The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...

T h e e t h i c s o f r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l s
be used to define humane endpoints include flank twitching (paragraph 12.19) and
chemical and haematological changes in the blood. 28
12.22 But in some cases the only way to determine the clinical signs indicating that <strong>animals</strong> should
be euthanised may be to allow some <strong>animals</strong> to suffer considerably or even die, carefully
recording the clinical signs throughout their lives so that a retrospective analysis can be
undertaken. This approach has been used successfully to refine some <strong>of</strong> the protocols
required for toxicity testing <strong>of</strong> vaccines. 29 Humane endpoints should generally be easier to
define within safety-assessment programmes because routine procedures are used and the
only variable is, for example, the batch <strong>of</strong> vaccine. 30
Barriers to implementing Refinement
12.23 We have observed above that implementation <strong>of</strong> Refinements is usually more
straightforward than Reduction and Replacement and that many Refinements have been
developed by scientists during the normal course <strong>of</strong> their work. <strong>The</strong>re should in fact be
fewer scientific barriers to Refinement. Where they do occur, it can be difficult to determine
whether they are real or perceived and exactly what the nature <strong>of</strong> the barrier is. One
common concern is that the provision <strong>of</strong> Refinement in the form <strong>of</strong> environmental
enrichment may add unwanted variables that may reduce the validity <strong>of</strong> experimental data.
For example, in toxicology it might be argued that giving wooden chews to <strong>animals</strong> affects
their metabolism and interfers with the results. This may mean that more <strong>animals</strong> have to
be used to generate statistically significant results. However, there are usually ways around
such problems, for example, by using commercially available enrichments that have been
fully characterised and standardised.
12.24 Other, non-scientific, barriers to the application <strong>of</strong> Refinement can result from:
■ limited understanding <strong>of</strong> the concept <strong>of</strong> Refinement, why it is important and when and
how to apply it;
■ limited understanding <strong>of</strong> the species-specific needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>animals</strong>, causes <strong>of</strong> suffering and the
impact <strong>of</strong> laboratory <strong>research</strong> and housing on the full lifetime experience <strong>of</strong> an animal;
■ lack <strong>of</strong> specific information and guidance on practical Refinements, relating to what to
do and how to do it;
■ lack <strong>of</strong> resources, including time and funds; and
■ lack <strong>of</strong> motivation and training.
12.25 All <strong>of</strong> these factors can significantly limit the implementation <strong>of</strong> Refinement, which, in view
<strong>of</strong> its relative ease <strong>of</strong> application and its great potential for reducing suffering, is
regrettable. Nevertheless, many establishments in the UK are very proactive with regard to
Refinement and, taking animal husbandry as an example, have good, innovative
environmental enrichment programmes. But there is also anecdotal evidence that some
<strong>research</strong>ers argue that <strong>animals</strong> ‘do not do anything’, and therefore do not need anything
28 See Hendriksen CFM and Morton DB (Editors) (1999) Humane Endpoints in Animal Experiments for Biomedical Research.
Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the Int Conference, 22–5 Nov 1998, Zeist, <strong>The</strong> Netherlands. (London: Royal Society <strong>of</strong> Medicine).
29 Johannes S, Rosskopf-Streicher U, Hausleithner D et al. (1999) Use <strong>of</strong> clinical signs in efficacy testing <strong>of</strong> erysipelas vaccines, in
Humane Endpoints in Animal Experiments for Biomedical Research. Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the Int Conference, 22–5 Nov 1998, Zeist,
<strong>The</strong> Netherlands, Hendriksen CFM and Morton DB (Editors) (London: Royal Society <strong>of</strong> Medicine), pp102-105; Krug M and
Cussler K (1999) Endotoxin in porcine vaccines: clinical signs and safety aspects, in Humane Endpoints in Animal Experiments
for Biomedical Research Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the Int Conference, 22–5 Nov 1998, Zeist, <strong>The</strong> Netherlands, Hendriksen CFM and
Morton DB (Editors) (London: Royal Society <strong>of</strong> Medicine), pp114–17.
30 See also: Hendriksen CFM and Morton DB (Editors) (1999) Humane Endpoints in Animal Experiments for Biomedical
Research. Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the Int Conference, 22–5 Nov 1998, Zeist, <strong>The</strong> Netherlands. (London: Royal Society <strong>of</strong> Medicine).
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