reformatted into an open-ended questionnaire and distributed to public relations practitioners in
the southwest United States.
Sample
The researcher utilized business contacts she had as an agency practitioner to solicit
participation in the study. The 19 participants held varying positions within public relations
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agencies in the southwestern United States, from Chief Executive Officers to Account
Supervisors. Demographic statistics such as age, gender, education level and position were not
significant to the purpose of study and therefore were not collected or factored into the analysis
stage.
The researcher conducted in-depth interviews with four public relations agency
practitioners between the months of March, 2009 and April 2010. The times of the interviews
varied yet all were conducted during normal business hours: Monday through Friday, between
8am and 6pm. A majority of the interviews were approximately forty-five minutes long and were
conducted at each participant‘s place of work. Each interview was recorded and transcribed for
analysis.
After analyzing the data from the in-depth interviews, a questionnaire was developed and
distributed via email to 22 practitioners. Out of the 22 practitioners solicited for participation, 15
responded. The responses were analyzed for common trends and key concepts.
Data Collection and Analysis
Participants‘ perspectives on the subjects related to the purpose of this study were
collected and compared to other participants to explore any common trends. As an attractive
quality of the research methods, the open-ended discussions and questionnaires also produced
serendipitous moments that offered additional depth to the findings and that could prove to be
valuable implications for future research.
Findings and Discussion
Similar to other organizational structures, an agency must have a strong knowledge core
in order to practice the technical skills it needs to serve its clients. Public relations agencies have
a defined culture and character that can either foster an environment of teamwork or inhibit
creativity and participation.
Research Question 1: How do the principles of the spheres of excellence relate to excellence in a
public relations agency?
Spheres of Excellence
Knowledge core. All participating public relations agencies possessed technical skills
required in the communication industry. Additionally, each agency had a group of leaders who
possessed the expertise needed to conduct research, strategic planning and management.
Shared expectations. Participants were aware of the importance of the importance of
shared expectations both as an internal characteristic of the agency‘s organization, as well as
externally with client relationships. Internally, the participants expressed a dedication to
openness regarding expectations of agency practitioners and the agency leaders. One participant
illustrated this perspective when he stated, ―People can see the growth opportunities in our
agency and we‘re very clear on each comprehensive job description. It‘s very clear what is
expected.‖ The practitioners and the agency leaders strived to be on the same page when it came
to expectations.
In regards to the concept of shared expectations with each of the agency‘s clients, it was
made clear that this concept was perceived as vital to an agency‘s success. One participant said,
―A lot of people over promise and under deliver. We try to provide realistic expectations that can
be achieved. We make sure to give good follow through and give sound advice. Some examples
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of additional participant responses to questions pertaining to the shared expectations sphere
include the following:
―Unknowns and ambiguity do not regularly foster excellence.‖
―An excellent agency understands the needs of the client and successfully meets those
needs.‖
―It‘s about understanding clients‘ needs and making sure we surpass their expectations.‖
Efficient follow through was named by respondents as a key characteristic of an excellent
public relations agency. There was an understanding that clearly set and met expectations
between the agency and the client are valuable to the success of the relationship and of the
client‘s external communications.
Participative culture.
Most participants described their agency as having a participative culture. A teamoriented
organization was reported throughout a majority of the agencies. For example, one
participant said, ―We are built as more of a team from the beginning and we are all working
together.‖
Another participant said:
We bring in our staff on a lot of decisions. Everybody is involved in our company‘s
strategic plan. We analyze and revise our mission, vision and values during our annual
retreat. I think it works pretty well- we all know where we are going.
Some additional responses regarding participants‘ respective agency‘s culture include the
following:
―I think every voice is heard and every opinion is considered.‖
―We all have great working relationships with each other and try to work towards making
decisions that will impact the agency in a positive manner.‖
―The feedback I contribute to a decision-making process is appreciated and taken into
account in the ultimate decision.‖
―We undoubtedly function as a team on most important decisions.‖
The characteristics that defines communication excellence within organizations not only
apply to public relations agencies, but seem to guide the structure and culture of agencies‘
operations.
RQ2: How do the concepts of power and influence, as conceptualized in the Excellence theory,
relate to the conceptualizations of power and influence from the perspective of a public relations
agency?
Power struggles involving the internal structure of an agency are less apparent compared
to the reported struggles in organizations involved in the Excellence study. As previously
described in the findings, a majority of public relations agencies‘ organizational structure blurred
the lines between the dominant coalition and the practitioners.
While conceptualizing the power of the agency as an extension of a client‘s
communication department, this study‘s participants were cognizant of the concept and had a
similar understanding of its meaning and significance.
One participant said, ―I don‘t think that power is the right word to use – it implies that
somebody has got more influence over the person than they should have. I would refer to it as
how much are our clients willing to take our advice.‖ Participants were using the concept of
power with the same definition assigned to it by the Excellence theory and they seemed to be
uncomfortable with the term ‗power‘ possibly because of a pre-existing conceptualization of the
word.
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One participant expressed her perception of power in regards to relationships with her
clients very similarly to what the Excellence theory outlined, but preferred to use the term
‗leverage‘:
Power is leverage. With our clients, it is about being able to leverage the strategic advice
and direction we are giving them into increased sales, momentum and awareness for the
client. By sharing information with us and letting us into their world, they give us
leverage. We are creating value from that leverage.
For most of the agencies in the study, a majority of the scopes of work for their clients
involved strategic planning. One participant said, ―Ninety-five percent of our work starts out
with the strategic planning process and branding. That is the only way to go. Out of that flows
the public relations programs and everything comes out of that. We may not do all the
implementation, but we are more than happy to do any of it.‖
By the definition assigned to power by the Excellence theory, the agencies in this study
that were hired to do strategic planning, which was a majority of them, were given power from
the beginning of the relationship. If a characteristic of an Excellent organization is the attribution
of power to the communication department, then the organizations who hire public relations
agencies for advice and strategic planning assistance already possess the most focal characteristic
of communication excellence – an influential communication department. This organizational
characteristic greatly reduces the potentially complicated and complex perceived power
relationships and consequential struggles that face communication departments and public
relations agencies.
Many of the participants conceptualized the term ‗power‘ as the value assigned to their
work product and role in relation to their clients. Nearly half of the respondents reported to have
direct contact with their clients‘ dominant coalitions. A majority of primary client contacts were
top-level management: CEOs, board members and founders. Some responses that illustrate the
concept of power from a public relations agency perspective include the following:
―I am a valuable part of the client‘s communication team.‖
―The client uses me as an advisor.‖
―They truly value our services.‖
The definition and function of power explicated within the Excellence theory was
acknowledged by the participating agencies and considered integral to success. In addition to an
internal company structure that allowed for lower-level employees to have influence over
significant organizational decisions, agencies described having a strong influence over strategic
decision making within their clients‘ organizations as well.
Limitations
The research sample size is limited to available contacts of the researcher as well as
geographic area and not generalizable to the entire population of agency practitioners. As
previously stated, the researcher is an agency practitioner in the same geographic area as the
participants. The competitive nature of the public relations industry could have limited the
findings due to an inhibition of possible free discussion due to fear of the researcher‘s
competitive gain. This environment could have affected the validity of participants‘ claims
regarding company culture, structure and perceptions of power and influence.
Implications for Future Research
There were some items of interest that came about during the research. One participant
spoke briefly about something he called ‗The Chameleon Factor‘. He referenced this when
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speaking about excellence in public relations agencies. He defined it as a skill possessed by
agency practitioners to adapt to and adopt the company cultures of all their clients, in order to
ensure accurate and effective communication practices. He said:
This is what I call the Chameleon factor. You have to be able to adapt to your clients‘
corporate culture. You have to be what you need to be at any given moment. People who
can do well in an agency have to be flexible to be able to work with different work
cultures.
In reasoning the exclusion of public relations agencies from the Excellence theory,
authors Dozier, Grunig and Grunig (1995) wrote that determining and measuring relevant
organizational culture, which is a strong focus of the Excellence theory, was problematic for an
agency. The ‗Chameleon Factor‘ addresses this point. The culture of an agency can be measured
as participative, but the unique characteristic of an agency is the ability to be so open as to mirror
multiple company cultures to suit its clients‘ needs. However, the culture within the agency,
distanced from its clients, is consistent and measureable.
The most significant implication for future research is the idea that most public relations
agencies are excellent in nature given their common structure and participative culture. An
agency‘s strong knowledge core, understanding and value placed on shared expectations,
established participative cultures, keen sense of shared power with internal dominant coalitions,
and tendency to be hired as strategists opposed to technical expertise, may mean that most
agencies are excellent by definition.
Since a key characteristic of an excellent organization is the power given to the
communication department, it would be interesting to study whether all organizations that bring
in agencies for strategic planning council are deemed excellent because they place a high value
on communication expertise. Public relations agencies may be able to reposition themselves as
highly a valued necessity rather than a technical luxury.
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127

An Intertwined Future: Exploring the Relationship between the levels of Professionalism
and Social Roles of Public Relations Practitioners
Juan-Carlos Molleda, Ph.D
University of Florida
jmolleda@jou.ufl.edu
Sarabdeep Kochhar
University of Florida
Angeles Moreno, Ph.D.
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain
Abstract
The future of public relations, as field of practice and study, is looked at from the lens of
professionalism and social roles and explored in this quantitative research. The study evaluates
the relationship between professionalism and social roles of public relations practitioners. A
survey of public relations professionals is used to build a model and test these constructs. Based
on previous studies, an exploratory factor analysis using direct oblimin rotation is done followed
confirmatory factor analysis (structure equation modeling) to study the relationship between the
two constructs. Results revealed significant relationship between the three dimensions of
professionalism and the two dimensions of social roles. Strong associations were found between
institutionalization and external and internal social roles. Positive associations were found
between specialization as an indicator of professionalism and internal and external social roles of
public relations practitioners. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are made for public
relations practitioners globally.
Introduction
The future of public relations as preempted by Richard Edelman (2011) is the ability of
professionals to adapt to the evolving role of the practice, and the urgency with which the
professionals must evolve with it. Jon White (2011), head of the R&D Unit, Chartered Institute
of Public Relations, UK also mentioned that the public relations industry needs to embrace
change to ensure a promising future. The need to accept the change and get ready for the future
is reflected in the theme (The Future Starts Now) of the 2012 PRSA International Conference as
well. To address the requirement of the industry, the current study extends two important topics
of professionalism and social roles in the public relations scholarship.
The relationship between the levels of professionalism of the field of practice and the
study and social roles of practitioners needs to be explored and analyzed, which could help to
further define the future of the public relations profession. In short, this study is an attempt to
advance the constructs of professionalism and social roles of public relations practitioners. J.
Grunig and Hunt (1984) asserted two things: importance to society and a common code of ethics
as core professional values for public relations professionals. The study aims to establish how the
relation between the social roles and professional status and values would determine the strength
and future of the public relations practice worldwide.
The evolution of public relations as a consecutive set of well-defined and mutually
exclusive stages has been challenged (Lamme & Russell, 2010). However, ―the rise of
professionalization of public relations and journalism, codes of ethics, formal education
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programs, [...] and the delineations among publicity, propaganda, public information, and public
relations, all have created a framework over time through which understanding and practice of
public relations is now filtered‖ (Lamme & Russell, 2010, p. 354). As a construct, the extent of
professionalism still requires further conceptualization and analysis.
For more than four decades, professionalism has been a core construct of public relations
scholarship. Nevertheless, there is a lack of consensus about what concepts or dimensions of
professionalism describe the occupation. This study uses the construct of levels of
professionalism in public relations as a sector of the labor market, instead of the professional
orientation of practitioners, which has been the focus of most studies since the 1970s (Grunig,
1976; Nayman, McKee, & Lattimore, 1977; Wright, 1979). This research follows Beam‘s (1990)
arguments that support the study of professionalism from an occupational power relationship;
that is, a sociological perspective that goes beyond the individual level of analysis. A level of
analysis focusing on the sector itself or on an occupational power relationship would facilitate
cross-national comparisons in a region with an unequal stage of political and socioeconomic
development (Molleda & Moreno, 2008).
This study focuses on the levels of professionalism as a major component of the
aforementioned historical framework. Inspired by Lamme and Russell‘s (2010) study, we believe
that public relations has not only enjoyed an accumulated set of standards to guide its modern
practice, but has also experienced various levels of development in different parts of the world.
John Paluszek, Ketchum‘s Senior Counsel (2007) stated how public relations, in its finest sense,
is arguably a global profession because it functions in the public interest in virtually every part of
our interconnected world. Hence, the need to understand the levels of professionalism and social
roles of practitioners is important to recognize not only the development but also the
globalization of the profession.
The connection between public relations and its social role has been frequently
articulated in PR literature. Scholars since long have claimed that public relations and social
responsibility are not separate activities and should not be evaluated separately (L‘Etang, 1994).
Grunig and Hunt (1984) stated that ―Public, or social, responsibility has become a major reason
for an organization to have a public relations function, because the public relations professional
can act as an ombudsman for the public inside the corporation‖ (p. 48). Boynton (2002) probed
into the relationship between professionalism and social responsibility of public relations
practitioners and reached the following conclusion:
Social responsibility is considered both an element and an outcome of professionalism,
which points to the potential duality of these concepts. That is, socially responsible
behavior is both a professional attribute and a valued course of action for public relations
practitioners. (p. 256)
An overview of the two concepts sets the context of this study, which is to understand the how
the relation between professionalism and social roles would influence future of public relations
research and practice. The study is based on the assumption that a better informed community of
professionals would contribute significantly to the improvement of the accountability,
transparency, and standards of the profession as a whole. Van Ruler (2005) pointed out to the
gap between practitioners and scholars as they ―live in different worlds‖ (p. 159). The study
hence, is a sincere attempt to bring the two worlds together by better understanding and
explaining the relationship between the two constructs of professionalism and social
responsibility roles. Results from the study can form the basis of many professional training
workshops and even create specific academic curriculum for universities worldwide. The
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following sections describe how the two dynamically changing constructs are defined and related
to each other.
Theoretical Framework
Professionalism of public relations is often defined as a multidimensional construct
(David, 2004; Lages & Simkin, 2003). Public relations professionals and scholars have long
attempted to understand ethical public relations practices or core professional values. For
example, Public Relations Review devoted an issue to the theme of ethics in 1989 (almost two
decades from now). In addition, the establishment of codes of ethics in professional associations
such as the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), the International Association of
Business Communicators (IABC), and the International Public Relations Association (IPRA),
reflects a focus on professional values. ―Professional values are standards for action that are
accepted by the practitioner and professional group and provide a framework for evaluating
beliefs and attitudes that influence behavior‖ (Weis & Schank, 1997, p. 366).
Construct of Professionalism
The two most prominent theoretical perspectives of sociology of the professions are the
trait approach that was dominant for much of the twentieth century and the power or conflict
approach that emerged in opposition to the shortcomings of trait theorizing in the 1970s (Burns,
2007). According to Burns (2007), the power approach chronicled types of self interest
(occupational closure, status and economic rewards) as key drivers of professional action, instead
of unreflectively accepting the definitions of professions themselves, the idea that altruism and
public service defined who could really be counted as professions, as the trait approach had
done" (p. 70).
The phenomenological or trait approach advocates studying how regular members of an
occupation invoke the term in everyday use (Freidson, 1983). Researchers in this tradition have
tried to articulate a set of core attributes that all professions share. This attribute orientation
characterized the work on professionalism in journalism produced by McLeod and his colleagues
in the 1960s and 1970s. McLeod and Hawley (1964) articulated and tested a professionalorientation
scale for the U.S. newspaper journalist with an index of 24 characteristics of a
professional journalist. The index was sufficient, and its application was made possible in other
communication occupations, including public relations (Bissland & Rentner, 1989; Hallahan,
1974; Nayman, McKee, & Lattimore, 1977; Wright, 1979).
The professional orientation scale of McLeod-Hawley was criticized for being
methodologically unsatisfactory (Ferguson, 1981). Additionally, Beam (1990) stated that this
scale was also criticized for being theoretically inadequate and proposed the study of
professionalism as an organizational-level phenomenon.
Despite the criticism to the McLeod-Hawley index, public relations scholars have
continued to use this scale for the study of professionalism (Coombs, Holladay, Hasenauer, &
Signitzer; 1994). Cameron, Sallot, and Lariscy (1996) conducted a trade and academic literature
review on public relations professionalism and concluded: ―Only four [topical] articles argue
from data, from the empirical base that best informs our attempts to define professionalism and
then assess our progress to professional standard‖ (p. 46). They were referring to the work of
Gitter and Jaspers (1982), Ryan (1986), Judd (1989), and Rentner and Bissland (1990).
Molleda, Athaydes, and Suárez (2010) furthered the field with their contribution to the
discussion on professionalism from comparative sector level of analysis. The authors articulated
and tested a new index drawn from the work of two sociologists of the professions (i.e.,
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Freidson, 2001; Krause, 1996). Molleda et al. (2010) assessed the professionalism levels of
public relations in Latin America and tested professionalism index based on the16 items
developed from the Freidson‘s (1983, 2001) and Krause‘s (1996) conceptualization of
professionalism. The item ―formally studied in higher-education institution‖ was evaluated as the
highest, and ―system of conflict resolution among professionals and between professionals and
clients/employers‖ was evaluated as the lowest. Significant associations were identified between
country and formal knowledge. According to Molleda et al. (2010), public relations in Brazil,
Costa Rica, and Peru enjoys the highest levels of professionalism.
Construct of Social Roles
Bendall (2005) stated that there has been a change in the view of corporations from
enemies, unconscious engines, or ungrateful beneficiaries of development, to change-agents in
managing the issues of human development and environmental sustainability especially in
developing countries (Visser, 2007). Specifically, scholars have articulated and even advocated
for a social responsibility role of the public relations professional, as well as the profession as a
whole (e.g., J. Grunig, 2000; J. Grunig &White, 1992; Holtzhausen, 2000; Holtzhausen, 2002;
Holtzhausen & Voto, 2002; Kruckeberg, 2000; Kruckeberg & Starck, 1988; K. A. Leeper, 1996;
R. Leeper, 2001; Starck & Kruckeberg, 2001). Verčič and J. Grunig (2000) tried to explore and
match the development of CSR research with that of public relations field from a reactive,
proactive, interactive, and strategic point of view. Verčič and J. Grunig (2000) suggested
changes in the role of public relations practitioner from adapting to the environment to helping
companies co-create the environment.
Molleda (2002) introduced the first operationalization of the social roles of Latin
American public relations professionals by designing a multi-item scale and testing it in Brazil
and Colombia. Molleda and Ferguson (2004) further analyzed the data to advance the description
of the different ―social roles‖ of Brazilian public relations professionals.
Molleda and Ferguson (2004) analyzed internal and external social role items and
validated four social role dimensions: (1) ―Ethics and social responsibility,‖ (2) ―Employee well
being,‖ (3) ―Community well being,‖ and (4) ―Government harmony.‖ Molleda and Ferguson
(2004) concluded that the social role indicators and the factors extracted ―explain the actions that
a professional performs to increase his or her involvement as the social conscience of the
organization and perhaps as a change agent or agent of social transformation‖ (p. 346).
Molleda (2001) explained that the Latin American perspective of public relations focuses
on community interests; contributions to the well-being of the human environment where
organizations operate; the historical and socio-economic reality of the region; social
transformation and change agency; the ideas of freedom, justice, harmony, equality and respect
for human dignity; and confidence without manipulation using communication to reach accord,
consensus, and integration. The evolving social roles of the Latin American practitioner can be
defined as change agents or agents of social transformation who use organizational resources to
engage internal and external publics.
The communitarian perspective of public relations also informs the social role construct.
Hallahan (2004) summarized this perspective and concluded that public relations professionals
have different roles to play in three forms of community building (i.e., involving, nurturing, and
organizing). Community-building according to Hallahan (2004) involves ―integration of people
and the organizations they create into a functional collectivity that strives toward common or
compatible goals‖ (p. 259). Community involvement is an attempt by the organization to
participate in a cause-related group or the existing community. Community nurturing according
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to Hallahan is an attempt by an organization at ―fostering the economic, political, social, and
cultural vitality of communities in which people and organizations or causes are members‖ (p.
261). Community organizing is an attempt by an organization to create new communities from
the grassroots level and improve economic or social conditions in a particular neighborhood.
Molleda (2011) conducted a quantitative comparative online survey to assess the internal
and external dimensions of the social roles of Latin American public relations practitioners in 10
countries. Brazilian, Costa Rican, and Venezuelan participants expressed higher evaluation for
social role tasks than the other seven countries‘ participants. Participants from Guatemala and
Panama rated the social roles indicators the lowest. Overall, the internal social role factor
obtained higher mean scores than the external factor indicating that employees are a priority.
Interdependence between professionalism and social roles
An individual‘s core value is a reflection of who the individual is and what this individual
is about. Behavior of an individual is guided by personally held principles, beliefs, and values.
The same can be thought of a professional value, which resonates with the profession and the
people who practice it. For example, according to PRSA, the value of member reputation
depends upon the ethical conduct of everyone affiliated with organization. Each individual sets
an example for each other -- as well as other professionals -- by their pursuit of excellence with
powerful standards of performance, professionalism, and ethical conduct. David (2004) views
the reconciliation of values between an organization and its publics as a three-way compromise
between individual, organizational, and social values.
Professionals enact the reflective role ―to analyze changing standards and values and
standpoints in society and discuss these with members of the organization in order to adjust the
standards and values/standpoints of the organization accordingly‖ (van Ruler & Verčič, 2004, p.
6). The reflective role empowers the diverse stakeholders of an organization and the society as a
whole. In studying public relations practitioners, Wright (1979) did not find a significant
association between being professional and being socially responsible. He explained, on the basis
of this examination that it is not possible to claim that one of these conditions help to cause the
other‖ (p. 31). Wright‘s research may result in a different outcome today. Since the 1970s, the
profession has reached a level of maturity and evolution that may demand a higher level of
commitment with stakeholders and the society at large.
Bivins (1993) noted that public relations‘ ―clarification of its ethical obligation to serve
the public interest is vital if it is to accomplish its goal and if it is to be accepted as a legitimate
profession by society‖ (p. 117). He also emphasized the importance of ―public interest‖ in
defining professionalism. Therefore, attaining professionalism in public relations depends largely
on acting in a socially responsible manner.
Pieczka and L‘Etang (2001), in their review of the literature on the power-control
perspective of professionalism, concluded that their analysis on the traits of a profession should
―help practitioners to understand their own roles, not simply in terms of managerial/technical
levels of organizational position but also in a much broader context in terms of the power of the
occupational role in society‖ (p. 234).
Coleman and Wilkins (2009) studied the moral development of public relations
professionals. They concluded that practitioners‘ ethical reasoning ―can be a way for the
profession to the claim the authority that will support responsible conduct‖ (p. 337). Kim and
Reber (2009) explored how public relations practitioners‘ professionalism is associated with
their attitudes toward corporate social responsibility. Results showed that practitioners with high
professionalism have more positive attitudes toward CSR. Practitioners‘ longer time in the job
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and larger public relations department size positively affect professionalism. Women have more
positive attitudes toward CSR than men, and older practitioners have more positive attitudes
toward CSR than younger practitioners.
Based on the conceptualization of professionalism and social roles and the relation
between the two, we propose to test a model hypothesizing the relationship between levels of
professionalism and social roles of practitioners (see Fig. 1). The following hypotheses were
posited for the study:
Hypothesis 1(a) Institutionalization is positively associated with internal social roles of
practitioners.
Hypothesis 1(b) Institutionalization is positively associated with external social roles of
practitioners.
Hypothesis 2 (a) Market-driven values is positively associated with internal social roles of
practitioners.
Hypothesis 2 (b) Market-driven values is positively associated with external social roles of
practitioners.
Hypothesis 3 (a) Specialization is positively associated with internal social roles of practitioners.
Hypothesis 3 (b) Specialization is positively associated with external social roles of practitioners.
Figure 1: Proposed model of professionalism and social roles. The covariances among
exogenous variables and error terms for indicators of latent variables are omitted from the figure
due to space constraints.
Method
The study used previous studies to extend the concepts of professionalism and social
roles of practitioners. Survey results of public relations practitioners in 10 Latin American
countries were used as a basis of the study. The measurement items were developed from the
Freidson‘s (1983, 2001) and Krause‘s (1996) conceptualization of professionalism by Molleda,
Athaydes, and Suárez (2010). The 16 items were used to assess the professionalism levels of
public relations in Latin America.
The social roles of public relations practitioner was measured by using the scale
developed by Molleda (2011). Molleda (2011) in a comparative study established a clear
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connection between the actions and decisions of the public relations and communication
management practitioners along with their internal and external social environments. The
original social role scale was previously used for research in Latin America (Molleda &
Ferguson, 2004; Molleda & Suárez, 2006). The original Brazilian study included 44 items and
the Colombian study included 30. Molleda (2011) collapsed and re-analyzed the common items
of both original data sets gathered in Brazil and Colombia to identify a 13 item scale.
Survey Instrument
The data used for the study was gathered using a four-wave online survey designed in
Qualtrics which was active from October to November of 2009. A developed network of
colleagues and a database of Latin American public relations professionals from the trade
associations helped with the data collection. Invitations to participate in the study were sent to
2,290 practitioners in 19 countries. Only 1,150 attempted to take the survey and 674 completed
the questionnaire. However, only 10 countries (N = 612) met the minimum numbers of
observations set by the researchers: Argentina (N = 59), Brazil (N = 102), Chile (N = 38),
Colombia (N = 104), Costa Rica (N = 67), Guatemala (N = 39), Mexico (N = 80), Panama (N =
23), Peru (N = 33), and Venezuela (N = 67).Thus, the response rate was 29 percent. The 14 items
on perceptions of professionalism and 13 items on the social roles were rated using a five-point
Likert scale, in which one was strongly disagree and five was strongly agree by public relations
and communication management practitioners.
For the study, both the professionalism and social roles scales were submitted to principal
axis factoring (PAF) with an Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization rotation to explore the pattern
of responses among the multiple items included in the index. The direct oblimin rather than the
varimax rotation was selected because there is a significant correlation between the factors, and
the intent is to reproduce the actual results rather than force an independence that did not exist in
the data. The screen plot method indicated that the three-factor solution for professionalism and
two-factor solution for social roles (Table 2) was a reasonable interpretation of the data.
Measurement Instrumentation
The three-factor solution of professionalism (Table 1) highlights three main factors of
professionalism as institutionalization, market-driven values and specialization. The first factor
for the 14 professionalism items is labeled Institutionalization. The means for these items varied
from 2.41 to 3.89 on the five-point scale. The second factor is labeled Market-driven values. The
two items with the strongest loadings (> .70) were control over supply and demand of services
and control over fees and salaries. The third factor, labeled specialization, had loadings greater
than .45. Overall this factor has higher mean scores than the factors named institutionalization
and market-driven values.
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Table 1
Professionalism Dimensions: Factor Loadings for Component Matrix with Direct Oblimin a
Factors
1 2 3 M SD
Items
Factor 1: ―Institutionalization‖
Licensing or accreditation requirement .605 2.7
4
Formally studied in higher-education institutions .813 3.8
9
Society-based commitment .658 3.4
4
Legitimacy of trade associations .554 3.2
3
Definition in government agencies .637 2.9
6
Defined by the State .556 2.4
1
Factor 2: ―Market-driven values‖
Control over supply and demand of services -.774 2.4
8
Control over fees and salaries -.737 2.3
9
Ability to influence government decisions -.720 2.5
1
Ability to influence education system -.596 2.6
6
Independent arbitration or conflict-resolution
-.474 2.2
system
5
Factor 3: ―Specialization‖
Specialized work .740 3.1
8
Formal body of knowledge .609 3.1
9
Special status in the labor market .680 3.2
3
% of variance explained
35.9 10.0 9.2
Eigenvalue
5.0 1.4 1.3
a
Rotation converged in 13 iterations. Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.
1.389
1.129
1.136
1.227
1.298
1.169
1.036
1.033
1.064
1.115
0.999
1.075
1.074
1.227
For the social roles dimensions, the first seven statements dealt with external aspects that
included: promoting community education, health, and well being; fomenting financial
contributions for the development of the community; maintaining contacts with community
leaders; formulating social projects or initiatives to meet government and political expectations;
seeking participation of government agencies; monitoring social changes to identify
opportunities; and generating spaces for discussions on the national reality. The second six
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statements dealt with internal aspects, such as advising on ethics and social responsibility, acting
as part of the organization‘s social conscience, alerting about the well-being of employees,
developing education campaigns for employees, fomenting employee involvement in community
projects, and informing the organization on social changes. The 13 statements were sequentially
presented as a section of the online instrument. In the two-factor model of social roles of public
relations practitioners, the first factor represented 53 percent of the variance and the second 10.2
percent. The factor loadings for the pattern matrix and the means and standard deviations appear
in Table 2.
Table 2
Social Role Dimensions: Factor Loadings for Component Matrix with Direct Oblimin a
Factors
1 2 M SD
Items
Factor 1: ―External Social Role‖
Promoting community education, health, and .484 3.61 1.03
well being
Fomenting financial contributions .707 3.39 1.05
Maintaining contacts with community leaders .827 3.42 1.06
Formulating social projects or initiatives .858 3.47 1.06
Seeking participation of government agencies .854 3.34 1.10
Monitoring social changes .782 3.52 1.06
Generating spaces for national reality discussions .698 3.18 1.15
Factor 2: ―Internal Social Role‖
Advising on ethics and social responsibility .766 3.92 .92
Acting as social conscience .791 3.84 .94
Alerting about employees well being .924 3.84 .94
Developing education campaigns for employees .786 3.62 1.03
Fomenting employee involvement in community
.642 3.68 1.00
projects
Informing on social changes .462 3.81 .98
% of variance explained
Eigenvalue
53.0
6.90
10.2
1.32
a
Rotation converged in six iterations. Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.
Findings
To test the model of professionalism and social roles as presented in Fig. 1, structural
equation modeling (SEM) was used to explore the relationships between professionalism and
social roles of practitioners. In the tested model, institutionalization, market-driven values,
specialization, internal social roles, and external social roles were specified as latent variables
with multiple indicators. AMOS 20.0 was used as the statistical package for model estimation.
According to Byrne (2001) and Hu and Bentler (1999) a confirmatory factor model (and
structural equation model) can be retained as a valid model when the value of χ2/df (as a
parsimonious fit index) is less than three, the value of comparative fit index (CFI) is equal to or
greater than .90 ideally, and the value of root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is
equal to or less than .08.
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Estimation for the initial measurement model indicated unsatisfactory fit to the data, χ2
(183, N= 168) = 545.80, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.98, CFI = .86, RMSEA= .11 (90% CI = .098, .120).
Then we proceeded to modify the model. For the modification, we added error covariances
among the observed items within the same subscale, following Byrne‘s (2001) recommendation.
The modified measurement model (see Fig. 2) was re- estimated and the results indicated a
satisfactory fit, χ2 (177, N= 168) = 819.679, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.59, CFI = .94, RMSEA= .05
(90% CI = .046, .054).
Hypotheses testing
Hypothesis 1(a) posited that institutionalization is positively associated with internal
social roles of practitioners. As the path H1(a) in Fig. 3 indicates, this hypothesis was supported,
β= .29 (B = .294, S.E. = .41), p < .01. This means that institutionalization is associated with the
internal social roles of practitioners.
Hypothesis 1(b) theorized positive association between institutionalization and external
social roles of practitioners, β= .26 (B = .263, S.E. = .41), p < .01. This hypothesis was supported
which substantiates that institutionalization is related with external social roles of public relations
practitioners.
Hypothesis 2 (a) on market-Driven values being positively associated with internal social
roles of practitioners, β= -.075 (B = -.074, S.E. = .41) was not supported reinforcing the social
conscience ―internal role‖ of a public relations practitioner.
Hypothesis 2 (b) stated how market-Driven values is positively associated with external
social roles of practitioners, β= -.186 (B = -.186, S.E. = .41), p < .01. This hypothesis was
supported which connects the factors of market-driven values of the profession and the external
social roles a practitioner performs.
Hypothesis 3 (a) Specialization is positively associated with internal social roles of
practitioners, β= .22 (B = .230, S.E. = .38), p < .01 was supported extending the need for
establishing a specialized body of knowledge for the profession and to regulate information and
expertise within an organization.
Hypothesis 3 (b) Specialization is positively associated with external social roles of
practitioners β= .17 (B = .178, S.E. = .38), p < .01 was also supported bringing together the
external role capabilities and specialization aspect of the profession.
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Figure 2: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of measurement items. Note. χ2 (177, N= 168) =
819.679, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.59, CFI = .94, RMSEA= .05 (90% CI = .046, .054).
138

Figure 3: Coefficients are unstandardized regression weight. For the purpose of conciseness,
covariances among exogenous variables and error terms for indicators of latent variables are
omitted from the figure.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study conceptualized and tested a model of professionalism of public relations and
the social roles that the practitioners play in their organizations. This was possible after reanalyzing
previous research and approaching the proposed association from public relations
scholars who have advocated for the social responsibilities of the professional supported by the
development and maturity of the profession as a field of practice and study. The theoretical
framework used to conceptualize and operationalize professionalism came from scholars of
sociology of the professions.
In previous studies, the measurements of professionalism and social roles were found to
have high internal validity and consistency. However, the researchers, attending conference
reviewers and judges of academic journals, decided to executive new factor analyses using direct
oblimin rotation instead of varimax rotation. The results of the new analysis resulted in stronger
factors of professionalism and social roles.
Confirmatory factor analysis, using structural equation modeling, resulted in a valid
model. The model indicated that higher levels of professionalism (institutional, market-driven,
and specialization) are positively related to the internal and external social roles of public
relations professionals. This is significant in times when public relations has reached more
relevance in all types of organizations with great impacts in societies worldwide.
Theoretical Implications
Public relations is a modern occupation that has various levels of development all over
the world. From its origin in the United States and Western Europe, it is advancing as a major
profession in many other markets. However, we are far from having a standardized practice and
field of study. This study has carved a path of inquiry that offers new insights to the
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operationalization of professionalism of public relations and the social responsibility of public
practitioners. Hopefully, this will spark further interest on these topics and encourage additional
testing of the two constructs and their intricate relationship. The individual scales measuring
each constructs have obtained high internal validity and consistency, and the association between
the three dimensions of professionalism and the two dimensions of social roles has been
supported with statistically significant results.
Practical Implications
With the conceptualization and results of this research, the public relations professional
community will have additional arguments to further advocate the professionalization of the
practice and field of study. The study of professionalism of public relations as a sector of the
labor market instead of the professional characteristics of professionals would allow trade
associations to keep in mind all the infrastructural and policy conditions needed to elevate the
status of field of study. Specifically, results from this study could form the basis of professional
training workshops and even create specific academic curricula for universities worldwide.
These curricula can also involve active interactions and discussions with the professionals
represented by trade associations and other leading institutions such as foundations and think
tanks of public relations.
One of the most important aspects of a legitimate profession is the commitment of its
institutions and members towards their society of influence. The association between
professionalism and social roles of practitioners should be used as a basis to promote the social
impact of public relations in evolving economic and political systems worldwide.
Limitations and Future Research
The results of this study cannot be generalized to the practice of public relations and to
the population of practitioners in Latin America. In addition, the data for this analysis were
gathered at the end of 2009. This is a one-time research that needs replication and perhaps a
longitudinal investigation. Moreover, this study focuses on 10 Latin American countries and it
will be beneficial to extend this type of study to other regions of the world, including the United
States of America. Finally, antecedents of professionalism and outcomes of the social roles of
public relations professionals could also be studied in future research. Antecedents of
professionalism may include economic, media, and political freedoms; and outcomes of social
roles enactment may include public relations effectiveness, levels and types of leaderships, and
trust and respect for the work of practitioners in their organizations or clients and among main
target publics with whom they interact.
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Leadership Development: Where Do PRSSA Faculty Advisers Stand?
Cathy Rogers, Ph.D.
Loyola University New Orleans
crogers@loyno.edu
Introduction
Leadership is implicit in the definition of public relations, and recent research has
demonstrated how important leadership is from the perspective of conceptualization and theory
development. (Meng et al, 2012). The assumption that leadership is somewhat synonymous with
the definition of excellent public relations that emphasizes the management function begs the
question -- how do individuals learn the concept of leadership and develop leadership skills?
Does it happen at the undergraduate level?
A Google search of undergraduate curriculum in public relations by this author identified
only one university with course offerings that included ―leadership.‖ Temple University offers
an introductory course required for strategic communication majors, STRC 1112
―Communicating Leadership‖ and an ―Organizational Leadership Concentration‖ that includes
courses such as STRC 2672 ―Global Communication and Leadership,‖ STRC 2696 ―Diverse
Communication and Leadership.‖ Even though the word ―leadership‖ is absent from most
public relations courses titles, the topic is likely discussed at least tangentially in most if not all
undergraduate public relations courses (Neff, 2002). Moreover, leadership is the core of many
student development programs and co-curricular organizations such as the Public Relations
Student Society of America (PRSSA). Using the test of excellent leadership in public relations
created by Meng, et al, this study examines the degree to which educators demonstrate, teach, or
model excellent leadership in their roles as faculty advisers to PRSSA.
Literature Review
Leadership is the focus of a plethora of scholarly and trade articles across disciplines, and a
proliferation of leadership based programs at colleges and universities has evolved (Choi &
Choi, 2009; Cohen, 2011; Lipshitz & Mann, 2005; Smith & Peterson, 1988; Vance & Larson,
2002; Warneke, 2008; Yukl, 1989). Leadership styles, behaviors, skills, talents have been
explicated and studied. While the pace of new manuscripts about leadership persists and the
increasing emphasis on the ―importance of leadership to the study and practice of public
relations, it is an area of scholarship that has received little attention‖ and continues to demand
more scholarly attention (Meng et al, 2012; Werder & Holtzhausen, 2009). In the trade
literature, for example, one writer has identified five leadership skills for public relations
practitioners to master to move up the management ladder (Mills, 2007), another lists ten
leadership talents (Cohen, 2011) and dozens of leadership programs are listed on the internet at
such places as The Center for Creative Leadership (www.ccl.org) and the International
Leadership Association (www.ila-net.org) (Warneke, 2008). While some skills or behaviors are
almost always touted as essential for a good leader, the latitude for what constitutes effective
leadership is implied in the following quote in a Public Relations Tactic article from a former
chair of a state university‘s undergraduate agricultural leadership program, ―We maintain that all
college graduates are leaders – not by chance, but by choice.‖ (Warneke, 2008)
Public relations leadership is the topic of at least three recent member surveys of the
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) (Choi & Choi, 2009; Meng et al, 2012, Werder &
Holtzhausen, 2009). One 2009 study identified two leadership styles present in public relations
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environments: inclusive and transformational (Werder & Holtzhausen, 2009). Another study
suggested that providing vision, serving as a change agent, and creating alliances inside and
outside the organization are important factors in public relations leadership (Choi & Choi, 2009).
Meng et al defined the construct of ―excellent public relations leadership‖ and suggested that
―excellent leaders in public relations are different from leaders in other fields in three ways:
They must hold a compelling vision for communication, possess comprehensive understanding
of media and information systems, and effectively develop and implement strategic
communication plans.‖ According to respondents in this study, the three most important qualities
of excellent leadership are strategic decision-making capability, problem-solving ability, and
communication knowledge and expertise. The most valuable sources of leadership skills and
development for these survey respondents were on-the-job experiences, individual initiative and
desire, and role models. (Meng et al, 2012). Interviews with 97 high-level U.S. communications
managers points to the role of leadership in supporting professional success at the individual
level. Factors common to the success of senior public relations executives are diverse
experiences, comprehensive communication skills, and being proactive. (Berger, et al, 2007).
How do college and university programs prepare their public relations students to be
leaders? While the recent results by Meng et al are consistent with those of traditional
managerial leadership research, the study calls for ―PR educators and professional trainers to
develop more leadership courses or training programs to prepare public relations students and
young PR professionals to be the future leaders.‖ The study poses questions such as ―How and
to what extent, for example, is leadership development incorporated in the classroom? What
teaching approaches are most effective? Similarly, which of the many diverse professional
development programs are most effective? ― and ―who are the role models for our profession,
and how can we make them more accessible to practitioners and students?‖ (Meng et al, 2012)
The Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations was established at the University of
Alabama in 2005 to help build a research-based foundation of knowledge in this area. According
to the Center‘s website, www.plankcenter.ua.edu, its mission is ―to advance leadership values
and skills in public relations and bridge the gap between education and practice.‖ Neff makes a
strong case that leadership should be emphasized in the basic public relations principles course
because the context of the internship and the rare co-op opportunity provides an inadequate level
of leadership experience (Neff, 2002). An important undergraduate leadership opportunity
unmentioned in her study is PRSSA membership. The opportunity to lead by being a chapter
officer, participating in a student-run firm or running for National Committee are the obvious
leadership opportunities for PRSSA members; however, leadership development is inherent in
the nature of PRSSA‘s mission and vision:
The Society‘s mission is ―to serve our members by enhancing their
knowledge of public relations and providing access to professional
development opportunities; and to serve the public relations profession by
helping to develop highly qualified, well-prepared professionals. The
PRSSA vision explains how we have become and will remain the premier
pre-professional organization for students in public relations. Growth —
Becoming the largest, most respected and widely recognized organization
for pre-professional students with an interest in public relations.
Education — Enhancing the future professional through classroom
preparation, leadership and experience. Advancement — Moving the
public relations profession forward through public awareness, meaningful
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ethics and diverse representation.
Relationships — Aligning with PRSA and forming a free interchange of
ideas through professional relationships, practical training and mentoring.
Students — Providing members with national, regional and local
opportunities to network, share ideas and grow professionally. (prssa.org).
PRSSA now hosts a Leadership Rally for chapter presidents, and PRSA hosts a similar
leadership event for chapter presidents-elect and District/Section chairs-elect. Faculty advisors
of PRSSA chapters are invited to attend a training session at the annual national conference.
Session notes from the 2009 conference are available at prssa.org, accompanied by a list of links
to tools for advisers to strengthen their PRSSA chapters.
While the job description for faculty advisors does not include the phrase ―leadership
development‖ or ―leadership skills,‖ implicit in the list of responsibilities in the PRSSA Chapter
Handbook is the faculty adviser‘s duty to be an effective leader. According to the Handbook, the
―Faculty Adviser is the official link between the student Chapter and the sponsoring PRSA
Chapter…Some responsibilities include:
● Set a tone of professionalism for the Chapter, its officers and members.
● Motivate members through example and counsel to be active members
of PRSSA.
● Stress that PRSSA is a national organization; it is the affiliate of PRSA,
the world‘s largest organization of public relations professionals.
● Stress that a PRSSA Chapter is not a ―club.‖
● Represent the Chapter in the sponsoring academic department.
● Explain the objectives of PRSSA to other faculty members.
● Obtain the support of faculty and other college or university officials in
decision-making positions on behalf of PRSSA and of public relations as a
―teachable‖ profession.
● Communicate department messages to Chapter members and sponsoring
PRSA Chapter.
● Continue communication with the sponsoring PRSA Chapter,
particularly
with the PRSA member who has been designated as the PRSSA Chapter‘s
Professional Adviser, to encourage an active, productive relationship
between the PRSSA and PRSA Chapters.
● Meet with the Professional Adviser, PRSSA and PRSA Chapter
Presidents
early in the academic year to establish objectives for the PRSA/PRSSA
relationship. (PRSSA Chapter Handbook, 2011-12).
For example, a faculty adviser needs effective leadership skills to ―set the tone,‖
―motivate members through example and counsel,‖ and represent the chapter to one‘s
academic department and obtain support from them for PRSSA. Certainly
encouragement of ―an active, productive relationship between the PRSSA and PRSA
chapters‖ and coordinating these chapters and the professional advisers to establish
objectives for the PRSA/PRSSA relationship requires leadership savvy.
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Purpose
How do PRSSA faculty advisers acquire the leadership skills necessary to accomplish the
above responsibilities effectively along with their other responsibilities of teaching, research, and
service? To what extent do faculty advisers believe they are effective leaders and thus effective
models of effective leadership behavior for their PRSSA chapter members? Do faculty advisers
believe that PRSSA member participation has an impact on a student‘s life after graduation,
particularly in regard to leadership in his or her workplace or community? The purpose of this
study is to determine faculty adviser‘s perceptions of leadership, leadership experience and
training and to determine whether there is any correlation between these perceptions and
experiences with the leadership experiences of their chapter members or chapter recognition for
outstanding achievement.
Methodology
First, informal interviews were conducted in October 2010 with four faculty advisers, one
professional adviser of nationally ranked or honorable mention Bateman competition teams.
While the intended purpose of these interviews was to identify the leadership training of faculty
advisers, their leadership training of students on their Bateman team, and the extent to which
leadership experience was a criteria for team selection, the results of this small sample of
interviews redirected the researcher to consider more broadly all PRSSA faculty advisers‘
perceptions of leadership, their training, and their chapter‘s effectiveness as indicated by national
PRSSA recognition. Among the interviewees, the extent of leadership training was widely
divergent, but there was no common selection process or criteria for selection. The one common
thread was that the five advisers primarily relied on modeling effective leadership behavior to
help team members develop or enhance their leadership skills. Considering the diversity of
experience and the diverse methods of team member selection among a limited number of
nationally ranked or honorable mention teams, comprised presumably of excellent students with
a propensity toward leadership, this researcher recognized the gap in the literature about
perceptions of leadership and leadership training of PRSSA faculty advisers who are called upon
to model effective leadership for their students.
Thus, a 22-item online survey instrument was created, approved by the author‘s
Institutional Review Board, and distributed via email to all PRSSA advisers in March 2012 to
help describe perceptions about leadership, their leadership styles and success measured in terms
of national accomplishment through PRSSA sanctioned activities. The survey was emailed to
the PRSSA faculty adviser listserv from the national PRSSA office, and two reminders from the
office were sent in two subsequent weeks. Of the 328 faculty advisers who are subscribed to the
listserv, 126 or 38.4% responded to the survey.
The survey included demographic questions about age, gender, years of public relations
work experience, years of college or university teaching experience, and the frequency with
which they had advised chapters who have hosted a regional activity, a national conference, a
Bateman Case Study competition, or received a Teahan award.
Regarding sources for their own leadership skills and development, faculty advisers were
asked to respond to a five-point Likert scale about the extent to which they relied on the
following sources: communication skills training, examples set by excellent role models, formal
education (university level), individual initiative and desire, mentors and mentoring programs,
on-the-job experience, powerful personal experiences or events, professional development
programs (e.g., PRSA, IABC or others), genetics. These sources were duplicated from the
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January 2012 study as were the qualities of excellent leadership the respondents most likely
exhibit in their role as PRSSA faculty adviser (Meng et al, 2012). Using a five-point Likert scale
from very unlikely to very likely, respondents rated the following qualities: ability to
demonstrate the value of public relations, an organizational culture which supports
communication, ability to solve problems and produce results, being trustworthy and dependable,
being visionary and inspiring, communication knowledge and expertise, ethical values and
orientation, relationship-building abilities, strategic decision making capability, and team
collaboration ability.
A five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree was used to measure
the extent to which respondents agreed that students develop leadership skills through each of 17
items or PRSSA activities: membership in PRSSA, attendance at PRSSA chapter events, PRSSA
chapter leadership (officer or member of chapter executive board), leadership of a student-run
firm, participation in a student-run firm, hosting an annual PRSSA regional activity, attendance
at a regional PRSSA activity, attendance at the national PRSSA conference, Bateman team
participation, Bateman team leadership, participation on a Finalist Bateman team, participation
on an Honorably Mention Bateman team, receiving a national PRSSA scholarship, attendance at
a PRSSA Leadership Rally, attendance at a PRSSA National Assembly, and service as a
National Committee member.
For these same 17 items, respondents were asked about the extent to which they track
students after graduation and whether they believe students who have participated in these 17
activities are likely to exhibit leadership qualities in the workplace or their communities after
graduation. The survey also included a subset of questions for faculty advisers of the Bateman
Case Study Competition. Forty of the 126 respondents indicated that they had advised at least
one Bateman team in the past. Forty represents about half (51%) of the average total number of
advisers (79) who have submitted a Bateman intent-to enter form over the past 10 years,
according to the PRSSA Manager of Student Programs. It should be noted, however, that the
number of actual submissions every year is at least 10-25% lower than the number of teams who
submit the intent-to-enter form. For example, 94 teams submitted intent-to-enter forms this year,
but only 70 actually submitted the entry in March.
Among the questions for the subset of faculty advisers who had advised Bateman teams
were:
1. How likely are you to exhibit the following qualities (the same 10 qualities as listed in the
question for all PRSSA faculty advisers) of excellent leadership in your role as faculty adviser to
your chapter‘s Bateman Case Study Competition team?
2. To what extent are the following experiences required for students to participate in PRSSA
Bateman teams that you advise? Bateman faculty advisers were asked to respond to a five-point
Likert scale (very little extent to very great extent) about these seven experiences: Formal
leadership training, participation in student organizations other than PRSSA, leadership of
student organizations, internship or other work experience, service-learning experience,
academic excellence, and combination of two or more of the above mentioned experiences.
3. What most closely represents your role in the formation of your PRSSA Bateman team(s) for
your chapter? Respondents selected one answer among: I decide, I decide with our team‘s
professional adviser, I decide along with a review panel including students, I have no role.
Students select the team.
This study was funded with a research grant from the Plank Center.
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Findings
The descriptive data indicated that almost 40% of the respondents were 31-45 years of
age, and almost 28 percent were 56-65 years of age, and the majority (64%) were female.
Almost half (43%) had between 10 and 20 years of public relations experience. Thirty percent
had fewer than 10 years public relations experience, and 27% had more than 20 years of public
relations experience. Almost half (46%) had fewer than 10 years experience teaching at a
college or university, 35% had between 10 and 20 years, and 19% had more than 20 years
teaching experience.
Among their chapters‘ activities, almost 53% said they had advised a chapter with a
student-run firm, 29% have advised a chapter that has hosted a regional activity, and almost 6
percent have advised a national conference host chapter. Six percent have advised a chapter that
has received one Teahan award, and seven percent have advised a chapter that has received
multiple Teahan awards. The majority, obviously (87%) have never received a Teahan award.
Similarly, the majority (68%) have not advised a Bateman Case Study Competition. Ten percent
have advised one team, and 23% have advised multiple teams.
Almost everyone (92%) said they believed it is their responsibility to facilitate leadership
development for their chapter members. Faculty advisers said they relied to a great or very great
extent on the following four sources for their own leadership development: 1. individual
initiative and desire with 92% (n=116) , 2. on-the-job experiences with 88% (n=111), 3.
examples set by excellent role models with 79% (n=100), and 4. powerful personal experiences
or events with 77% (n=97).
Faculty advisers reported that they are equally ―very likely‖ to exhibit communication
knowledge and expertise and being trustworthy and dependable with 68% (n=86). The second
most likely quality is ethical values and orientation with 64% being very likely to exhibit this
quality (n=80). Third is the ability to demonstrate the value of public relations with 62%
(n=78).
Among the PRSSA activities which help students develop leadership skills are PRSSA
chapter leadership with 79% of the respondents strongly agreeing (n=89), leadership of a
student-run firm with 65% (n=73), service as a National Committee member with 47% n=53),
and Bateman team leadership with 45% (n=51). Students who participated in the following
activities are tracked after graduation to a very great extent according to more than half of the
respondents: member of host committee for national PRSSA conference with 74% (n=83),
member of a national finalist Bateman team with 72% (n=81), member of host committee for
PRSSA regional activity with 69% (n=78), National Committee member with 66% (n=75), and
member of a Bateman team recognized with honorable mention with 65% (n=73). Faculty
advisers say they track to some extent PRSSA officers with 34% (n=38) and all PRSSA
members with 48% (n=54). The likelihood of keeping track of PRSSA members after
graduation is important in regard to faculty advisers‘ perception of the degree to which students
exhibit leadership qualities in the workplace or their communities after graduation. Generally,
one would expect the perception to be more accurate if the faculty adviser tracks a student after
graduation.
Sixty-four percent (n=72) of faculty advisers strongly agree that PRSSA officers are
likely to exhibit leadership qualities in the workplace or in their communities. Fifty-three
percent (n=60) mildly agree that PRSSA members who participated in a student-run firm would
likely exhibit leadership qualities in the workplace or in their communities, and 48% (n=54)
mildly agree that PRSSA membership alone leads to leadership after graduation. For all other
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activities, most respondents are neutral about whether the activities lead to a display of
leadership after graduation.
Regarding the subset of questions for faculty advisers of Bateman teams, about 32% of
the sample (n=40) answered these questions. The top quality of excellent leadership (reported as
very likely to exhibit) was the ability to solve problems and produce results with 75% (n=30).
Next were two qualities equally very likely to be exhibited with 70% (n=28): ability to
demonstrate the value of public relations and being trustworthy and dependable. The third most
likely with 68% (n=27) is team collaboration. A close fourth were ethical values and orientation
and strategic decision making ability, both with 65% (n=26).
From the list of criteria for Bateman team participation, the only significant criteria
required to a very great extent was participation in student organizations with 35% (n=14). The
three significant items required to a great extent were academic excellence with 40% (n=16),
combination of two or more of the above mentioned experiences 33% (n=13), and internship or
other work experience (n=12). Almost half of the Bateman faculty advisers (47% or n= 15) said
they have no role in selection of the team, that students select the team members. Thirty-one
percent (n=10) of the sample reported that they decide alone, and 19% (n=6) said they decide
along with a review panel including students. Only one respondent decides along with the
team‘s professional adviser. Ten respondents marked ―other,‖ and six of the 40 who answered
the other Bateman adviser questions skipped the question.
Discussion and Conclusion
The results of this survey serve to solidify the implications of the Meng et al study for
future research and practical implications for educators and practitioners (Meng et al). While the
Meng et al study quantified the leadership traits deemed most important by practitioners, this
study uses those traits to demonstrate which traits faculty perceive they practice most in their
role as PRSSA faculty advisers. This is important because of the implicit role of faculty advisers
as leadership role models for PRSSA members. In fact, since faculty advisers overwhelmingly
reported that they believe they are responsible for the facilitation of student leadership
development of PRSSA members, one can conclude that the role of PRSSA as a co-curricular
activity is a critical component of the undergraduate experience for students who attend a
university or college that sponsors a PRSSA chapter, complementing students‘ coursework,
internships and other extra-curricular activities. Thus, the role of the faculty adviser is especially
significant in the leadership learning outcomes for students who participate in PRSSA.
While a considerable percentage of faculty advisers were 56 or older (28%), it is
significant that almost two-thirds of the sample were 45 or younger and that 30% had fewer than
10 years of public relations experience. It is worthwhile to note here that the pre-survey
interviews indicated that the advisers who considerable public relations work experience were
the only ones who had experienced formal leadership training in the past.
The faculty advisers‘ sources for leadership development were the same as the
practitioners in the Meng et al study: individual initiative and desire, on-the-job experiences and
examples set by excellent role models. Even though this study reports faculty adviser‘s
perception of the qualities of leadership they exhibit in their role as faculty advisers, and the
Meng et al study reported the practitioners‘ perceived importance of leadership qualities, the top
quality was similar. Both advisers and practitioners emphasized communication knowledge and
expertise; however, the advisers put equal importance on being trustworthy and dependable.
Beyond that, the results were different. The other highly-rated leadership qualities for faculty
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advisers were ethical values and orientation whereas problem-solving ability and strategic
decision-making capability were the other highest-rated qualities in the Meng et al study. This
difference is to be expected considering the teaching and advising role of the faculty respondent.
However, the difference calls for more examination about how faculty advisers can best facilitate
the leadership qualities of problem-solving ability and strategic decision-making capability.
The subset of Bateman faculty advisers, however, showed slightly different results.
Bateman faculty advisers perceived that they exhibited most highly the leadership qualities of
problem-solving ability, next demonstrating the value of public relations and being trustworthy
and dependable. A close fourth was ethical values and orientation and strategic decision making
ability.
The variation in tracking PRSSA members after graduation was widely divergent. The
results seem to suggest that only the students who participate in high profile leadership activities
are tracked to a very great extent after graduation: National PRSSA Conference host committee
members, Bateman national finalist team members, PRSSA regional activity host committee
members, National Committee members, and Bateman honorable mention teams. The fact that
only 34% of the faculty advisers who responded to this survey (which is only a percentage of all
faculty advisers) track to ―some extent‖ PRSSA officers, the chapter leaders, is disturbing.
Imperceptible were the gender differences in the full sample of PRSSA faculty advisers,
similar to Meng et al. Other than correlation for gender, the sample size of 126 was too small to
run multivariate tests. The only other bivariate item was ―do you consider it your responsibility
as faculty adviser to facilitate student leadership development in your role as faculty adviser?‖
Since the answer to that question was overwhelmingly positive (92%), a correlation for that
factor would be meaningless.
Recommendations
Since it is indisputable that PRSSA faculty advisers consider their responsibility to
facilitate student leadership development of PRSSA members, it is incumbent upon practitioners
and researchers to ensure that such facilitation occurs with excellence. The similar identification
among practitioners and faculty advisers of leadership qualities and sources of leadership
development is encouraging. Now that Meng et al have defined excellent leadership qualities,
PRSSA and PRSA websites, training opportunities, and job responsibilities should clearly
identify these as standards. In fact, explicit statement of the responsibility for student leadership
development, or the facilitation thereof, should be clarified in the responsibilities of the faculty
adviser. Perhaps, even, the addition of leadership as one of the benefits to PRSSA membership
or to the mission should be considered.
If one way to encourage student leadership development is to make role models more
accessible to practitioners to students, as Meng et al suggests, then the most accessible role
models, public relations professors, particularly faculty advisers of PRSSA, should receive the
same kind of leadership training that PRSA and PRSSA chapter leaders receive. The annual
roundtable training session at the National PRSSA Conference for faculty advisers is a valuable
resource about important organizational and chapter topics and activities. The addition of a
leadership topic, perhaps led by a student leadership development expert, would be valuable.
Perhaps another consideration that could be helpful for faculty advisers is to be invited and/or
encouraged to attend either a session designed especially for them at the annual PRSSA
Leadership Rally or a PRSA Leadership Rally where they would hear experts talk about student
leadership development in addition to the necessary components of PRSA/PRSSA organizational
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topics. Of course, not all faculty advisers would need or want to attend every year, but an
occasional workshop about student leadership development would be helpful, especially for
young faculty or professionals-turned-faculty who are assigned the responsibility of PRSSA
Faculty Adviser. If leadership is a critical skill for undergraduates to learn, the faculty
responsible for the co-curricular organization should be well equipped to guide and nurture their
own student leaders and aspiring leaders in public relations. Perhaps co-programming with
college or university administrators in Student Development could enhance the bridge between
academics and leadership development. Better yet, if funding could be secured, leadership
fellowships, similar to the Educator Fellowships offered by the Plank Center for Leadership
Development could assist faculty advisers to participate in an appropriate leadership institute or
to shadow practitioners who have been designated as effective leaders in their workplaces. On a
more limited basis, content similar to the Learning to Teach CD available at the PRSA store and
Learning to Teach: Taking PR Into the Classroom workshop could be created especially for
faculty advisers – about student leadership development, not just about PRSSA chapter activities
and rules. Such a resource would be valued not just for the information, but would help faculty
advisers better leverage their position among students, among university colleagues and among
the professional community. Strengthening connections between the academy and practitioners
has long been held as a priority for PRSSA and the PRSA Educators Academy, and the PRSA
Educational Affairs committee. Identification of practitioners who have been recognized for
their outstanding leadership and having them share their expertise with academics would be
extremely useful in the classroom, of course, but also to faculty advisers – not just student
members of PRSSA.
For PRSSA and possibly PRSA to enhance and add web links for faculty advisers,
including timely email or listserv reminders to view the online information, would be a low-cost
way to remind faculty advisers of student leadership development tools. Moreover, the PRSSA
Chapter Handbook and perhaps the prssa.org website could offer more up to date leadership
training information or best practices from faculty advisers similar to the section about best
chapter practices in the Chapter Handbook. Also, since the responsibilities listed in the Chapter
handbook imply facilitation of student leadership development, the duty should be explicitly
stated with resources available for faculty who have not received training in student leadership
development. While some may perceive email reminders to web content about leadership as
unnecessary or even beyond the parameters of an academic, the fact remains that the work of a
PRSSA faculty adviser often is not an academic‘s highest priority because of tenure and
promotion criteria. Faculty advisers likely would welcome such information, especially those
who may not have receive university resources to attend the national PRSA or PRSSA
conference annually. Indeed, the cost of registration for the full International PRSA Conference
is prohibitive, but the low ranking of formal education programs at universities and PRSA as
resources for leadership development for practitioners and for faculty advisers was surprising
(Meng et al). Possibly a conference registration or discounted registration could be offered as
incentive for recipients of a new award created for a faculty adviser who excels in student
leadership development. Far-fetched? Maybe, but the idea symbolizes the need for a new
paradigm of identifying and rewarding best practices in student leadership development, perhaps
beyond the traditional Teahan recognition. Not far-fetched is the notion of leveraging the
expertise of chapters and advisers who receive PRSSA national recognition in terms of sharing
best practices. For example, tracking graduates should be a priority for faculty advisers.
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The recognition for long-term faculty advisers at the annual awards banquet at the annual
PRSSA national conference is a step in the right direction. Recognition of the role of the faculty
advisers in student leadership development, especially for public relations students, can
strengthen the position of faculty seeking tenure and promotion. In fact, stronger positioning of
the role of faculty adviser as instrumental to students‘ leadership development and clearer
identification of tools to enhance one‘s own leadership ability and to nurture leadership
development in one‘s PRSSA members might assist faculty advisers as they seek to secure funds
from their academic unit, college, or even the student development unit. A stronger partnership
with student development administrators could be mutually beneficial. In fact such partnerships
with leadership experts could strengthen faculty adviser‘s knowledge of leadership skills,
especially conflict negotiation and team building skills.
Undoubtedly, the role of faculty adviser to a PRSSA chapter is just that – an adviser. The
survey results that indicate how Bateman teams are selected shows the inconsistency with which
faculty relate to the term ―adviser.‖ One might assume that the ideal response for a faculty
adviser to this question would be that they decide along with a review panel that includes
students. Only six respondents selected this option, however. Almost half said that they have no
role, and 31% said that they decide alone. These statistics are understandable, however,
considering the challenge of confidentiality of having students participate in the review process
and the unpredictability of a strong cohort of student reviewers. Therein lies the conundrum for
a faculty member who considers his or her advising role with a minimalistic approach. For a
chapter to thrive without the continuity of a strong adviser familiar with PRSSA chapter best
practices is difficult, and the difficulty is multiplied for a faculty adviser to facilitate leadership
development without adequate resources and recognition. Students who come to college with a
variety of ill-informed notions about leadership should not be expected to learn best practices
from a few peers who have had excellent leadership training in high school. To rely completely
on high school leadership experience and the initiative of students could be more of a disservice
than a system in which faculty advisers have a stronger role with stronger educational
background or training in student leadership development.
Limitations
Of course, effective chapter leadership is not limited to national recognition of PRSSA
sanctioned activities. Many faculty advisers and chapter officers are effective leaders even if
they have not won a Teahan award or participated on a national level. Such accomplishment was
used as only one outward measure of effectiveness. Along those lines, the survey could have
been expanded to include questions about whether respondents had advised PRSSA chapters that
have submitted a Teahan chapter award entry, are accredited through PRSA or have earned a
public relations degree, have advised a chapter who has applied or obtained Certification (CEPR)
through the Educational Affairs committee of PRSA, have ASJMC accreditation or the extent to
which they encourage Associate membership or track students who take advantage of PRSA
Associate membership. Establishing cause and effect of PRSSA membership or leadership
opportunities would be difficult, but future research about the work and community lives of
PRSSA graduates could illuminate strengths and weaknesses of the leadership development
experience of PRSSA and the significance of the role of faculty and professional advisers and the
extent to which their leadership qualities or experience were influencers.
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References
Bruce Berger, Bryan Reber, & William Heyman, ―You can‘t homogenize success in
communication management: PR leaders take diverse paths to top.‖ International Journal
of Strategic Communication, 1 (2007), 53–71.
Jounghwa Choi and Yoonhyeun Choi, ―Behavioral dimensions of public relations leadership in
organizations.‖ Journal of Communication Management 13(2009), 292-309.
Alan Cohen. ―The 10 essential talents of leadership: going beyond PR plans and new business
pitches,‖ Public Relations Tactics, April 2011.
Raanan Lipshitz and Leon Mann. ―Leadership and decision making: William R. Ruckelshaus
and the Environmental Protection Agency,‖ Journal of Leadership and Organizational
Studies 11 (4), 41-54. Summer 2005.
Juan Meng, Bruce Berger, Karla Gower, William Heyman. ―A test of excellent leadership in
public relations: Key qualities, valuable sources, and distinctive leadership perceptions.‖
Journal of Public Relations Research 24(2012), 18-36.
D. Quinn Mills, ―Moving up: five leadership skills to master.‖ Public Relations Tactics, April
2007.
Bonita Dostal Neff, ―Integrating leadership processes: redefining the principles course,‖ Public
Relations Review 28 (2002), 137-147.
Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations. http://plankcenter.ua.edu
Public Relations Society of America. http://prssa.org
Public Relations Student Society of America. http://www.prssa.org/about/Join/history
Peter B. Smith and Mark F. Peterson. Leadership, organizations and culture: An event
management model. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage, 1988.
Temple University. http://www.temple.edu/bulletin/Academic_programs/
schools_colleges/sct/programs/stoc/stoc.shtm
Connie Vance and Elaine Larson. ―Leadership research in business and health care,‖ Journal of
Nursing Scholarship 34, 165-171.
Kevin Warneke. ―What becomes a leader most? Leadership studies offer insight.‖ Public
Relations Tactics April 2008, p. 22.
Kelly P. Werder and Derina Holtzhausen, ―An analysis of the influence of public relations
department leadership style on public relations strategy use and effectiveness,‖ Journal of
Public Relations Research 21 (2009), 404-427.
Gary Yukl. ―Managerial leadership: A review of theory and rsearch,‖ Journal of Management 15
(2), 251-289. June 1989.
156

PEDAGOGICAL
POSTERS
157

Using Real World Experience to Develop Public
Relations Student's Writing Skills
Rochelle R. Daniel
Bowie State University
rdaniel@bowiestate.edu
Abstract
The poster presentation would focus on a practice that this instructor has implemented
into a public relations program to improve the writing skills of public relations undergraduate
students at Bowie State University (BSU), in Bowie, Md. The practice includes initiatives that
are similar to how public relations practitioners actually improve their writing skills in the
workplace but that have been tweaked for the classroom. An explanation of the similarities in the
workplace and how this instructor's initiatives are helping BSU public relations students to
improve their writing skills will be included in the presentation. The initiatives are as follows:
1) increasing the number of writing assignments in classes;
2) incorporating a variety of writing assignments (at least one-page long) that focus on topics
related to class material;
3) developing and using writing rubrics that help students improve their weak areas; and
4) editing with comments that tell students their problem areas and solutions (which include
rewrites) to correct their mistakes
Based on this instructor's 20 years of experience in the public relations field, from entry
level to managerial, she knows that public relations practitioners need to have excellent writing
skills to be successful in the workplace; and that they hone their writing skills by writing a
variety of materials from press releases to speeches to web content, and by revising and rewriting
based on the feedback from their supervisors and others they work for. By using real world
experience to develop the writing skills of public relations students, the instructor's ultimate goal
is to increase the marketability of BSU's public relations students.
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Professional Development Assignment
Rebecca A. Deemer, Ed.D.
University of Indianapolis
rdeemer@uindy.edu
Christi D. Larimer
University of Indianapolis
While conducting ten focus groups with 44 public relations professionals totaling over
360 total years of experience, common themes of desired educational improvement immerged.
Along with hoping that novice practitioners were better writers, the desire for professionalization
was also prevalent. While the foci of curricula often include tactical refinement and
improvements in critical thinking, educators frequently bypass coaching the professional actions
of students to prepare them to enter the workforce. Based on findings of said focus groups (both
the deficiency of professionalization and the suggestions that may improve the deficiency), a
professional development assignment was constructed and administered to students at the
University of Indianapolis (UIndy) COMM 140, Applied Public Relations.
Applied Public Relations (COMM140) is a course that is taught every semester at UIndy.
Students not only construct public relations tactics for clients—they strategize and execute plans.
This course requires student-led public relations teams to service not-for-profit organizations
throughout the entire semester. Each team (led by a student account manager) is assigned a
different organization. Each organization has a different objective. The teams not only formulate
a strategic plan; they bring the plan to fruition (with the time constraints of the semester possibly
leaving minimal work to be executed by the client). The students are in a business relationship
with the client for the duration of the semester. The student managers must learn to manage not
only the client relationship, but the teams as well. Having five to six members per group, the
subordinate students also gain valuable experience in working with a team and performing public
relations and business activities. This course is open to any student with no pre-requisites. A
first semester freshman may enroll. The students are encouraged to take the course as many
times as they wish during their tenure at the University. Those who are engaged in the course
are by default a member of the on-campus public relations agency, Top Dog Communication
(TDC). No student can be part of this agency in any given semester without enrolling in the
course.
As this is the ―applied course‖ in the curriculum, this assignment fit nicely as it helps
students begin to network and understand the concept of always staying current in one‘s
profession—an applied aspect that is quite noteworthy, but is usually lost as most applied
courses focus solely on client work. Although the assignment is part of the Applied PR course, it
could certainly be utilized in any public relations course.
The Professional Development Assignment
The students must accrue points for professional activities all semester. They earn points
and summarize them on a spreadsheet (with attachments proving their claims) accompanied with
an up-to-date resume. Ten professional development points must be accrued. Examples accrued
points include PRSSA meeting attendance (1 point), following 5 PR professionals on Twitter (1
point), PRSA event attendance (2 points), shadowing a PR pro (3 points), and attendance at
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egional and national PRSA activities (4 and 6 points respectively). The students may propose
other activities for additional consideration.
The Outcome
Local Luncheons
The attendance at local PRSA luncheons more than tripled over past years‘ attendance
(prior to implementing the professional development assignment). Networking from these
luncheons and other activities have already been directly linked to internships and jobs. One of
the students benefitted greatly and explained, ―Through regularly attending PRSA Luncheons
during my time at UIndy, I met the owner of a PR firm in Indianapolis. That meeting let to an
internship. After graduation, that relationship lead to a freelance position, this then evolved into a
full-time publicist position.‖ Another student expressed the ways in which regular attendance
helped them as well, ―I made a contact with someone from the Indianapolis Indians and actually
got to go to his office and sit down with him for a bit. It was an opportunity for him to look at my
resume and also gain some factual knowledge about his job. Lastly, it helped to boost my
confidence by realizing that talking to professionals isn't as scary as I thought.‖ An advanced
student that regularly attends luncheons stated, ―I love building my networks at the luncheons. I
try to attend at least two a semester. I'm very thankful that I get to attend PRSA Luncheons
because it has helped develop me into the young professional I am today.‖
Conferences
Furthermore, there have been a total of 30 students who have attended four regional
activities since the inception of the assignment, as opposed to five attending one regional activity
the year prior. Beyond numbers in attendance, this activity showed proof of professional
development as well. One student that was new to the program attended a regional conference
last spring and explained that she was unsure of public relations prior to conference attendance.
She found the speakers at the conference to be so helpful and informative that she was able to
make a big decision in regards to her career path. An advanced student that attended the national
conference in Orlando shared, ―From attendance at the National Conference last year, I
confirmed the area within public relations that I want to work in. I was a member of a panel for
student-run firms at the conference. After speaking, many students came to the front to seek
advice for running a smaller agency. Because I want to become a professor and love to mentor, I
found the experience to be very fulfilling and it helped me to realize that I could do this for the
rest of my life.‖ One student explained that by attending both national and regional conferences,
she has made contacts with individuals she would have never met before. One of those
individuals even met up with her to look over her resume which helped the student to gain an
internship.
Job Shadowing
Those who job shadowed learned much beyond the day-to-day operations of public
relations functions. For example, one student job shadowed with a local PR agency and found
that she loved the fast-paced setting. She stated, ―I was unsure about public relations and decided
to job shadow my first semester. I utilized the PRSA Half Day with a Pro and was able to
shadow at an agency. It showed me that this is something I could really do and helped me to add
a few people to my network.‖ While shadowing has proved to help students find their path, it
also helps to show students what areas they do not want to work within. One student who also
participated in Half Day with a Pro explained, ―I figured out which segment of PR I didn't want
to pursue as a future career. I had an idea of what this type of PR was but after shadowing a
professional for the day, I learned that it was not what I had expected it to be. The opportunity to
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shadow a professional opened my eyes to real world PR. The assignment pushed me out of my
comfortable classroom atmosphere and into the professional world.‖
The long-term evaluation will continue by tracking how well connected to PRSA alums
remain, and by also looking at professional advancement as a result of contacts made via early
(pre-professional) networking, as well as attendance trends in regional and national activities.
Overall, this assignment has shown promise of professionalization in a very short timeframe.
However, it should be noted that 100% of students surveyed in Top Dog Communication stated
that they felt that the activities in Top Dog would help them achieve their professional goals in
the future. Before this assignment was instituted, only 86% agreed with this statement.
161

Mobile Learning and Perceptions of Risk:
Using Communication Technology to Teach Crisis Management
Sandra Duhé, Ph.D., APR
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
scduhe@gmail.com
Abstract
Risk communication is an inherent part of crisis communication. In this poster presentation,
conference attendees will learn about the rationale for, and see the products of, an exercise that
challenges students to capture and narrate images of what they perceive as ―risk‖ using mobile
technologies of their choice. Invariably, student productions are wide-ranging in themes,
interpretations, and emotions. The learning outcome is impactful and leaves a lasting impression
of the importance of co-orientation, mutual understanding, and research in crisis communication.
Specifically, students learn firsthand how perceptions of risk vary greatly across individuals and
often differ significantly from their own in unexpected ways. Consequently, they gain an
appreciation for the need to first understand the perception of affected publics before attempting
to communicate on behalf of their organizations before, during, or after a crisis.
162

Building Student Networking Skills: Facilitating Meaningful
Interactions Between Students and Public Relations Professionals
James M. Haney, Ph.D.
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Jim.Haney@uwsp.edu
Networking has long been considered a vital way for college students to connect with
public relations professionals. Such connections can help students secure internships, land jobs
and build long-term industry relationships. The opportunity to network is a key motivation for
student participation in PRSSA meetings, attendance at PRSA functions and involvement in
fieldtrips to public relations worksites. Those face-to-face interactions with communication
professionals have been supplemented in recent years with the chance to build valuable
relationships with industry leaders through LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter and other social media
platforms. In spite of the larger range of media tools and the consistent encouragement of
professors and public relations practitioners, many students find it difficult or are unwilling to
make meaningful connections and build rapport with positive role models.
This paper reports on a special annual weeklong event that allows students at a public
Midwestern university to interact with alumni who have achieved success in their professional
careers. The Division of Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point (UWSP)
has about 450 majors and 75 minors studying public relations, media studies, arts management
and interpersonal/organizational communication as well as some 30 graduate students seeking a
master‘s degree. UWSP with some 9,500 students is consistently ranked as one of the top 10
comprehensive public universities in the Midwest by U.S. News and World Report. Most of the
university‘s students come from the Upper Midwest. About 48% of the student body is first
generation college students and many students grew up in small towns and rural areas.
Professionals who interact with UWSP students in school, in the workplace or through
internships and externships report they are polite and demonstrate a strong work ethic.
Though students at UWSP have been told numerous times about the need to network and
the value of connections has been reinforced for the many students who attend regional or
national PRSSA conferences, many are reluctant to engage professionals in one-on-one or small
group conversations. The problem doesn‘t appear to be unique to UWSP students. ―Avoiding
personal interactions harms the competency of young professionals … (It‘s difficult for students)
to speak to respected professionals during interviews because they lack the necessary nonverbal
behaviors,‖ according to Dr. Kelley Crowley of Shenandoah University in Virginia. (1)
Social media use among college students has grown substantially and some suggest they
might be using social networking as a substitute for face-to-face interactions. The Pew Research
Center found that nearly three out of four online American teens (73%) use social media
networking websites (2) and nearly one third (31%) use Twitter (3) – more than any other age
group. Nevertheless, only 10% of 18-29 year olds say they use social media to connect with
others who share a hobby or interest compared to 71% who say they use such platforms to stay in
touch with current friends or reconnect with old ones. (4) Therefore, many students refrain from
building professional relationship through social media too.
Though some students do prefer the less threatening nature of connecting with
professionals through emails or social media platforms, all college students will need to build
connections in person. According to a Forbes Insights survey of more than 750 business
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professionals, the vast majority of executives still feel face-to-face communication is essential to
business. Indeed, eight out of 10 respondents said they preferred face-to-face meetings. (5)
Understanding the value of networking skills for students hoping to launch their
professional careers, the UWSP Division of Communication created Communication Week in
2010. The goals for the event are numerous and include providing excellent outside speakers to
discuss issues and careers in a wide variety of classes, maintaining effective relationships with
accomplished alumni, presenting outstanding role models for students to emulate and raising the
profile of the communication program on campus. Nevertheless, providing opportunities for
students to practice their networking skills is the cornerstone of the initiative.
The Division typically invites 16-18 alumni back to campus during the week prior to the
university‘s fall homecoming weekend. Each alum returns to campus for a day at their own
expense to talk to classes and meet with students in sessions called ―networking time.‖ The
visiting alumni generally arrive for morning refreshments with faculty at the beginning of the
day. Faculty members select alumni who can serve as valuable guest speakers for relevant topics
in two or three classes during their daylong visit. Students are encouraged in advance to engage
the guests by asking them questions during and after each class period. Each guest also is
scheduled for ―networking time,‖ promoted opportunities for informal conversations with
students in a nicely appointed conference room. In addition, some alumni are scheduled for
informal meetings with student organization members at PRSSA gatherings or to talk with
student leaders at the campus radio station, television station and newspaper.
In the course of the week, the alumni visit some 30 classes total and come in contact with
nearly every major in the program. Through their own interactions with the alumni, faculty
members try to demonstrate effective interactions with the visitors for students to observe and
replicate. Alumni are encouraged to write down the names of students they have contact with
who impress them the most. The alumni nominations are shared with Division faculty. Students
also are encouraged to collect business cards they receive after talking with the alumni. The
cards are not only valuable connections the students can follow up on, but they can be cited as
evidence of their successful networking efforts. At the end of the week, faculty, alumni and
students can nominate those who demonstrated the best networking skills for awards such as
business portfolios and gift certificates to the university bookstore.
Alumni participating in the event have been honored to be back on campus for the day
and have often been willing to travel substantial distances to return to their alma mater. It has
been important to bring in a variety of guests. Some have been away from campus for 20 years
or more and are in senior communication positions. Others graduated only a year or two ago and
are still in the early stages of their communication work. Having guests who are in various
stages of their professional careers provide diverse examples for students. Undergraduates can
learn from those who were in their shoes only a short time ago as well as professionals who have
attained substantial success during long careers. It also is important that returning alumni have
valuable messages that will contribute to their classroom visits so both instructors and students
find their guest lectures worthwhile.
UWSP will host its third Communication Week from October 15-18, 2012. In the first
Communication Week in 2010, the informal networking sessions were called ―office hours.‖
Unfortunately, that name seemed to scare students away and relatively few of them took time to
visit with the alumni in those periods. In 2011, the Division reframed the sessions as
―networking time.‖ In addition to being a more inviting and career-focused name, the Division
decided to work more aggressively to encourage students to participate. Students were given an
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incentive for demonstrating great involvement in the visits as they competed for excellence in
participation awards with winners determined based on the feedback provided by the alumni
visitors, faculty members and other students.
A news release about Communication Week, a special section for the Division‘s website,
a substantial printed program profiling the alumni and a variety of social media platforms help to
promote the event for students, the campus, the community and other alumni. Faculty members
enjoy hosting the returning alums during morning refreshments and a special lunch on the day of
their visits to renew friendships and acknowledge the successful careers of their former students.
Each visitor also is given a special commemorative paperweight for their office as a token of
appreciation for their involvement in the event.
Some students and faculty were skeptical about the value of the event prior to the first
Communication Week. Now most look forward to it and recognize that this event is helping
build student networking skills and raising the professional profile of the program. Campus
administrators have expressed their admiration and support for the event and view it as a model
program for stronger alumni connections at the university.
To assist other programs that might want to create a similar initiative to bolster alumni
relations
and encourage effective networking connections for students, the following planning guide is
offered:
A Timeline for Communication Week Planning
Time
Task
6 Months in Advance *Select dates for the event. Make sure the week does not conflict
with other major campus activities. Avoid difficult travel weather
if your university is in a state with harsh winter weather. Select
dates that line up with most of your classes.
3 to 6 Months in Advance *Invite alumni.
*Secure commitments and lock in dates and classes for their visits.
3 Months in Advance *Reserve conference room for networking time and locations for
morning hospitality and the faculty/alumni lunches.
*Hire photographer to take pictures of the alumni when they are on
campus.
2 Months in Advance *Obtain biographies and high resolution color photos of the alumni
for promotional materials.
*Confirm meeting times for alumni visits with student
organizations.
*Write and design promotional program booklet and prepare
posters and a PowerPoint promotional slide show for the building
monitor.
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*Prepare copy for the Division‘s website and Facebook sites as
well as messages for Twitter feeds as the event approaches.
1 Month in Advance *Order engraved paperweights as gifts of appreciation for alumni.
*Obtain prizes for student networking prize winners.
*Invite university administrators to visit during the week.
3 to 4 Weeks in Advance *Arrange catering services for morning refreshments and daily
faculty/alumni lunches.
2 Weeks in Advance *Begin promotion of the event in communication classes.
*Provide networking advice for students and explain the awards
process for those who participate effectively.
* Secure faculty and student hosts for each alumni visitor.
1 Week in Advance *Send out news release to promote the event.
*Distribute promotional program booklets to all Communication
classes.
Citations
(1) Megan Puglisi, ―Social networking hurts the communication skills of college
students,‖ The Daily Athenaeum (www.thedaonline.com), October 13, 2010.
(2) Amanda Lenhart, Kristen Purcell, Aaron Smith and Kathryn Zickuhr, ―Social Media
and Young Adults,‖ Pew Internet & American Life Project, February 3, 2010.
(3) Aaron Smith and Joanna Brenner, ―Twitter Use 2012, Pew Internet & American Life
Project, May 12, 2012.
(4) Aaron Smith, ―Why Americans Use Social Media, Pew Internet & American Life
Project, November 15, 2011.
(5) ―Business Meetings: The Case for Face-to-Face,‖ Forbes Insights Survey 2009,
www.Forbes.com.
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Populating the E- Portfolio: Reflections on the
“Builders‟" Service-Learning Project
Ann D. Jabro
Robert Morris University
Jabro@rmu.edu
Abstract
An upper division course in public relations was enhanced with the inclusion of the ―Builders‖
service-learning project that was designed to address manpower shortage in the university‘s
public relations department, promote the university‘s core value of ―individuals matter‖ and
generate deliverables for a Flickr presentation and e-portfolios. Student pre- and post-test
surveys support that public presentations of e-portfolios are a phenomenal motivation technique
regarding career preparation and competition in the public relations field.
Background
The National Service-Learning Clearinghouse defines service-learning as a teaching and
learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to
enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities‖
(http://www.servicelearning.org/what-service-learning). Numerous research studies support
service-learning projects provide students with opportunities to apply theory to practical public
relations situations; develop leadership, team building and problem-solving skills; and, cultivate
professionalism (Strage, 2000). The course, Management, Message Design and Content
Creation, an upper-division course in the public relations sequence, was designed to empower
students to learn how to work in teams to solve a public relations problem, develop strategy,
generate key messages and produce mediated messages for a target audience. This paper
explores how a service-learning project (Builders) was designed to address the following areas:
1) support the core values of a university with limited staff; 2) promote student growth through
the application of public relations theory to a real world problem, 3) develop assignments
designed to populate e-portfolios; 4) expose students to traditional and social media platforms;
and, 5) promote the University‘s public relations curriculum through the successful execution of
the project. The presentation is organized as follows: 1) overview of the Middle States Re-
Accreditation effort; 2) Re-Accreditation and core values as the impetus for the Builders‘
project; 3) students‘ pre– and post-test results; and, 4) Flickr and effective e-portfolios.
Middle States Re-Accreditation Effort
According to the Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE),
―Accreditation is a significant way that colleges and universities can give the public confidence
that they provide a quality education‖ (2009, p.1). The purpose of accreditation is to conduct a
thorough review of 14 standards designed to assess the academic and operations components of
the university. The process is designed and recorded in a Self-Study that is vetted by a team and
approved by MSCHE. While the process spans 36 months, active participation by reaccreditation
teams takes 12 to 18 months to collect data and prepare draft reports. The results of
the extensive data collection and analyses provide the opportunity for the organization to identify
areas for improvement/embellishment and a mechanism to assess the processes related thereto on
a continuous basis. MSCHE assigns an external peer review team to analyze the Self-Study
methodology and findings by not only reviewing the report but also during a site visit conducting
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interviews with faculty, staff and students before making an accreditation recommendation to
MSCHE as well as documenting necessary changes for the university to make within a specified
time period. MSCHE officers review the external peer review team‘s report and vote to
reaccredit the organization. According to the Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education,
this vote is an ―expression of confidence in an institution‘s mission and goals, its performance,
and its resources (2006, p.iv). This assessment cycle demonstrates continuous quality
improvement and benefits both the institution and the student in the following ways: students
who attend accredited universities are eligible for Federal student financial aid and state financial
aid or other funds/grants; employers sometimes limit tuition assistance to accredited schools;
colleges/universities accept credits transferred from other accredited programs; and, some state
licensure examinations will only allow students to sit for the exams who have attended
accredited universities/colleges. Once a state/university earns accreditation, it is subjected to a
periodic review in five years to ascertain the progress the university is making and a reaccreditation
effort occurs every 10 years. The university recruits volunteers to participate in the
review process to ensure an accurate depiction of the current state of affairs is presented and
appropriate planning for the future occurs. Furthermore, MSCHE requires that the Self-Study be
a community effort and numerous opportunities for community review are provided.
Re-Accreditation Volunteer Work Teams Motivate the Builders‘ Project
The Re-accreditation project commenced in September 2009 with the appointment of a
chair and selection of the Steering Committee Co-chairs. In January 2010 the project‘s chair
solicited participation from the entire university community during Town Hall meetings and the
faculty convocation. A follow-up electronic communication served as a reminder about the
invitation to serve. A total of 105 faculty, staff, administrators and students participated in the 30
months effort. One of the core values the university espouses is ―individuals matter‖. The chair
provided a list of requirements to lead the effort; one of which was that volunteers would be
recognized for their contributions. Due to the large number of participants, it became obvious
that the university‘s public relations office would be hard pressed to complete this task in a
timely manner. Thus, the chair devised a service learning project to acknowledge the individual
contributors, which was approved by the Provost and supported by the Dean of the School. The
plan was titled the ―Builders Project‖ and featured two public relations professors team-teaching
an upper division course in public relations. Specifically, public relations students would learn
to photograph, interview, and write feature stories about the 105 volunteers affiliated with the
effort. The photos and stories would be edited for a Flickr presentation and compiled for a
scrapbook to share with the external peer reviewers during their site visit and at the
convocation/Town Hall Meetings after MSCHE voted on the re-accreditation visit.
Builders‘ Project/Course Description
Twenty-three students enrolled in Management, Message Design and Content Creation
during the spring 2012 semester. The course was team-taught by two public relations faculty
who divided the course content and development of application exercises based on their areas of
expertise. Guest lecturers supplemented the curriculum. The weekly knowledge/application
units are provided in Table 1: Course Components.
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Table 1: Management, Message Design and Content Creation Course Components
Session 1: working in groups, leadership/followership, conflict styles and resolution strategies
Session 2: interviewing and writing feature stories and APA Stylebook
Session 3: Interviews, Blogging and E-Portfolios
Session 4: Writing the News Release, resume and biographical sketch
Session 5: Media and Social Media conventions
Session 6: Writing the Media Advisory
Session 7: Environmental Photography
Session 8: Pitching the feature story
Session 9: Converged Media
Session 10: Photoshop
Session 11: Radio and studio production
Session 12: Pulling it all Together
Sessions 13 – 15: E-portfolio presentations and critiques
Eighteen students completed the course. After students created team contracts, developed
logos and business cards and bi-weekly evaluation instruments, they were assigned Middle
States volunteers. Participants were responsible for taking and ―fixing‖ photos, conducting
interviews, preparing feature stories, and submitting the story for publication in the volunteer‘s
local newspaper. The products were also to be used in the final project for the course which was
the development of an e-portfolio. Each student was responsible for interviewing a minimum of
five Middle States‘ volunteers. Approximately 10 volunteers were not available to be
interviewed due to new employment opportunities, graduation, or no desire to be showcased. The
instructors received numerous e-mails commending the students for their professionalism and
enthusiasm. One faculty member suggested the students learn how to approach the interview in
a more professional manner, such as not calling the faculty member by her first name. When
groups struggled with completing their interviews on time, other members of the class were
invited to earn extra credit for completing the task.
Student Pre-Post Test Results
Pretest: Students completed a pre-course assessment on the first day of class. The assessment
requested students to respond to the following information: exposure to, and, interest in, servicelearning;
knowledge of converged media, social media, photography; writing, interviewing and
editing skills. The results supported that students had limited exposure to service learning with
less that 10% of the class reporting prior experience while 90% of the class indicated interest in
working on a service-learning project. Students indicated they were aware but not savvy in
converged media; aware and very savvy in social media; unaware and un-savvy in photography
and identified deficient to moderate skill in writing, interviewing and editing. Five students
dropped the course during the semester. Two students had difficulty getting to class; one student
felt insecure about her writing ability; and two students couldn‘t manage the workload. Students
expressed concern about their time management skills and having sufficient time to participate in
a service-learning activity that required interviewing, writing and photographing a campus
professional.
Posttest: The post-test instrument was a revised version of the pre-test with similar questions
reworked to promote reflection. The majority of students valued the service learning component
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of the course because the deliverables populated their e-portfolios. Of the five teams working on
the project, one was exceptionally functional because all members contributed to the process;
two were functional but suffered from lethargic members and two were dysfunctional with
several students not contributing to most phases of the project. Of the two dysfunctional teams,
one lost three of its members and the other lost two of its members which created difficulty in
completing interviews and writing feature stories. Students identified perseverance and effective
management as skills they needed to hone with respect to task completion. ―I realized that my
interviewee was much busier than I was and I needed to do as you told us to do right from the
start. I didn‘t contact my interviewee soon enough and it took us forever to find a mutually
convenient date to complete the interview and take pictures.‖
Flickr/Effective E-Portfolios
Flickr: Students preparef their feature stories which were peer reviewed by four colleagues. After
appropriate revisions, the revised feature story and three pictures were sent to the professor for a
final critique. After the final editing was completed, students sent their product to the instructor.
They also sent information to the Flickr coordinator. Flickr is an on-line still and motion image
storage location that features the ability to mark photographs private and/or public. Three pieces
of information were sent to the Flickr Coordinator: name of the individual, three photographs
and a quote captured during the interview about the Middle States experience. More than 90
shots with captions were uploaded. At the first deadline, 76 of 105 packages were produced for
the Flickr presentation. The instructors refused to showcase the Flickr presentation due to
incomplete representation of the volunteers, spelling errors and some poor photography. Students
were extremely disgruntled with the team members that didn‘t have their work completed. ―We
had 8 weeks to get our work done. I‘m not buying their excuses. I despise people who can‘t
meet the deadline. I hope they don‘t work in PR‖. The professors explained the consequences of
several students‘ inability to meet the deadline as likely not being hired again on a project, gossip
about individual inadequacy, and tarnishing the reputation of the firm. Of those who agreed to be
interviewed, the final Flickr featured 92 Middle States volunteers.
E-Portfolio: The components of the e-portfolio included: personal profile, resume, photos, press
releases, campaign management components (research, strategy, messaging), media advisories,
feature stories, news stories, and other creative artifacts. Students were required to blog based on
prompts assigned in class, create facebook and twitter accounts and an e-portfolio which were
also included in the requirements. Students used Foliospaces, Moodle, Open Source Portfolio
and Google (Video Tutorial on How to Create an ePortfolio with Google Sites) to host their e-
portfolio. Table 2 presents the diverse design tools students‘ used to enhance their e-porfolio
presentations.
Table 2: E-portfolio Tools
Web design included: Adobe Dreamweaver, Nvu
Graphics tools: Adobe Photoshop, GIMP
Concept mapping software: Cmap Tools, Visual Understanding Environment (VUE)
Audio and video: iMovie, Audacity
Print design tools: Adobe Acrobat
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Students were assigned 25 minute blocks of time during which they presented a 15 minute
presentation of their e-portfolio. At the conclusion of their presentation, critiques from a
colleague and the professor were presented. The majority of students indicated the preparation of
the e-portfolio was exceptionally valuable because they were forced to determine how they
wanted to ―brand‖ themselves. ―I realized I wanted to work for an environmentally conscious
company as I prepared my background statement for the e-folio‖. Another student echoed the
majority of students‘ comments: ―I thought I had accomplished a lot during my years in college.
During the oral presentations of the e-folios, I was blown away by the internships and volunteer
work other students had done before this class. I had my first taste of what competition for a job
will be like. I have a lot more work to do.‖ Frankly, the course instructors were flabbergasted at
how little and how much public relations products students had amassed over their college
careers. We also learned that students were not capitalizing on the resources available on
campus, such as the university newspaper, radio, television and converged media facilities and
public relations department internship opportunities. Many students discussed frustration with
their writing abilities and interviewing skills. It was obvious to the professors that the writing
course must focus on real world coverage of events and include more interviews and speech
writing. A qualitative analysis of the open-ended questions about the strength and weaknesses of
the tasks assigned in class revealed three areas for additional work: 1) Real world interviewing
skills: ―I realized that I asked way too many questions during my interviews and I had to sift
through a lot of notes to figure out what I wanted to use in my feature story. I really struggled
with feeling comfortable with the interviewee.‖ The second area focused on use of technology:
―I loved learning about the radio and television studios and blogging and working on our e-folios
until it dawned on me that what we were doing in class would be what I do on a daily basis if I
pursue this area. I realized how little I really knew about social media and traditional media
channels, when to use what and how. I am kinda freaked out because I thought PR was going to
be more about working with people; not communication tools. The third area focused on
communication within the group and with professionals. ―I got tired of trying to track people
down, wait for responses to my e-mails, remain calm and act professional. If I had to work with
some of the people on my team in the professional world I couldn‘t do it. I wanted our work to
be awesome and some of the team just wanted to hand in anything. I was frustrated and sad.‖
Conclusion
The professors concur that the course was exceptionally demanding. Many students were
learning effective time management and team skills during the course. The surveys support
student learning occurred on myriad levels: professionalism, team work, writing, photography,
comprehension of the skills and duties of a public relations practitioner and acumen for selecting
diverse channels for message design and distribution. The Flickr and E-portfolios support student
engagement in public relations is critical to developing and maintaining a current resume that
showcases skills growth.
References
Middle States Commission on Higher Education, (2009). Becoming Accredited. Philadelphia,
PA: Middle States Commission on Higher Education.
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Middle States Commission on Higher Education, (2006). Characteristics of Excellence in
Higher Education. Philadelphia, PA: Middle States Commission on Higher Education.
National Service-Learning Clearninghouse. http://www.servicelearning.org/what-servicelearning
Strage, A. (2000). Service-Learning: Enhancing Student Learning Outcomes in a College-Level
lecture Course, Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 7 (1), 5-13.
172

Some basic Google Analytics reports for public relations campaigns
David Kamerer, PhD, APR
Loyola University Chicago
dkamerer@luc.edu
It‘s easy to get lost in analytics reports. Following are examples that are likely to be of use in
student campaign work. These examples presume the installation of Google Analytics. The
following examples are from http://FoodTruckFreak.com.
It is essential that public relations professionals understand what happens on the server. First, this
is the home for most owned media. It‘s also where we measure the success of our social, email
and banner campaigns. Finally, we may create conversions on the site (such as purchases,
downloads, sign-ups, etc.) that are essential for business success.
1. Where do our visitors come from?
Here we will look at two separate analyses. First we‘ll look at visitors from search engines.
Do this
Launch your client‟s Google Analytics.
Tip: to obtain a more stable report, expand the default 30-day view to 6 months or one year, or a
time frame that‘s meaningful to your campaign. Note: always disclose time frames when
presenting analytics data.
Click on “Traffic Sources” and then “Overview.” Look at the portfolio of traffic:
Compare this to a balanced portfolio of traffic, as presented by Avinash Kaushik
(http://bit.ly/R4Q5E8):
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40-50% from search
20% direct traffic
20-30% referral traffic
10% campaigns
Note that these are general ideals. In this example, we are overleveraged in search traffic and
could use more referral traffic. It‘s important to note that we don‘t actually want less traffic from
search; we really want a ―bigger pie‖ in which the search component is less prominent.
Now let‘s look at the next screen to better look at the keywords that people came on. Here‘s a
sample from the report:
Do this: on the bottom right of the screen, click on “view the full report” to see the search
keywords that people used.
Note: another way to get more “clicks in the bucket” is to view more rows of the report, such as
100 instead of the default 10.
Action items from this report:
1. Learn the most popular searches that bring visitors to your site.
2. What keywords surprised you? What keywords seem to be missing?
3. How could you create more content around popular searches?
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4. Some keywords generate more clicks than others – take note
5. Are your SEO terms aligned with the terms people are actually using?
6. Visit the Google keyword tool (http://bit.ly/W4oPdM). Use it to generate more keyword
ideas.
If you would like a visual representation of your search keywords, export the report into a .csv
file (top of page), open in a spreadsheet, and copy the keywords to the clipboard. Paste into
http://wordle.net to make a word cloud:
The resulting word cloud can help you clarify the identity of the site as its users see it.
2. Visitors from referral sites
Referral visitors come on a link from another site. You might think of referral visitors as a digital
cousin of placements from media relations. Your job here is to build relationships with other web
sites so they will bring your referral visitors.
You should expect the top referrals to come from search engines. If you‘re running a social
media campaign, you can evaluate your success on this report. And then you‘ll see the websites
that have mentioned you and provided a link. These are not only an important source of traffic,
but also a signal that search engines consider when ranking your site.
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Do this
Click on “Traffic sources” and then “referrals.” When your page has loaded, go to the bottom
right and increase the number of rows to 100 or more.
Here‘s a sample report:
Action items from this report:
1. Which are the top social referrals to your site? Which of these show more engagement?
2. Are there referrals that you were previously unaware? Go back and check the referring
site for your mentions.
3. How can you build a relationship with referring sites? What similar sites could be turned
into a referral site with a little work?
4. To go deeper than this report, analyze inbound links to your site using Bing Webmaster
Tools, Google Webmaster Tools, or other external tools (http://bit.ly/UXIAyE).
3. Top-performing content
It‘s fairly easy to determine the most popular pages on a site. This report goes one step deeper,
and compares top content against the bounce rate. Your goal here is to find popular pages that
people bounce from, so you can assess the problem and fix it.
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Do this
Click on “Content,” then “Site Content” then “all pages.” This shows your most-visited
content. On the lower right of the screen, increase the number of rows so you can see all pages.
On the upper right of the screen, choose the comparison tab, then the fourth box (plus/minus
horizontal bars), then index pageviews against “bounce rate.” Here‘s a detail of the screen:
Here‘s a sample report:
Green bars show pages that bounce less than the site average, while red bars bounce more than
the site average. Here‘s a sample interpretation: ―The Food Truck Locator‖ page bounces 12.07
percent less than the site average.
Action items from this report:
1. Identify most popular pages with higher-than-average bounce rates. Visit the pages;
formulate hypotheses as to why they are bouncing. Fix the content, let time pass, and
reassess.
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2. Sometimes a bounce is good; while we generally prefer longer sessions with fewer clicks,
sometimes the height of success is to give a visitor what they want on the first page they
visit. Example: you are searching for the hours of a restaurant, and they are listed on the
first page you visit.
3. Are there any top-visited pages that should be linked on the homepage? Are there any
links on the homepage that should be demoted?
4. Repeat this analysis, but changing the index against bounce rate to exit rate. The resulting
table will show from which pages visitors leave. Assess highest-ranking pages with high
exit rates. How can you improve the content so visitors don‘t leave?
5. Everyone has to leave at some point, so make sure pages that should have high exit rates
in fact do.
Summary
To best utilize analytics, tie reports to campaign goals. It‘s easy to get lost in all the data
contained default reports. Instead, focus on specific queries that are directly related to campaign
objectives.
Resources
Google Analytics Conversion University – a series of short videos that teach Google Analytics
http://www.google.com/intl/en/analytics/iq.html?&rd=1
Web analytics definitions:
http://www.webanalyticsassociation.org/resource/resmgr/PDF_standards/WebAnalyticsDefinitio
nsVol1.pdf
Avinash Kaushik‘s blog: Occam‘s Razor
http://www.kaushik.net/avinash/
Books:
Web Analytics 2.0, by Avinash Kaushik
Advanced Web Metrics with Google Analytics, by Brian Clifton
178

Preparing Backgrounders and Proposals in the PR Writing Class Using Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and Community & Business Analyst
Jennifer M. Keller & Brad Howard
Western Washington University
Jennifer.keller@wwu.edu
Backgrounders and proposals are two written elements public relations professionals may
be asked to produce for their client or organization. Both require conducting research and
presenting their findings in a clear, concise and effective format. Because it offers students a
powerful tool for visualizing and representing reality and for transforming their initial
visualizations and representations, mapping is an excellent vehicle for infused instruction in
critical thinking (Howard, 2010). Using GIS (Geographical Information Systems) and ESRI‘s
Community or Business Analyst programs can assist PR professionals in both analyzing data and
presenting it visually.
―Visualization is, first and foremost, an act of cognition,‖ (Miller 1984). One needs to
process information in order to create a physical or mental image. ―It is a human ability to
develop mental images, often of relationships that have no visible form,‖ (MacEachren &
Ganter, 1990). The process of creating the visuals and processing what they mean helps students
share information better – both visual information and written information. Often what they see
when they create the visual directs them to further research so they explain it more fully in their
writing.
The importance of the assignment is that beyond learning the technology skills associated
with GIS, they also learn critical thinking skills. When creating their maps and visuals using GIS
they must determine what information they are trying to present and how this visual will assist
them in doing so. Even following the steps necessary to create the map with GIS helps provide
them with a framework for thinking critically about the bigger issue being addressed in the
proposal or backgrounder.
In our PR Writing course, we provide students with hands-on work using GIS and
Community/Business Analyst through in-class sessions and the backgrounder/proposal
assignment. Students use GIS to create visual elements that help tell their story. For example,
students can create a map showing where certain demographics – perhaps children or people
below poverty level – live related to a proposed service, building or event. Both Business
Analyst and Community Analyst allow students to include information related to market
demographics in a given area – such as how much money is spent on certain foods or types of
music people listen to, which can assist in a proposal for a new service or business location.
The backgrounder/proposal assignment
While students look forward to the writing class in terms of design and social media, they
aren‘t always engaged with research, which is an important component of any public relations
campaign or well-conceived PR material. In order to help students hone research skills, as well
as critical thinking skills, the backgrounder/proposal assignment is a major component of the PR
writing class. Students are asked to develop a backgrounder on an issue and, when relevant, to
follow that backgrounder with a short proposal recommending a course of action. This helps
them learn to research an issue and understand the difference between a backgrounder and a
proposal.
The issue may be related to their service-learning client or, more recently, related to a
current issue or likely issue for a particular organization, locale or industry. For example, there
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is a current proposal by a rail company in our area to build a coal terminal at the end of the rail
line a few miles away. Students were asked to prepare backgrounders on various issues related
to this proposal, from economic impacts to health impacts to transportation impacts.
One issue students often have is they start with a preconceived notion. Writing a
backgrounder, which is objective, teaches them to look at all angles of an issue or problem. At
the end of the assignment, they were provided information on all topics and asked to write a
recommendation to the local government about whether or not to support the initiative. This led
them to thinking about the objective data and analyzing the big picture, and then creating a
proposed course of action.
Introducing GIS
Part of the backgrounder assignment requires students to gain a basic understanding of
GIS. In terms of their written material, they will be able to use GIS to create geographical maps
that represent a variety of data. Students receive hands-on instruction in ArcGIS through ESRI‘s
Virtual Campus course Learning ArcGIS Desktop. On the first day of class, students are given
an access code for the course. This training session consists of 8 modules and takes about 20
hours outside of class. Part of their grade for the class comes from simply completing the
modules successfully and providing a PDF of their final certificate.
In addition, as part of their backgrounder assignment they are required to make two maps
that will help others visualize the issue. One must be made using basic GIS, while the other may
be created through Business Analyst or Community Analyst. To help them with the software,
we spend four hours in class covering the basics: where to find data, how to link it to the map,
how to use Community or Business Analyst, and how to design a final map. In addition, they
turn in a rough draft and we spend part of one class reviewing the maps and providing feedback
before the final draft is due.
Answering the big questions
In ESRI‘s guide to GIS analysis, Mitchell outlines five steps to take in order to create a
map. We relate the same steps to the backgrounder as a whole. In this way, they must use
critical thinking skills to assess the overall information and the particular information they wish
to map.
1. Frame the question.
The first step in any research is to determine what you want to know. What is the
specific question you are trying to answer. For the backgrounder, it might be ―What are the
health impacts of the new coal terminal on Bellingham citizens?‖ For GIS, it needs to be
connected to geography and, potentially, demographics. So the question might be, ―Who is most
likely to be impacted by coal dust and where do they live relative to the rail line?‖
As they frame their geographic questions, students often find more questions they need to
answer in the backgrounder itself and vice versa. For example, for a backgrounder, one student
was looking at ―Which populations are most likely to become homeless?‖ Her answers led her
to three populations – veterans, those spending more than 30% of their income on housing, and
single-women heads of families making less than a certain amount. Therefore, her geographic
question was looking at where those populations lived within the county, so a homeless shelter
would know which areas to target with information.
2. Understand your data.
Once students have found the data, they need to understand it. What does it mean? For
example, using Business Analyst a student might find that a certain area relative to a proposed
location for an organization spends a lot more, on average, then ordinary citizens in terms of
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going out to eat. But what does that mean? What other data do they need to collect? Are people
there younger? Do they rent? What other characteristics help explain the data or is it something
that is irrelevant to the overall question?
3. Choose a method of analysis.
Students must then decide how they are going to analyze the data. Are they looking at
where certain populations live (distribution analysis)? Is it more important to create a buffer
zone around an organization or a proposed route to show what lies in its path (proximity
analysis)? For example, when analyzing a proposed pipeline route, is it important to look at
where people are relative to the pipeline, within a certain driving distance, within a certain
county?
4. Process the data.
Students must then follow the steps to process the data. This may mean linking the
census data to a map of a location and laying in the chosen buffer zone. Once finished, they can
visually see whether there are any patterns. One reason GiS is so helpful is that students may not
recognize patterns simply by reading data. If they look at a chart of county numbers and a list of
numbers and percents representing various ethnic groups, it might not say anything. However, if
they lay those on a map and see that the counties with a high Native American population lie
predominately along the rail route, then that might tell them something else.
5. Analyze results.
Once the results are finished, they need to decide the best way to show and explain them.
Some of their explanation will be as part of the overall written backgrounder. They also need to
determine where maps will help tell the story or other charts and tables. This forces them to
think not only about what they are saying but how they are saying it.
In addition, this often leads to critical thinking about what the data means and what is
important. For example, a student working on the proposed pipeline project analyzed data from
previous spills. How far did the spills travel? How fast could it be stopped at a pump station?
Based on this, she felt the best way to tell the story was to create a map showing the worst case
scenario if there was a spill at a central pump station. Her map showed where the oil would
travel within a given amount of time and what it could contaminate in terms of other water
sources.
Course Evaluation
Inevitably, students initially have a hard time understanding both GIS and simply
research for a backgrounder in general. It takes a while and their rough drafts often are returned
to them with multiple questions and suggestions for more research. However, after the rough
draft review and the map review, the final results show much deeper analysis of the issue and
better visuals to explain it.
Students also find that GIS mapping helps them in future courses and in their career. Those
students who complete the course and assignment, and include GIS on their resumes, are finding
that organizations – from non-profits to businesses – are excited that they have GIS knowledge.
In the past few months, we‘ve heard from students using it at their internship or
impressing someone during an interview. Even for those students who don‘t use GIS in the
future, they have learned the importance of analyzing and understanding data, and determining
the best way to tell the story. They may use another type of visual – but they are using the same
core concepts.
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References
Howard, B. (2010). Unpublished paper presented at ESRI Education User Conference, San
Diego, CA.
MacEachren, A. M. & Ganter, J. H. (1990). A pattern identification approach to cartographic
visualization. Cartographica. 27(2). 64-81.
Miller, A. I. (1984). Imagery in scientific thought: Creating 20 th century physics. Birkhauser:
Boston.
Mitchell, A. (1999). The ESRI guide to GIS analysis. Volume 1: Geographic patterns &
relationships. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press
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Teaching and Mentoring Through Social Media
Elizabeth D. Kerns, MA, IOM
Central Washington University
Kernse@cwu.edu
Abstract
With the evolution of the Internet as a formal mode of communication, individuals have used
social media to establish communities with their peers. Many faculty have used social media to
establish ―communities‖ of their students online as a primary form of communication or as a
supplementary form outside of the physical classroom. College aged students have grown up and
are proficient with new digital forms of communication and the best faculty across the country
are finding ways to incorporate this technology to expand the engagement of their students
within the classroom. This poster presentation will not only survey faculty about their usage of
social media in their classrooms, but moreover identifying key best practices that have proven
results. Examples will be shown in how faculty use Twitter as a way to engage students to
answer questions, Facebook to create individual classroom communities, YouTube to ask
students to post videos of themselves answering media questions and many more. This
presentation will examine a number of key case studies, analyze an overview of the usage of
social media within the classroom by faculty, and look to further understand how faculty mentor
the future public relations professional through new media technologies.
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Measuring Student Self-Perceptions of Writing Skills
in Programs of Journalism and Mass Communication
Dr. Andrew Lingwall
Clarion University
Abstract
This study explores student self-perceptions of writing skills in journalism and mass
communication programs at eight universities in the Pennsylvania State System of Higher
Education (PASSHE). Factor analysis revealed that the 397 students surveyed fell into five
distinct groups: (1) skilled writers with high self-efficacy and low apprehension; (2) unskilled
writers with low self- efficacy and high apprehension; (3) heavy social media users who
minimize the value of writing; (4) methodic planners and executors who use writing as a set of
tools; and (5) unskilled and unconcerned writers. This study addresses implications for faculty
members who want to better understand their students in order to devise more effective writing
instruction, and to prepare them for employment in the media professions, where writing skills
are a prerequisite for entry to the field and career success.
Introduction
Across higher education institutions in the United States, an established body of evidence
suggests that students are entering programs of journalism and mass communication with serious
writing deficiencies. In studies dating back to the 1970s, researchers have documented a steady
decline in students‘ writing skills. Some studies have placed the blame on primary and secondary
education, while others have addressed university-level instruction in English or general
education. More recently, researchers have established links between students‘ increasing use of
technology -- including Internet use, social media, text messaging -- and a general decline in
writing skills.
The issue is a critical one for faculty and students alike in programs of journalism and
mass communication. Writing is arguably the most important skill that graduates bring to the
mass communication field in general, and to the public relations profession in particular.
Students who are weak writers cannot succeed in their coursework or careers, regardless of their
skills in social media or other new technologies.
In order to effectively teach this group of students to become proficient writers, it is first
necessary to know how students think and feel about their writing skills, and which measures
they believe will be helpful in building those skills. Although researchers in other disciplines
have measured student self-efficacy and apprehension, it is notable that relatively few
researchers in the mass communication programs have explored these measures among their own
students. This study builds upon the demonstrated need to better understand self-efficacy and
apprehension among journalism and mass communication students. It also enables faculty
members to devise instructional techniques to equip these diverse groups of students with the
writing skills they will need for professional employment.
Review of Literature
While writing apprehension and writing self-efficacy studies have provided initial insight
into media students' self perceptions of their writing, it appears there are some areas left
unexplored. Two areas of attention to student self-perceptions of writing have surfaced within the
discipline of journalism and mass communication. Writing apprehension has been found to be
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prevalent in journalism students who manifest low writing competency (Riffe and Stacks 1988,
1992). Riffe and Stacks expanded upon the work of Daley (1983) to cover journalism and mass
communication students' impressions about how apprehension affects their writing. Writing
apprehension was found to be positively correlated with gpa (1992).
Self-efficacy is defined as one's perception of his/her ability and achievement (Collins
and Bissell 2002). This construct grew out of the theoretical framework developed by Bandura
(1975), focusing on the influence of self-perception and attitudes in learning efficiency. English
composition researchers such as Pajares (2003) have explored the dimensions of perceptions of
writing ability across college and K-12 learning environments. Writing self-efficacy was found
to be correlated with writing outcomes, writing anxiety and apprehension, grade goals, depth of
processing, and expected outcomes. Writing self-efficacy was also correlated with self-regulatory
skills (Pajares 2003) and achievement goals.
Further, student self-efficacy in media writing courses has also been measured as a
student perceptual focus on their writing. Collins and Bissell adopted the writing self-efficacy
construct developed in writing composition research for use to measure attitudes of journalism
and mass communication majors (2002).
Lavelle and Guarino (2003) constructed the Inventory of College Composition, a
measurement of college writers‘ perceptions of the processes they undergo to complete a writing
task. Based on a construct called ―approaches to writing‖ (Lavelle and Guarino, 2003) focused
on a relationship between student's intentions during writing affecting their choice of strategies
for writing, which affects writing outcomes. In this framework, all writers are said to rely on
strategies (patterns of tactics), which vary between novice and expert writers.
Strategies are linked to beliefs about writing, and writing ability. There is a basic
distinction made between deep writing (making new meaning and insight) and surface writing
(largely reproductive and reiterative). Five factors emerged in Lavelle's research: elaborative
(active engagement of audience), low self-efficacy (based on self-doubt), reflexive self-revision
(revision process to remake or rebuild one's thinking), spontaneous-impulsive (surface strategy),
procedural writing (adherence to rules) (2003).
Lavelle concluded that a primary goal of writing instruction should be to create learning
environments that emphasize a deep approach by specifying meaningful writing as an
expectation. Thus, focusing students to attend to theme, voice and audience could help them
better develop as deep writers, but only when students had first mastered writing basics including
mechanics, punctuation, and grammar.
Method
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed:
RQ1: What are the self-efficacy levels of student writers in journalism and mass
communication programs at PASSHE universities?
RQ2: What are the apprehension levels of student writers in journalism and mass
communication programs at PASSHE universities?
RQ3: Based on reported self-efficacy and apprehension levels, do any meaningful student
profiles emerge?
Survey Method
During September 2012, researchers administered a paper survey questionnaire to 400
anonymous students enrolled in introductory journalism and communication courses at eight of
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the PASSHE universities including California, Cheyney, Clarion, Indiana, Kutztown, Lock
Haven, Mansfield, and Millersville.
The survey instrument contained three sections with a combination of check-off and
Likert-type items as follows:
Section 1: Information about the student
Section 2: Student perceptions of writing skills
Section 3: Measures to improve writing skills
Participants
The survey was completed by 397 PASSHE students. Because instructors administered
the surveys in their classes, the researchers achieved a 99 percent response rate.
Among the 397 respondents, 28% (n = 111) were freshmen, 29 % (n = 116) were
sophomores, 29% (n = 114), and 14% (n = 56) were seniors. Regarding concentration within the
major, 42% (n = 165) indicated no concentration. Another 31% (n = 125) indicated broadcast
media. Fully 13% of students (n = 50) indicated public relations, while 6% (n = 25) indicated
advertising. Finally, 8% (n = 32) of participants indicated journalism.
Respondents were diverse in terms of their ethnic backgrounds. Just under 68% (n =
268) indicated white, 22 % (n = 87) indicated African-American, and 5% (n = 19) indicated two
or more races. Another 2% (n = 6) indicated Asian, and another 1% (n = 4) indicated American
Indian. Fewer than 1% of respondents (n = 2) indicated Hispanic or Latino. Another 1.5% (n = 6)
declined to state their ethnicity, and one student indicated ―other.‖ Four students left this item
blank.
Quality of writing instruction received
On a scale of 1 to 10, respondents were asked to rate the quality of writing instruction
they believed they received in high school, in college outside of their major, and in college
within their major.
Attitude toward grades within major
Viewing a list of statements on attitudes toward earning grades within their major,
respondents were asked to indicate which statement most closely resembled their own attitudes.
Student perceptions of writing stills
Here, respondents were given a list of 42 statements about writing self-efficacy, drawn
from previous studies on self-efficacy. Students were asked to indicate the extent to which the
statements were true of them. The students were also given a list of 19 statements about writing
apprehension, also drawn from previous studies on apprehension. Students were also given
several statements describing the importance of writing in media careers, and views on social
media use relative to writing skills. Students were asked to indicate their level of agreement or
disagreement with the statements.
Measures to improve writing skills
In this section, respondents were provided with five possible measures instructors could
use to help improve their writing skills (basic communication class, more review of basics, more
detailed feedback, etc.). Respondents were asked to indicate how helpful these measures might
be on a scale of 1 to 10.
Data Analysis
The researchers used descriptive statistics to analyze quality of writing instruction and
suggested measures to improve writing skills. To investigate RQ1-3, the researchers employed
factor analysis, with principal component analysis as the extraction method. Kaiser
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normalization was utilized as the rotation method. An alpha level of .05 was used for all
statistical tests.
Results
Quality of writing instruction received
Using a scale of 1 to 10, 394 respondents indicated a generally positive view of the
quality of writing instruction they received in high school ( x = 7.31, sd = 1.70). Another 366
students indicated an equally favorable view of the quality of writing instruction they received at
their university outside of their major ( x = 7.5, sd = 1.54). Considering quality of writing
instruction received within their major, 225 students indicated an equally positive view ( x = 7.8,
sd = 1.8). However, 172 students indicated ―too early to tell‖ for this item.
Attitude toward grades within major
A majority of respondents (66%, n = 261) indicated they were comfortable earning a ―B‖
in classes within their major. Just under 25% (n = 99) indicated a desire to earn an ―A‖ in all
classes if at all possible. Another 4% (n = 17) indicated that a ―C‖ was good enough. Notably,
5% (n = 19) indicated that high grades were not as important as gaining actual media experience.
Levels of student self-efficacy and apprehension
Utilizing factor rotations to analyze student self-efficacy and apprehension items, the
researchers discovered that five distinct student cohorts or ―profiles‖ emerged among students:
1.) Skilled writers with high self-efficacy and low apprehension. The largest among all
respondents, this group indicated strong agreement with statements including, ―I look forward to
writing,‖ ―I put a lot of myself into my writing,‖ and ―I would enjoy any kind of writing job.‖
They indicated strong disagreement with such statements as, ―I write only when I have to.‖
The pattern of responses indicates that group one is confident with their writing skills and
that they know how to approach the task. It is also evident that this group enjoys writing,
understands it at a deeper level, and thinks about how to succeed at writing.
2. ) Unskilled writers with low self- efficacy and high apprehension. The second-largest
among all respondents, this group indicated strong agreement with statements including, ―I have
a terrible time organizing my ideas when I try to write,‖ ―I‘m nervous about writing,‖ and ―I feel
lost when it comes to grammar and punctuation.‖ They indicated strong disagreement with such
statements as, ―At times, my writing has given me deep personal satisfaction,‖ ―I visualize what
I‘m writing about,‖ and ―I expect good grades on essays and papers.‖
On the whole, responses indicate that group two is largely problem-centered. These
students do not appear to enjoy writing, and are largely surface-level writers. However, they
realize they need to improve and want help.
3.) Heavy social media users who minimize the value of writing. The third-largest among
all respondents, this group indicated strong agreement with statements including, ―Because I can
write witty ―tweets‖ on Twitter, I can also write professional media articles,‖ ―Writing about
myself on Facebook is good practice for developing professional media writing skills,‖ and ―The
ability to write well is becoming less important for professional success.‖ They indicated strong
disagreement with such statements as, ―My writing skills will be a valuable asset in my
profession,‖ ―I can write a paper that connects the different paragraphs in a coherent way,‖ and
―I can use the right punctuation marks and put them in the right places in my text.‖
Responses from group three indicate these students are social media lovers who do not
care much about conventional media writing. They view professional writing skills as
unimportant and believe they will be professionally employable regardless of their writing skills.
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4.) Methodic planners and executors who know how to use the tools. The fourth-largest
among all respondents, this group indicated strong agreement with statements including, ―I set
aside specific time to do written assignments,‖ I plan out my writing and stick to the plan,‖ and
―I keep my theme or topic clearly in mind as I write.‖ They indicated strong disagreement with
the statements, ―My writing just happens with little planning or preparation.‖
The pattern of responses indicates that students in group four are motivated, taskoriented,
and on their way to becoming successful media writers. This group also exhibits high
self-efficacy, low apprehension, and the ability to use the tools of writing to produce competent
pieces.
5.) Unskilled and unconcerned writers. The smallest among all respondents, this group
indicated strong agreement with statements including, ―I write only when I have to,‖ ―My mind
seems to go blank when I start to work on a writing task,‖ ―When I begin to write, I have only a
vague idea of how my paper will come out,‖ and ―Often my first draft is my finished product.‖
They indicated strong disagreement with such statements as, ―I start with a fairly detailed
outline,‖ and ―The main reason for writing an essay or paper is to get a good grade on it.‖
These responses indicate that students in group five lack basic writing skills, and don‘t
seem to care much about it. They appear to be happy with first drafts of their work, and do just
what they have to do get by in their writing classes.
Measures to improve writing skills
On a scale of 1 to 10, virtually all respondents indicated they would find several
instructional measures highly helpful in improving their writing skills. These included a basic
communication writing class within their major ( x = 7.5, sd = 2.15), more review of writing
basics ( x = 7, sd = 2.36), more detailed feedback from instructors ( x = 8.3, sd = 1.66), the
opportunity to submit drafts ( x = 8.3, sd = 1.86) and special writing seminars
( x = 7.4, sd = 2.34).
Conclusion
Based on the study results, it is clear that journalism and mass communication faculty at
PASSHE universities and comparable institutions are likely to encounter classes containing a
mix of students similar to the five groups described above. Such a widely diverse group in terms
of self-efficacy, apprehension, perceived skill levels, social media attitudes, and views on
professional media writing may leave even the most experienced instructors wondering how to
approach students who are operating on so many different levels.
If faculty members can identify these various student groups in their classes, they should
consider first focusing on writing assignments and processes to help build self-efficacy skills for
groups two, three and five. Instructors will also need to work on approaches to help reduce
apprehension for students in groups 2 and 5. As noted above, students rated ―more detailed
feedback from instructors‖ and ―the opportunity to submit drafts‖ as two of the most helpful
instructional measures they would like to see.
Structuring short-term workshops or breakout sessions on specific writing topics would
be likely to increase student self-efficacy, reduce apprehension, and build basic writing skills. If
faculty members are lucky, they may be able to draw upon graduate assistants or other
colleagues to help run these special sessions.
Can we be successful in reaching students in group five? Perhaps not. If a semester‘s
worth of attempts cannot help them boost their self-efficacy, skills, and attitudes, these students
may be best advised to seek other majors and career paths.
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But what about the students in groups 1 and 4? As long as instructors can challenge these
students enough and pace the class so that more advanced students can move through the
material more quickly, these students will take care of themselves to a certain extent. However,
care must be taken to nurture the more advanced students, and to not neglect them in favor of the
students who will always need more help. As difficult as it is to teach one‘s course on several
different levels, instructors will always have to straddle this ―skills divide‖ in some fashion.
Finally, faculty should always remember that stronger students can be directed to more
challenging writing opportunities with student media, which they are probably ready to try.
The task of understanding student writers – digging down to uncover their fears, their
blind spots, the bad habits acquired early in life – has always been difficult for teachers of
writing at all grade levels. Devising and implementing effective instruction based on those
insights is even harder. Heavy workloads, large classes, lax institutional cultures, and student
apathy can wear down even the strongest faculty members. Yet, this task must be better
understood and embraced if our students are ever to become qualified media professionals and
even more important, fully functioning members of society.
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A University‟s PRSSA Chapter‟s Persona(s):
Assessing Publics to Create a Social Media Recruitment Strategy
Bonita Dostal Neff, Ph.D.
Valparaiso University
Bonita.neff@valpo.edu
Liz Freeman and Erika Wagner; Samuel Borden and Matt Butcher;
Tom Hauessler and Lauren Rubio
Undergraduate Students – Public Relations
Valparaiso University
Public Relations Student Society of America‘s chapters are under constant pressure to
retain and recruit new members. Yet the traditional approach using tactics, primarily publicity,
are not always effective approaches to building membership or retention. With the emergence of
social media, a nontraditional approach to communication brings other kinds of opportunities but
comes with some concerns: 1) for students, social media is primarily used for social reasons, not
professional, 2) students are limited in the number and type of social media experience
(primarily Facebook), 3) little or no experience in selecting social media platforms for
professional uses, and 4) little connection with public(s) in terms of creating a ―persona(s)‖
based on perceptions and/or awareness.
Three assessment approaches were designed to address the PRSSA communication
needs. Six students were selected to coordinate the study. Two PRSSA members were assigned
to each assessment area (PRSSA general, PRSSA officers, PRSSA student agency). Three very
different persona(s) emerged from the research. The framework used in the analysis was based
on David Scott‘s persona(s) outlined in The New Rules of Marketing and PR. Scott‘s critical
questions prompted planning, the execution phase, and the action stage. Each assessment yielded
a persona(s) that was named, a very powerful descriptor for the identification process.
Integrating the organizational public relationships (OPR) concept into the recruitment
efforts strengthened the students understanding of relationships. Incorporating the idea that
―social capital‖ is the outcome sought, provides more depth to the concept of relationships.
Finally, what is the ―identity‖ of PRSSA as an organization with multiple personas?
190

“How a Graduate Practicum Class Helped Promote the
'Best Museum' that Doesn't Exist Yet?" Graduate Public Communication
Students Work with a Coalition to Create the National Museum of the American People
Gemma Puglisi
American University
puglisi@american.edu
Project Description
Client
Graduate students in this class, Public Communication Practicum, worked with a coalition called
the National Museum of the American People (www.nmap2015.com) in the spring of 2012.
Sam Eskenazi, the former Director of Public Information for the United States Holocaust
Memorial Museum, approached a faculty member about having students work on outreach for a
museum that doesn‘t yet exist in Washington, D.C. Eskenazi believed that there should be a
museum in our nation‘s capital that welcomes and honors all nationalities and ethnicities.
Eskenazi reached out to Congressman Jim Moran and 13 other cosponsors in the hope that a
―bipartisan‖ study on the creation of such a museum‖ would occur…and make the museum a
reality. The goal is that the museum would be built in the later part of 2015.
Objective
There were several. The overall objective was to get the buzz out there about the museum and to
get as much support as possible from various groups so that members of Congress would act and
endorse the creation of the museum. Students were asked to reach out to the various ethnic
organizations and ethnic groups to offer their support. And, the students were also asked to get
information to the media about the uniqueness of the museum and why it was important for it to
exist in D.C.
Challenge
Obviously, the big challenge was that the Museum did not exist and that getting something like
this off the ground takes years of work. Nevertheless, the students did a wonderful job in the l5
weeks assigned to them.
Process
Teams/Groups
Students worked in teams that involved outreach and media/social media .
Outreach
Schools in Districts where Congressional representatives live
Celebrity
Ethnic Organizations
This outreach was essential to get the word out about the museum, its importance and the people
who would come to DC to visit it.
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Groups sent letters to various ethnic organizations to meet with Eskenazi to explain the museum,
the concept, and the importance of their support. Some of these groups including the following
communities: Irish American; Italian American community including NIAF; the Asian
American community and the Leadership Organization for Asian Pacifics, Inc., the Sikh
American Legal Defense; the German American National Congress, etc. Students also targeted
various elementary schools in the districts where specific members of Congress live—to garner
support for the creation of the museum. These students represented various ethnicities and the
students asked that they sketch their hands and identify their nationalities, their ages, etc.
The teachers in these districts sent our class these sketches which were later presented to the
client—in the hope that he will use for the creation of the museum.
Another important outreach was to Celebrities who were very passionate about their heritage.
Students researched sports figures, actors, local anchors, etc.
Media and Social Media/Website Recommendations
There had been very little social media and the students took full advantage. The class also
helped with revamping some of the website. The students made the website more visual, created
apparent links to social media sites, and added YouTube videos, etc.
For social media, the students developed a comprehensive, multi-platform social media plan
including utilizing Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Blogs & Tout. Students also created a PSA.
Students created a separate ―Class Blog‖ that served as a ―personal digital platform.‖ Content
provided ―project updates, personal anecdotes and collaborative efforts to increase awareness
about the museum.‖ One aspect of the blog was titled, ―Photo Friday,‖ where students posted
photographs of their families, some dating back to their great great grandparents.
Students also worked on traditional media. Students pitched cable outlets, international outlets,
local and national print, television and radio. Several students were successful in getting opinion
pieces published. They included Asian Fortune and the Olean Times Herald.
Discussion
O How did the project come to us?
Our school has a long history of organizations approaching us about various projects. This was
sent to our division director, who in turn, sent an e-mail out to faculty asking anyone if they were
interested.
O Why was the project a challenge?
As mentioned earlier, the museum was an enormous undertaking. The outreach was very
extensive and our hope was to achieve some type of deliverables for our client.
O How did the students feel about the project?
The students were very passionate about the creation of this museum. This project impacted
everyone in the class. I also had international students in the class who were very involved in
seeing this become a reality. Needless to say the students worked extremely hard—this project
was very creative and very complicated. A great deal of time, effort, and passion all made this
project a success.
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O How did the client feel about the students work?
I think overall they were very impressed with the students‘ creativity; their passion; their
innovation; and the results.
Evaluation
The National Museum of the American People was perhaps one of the most innovative projects
assigned to students here at American University. When the museum becomes a reality, each
student in the class can say that they played some small part in its creation—and that is truly a
wonderful educational experience. Overall accomplishments by students:
O Created a Change.org Petition to generate interest
343 signatures
O Facebook -- 333 Likes; Reached 4,396
Friends of fans: 193,786
O Twitter --
189 Tweets
302 Following
127 Followers
49,477 accounts reached
O Celebrity tweeted! (―E-Entertainment Host: Giuliana Rancic‖) 2, 659,780 followers
(Tweeted the same day she announced she and her husband Bill Rancic were having a baby…)
Her tweet: “ I‟m happy 2 support creation of this museum that will celebrate all cultures
@nmap2015 Check it out! I‟m a #ProudItalianAmerican! What r u?”
O You Tube Views: 1495
O Tout
Posted 9 videos
O Blog
500 impressions
O Other Blogs (included City Girl Blogs; Social Media Club, etc.) 53,779
O Op-Eds (Asian Pacific and Olean Times)
833,000 plus
O Outreach to ethnic organizations, schools, etc.
several million
TOTAL:
13,631,633 impressions
O Fee, if students had charged client—includes $247,500
15 weeks x 10 hours per week…Rate: $75 an hour
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How Media Work: Radio Project Leads to Insights
Margaret Rakus, M.A
Albright College
mrakus@alb.edu
Introduction
―I want to plan events.‖ ―My sister does publicity for some people and it seems like fun.‖
―I don't like to write. Why do we need to work on writing for public relations?‖
These comments, typical of public relations students, indicate a lack of understanding of
the discipline and expectations of the field. Students are attracted to public relations due to an
interest in event planning, because they like people, an interest in writing, and avoidance of math
(Brunner & Fitch-Hauser, 2009, p.2). Working in media did not rank, suggesting a lack of
understanding of the relationship between public relations and media despite the high ranking of
basic knowledge of media and media protocols among educators and professionals (Stacks,
Botan, Vanslyke Turk, 1999).
Claussen (2012) argues, ―Most students planning to go into print journalism weren‘t
reading any newspaper and usually only the fluffiest of magazines, and most broadcast
journalism students weren‘t watching the TV newscasts that included their possible future
colleagues and/or competitors‖ (p. 104). Although choosing appropriate media and
communicating effectively was advocated as fundamentals more than a decade ago (Van Lueven
1999), the lack of familiarity with media minimizes the role media play in a variety of public
relations contexts.
While The Commission on Public Relations (2006), identifies writing, critical thinking
skills, and problem solving skills as important, employers do not find college graduates have
acceptable levels of these skills or a sense of how businesses operate (Cole, Hembroff & Corner,
2009; Hines & Basso, 2009). Public relations and news media employers seek communicators
who can be effective across platforms and technologies (Van Leuven, 1999; Wegner & Owens,
2012). Wegner & Owens (2012) suggest, ―a need to reconsider the allocation of instructional
time. Students with more of the desired Web and multimedia skills may be better able to
overcome their lack of professional experience now than in years past‖ (p. 17) and meet the
expectations of news media employers.
The benefits of working with media as a pedagogical strategy, active learning
opportunity, and pre-professional experience have not translated into student engagement.
Reporting and radio production provide critical opportunities for skill development. However,
convincing students to voluntarily engage in media is tricky. Filak & Pritchard (2007) suggest
autonomy, relatedness and competence participation in organizations such as PRSSA.
Increasing competence through a curricular requirement may increase self-determination and
voluntary engagement.
The Project
Piloted for four semesters, Campus News launched in fall 2012. Drawing on active and
service learning amid a tradition of employing these techniques in public relations pedagogy
(Coombs & Rybacki, 1999), Campus News, a thirty-minute radio news program, serves the
campus and increases awareness of the relationship between public relations and media. Active
learning that requires taking on roles can ―closely replicate the real world‖ (Bagglione 2006, p.
49) and collaborative active learning allows students to learn from each other. Simulations help
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students practice skills and educators observe mastery while service learning components
―develop students more deeply as learners, as citizens, and as change agents‖ (Britt, 2012, para
4).
Project Definition and Goals
Campus News, broadcast weekly, engages students through curricular requirement and
covers weekend weather, headline news, community calendar and field reports. It aligns with
learning outcomes: 1.) Develop an understanding of the communication and media industries and
discipline; 2.) Gather and critically assess information from a variety of sources; 3.)
Communicate messages effectively; and, 4.) Be engaged, socially responsible communicators.
The project provides a venue in which students grapple with concepts of newsworthiness and
objectivity, examine issues from multiple perspectives, select appropriate and credible sources,
develop interviewing skills, meet media deadline and format requirements, edit audio and write
for a specific audience.
Set-up
Student roles include field reporter, engineer, on-air interviewer and assistant producer.
Writing for Public Relations students are engineers for a three-week period or assistant producers
for a two-week period. The first engineer has radio station experience; engineers provide on-air
support and schedule a one-hour editing lab each week. Due to the need for technical
proficiency, students involved in the pilot are assigned this role. The instructor trains the first
assistant producer who is responsible for choosing segments from those submitted on time,
scripting the show, and providing on-air commentary. Engineers and assistant producers train
the next scheduled student.
Feature Writing students conduct live interviews while students enrolled in the remaining
seven communications courses produce field reports. Nine to 13 field reports are submitted
weekly and six to seven are included in the broadcast, allowing the assistant producer to make
gatekeeping decisions. The reports cover events or issues, gain approval prior to the show, quote
three sources, meet minimum audio quality requirements and meet a weekly deadline. The
college provides digital audio recorders; students edit segments in labs using Garage Band and
email an MP3 file and 150-word descriptive blurb to a dedicated email address. A restricted
Google Sites website provides detailed instructions, a running list of approved story ideas, and
tutorials on such digital recorders, Garage Band, editing, introducing quotes, and choosing
sources. Each instructor reviews requirements, grades submissions using a common grading
rubric, and provides feedback.
Preliminary Outcomes
Thirty-nine field reports have been submitted, three engineers and three assistant
producers have cycled through and two interviews were broadcast. Newsworthy reports on rave
drugs, student voting intentions and student response to a residence hall door lock system have
aired. Field reporters explain the impact of timeliness, relevance and credibility:
When deciding on a story to do for this project, it is important to think about the audience
and their interest in the story. If the audience will not be interested in some event, either
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do not do that specific event or spin the story to connect to the audience.
My involvement with this project has allowed me to gain understand for what a radio
wants in their news reports and interviews. Prior to this project and communication with
the radio station, I had limited knowledge with the journalism process.
While students struggle with objectively reporting events and issues that directly impact them, the
three-source requirement encourages multiple perspective reporting; coverage on a new lock
system, which the reporter opposes, quotes the public safety director. One Student explains:
Without quotes from people who are directly involved/impacted by a particular event, the
segment would be less credible and less interesting. The sources and attributed quotes are
what make the segment complete in my opinion. It is one thing for me to talk for 3-4
minutes about an event, but hearing firsthand from the people involved adds value to the
story.
Field reporters can meet with faculty to discuss the selection of credible and knowledgeable
sources, preparing to cover an event, and to problem-solve when a source isn‘t available or opts
not to participate. Students explain:
I now know that before I make the decision of what story to choose, I need to have some
background about it. In my situation specifically, even though I had checked online and
on my email about the event, I knew very little about the event being covered, and in turn
I had to research about the artist himself, among other things.
Interviewing people is my highest worry because some individuals do not want to be
interviewed or have schedule conflicts. It is hard working with people who have busy
schedules because of the deadline; however, I know that this dilemma occurs in the "real
world" as well as Albright.
Students work independently and collaboratively to record leads and edit. Approximately
90% of submissions meet the deadline and few submissions have file or format issues.
Students comment on the process of producing news and working within media
expectations:
The deadline helps structure the schedule of the radio station and increases the timeliness
of the subject of the report.
Being on time and having good material changes everything. Providing specific quotes
and information really helps make the stories newsworthy and significant, which makes
the assistant producer‘s job much easier - who wants to present boring, improperly
prepared news?
It propelled me to get involved with WXAC and pursue my own radio show.
Next Steps
The content manger role, which requires students to edit audio and related images into a podcast
and post to a public website, is being piloted. This online extension of the project will provide hands-on
multi-platform learning experiences.
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References
Bagglione, S. (2006) Role-playing a public relations crisis, Journal of Promotion Management,
12(3-4), 47-61.
Britt, L. (2012, April). Instructor‘s corner: Why we use service-learning. Communication
Currents (newsletter of the National Communication Association) 7(2). Retrieved from
http://www.natcom.org/CommCurrentsArticle.aspx?id=2295
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perceptions of why they chose public relations as their major. Teaching Public Relations
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Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 67(2), 103-107.
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of entry-level PR practitioners. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 64(1), 10-
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education and the practice. New York, N.Y. Edited by Judy VanSlyke Turk.
Coombs, T. & Rybacki, K. (1999). Public relations education: Where is pedagogy? Public
Relations Review, 25(1), 55-63.
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support on advisers and members of a journalism student organization. Journalism &
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Hines, R. & Basso, J. (2009). Do communication students have the ―Write stuff‖?: Practitioners evaluate
writing skills of entry-level workers. Journal of Promotion Management, 14(3-4), 293-307.
Van Leuven, J. (1999). Four new course competencies for majors. Public Relations Review, 26(1), 77-78.
Wenger, D. & Owens, L. (2012). Help wanted 2010: An examination of new media skills
required by top U.S. news companies. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator,
67(1), 9-25.
Stacks, D. Botan, C. & Vanslyke-Turk, J. (1999). Perceptions of public relations education.
Public Relations Review, 25(1), 9-28.
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A Stronger Foundation for the Industry‟s Future:
Integrating Evidence Based Practices into Public Relations Education
Dave Remund, Ph.D., APR
Drake University
david.remund@drake.edu
Kathy Keltner-Previs, Ph.D.
Eastern Kentucky University
Karen Freberg, Ph.D.
University of Louisville
Introduction
Digital, social and mobile technologies make information increasingly and immediately
accessible to both organizations and their publics. Transparency is the new public relations currency,
and this calls for a shift in mindset for public relations educators. Professors must teach students to
see situations from multiple perspectives and understand the many implications of information
exchange with key publics, drawing evidence from proven best practices and past cases to formulate
sound strategies. This approach is standard in professional fields such as medicine and law but has
not yet been aggressively modeled in public relations.
This research explores the impact of integrating evidence-based practices in public relations
education. The study involves a contemporary social media crisis communications situation and
undergraduate public relations students from three different universities in the United States, none of
whom had previously been introduced to the concept of evidence based practices relative to public
relations. Ultimately, the goal of this study is to determine the degree to which evidence based
practices improve the counsel provided by emerging public relations professionals.
Literature Review
State of Public Relations Education
While understanding the application of evidence based practices related to research studies
and projects is one goal for public relations educators to incorporate into the curriculum, it is another
matter to be able to teach these practices and insights in the classroom. Measuring the effectiveness
of teaching assessments and student outcomes continues to be a growing focus in public relations
education (Taylor, 2011).
Several articles have focused on the use of incorporating more applied tasks for students to
receive in public relations courses including co-creating and importing ideas from other areas into
assignments and projects (Willis & McKie, 2011), internship opportunities in public relations (Bush
& Miller, 2011); Daugherty, 2011); incorporating a service learning assessment in public relations
campaign courses (Werder & Strand, 2011), capstone team and peer evaluations (Lubbers, 2011);
incorporating focus areas like into course curriculum and projects (Austin & Toth, 2011), and having
students run student run public relations firms (Swanson, 2011). Most of these activities are geared
toward upper division or capstone courses in public relations, but there is no foundation for
incorporating applied tasks and activities at the introduction level for public relations students to gain
experience on how to balance applied, theory, and best practices comprehensively.
Evidence Based Practices (EBP)
Evidence based practices (EBP) is an approach focused on integrating three perspectives
together -- namely the practitioner‘s expertise, the client‘s situation, and proven best practices.
Shlonsky and Gibbs (2004) define EBP as involving ―a well-built practice question, an efficient
search for best evidence, a critical appraisal of that evidence, and action based on the interchange
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etween client preferences, practice experience, and the best evidence,‖ (p.137). Drake et al. (2001)
conceptualized EBP to be more like ―interventions for which there is consistent scientific evidence
showing that they improve client outcomes‖ (p. 180).
There are three components that are conceptualized within the EBP. The first perspective
takes into account the individual knowledge and expertise of the practitioner, a role that may be
defined as that of a manager, technician or some hybrid of these two functions (Dozier & Broom,
2009). The second model focuses on client expectations; in higher education, service learning
incorporates client perspectives into the learning process. Students learn through their experiences
with a community partner (also referred to as ―client‖), and students report learning more about
public relations as a profession while also learning about community problems (Hon et al., 2004).
The third part of the model is best evidence. In medicine, social work, clinical psychology and public
health, EBP focuses on systematically comparing various scenarios and treatment options to help
improve the impact of practice. That means drawing upon evidence from applied research, expertise
and educational training of the practitioner involved, and the expectations and needs of the client
(Shlonsky & Gibbs, 2004).
Figure 1: Evidence Based Practice (EBP) Model (Shlonsky & Gibbs, 2004, p.138)
Method
The method used in this research study was a quasi-experimental research design, an
approach inspired, in part, by prior research about constructivist learning and the relative
effectiveness of delivering course content via different means (Day et al., 2005). The study is
composed of three different parts: an in-class scenario exercise, reaction paper, and an online
questionnaire. Three universities located in the Midwest and Southeast areas of the United States
provided the collective participant pool for this study. More than three-fourths of the participants
(N=128) had no prior internship experience (77%) or prior service learning experience (62%). None
of the participants had been formally introduced to the EBP concept in a prior public relations course.
Procedure
The first step was to introduce each class to the scenario exercise, which was a case study
presented via PowerPoint slides. The universal case study implemented for all three classes was the
Costa Cruises crisis, which occurred in January 2012. Each class selected for this study was exposed
to a different perspective on the case. One class (University 1, N=25) was exposed only to the
practitioner-focused perspective. The second class (University 2, N=47) was exposed to a version of
the case study that included the practitioner-focused perspective along with the client expectations
perspective, similar in spirit to traditional service learning. The third class (University 3, N=52) was
presented the full spectrum -- a version of the case study that provided the practitioner- and client-
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perspectives, and the EBP perspective, including best practices as well as insights gained from a
similar crisis in the past.
After the students were exposed to the classroom scenario exercise, they were presented with
questions they would have to address in a short reaction paper. In addition, the students were asked to
complete a short online questionnaire provided by each of the professors.
Results
RQ1: What is the learning effect in implementing EBP into the public relations curriculum?
University 1 participants, who received the most bare-bones version of the case, provided the
least consistent counsel, ranging from issuing hourly video statements from the CEO via social media
to shutting down social media altogether for up to three months and issuing electronic newsletters
instead. Students from University 2 approached the assignment from a client perspective, and
provided more consistent counsel. However, only one student cited Coombs‘ crisis communication
work, and only two cited best practices from previous cases. University 3 students provided
consistent counsel, cited previous cases, and also referenced additional public relations and crisis
communication scholars, and cited similar cases.
RQ2: What were some of the main lessons students took away from the case study scenario?
University 1 participants generally took just three simple lessons from the Costa Cruise case
study: 1) it is important to have a crisis plan, respond quickly and stay consistent with messages; 2)
social media are powerful and influential during a crisis situation; and, 3) public relations efforts may
not be able to overcome one person‘s actions. Lessons University 2 students reported to have learned
include: 1) approaching a PR problem from the client; 2) research is important; and, 3) even
established companies can still make mistakes and perception matters.
For students from University 3, they reported learning these best practices: 1) establish a
consistent message strategy on social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, YouTube); 2) provide more
training in crisis communications particularly with social media; 3) speed of information is key - so
is accuracy and understanding audiences; 4) make sure that the corporation takes responsibility and
integrates regulation practices into their crisis communication plans and among their employees; 5)
take the audience into consideration when implementing message strategies; and 6) commit to
transparency and honesty on behalf of the company before, during, and after the crisis.
RQ3: What were the main responses to participating in this exercise by the students?
Comments from all participants were overwhelmingly positive.
Discussion
The findings of this study are congruent with those (e.g., Todd, 2009, p. 84) suggesting more
proactive communication and engagement among academics and practitioners in order to teach
students the skills and knowledge needed to be successful in entry-level public relations jobs. It also
parallels findings that a public relations education should encompass discussions of practitioners,
clients, and best practices. This is especially evident in comments from students, namely those from
Universities 2 and 3, where participants reported learning how to ―think‖ like a practitioner in
serving clients, and how to incorporate research gathered to conduct best practices in solving PR
problems.
Students cannot be too prepared. The current economic crisis has created a lack of job
opportunities across all industries, including public relations. In addition, these young professionals
coming into the profession are expected to be up-to-date on the latest communication technologies.
Public relations professionals are not only expected to be active on various social media sites, but
they have to fully understand how these can be strategically implemented in a public relations
campaign, research study, case study and even in managing their own reputation online as a public
relations professional.
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References
Austin, L.L., & Toth, E.L. (2011). Exploring ethics education in global public relations curricula:
Analysis of international curricula descriptions and interview with public relations educators.
Public Relations Review, 37, 506-512.
Bush, L., & Miller, B. M. (2011) U.S. student-run agencies: Organization, attributes and adviser
perceptions of student learning outcomes. Public Relations Review, 37(5), 485-491.
Day, J.A., Foley, J.D., Groeneweg, R., & Van der Mast, C. (2005). Enhancing the classroom learning
experience with Web lectures: A quasi-experiment. Georgia Institute of Technology GVU
Technical Report, 4(18), 1-12.
Dozier, D.M., & Broom, G.M. (2009). The centrality of practitioner roles to public relations theory.
In Botan, C.H., & Hazleton, V. (Eds.), Public Relations Theory II (pp. 120-148), Mahwah,
N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Drake, R.E., Goldmna, H.H., Leff, H.S., Lehman, A.F., Dixon, L., Mueser, K.T., & Torrey, W.C.
(2001). Implementing evidence-based practices in routine mental health service settings.
Psychiatric Services, 52(2), 179-182.
Hon, L.C., Fitzpatrick, K.R. & Hall, M.R. (2004). Searching for the ‗ideal‘ graduate public relations
curriculum. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 59, 126-142.
Lubbers, C. A., (2011). An assessment of predictors of student peer evaluations of teamwork in the
capstone campaigns course. Public Relations Review, 37 (5), 492-498.
Shlonsky, A., & Gibbs, L. (2004). Will the real evidence-based practice please stand up?
Teaching the process of evidence-based practice to the helping professions. Brief Treatment
and Crisis Intervention, 4(2), 137-153.
Swanson, D.J. (20110). The student-run public relations firm in an undergraduate program: Reaching
learning and professional development goals through ‗real world‘ experience. Public
Relations Review, 37(5), 499-505.
Taylor, M. (2011). Introduction to the special issue on public relations pedagogy. Public
Relations Review, 37, 439-440.
Todd, V. (2009). PRSSA faculty and professional advisors‘ perceptions of public relations
curriculum, assessment of students‘ learning and faculty performance. Journalism & Mass
Communication Educator, 71-90.
Werder, K., & Strand, K. (2011). Measuring student outcomes: An assessment of service-learning in
the public relations campaigns course. Public Relations Review, 37, 478-484.
Willis, P., & McKie, D. (2011). Outsourcing public relations pedagogy: Lessons from innovation,
management futures, and stakeholder participation. Public Relations Review, 37, 466-469.
201

Agency Operations: Empowering Students with Knowledge of Industry Practices
Margaret Ritsch, APR
Texas Christian University
m.c.ritsch@tcu.edu
Abstract
This paper will share topics and approaches for a new academic course at TCU called ―Agency
Operations.‖ The course is designed to enrich students‘ internships at Roxo, a new student
agency for strategic communications, and is required of all the agency‘s interns. A task force that
created the plan for the agency thought a supplemental academic course would solidify a focus
on learning and a connection to the curriculum. The course was first offered during the 2012
spring semester and is currently underway in the fall semester with an enrollment of 12 students,
primarily seniors. There will be 18 students in the spring.
The one-hour weekly class gives a birds-eye view of the rapidly evolving agency industry and an
on-the-ground examination of leading agencies in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex. Agency
business practices are also introduced so that the students interested in an agency career are
empowered with an understanding of billable time, its relationship to salary, and the importance
of showing results. The agency business is an extremely competitive industry. We want our
graduates who may soon enter the industry to be aware of agency operations so they are
equipped to deal with the pressures and survive and do well in their first jobs. Students learn to
prepare and give Keynote presentations, estimate the cost of projects, work in teams, and
understand the high expectations of the workplace – all very important in the strategic
communication profession regardless of the business/employer setting.
Course topics
The Agency Operations course has a syllabus with some flexibility to shift topics depending
upon the gaps in the students‘ knowledge and skills. For example, it is one thing to study
strategic planning in a PR principles class taken during the sophomore year. It is another thing,
as a senior, to have to put together a strategic communications plan and present it to a client in
three weeks. All of a sudden there is more than a grade at stake.
In addition to a strategic planning refresher, course topics include:
o Team-building based on strengths discovered in the StrengthsFinder assessment
o A competitive analysis of DFW agencies, followed by team presentations
o Defining Roxo‘s mission, vision and purpose
o The art of the presentation
o Estimates, proposals and contracts, with role-playing and a team-based project
o Evaluation: showing results that matter
We began the semester with a team-building workshop focused on strengths: the students‘ top
five innate talents or strengths as shown on the Gallup StrengthsFinder assessment. Students
reflect on their own strengths, learn the strengths of their teammates, and anticipate where
weaknesses or problems could surface in their teams and how they might compensate.
The course also provides the chance for students to sharpen their knowledge and abilities in
interactive strategy, analytics, social media and SEO. A new partnership with HootSuite
University, the higher education outreach of the social media management service, provides
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webinars that will be used in one of the operations classes. (Online tutorials are also offered
through this partnership.) Several guest speakers and a tour of an agency round out the course
every semester. In their post-semester evaluations, students have reported that guest speakers are
invaluable part of the course.
Instructional approaches
This class is the only time during the week when all the agency‘s students are at the agency at
the same time, so we use the first five minutes of class for announcements and to address
important issues affecting the entire team. To ensure relevance, I try to find ways to relate class
topics to the students‘ work in Roxo for our clients. For example, in a lesson on estimates,
contracts and proposals, we will review the contract for Roxo‘s services from Community
Council of Greater Dallas.
Role-play and group exercises make for a dynamic learning environment in the agency
operations class. Realistic agency scenarios are acted out to help the students learn the dynamics
of the business.
In one lesson we discuss the importance of asking the right questions in the first client meeting.
There is an art to this meeting, a balancing act between courting the client and gathering enough
intelligence to be able to follow up with an estimate or proposal. The task seems obvious and
easy until the role-playing begins. I pretend to be the client, the owner of new gelato shop near
campus, and the students pretend to be the agency‘s account executive, public relations manager
and digital specialist. We sit face-to-face in front of the class. As the client, I introduce myself
and the business and meander off topic (this happens a lot in agencies), describe an unrealistic
timeframe (also typical), and dream out loud about the line of customers who will be lined up
around the block the day the shop opens. Very quickly, the students learn how challenging it can
be to gather essential, concrete information about a client‘s organization, goals and objectives,
timeframe, and budget in a 30-45 minute time frame.
After this role-playing is complete, we reflect on what was learned, and I ask the class to define
out loud some goals for the client project. Then we brainstorm measurable objectives. The
students are then divided into teams by specialty area, such as digital, public relations, creative
and media buying. For homework and during the next class, they are asked to develop an
estimate of the time it will take to do the work required to achieve the objectives. We review the
individual estimates, then combine them into one master estimate for the client during class.
Students learn how important it is to communicate between PR, digital, and creative to ensure
that their combined estimates do not exceed the overall budget.
In the agency world, client presentations happen on a daily, even hourly basis. Students perform
at least two team presentations during the semester to show their learning and insights and also to
refine their presentation skills. It takes practice to hone the ability to speak with confidence
before an audience, and to put together compelling visual presentations that reinforce and
amplify what is being said. Students learn to pay attention to their body language during
presentations. They learn to use appropriate tone of voice, hand gestures and eye contact, and to
readily share the spotlight with their teammates. They also learn the art of creating a PowerPoint
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or Keynote presentation that can be delivered in a predefined timeframe – an important writing,
creative, and verbal communication skill in the workplace.
Required texts and other resources
There is one required text for the Agency Operations course: The Marketing Agency Blueprint:
the handbook for building hybrid pr, seo, content, advertising, and web firms by Paul Roetzer,
founder and CEO of PR 20/20. Students are encouraged to read PR Week and Ad Age. Students
are encouraged to read case studies in HootSuite University, Google Engage, eMarketer, and
HubSpot to understand the digital revolution that is turning the agency industry upside down.
We are just tapping the surface of what prospective agency employees need to know in this new
Agency Operations course. It may well expand to a two- or three-credit course in the future
depending upon student feedback. One former student remarked in his end-of-semester
evaluation that he wished the course lasted longer each week so there was more time for in-depth
discussion.
Assessment
There are four graded elements in the agency operations class, and grading rubrics are provided
well in advance. Final grades are determined as follows:
10 percent: in-class presentations
15 percent: attendance, punctuality, meeting deadlines
30 percent: mid-term paper (5-7 pages)
40 percent: final team presentations
Students are given a choice of topics for the required mid-term papers, but are also allowed to
suggest their own topic as long as it relates to an industry issue. Suggested topics include:
―Generalist or niche: an agency dilemma‖; ―An industry in flux‖; ―Showing meaningful,
measurable results‖; ―New models for pricing/billing‖; ―What‘s in a name: How agencies name
& define themselves.‖ Papers are evaluated for quality of thought and reasoning, writing style,
grammar and punctuation, and originality.
Given that the agency‘s students are primarily seniors who will soon enter the job market, it is
critically important that they develop habits of professionalism. In this course we stress the
importance of showing up for work, being punctual, meeting deadlines without exception, and
being prepared for agency and client meetings. These work habits do not come easily to some of
the students; making it part of their grade helps instill discipline and prepares them for the
realities of a demanding workplace.
Final Presentations
At the end of the semester, the students demonstrate what they accomplished for Roxo‘s clients
in their final team presentations before an audience of faculty members, corporate sponsors and
invited guests. The students are organized into the same teams to which they belong in the
agency. The presentations touch on all phases of their work for each client, including research,
strategies and objectives, the creative platform, tactics employed, and evaluation. Students are
also encouraged to address the obstacles and challenges that they, as a team, had to overcome in
each project. This encourages the students to reflect on the experience, personalize their
presentations, and take pride in what they accomplished both as individuals and in their teams.
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Assessing the State of Public Relations Ethics Education
Deborah Silverman, Ph.D.
Buffalo State College
silverda@buffalostate.edu
Karla K. Gower, Ph.D.
The University of Alabama
gower@apr.ua.edu
Elmie Nekmat
The University of Alabama
mbnekmat@crimson.ua.edu
Abstract
Given the importance of ethics in public relations, this study explored the state of ethics
education in the PR curricula through an online survey of 104 educators and interviews with 15
professors. Findings reveal that, consistent with previous research, educators perceive ethics
instruction to be very important for PR students. At the same time, however, the majority of
participants indicated that their programs do not require an ethics course of, nor recommend one
as an elective for, their majors. The preferred method of ethics instruction delivery is embedding
it into each course in the public relations curricula, with 80% of the participants indicating that
students are exposed to ethics in the introductory class and campaigns. Less than one-half said
students received ethical training in the management class.
The most helpful methods for teaching ethics were case studies, simulations, and small
group discussions. The most helpful materials were current events, the PRSA Ethics Code, and
PRSA online ethics resources. Class discussions, reflexive/position papers, and student
presentations were the most effective forms of assessment, although in the interviews several
educators noted how difficult it was to assess ethical knowledge.
Despite the problems with assessment, educators reported a number of rewarding
outcomes of teaching ethics, most notably, an ―aha‖ moment from their students and feedback
from alumni on their own ethics ―war stories.‖ Overall, these educators believe that PR educators
are doing a good job, but that ethics must be learned on the job. They made several
recommendations for how the profession could improve ethical behavior.
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Developing Students‟ Research Skills in the Undergraduate Public
Relations Writing Course: A Framework for „Real World‟ Success
Douglas J. Swanson, Ed.D APR
California State University, Fullerton
dswanson@fullerton.edu
Too many students, not enough time or resources
Those of us who teach in higher education are in a time of continually diminishing
resources. Our budgets have been cut, but our class sizes and teaching loads continue to increase.
There‘s an unceasing drumbeat from the profession to better prepare our students with social
media skills demanded in the workplace (Cahill, 2009). In the education of public relations
undergraduates in particular, there seems to never be enough time or resources for faculty to
teach students all the new skills needed – let alone the basics. Outside of class, faculty struggle to
find time for research. Our long-delayed projects sit gathering dust on the desk while we struggle
with issues of class instruction. This poster session illustrates a curriculum component that can
help on both accounts, by integrating a theory and research component into the basic public
relations writing course.
Students‟ understanding of theory and research - an essential concept
Undergraduate students‘ ability to proficiently comprehend and use theoretical models
and research methodologies is among ―essential‖ skills identified by the Commission on
Undergraduate Public Relations Education (2006). But theory and research can be viewed as a
non-technological and perhaps boring basic skill that can be either delegated to General
Education or lost in the shuffle entirely as communications programs revamp their courses to
address new technological realities.
Creating a win-win situation for undergraduates and the faculty member
Over the past 16 years, the author has taught undergraduate public relations writing at
four different universities. He has developed a research practicum project module for the writing
course that allows theory and research to be included in an integrated, professionally relevant
way. Use of the module also allows for the labor of undergraduates to be utilized to help generate
scholarly research productivity – another issue often lost in wake of „too many students, not
enough time or resources.‟
Elements of the research practicum project
(1) Theoretical models
(2) Literature review
(3) Methodology
(4) Data collection
(5) Data interpretation
(6) Reporting of results
(7) Publication opportunities
Through involvement both individually and collectively with a ‗real world‘ research
issue, students gain practical knowledge and skills. The learning augments students‘ developing
knowledge of public relations writing, and puts the writing skills in a larger context that more
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adequately prepares students for later courses (e.g. PR Management or PR Campaigns) or
internship.
Recent successes
In spring 2011, the author had three sections of a PR writing class. Each section
successfully took on a different practicum project. All projects came to a successful conclusion
in terms of student learning – and each project resulted in acceptance for peer-refereed journal
publication within a year.
Hays, B. A, & Swanson, D. J. (____). Public relations practitioners‘ use of reverse mentoring in
the development of powerful professional relationships (In press, PRism, Online Journal
of Public Relations).
Swanson, D. J. (2012). Answering to God, or to Senator Grassley?: How leading Christian
‗health and wealth‘ ministries‘ website content portrayed social order and financial
accountability following a federal investigation. Journal of Media and Religion, 11(2),
61-77. DOI:10.1080/15348423.2012.688661
Swanson, D. J. (2011, October). Research spotlight: Peer-to-peer mentoring works in the college
media newsroom. College Media Review (peer-reviewed research).
http://cmreview.org/?p=119
The Practicum Project in Detail – Spring 2011 Example
Week 1: The project is built into the course syllabus. At the beginning of the semester, a class
period is taken to introduce the students to the project and its component parts.
COMM 362 (04)
Public Relations Writing
MONDAY, 7 to 9:45 p.m
Project summary:
Reserve mentoring among
public relations
professionals
To what extent do public
relations professionals: (1)
understand the concept of
reverse mentoring, (2) use
reverse mentoring within
their workplace, and (3)
perceive benefit from
reverse mentoring in terms
of knowledge development,
COMM 362 (05)
Public Relations Writing
MON. & WED. 11:30 a.m. to
12:45 p.m.
Project summary:
Evangelicals and financial
accountability: Responses of
involved stakeholders to the
criticisms of the Grassley Report
U.S. Senator Charles Grassley of
Iowa recently completed a threeyear
investigation with a 61-page
report that suggests several
prominent ministries are misusing
their donations to enhance the
wealth of their celebrity ministers.
What has been the impact of
Grassley‘s report on the ministries
COMM 362 (85)
Public Relations Writing
4 to 6:45 p.m.
Project summary:
Peer-to-peer mentoring
within college student
media
To what extent do students
employed in college student
media: (1) understand the
concept of peer-to-peer
mentoring, (2) see peer-topeer
mentoring utilized
within their workplace, and
(3) perceive personal benefit
from peer-to-peer mentoring
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skill acquisition, and
general workplace
productivity-?
This project will involve
the creation of a web-based
survey that will be
administered to PRSAmember
public relations
professionals throughout
the United States.
and the ECFA (Evangelical
Council on Financial
Accountability)? What has been the
impact on other stakeholders, such
as the Americans United for
Separation of Church and State?
How have the ministries reacted?
(e.g., what has been their public
relations action and/ or response?)
This project will involve a media
content analysis, as well as an
analysis of relevant existing
documents (e.g., the Grassley
Report) to determine the
communications strategies at work.
in terms of knowledge
development, skill
acquisition, and general
workplace productivity -?
This project will involve the
creation of a web-based
survey that will be
administered to
undergraduate college
students throughout the
United States who are
involved in student media
(newspaper, broadcast,
public relations). CSUF
students will not be
surveyed, per the stipulation
of the IRB application.
Week 2: Following a lecture and presentation of a handout addressing communications theory,
students were asked individually to complete a review of four relevant theories and draft a memo
of their findings. The assignment instruction is shown below.
Assignment P#1 - This assignment will be written as a business memo of no more than
two pages. The memo must be addressed to me and follow the general format/ structure
described in the handout I have provided. In the memo, you will identify four theories
into which our research effort might fit. Use the theories handout that I provided for you.
Briefly describe each of the theories you have chosen, and, for each, why it would be
appropriate for this investigation. The last of the four theories should be the one you think
best addresses our issue. This would be the theory you recommend that we use as the
grounding for our research effort. For this final theory you will reference a peer-reviewed
article that you have read in which this theory is applied. Your recommendation for using
this particular theory will come at the end of the memo. You will tell me why the theory
seems most appropriate – and why you believe it is better than the other three you
mentioned previously. Make sure to list the article you read (in APA format, please). This
memo will be evaluated on quality of writing and persuasive skill, in addition to
appropriateness of theories selected. (100 points)
Week 3: The P#1 memos were returned and discussed in class. Then, a lecture was given on
construction and use of annotated bibliographies. Supporting handouts were provided. Students
were then assigned to teams to discuss and create an annotated bibliography on a sub-topic
related to the class project. The assignment instruction is shown below:
Assignment P#2 - For this assignment, you will create an annotated bibliography of five
sources. All sources must address some aspect of the subject we‘re working on. (We‘ll
discuss this at greater length in class.) Three of the articles you use must be peer-
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eviewed articles; the other two may be general-interest articles or web pages. Follow
proper annotated bibliography format (which we will also discuss in class). This memo
will be evaluated on quality of writing and brevity/ clarity of explanation. (100 points)
Week 4: The P#2 annotated bibliographies were returned and discussed. Then, a lecture was
given on information-gathering methods (survey, interview, focus group, laboratory study,
content analysis, analysis of existing data, participant observation). Students were asked
individually to complete a review of four different methods and draft a memo of their findings.
The assignment instruction is shown below.
Assignment P#3 - This assignment will be written as a business memo of no more than
three pages. The memo must be addressed to me and follow the general format/ structure
described in the handout I have provided. The memo will profile four different
information-gathering methods commonly used in journalism/ public relations research.
As you draft your memo, make sure you define the term that refers to each type of
research. (In other words, tell me how the information-gathering method is
operationalized.) Briefly discuss pros and cons of each method. Lastly, for one of the
methods you discuss, briefly summarize a peer-reviewed article you read that used this
information-gathering method. The articles do not have to specifically fall into the
journalism/ PR category – but they should fall into the larger category of
‗communication.‘ (So focus areas such as interpersonal, intercultural, marketing, political
communication, new technology, and others are all ok.) This memo will be evaluated on
quality of writing and accuracy of explanation. (100 points)
Week 5: The P#3 memos reviewing different information-gathering methods were returned and
discussed. Then, a lecture focused on development of research questions – both general research
questions and specific interview/ survey questions. Students returned to their teams and
developed a list of questions for the project that their class section was working on. The
assignment instruction is shown below.
Assignment P#4 - This assignment will be written as a business memo of no more than
two pages. The memo must be addressed to me and follow the general format/ structure
described in the handout I have provided. [Sections 04 and 85]: Your memo will
recommend five specific survey questions that you think should be asked of our Survey
Monkey respondents. [Section 05]: Your memo will recommend five specific research
questions that our research should attempt to answer. At the bottom of the memo, include
– in APA format – the reference citations for two authoritative sources on survey research
and/ or research methods that you relied on to give you guidance in this area. This memo
will be evaluated on quality and accuracy of writing. (100 points)
Week 7: The P#4 memos with suggested questions were returned, and a class discussion was
held about research questions and survey protocol. Some of the suggested survey questions were
built into a Survey Monkey page, and that document was shared and discussed. A discussion was
held to identify populations for study. In the class section that was dealing with content analysis,
a discussion focused on media content analysis methods. Students worked in teams in each class.
See below.
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Assignment P#5 - [Sections 04 and 85]: We will be launching our Survey Monkey
instrument this week. There will be an in-class activity to identify populations for survey
(respondents that we will be contacting to participate). [Section 05]: There will be an inclass
content analysis activity as we gather data. (100 points)
Week 8: Students were updated on the progress of the project since our last class meeting. A
lecture/ discussion focused on what research-based data from different types of studies can and
cannot tell us.
Week 9: Students were updated on the progress of the project since our last class meeting. A
lecture/ discussion focused on outlets for publication – academic journals, trade publications, and
general-interest media. Students completed an individual assignment as shown below.
Assignment P#6 - This assignment will be written as a business memo of no more than
two pages. The memo must be addressed to me and follow the general format/ structure
described in the handout I have provided. In this memo, please identify three peerreviewed
and two general-interest publications where we might want to submit our
findings for possible publication. For each of the publications, give a paragraph or so of
description of the publication. Include such details as professional association
sponsorship (if any), editorial review processes (as reported by the publication), typical
subjects of articles contained in recent past issues, and so forth. This memo will be
evaluated on quality and accuracy of writing, and appropriateness of recommendations.
(100 points)
Week 12: The P#6 memos were returned and discussed. Depending on the class section in which
they were enrolled, students were presented with either survey or content analysis data. A
lecture/ discussion was held about apparent trends, response rates (or) framing and consistency
of media content. Students returned to their teams to complete a final assignment as shown
below.
Assignment P#7 - Review the data thus far collected. Based on that review and your
earlier work, develop a draft outline of how the results should be reported in research
form. What‘s the most interesting result(s) of our survey/ analysis? What‘s the least
interesting? Each team will submit a rough outline. Outlines will be evaluated on
appropriateness of recommendations. (100 points)
Week 14: At the end of the course, students individually submitted a final term paper
summarizing an interview they conducted with a working professional in PR about the
importance of theory and research in the profession. The paper was to address ‗applied research‘
and discuss in detail how the professional makes pragmatic and ethical decisions in a
technological profession undergoing rapid change.
Assignment weights
The seven component assignments (100 points each) + the term paper (300 points) = 1,000
points possible out of 4,000 points possible in the course.
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The remaining points possible were split between other writing assignments (1,400), tests (500),
a final exam (800), and an individual electronic portfolio of work (300).
Evaluation
Student evaluation data showed that the project – while initially perceived as a daunting task by
students – was one of the most appreciated components of the public relations writing course.
―This class turned out to greatly exceed my expectations. Everything I learned is
extremely valuable to my future career.‖
―This class relates classroom experience and work with real-world workplace situations.‖
―Assignments encourage us to think outside the box.‖
―The class was very intense in terms of course load. However, I feel I have learned so
much and have improved my PR writing.‖
References
Cahill, B. (2009, Spring). Your attention please: The right way to integrate social media into
your marketing plans. Public Relations Strategist. Retrieved from:
http://www.prsa.org/Intelligence/TheStrategist/Articles/download/6K-
020925/102/Your_Attention_Please_The_Right_Way_to_Integrate_S?
The Professional Bond: The Report of the Commission on Public Relations Education (2006).
New York: Commission on Public Relations Education. Available from:
http://www.commpred.org/theprofessionalbond/
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