The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...

T h e e t h i c s o f r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l s
<strong>The</strong> context <strong>of</strong> animal <strong>research</strong>:
past and present
Introduction
2.1 This chapter concerns scientific, ethical and legal developments from a historical and
contemporary perspective. We describe changes in public policy and public opinion and
different forms <strong>of</strong> protests against animal <strong>research</strong>. We also consider the emergence <strong>of</strong> the
concept <strong>of</strong> the Three Rs (Refinement, Reduction and Replacement; see Chapters 11 and 12),
stakeholder and campaigning organisations, and animal-rights philosophy. We then briefly
review the historical development and current provisions <strong>of</strong> the regulatory framework in the
UK (see Chapter 13).
Early forms <strong>of</strong> animal <strong>research</strong> in the biological and medical sciences
2.2 In some respects, the scientific and ethical reasons for using <strong>animals</strong> in scientific <strong>research</strong>
have changed little from the first experiments in ancient Greece. Natural philosophers and
physicians <strong>of</strong> those times wanted to increase their knowledge about the way in which
complex organisms such as humans and <strong>animals</strong> functioned. 1 <strong>The</strong>y valued the pursuit <strong>of</strong>
knowledge for its own sake and sought to understand how and why the body
malfunctioned, to learn about the development <strong>of</strong> disease and the effects <strong>of</strong> injury, and to
discover better treatments and cures. Aware <strong>of</strong> biological similarities between humans and
other <strong>animals</strong>, they hypothesised that many findings about specific mechanisms or processes
in <strong>animals</strong> could be applied to humans.
2.3 Animal <strong>research</strong> continued to be undertaken in some societies over the next 2,000 years and
formed part <strong>of</strong> the systematic scientific enquiry carried out in the Roman Era
(c.510BC–455AD) 2 and in early Arabic medicine (from the fall <strong>of</strong> Rome until the 15th
century). 3 <strong>The</strong>re is little evidence <strong>of</strong> similar activity having taken place in medieval Europe.
By the 16th century, methodological <strong>research</strong> had become more widespread, particularly in
the medical schools <strong>of</strong> Italy. <strong>The</strong> Catholic Church forbade human autopsy, which could have
contributed to biological and physiological knowledge and the effects <strong>of</strong> diseases. Instead,
<strong>animals</strong> were used as the primary physiological and anatomical models. 4
2.4 Most historians <strong>of</strong> medicine agree that many fundamental early discoveries in physiology
were derived from studying <strong>animals</strong>. <strong>The</strong>se discoveries include William Harvey’s
demonstration <strong>of</strong> blood circulation in 1628, Robert Hooke’s discovery <strong>of</strong> the function <strong>of</strong> the
lungs in 1667 and Stephen Hales’ measurement <strong>of</strong> blood pressure in 1733. 5 This traditional
view has been challenged by commentators who argue that animal <strong>research</strong> has led merely
to increased knowledge about <strong>animals</strong>, but not necessarily about humans, thereby delaying
CHAPTER 2 THE CONTEXT OF ANIMAL RESEARCH: PAST AND PRESENT
1 Rupke NA, Editor (1987) Vivisection in Historical Perspective (London and New York: Croon-Helm).
2 <strong>The</strong> notable physician Galen <strong>of</strong> the 2nd century AD, for example, argued that vivisection was the only way to reveal the
function <strong>of</strong> biological structures. See Guerrini A (2004) Experimenting with Humans and Animals: From Galen to animal rights
JAMA 291: 2133–4; Orlans FB (1998) History and ethical regulation <strong>of</strong> animal experimentation: an international perspective,
in A Companion to Bio<strong>ethics</strong>, Kuhse H and Singer P (Editors) (Oxford: Blackwell).
3 For example, it is thought that the doctor and philosopher Al-Razi (or Rhazes) (864–930 AD) tested treatments on <strong>animals</strong> to
evaluate their efficacy and side effects. See Bunch B and Hellemans A (Editors) (2004) <strong>The</strong> History <strong>of</strong> Science and Technology
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company).
4 Hill RB and Anderson RE (1988) <strong>The</strong> Autopsy – Medical Practice and Public Policy (London: Butterworth).
5 Rhodes P (1985) An Outline <strong>of</strong> the History <strong>of</strong> Medicine (London: Butterworth).
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