Emerging biotechnologies: full report - Nuffield Council on Bioethics
Emerging biotechnologies: full report - Nuffield Council on Bioethics
Emerging biotechnologies: full report - Nuffield Council on Bioethics
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E m e r g i n g b i o t e c h n o l o g i e s<br />
those opini<strong>on</strong>s is less straightforward. Academic research <strong>on</strong> media effects has itself adopted<br />
and rejected a number of models in its comparatively brief history. Early research was<br />
dominated by the experience of propaganda in the Sec<strong>on</strong>d World War and was characterised<br />
by c<strong>on</strong>cern over the apparent power of direct media effects <strong>on</strong> public opini<strong>on</strong>. However, this<br />
model gave way to a sec<strong>on</strong>d stage (to the late 1960s) which saw media as essentially<br />
reinforcing existing attitudes rather than actively changing them. Subsequent research<br />
(particularly in the 1970s) has examined the cognitive effects of media presentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> beliefs,<br />
understandings and memories and to the way in which public opini<strong>on</strong> and media choices<br />
influence each other as a system, or as part of a system involving other influences besides. 307<br />
Internet-enabled social networking is doubtless now <strong>on</strong>e of these influences, and <strong>on</strong>e that will<br />
further c<strong>on</strong>found any attempt to explain media effects in terms of simple causes, and therefore<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>trol them.<br />
C H A P T E R 5<br />
5.13 Despite the changing tides in scholarship about the way media influence public opini<strong>on</strong><br />
generally, comparative studies of North American and European media show a c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
correlati<strong>on</strong> between the respective media cultures and public opini<strong>on</strong> in the regi<strong>on</strong>s in which<br />
they predominate. 308 News media are more often expected to be objective and balanced in<br />
North America but are understood to be more opini<strong>on</strong>ated in Europe, 309 correlating with greater<br />
levels of public c<strong>on</strong>troversy over <str<strong>on</strong>g>biotechnologies</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Europe than in North America 310 ; however,<br />
the reas<strong>on</strong>s for this correlati<strong>on</strong> are apparently complex (going bey<strong>on</strong>d the binary relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between the media and public and making it difficult to identify what produces the<br />
correlati<strong>on</strong>). 311<br />
Power and the media<br />
5.14 What seems clearer than the influence of the media over public opini<strong>on</strong> is the influence<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>al interests are capable of exercising over the media. Secti<strong>on</strong>al interests may exert<br />
influence by c<strong>on</strong>trolling what informati<strong>on</strong> gets published in the first place. This can effectively<br />
keep discourse <strong>on</strong> biotechnology policy, in which there is a public interest, out of the public<br />
sphere. Such cases have been described as “unc<strong>on</strong>troversies” and “n<strong>on</strong>decisi<strong>on</strong>s”. 312<br />
5.15 Research has shown that, during the last three decades of the 20 th Century, framing in the US<br />
media of issues associated with biotechnology (e.g. in vitro fertilisati<strong>on</strong>, genetic engineering,<br />
stem cells, gene therapy, and cl<strong>on</strong>ing) was dominated by certain powerful media outlets and<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>al interests. 313 Views that diverge from the official or orthodox can be erased<br />
progressively from public discourse through a “spiral of silence” that socially marginalises those<br />
307 Scheufele DA and Tewksbury D (2007) Framing, agenda setting, and priming: the evoluti<strong>on</strong> of three media effects models<br />
Journal of Communicati<strong>on</strong> 57: 9-20; Scheufele DA (1999) Framing as a theory of media effects Journal of Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
49: 103-22.<br />
308 Gaskell G, Einsiedel E, Priest S et al. (2001) Troubled waters: the Atlantic divide <strong>on</strong> biotechnology policy, in Biotechnology<br />
1996-2000: the years of c<strong>on</strong>troversy, Gaskell G, and Bauer MW (Editors) (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Science Museum).<br />
309 That is to say, news media in Europe are often assumed to have an overt political stance acting as a lens through which their<br />
news and editorials are presented (and understood), while in North America the expectati<strong>on</strong> is more often that the media<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> newsworthy occurrences in as neutral a manner as possible, with the political view of the organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly showing<br />
through in the ‘op-ed’ secti<strong>on</strong>s of its output. The extent to which this is actually the case is, of course, open to debate.<br />
310 However, Gaskell et al. c<strong>on</strong>test that c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> this may be attributable to third pers<strong>on</strong> effects where people are<br />
predisposed to overestimate the effects of media <strong>on</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s other than themselves and they “questi<strong>on</strong> explanati<strong>on</strong>s which<br />
rest <strong>on</strong> widely discredited theories of str<strong>on</strong>g, direct and uniform media effects <strong>on</strong> news c<strong>on</strong>sumers“. Ibid, p103.<br />
311 Gaskell G, Einsiedel E, Priest S et al. (2001) Troubled waters: the Atlantic divide <strong>on</strong> biotechnology policy, in Biotechnology<br />
1996-2000: the years of c<strong>on</strong>troversy, Gaskell G, and Bauer MW (Editors) (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Science Museum), p113.<br />
312 Nisbet MC and Lewenstein BV (2002) Biotechnology and the American media: the policy process and the elite press, 1970<br />
to 1999 Science Communicati<strong>on</strong> 23: 359-91. The examples given are the reformulati<strong>on</strong> of US federal biotechnology<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong> to the advantage of industry in the late 1980s and the lack of attenti<strong>on</strong> given to the large amount of biotechnology<br />
research with military applicati<strong>on</strong>s funded by the US Department of Defense.<br />
313 Ibid.<br />
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