The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...
The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...
The ethics of research involving animals - Nuffield Council on ...
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T h e e t h i c s o f r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l s<br />
staff at <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilities. Establishing appropriate relati<strong>on</strong>ships is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> special relevance to<br />
many types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> primate <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g>, where the <str<strong>on</strong>g>research</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers depend <strong>on</strong> the cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
animal to perform certain tasks (see Box 5.4). Problems may arise if there is a frequent<br />
change in pers<strong>on</strong>nel. Appropriate handling <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> is also required when <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
removed and re-introduced to and from their social groups, which can cause fear and<br />
distress. Reintroducing <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> may result in increased aggressive behaviour, as hierarchies<br />
are re-established.<br />
4.47 Restraint for primates is another cause for c<strong>on</strong>cern. This is particularly so when <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> have<br />
not experienced adequate habituati<strong>on</strong> and socialisati<strong>on</strong> to humans, and when those<br />
interacting with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> are not sufficiently familiar with the species-specific behaviour.<br />
A number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> restraint methods are used for different purposes. For example, restraint chairs<br />
are used to support primates in a stable sitting positi<strong>on</strong> when the experiment requires that<br />
they sit still for a prol<strong>on</strong>ged period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time. 38 If the chair is incorrectly designed it could have<br />
an adverse effect <strong>on</strong> the animal’s physiology, 39 and its welfare, 40 as well as <strong>on</strong> the validity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the scientific study being undertaken. Training the animal with positive reinforcement so<br />
that it cooperates during the procedure is important to minimise negative welfare effects.<br />
Identificati<strong>on</strong><br />
4.48 Scientists <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten need to mark experimental <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanently so that they can be<br />
identified throughout the durati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a project. This can sometimes be achieved using n<strong>on</strong>invasive<br />
techniques such as noting coat patterns or applying n<strong>on</strong>-toxic stains. Other methods<br />
include inserting microchips under the skin, which can cause momentary pain, or moreinvasive<br />
techniques which include marking the ears using tags, notches or tattoos. Primates<br />
may be tattooed <strong>on</strong> the chest or fitted with collars. Methods used for amphibians include<br />
tattooing <strong>on</strong> the abdomen, sewing coloured plastic beads <strong>on</strong>to the muscle mass <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the leg<br />
or back, attaching tags to the webs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> the feet and freeze-branding (see paragraph 5.4). In<br />
field studies, toes may be removed from mice and frogs as a means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> identificati<strong>on</strong>. This is<br />
usually a painful procedure which also affects normal behaviour and in some cases the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g>’ survival chances. 41<br />
Procedures and their effects<br />
4.49 <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical procedures to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>animals</str<strong>on</strong>g> are subjected can cause a range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> negative states<br />
such as discomfort, pain, distress, fear and anxiety, either during or as a result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures.<br />
Some examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong> types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedure are given below. More specific informati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> the effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> various types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> experiment or animal model is provided in the relevant<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chapters 5–9. Refinements, which can and should be put in place to lessen the<br />
effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any procedure, are described in Chapter 12.<br />
38 <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> durati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such restraint varies. A recent paper reported a device suitable for restraining marmosets for up to three days<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuously, which would be an unusually l<strong>on</strong>g period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time. See Schultz-Darken NJ, Pape RM, Tannenbaum PL, Saltzman W<br />
and Abbott DH (2004) Novel restraint system for neuroendocrine studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> socially living comm<strong>on</strong> marmoset m<strong>on</strong>keys Lab<br />
Anim 38: 393–405. More comm<strong>on</strong>ly, primates experience between three- and five-hour-l<strong>on</strong>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s several times per week,<br />
over a period <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ths. See, for example Box 5.4.<br />
39 Norman RL and Smith CJ (1992) Restraint inhibits luteinizing horm<strong>on</strong>e and testoster<strong>on</strong>e secreti<strong>on</strong> in intact male rhesus<br />
macaques: effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>current nalox<strong>on</strong>e administrati<strong>on</strong> Neuroendocrinology 55: 405–15.<br />
40 Klein HJ and Murray KA (1995) Restraint, in N<strong>on</strong>human Primates in Biomedical Research: Biology and Management, Bennett<br />
BT, Abee CR and Henricks<strong>on</strong> R (Editors) (New York: Academic Press), pp286–97.<br />
41 See May RM (2004) Ethics and amphibians Nature 431: 403.<br />
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