The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...
The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...
The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
T h e e t h i c s o f r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> animal <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
past and present<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
2.1 This chapter c<strong>on</strong>cerns scientific, ethical and legal developments from a historical and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>temporary perspective. We describe changes in public policy and public opini<strong>on</strong> and<br />
different forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> protests against animal <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g>. We also c<strong>on</strong>sider the emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Three Rs (Refinement, Reducti<strong>on</strong> and Replacement; see Chapters 11 and 12),<br />
stakeholder and campaigning organisati<strong>on</strong>s, and animal-rights philosophy. We then briefly<br />
review the historical development and current provisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regulatory framework in the<br />
UK (see Chapter 13).<br />
Early forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> animal <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g> in the biological and medical sciences<br />
2.2 In some respects, the scientific and ethical reas<strong>on</strong>s for using <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> in scientific <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
have changed little from the first experiments in ancient Greece. Natural philosophers and<br />
physicians <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> those times wanted to increase their knowledge about the way in which<br />
complex organisms such as humans and <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ed. 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g>y valued the pursuit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
knowledge for its own sake and sought to understand how and why the body<br />
malfuncti<strong>on</strong>ed, to learn about the development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disease and the effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> injury, and to<br />
discover better treatments and cures. Aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> biological similarities between humans and<br />
other <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g>, they hypothesised that many findings about specific mechanisms or processes<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> could be applied to humans.<br />
2.3 Animal <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinued to be undertaken in some societies over the next 2,000 years and<br />
formed part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the systematic scientific enquiry carried out in the Roman Era<br />
(c.510BC–455AD) 2 and in early Arabic medicine (from the fall <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rome until the 15th<br />
century). 3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is little evidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> similar activity having taken place in medieval Europe.<br />
By the 16th century, methodological <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g> had become more widespread, particularly in<br />
the medical schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Italy. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> Catholic Church forbade human autopsy, which could have<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to biological and physiological knowledge and the effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> diseases. Instead,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> were used as the primary physiological and anatomical models. 4<br />
2.4 Most historians <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> medicine agree that many fundamental early discoveries in physiology<br />
were derived from studying <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g>se discoveries include William Harvey’s<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> blood circulati<strong>on</strong> in 1628, Robert Hooke’s discovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
lungs in 1667 and Stephen Hales’ measurement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> blood pressure in 1733. 5 This traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
view has been challenged by commentators who argue that animal <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g> has led merely<br />
to increased knowledge about <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g>, but not necessarily about humans, thereby delaying<br />
CHAPTER 2 THE CONTEXT OF ANIMAL RESEARCH: PAST AND PRESENT<br />
1 Rupke NA, Editor (1987) Vivisecti<strong>on</strong> in Historical Perspective (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> and New York: Cro<strong>on</strong>-Helm).<br />
2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> notable physician Galen <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 2nd century AD, for example, argued that vivisecti<strong>on</strong> was the <strong>on</strong>ly way to reveal the<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> biological structures. See Guerrini A (2004) Experimenting with Humans and Animals: From Galen to animal rights<br />
JAMA 291: 2133–4; Orlans FB (1998) History and ethical regulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> animal experimentati<strong>on</strong>: an internati<strong>on</strong>al perspective,<br />
in A Compani<strong>on</strong> to Bio<str<strong>on</strong>g>ethics</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Kuhse H and Singer P (Editors) (Oxford: Blackwell).<br />
3 For example, it is thought that the doctor and philosopher Al-Razi (or Rhazes) (864–930 AD) tested treatments <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
evaluate their efficacy and side effects. See Bunch B and Hellemans A (Editors) (2004) <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> History <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Science and Technology<br />
(Bost<strong>on</strong>: Hought<strong>on</strong> Mifflin Company).<br />
4 Hill RB and Anders<strong>on</strong> RE (1988) <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> Autopsy – Medical Practice and Public Policy (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Butterworth).<br />
5 Rhodes P (1985) An Outline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the History <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Medicine (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Butterworth).<br />
15