Final Mitigated Negative Declaration and Response to Comments

and prolonged droughts (Lindström and Bloomer 1994). Socio-economic and technological
changes likely resulted from population increases and “demographic packing” and consequent
“interspersed” settlement patterns (Elston 1986). Innovations attributed to the Late Archaic
include the bow and arrow, bedrock mortars (pinyon pine exploitation) and simple flake tools.
The inclination towards basalt and other coarse-grained material for tool manufacture changed
to obsidian and chert toolstone.
ETHNOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND
Lake Tahoe is situated within the ethnographic territory of the Washoe, who inhabited the
Tahoe/Truckee area at the time of Euroamerican contact (Carlson 1986; d’Azevedo 1966,
1986; Downs 1966; Price 1962, 1980). The primary habitation focal points were centered
around large valleys on and along the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountains between
Honey Lake (north) and Little Antelope Valley (south) (d’Azevedo 1986:468 [Figure 1]; Elston
1986:13). The core area was approximately 120 miles long by 40 miles wide and covered
about 4,000 square miles.
Permanent settlements along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada were identified by
traditionally acknowledged subgroups and geographic features. Permanent settlements were
also located in small valleys around the 5,500 foot elevation, such as Woodfords and
Markleeville in Alpine County, the upper reaches of the Truckee River near Donner Lake, and
in eastern Sierra Valley (d’Azevedo 1986:467). Although most lived in permanent/winter
settlements in the lowland valleys east of the Sierran crest, Lake Tahoe comprised the spiritual
and geographic center of the Washoe world (Downs 1966:16).
The Washoe are members of the wide-spread Hokan linguistic group and are the only Great
Basin group to speak a non-Numic language. Kroeber (1925:569) and Downs (1966:70)
postulate an early relationship prior to 4,500 years ago between the Hokan speaking Washoe
and other Hokan speakers in California. The cultural origins are still unclear, but linguistic
evidence suggests past associations with California groups.
The Washoe were economically and socially organized into basic household or extended
family units residing in multifamily communities (Barrett 1917:8; Jackson et al. 1994:II.A).
Groups maintained ties with each other as well as with neighboring Penutian-speaking groups,
including Maidu, Miwok and Paiute. Washoe territory, including the core area, was fluid in that
it was utilized by non-Washoe people, particularly when resources were abundant, or as a
trade/travel corridor. Joint use or trespassing was usually accommodated by negotiation
(d’Azevedo 1986:467).
With a relatively abundant environment and some of the highest pre-contact population
densities in the Great Basin (Lindström and Bloomer 1994:27; Price 1980), the Washoe
pursued an “intensive subsistence strategy and a demographically packed settlement pattern”
(Zeier and Elston 1986:379) which involved high seasonal mobility, mixed strategies of
foraging and collecting and intensive exploitation of high and low ranked resources. Lake
Tahoe consists of several types of microenvironments. Habitats include meadows, marshes
Asian Clam Control Project IS/MND
Emerald Bay State Park
California Department of Parks and Recreation
35