A OPEN PIT MINING AÇIK OCAK MADENCİLİĞİ

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M. Coli, M. Baldi Figure 5. General view of the main Roman sledge-way driven above the ancient quarries of the bekhen-stone opened at the base of the slope. Then, the collected blocks were dressed in situ to the right size, because the layering represents a natural surface of weakness, the hand worked blocks could break during the dressing. The hand worked blocks were not finished or polished, usually these actions were completed only at the final destination, so that the finished surfaces were not damaged during the transport. 4.1.3 Use The bekhen-stone is a beautiful grey/green ornamental stone prized for all kinds of artistic production. It was already quarried in the Predynastic period (Nagada I e Nagada II - Lazzarini 2002), and a large number of artifacts in bekhen-stone have been found in pyramids, tombs and temples, many ancient Pharaohs having had their sarcophagus made with bekhen-stone (e.g.: Unas, Teti, Pepy I, Merenre - Old Kingdom) (Aston et al., 2000). The statue of Darius in Persepolis was made of bekhen-stone, and the Romans largely used the bekhen-stone both for mediatic purpose and for the production of bowls, statues and sarcophaguses, until the III Century A.D. (Borghini, 1989; Lazzarini, 2002; Giampaolo et al., 2008). The quarries were still being worked during the late Roman times, but with the decline of the Empire the request for bekhenstone diminished: many blocks still lie abandoned along the wadi. 4.2 Breccia Verde Antica Breccia Verde Antica (breccia verde d’Egitto) was for the Romans Lapis hecatontalithos but also Lapis hexacontalithos (Lazzarini, 2002) (http://www.museo.isprambiente.it/schedeM appa.page?docId=381). We numbered two quarries of “Breccia Verde Antica”. 4.2.1 - Geology Breccia Verde Antica was quarried from the Um Had Conglomerate Member of the Hammamat Group, it is a dark-, purplishand greenish-grey to mainly greyish-green, chloritic siltstone, with a few layers of pudding (Harrel et al., 2002). This last is a clast-supported pudding with greenish chloritic matrix (locally reddish), siltgrained, with a few levels of well-rounded sub-spherical pebbly to cobbly (until 25cm in diameter) clasts of many different lithologies (granites, limestones, metabasites, chert, …) and colours (white, pink, red, yellow, brown, green and grey). The pudding layers have a bimodal texture, with the pebbles surrounded and supported by a coarse- to very coarsegrained sandy matrix with chlorite, sericite and epidote plus minor amounts of calcite and iron oxides. The two main pudding layers are up to a meter thick, and both were quarried as “Breccia Verde Antica”. The lithological layering dips of about 45° towards East and represents a natural discontinuity. The pudding layers are cut by two joint sets which lie at about 90° to each other, and trend around E-W and N-S respectively, lying normally to the layering. Discontinuities are spaced a few meters apart and delimit natural blocks some cubic meters in volume. 4.2.2 - Quarrying Quarriers used the natural discontinuities as preferential surfaces to force the block to fall down, therefore the two quarries were opened on the northern wadi side where the 14
23 rd two main pudding layers met the wadi with a down-slop dip, because this setting fostered a “controlled” slip-down of the extracted stone-blocks. In one of the quarry, probably worked out by the Romans, an undercut technique was used which led to a general rock-fall of a huge mass of the pudding layer down into the wadi bottom. The fallen blocks were up to many cubic meters in volume and therefore were later cut into smaller blocks dressed to the right size. In order to reduce blocks to the right size a line of wedge-shaped holes was chiselled, and then subsequently iron wedges were inserted into the holes and hammered until the block split along the line of holes (Fig.6). Figure 6. The main quarry of “Breccia Verde Antica”: the outcrop was dismantled according to its natural discontinuity network, the fallen blocks were subsequently dressed to the right size. Wedging was used for rough splitting, but, for a more controlled cut, quarriers used the “pointillé” pits method: a straight line of small, shallow pits was chiselled across the block surface, then quarriers inserted special short chisels along the pits and hammered them back and forth until the block split away (Harrell & Storemyr, 2009). 4.2.3 - Use In the Pharaonic period the Breccia Verde Antica was seldom used: the fragment of the head from the lid of the inner sarcophagus belonging to Ramses II is considered to be made of “green conglomerate”, and the sarcophagus of Nectanebo II as well (both in the British Museum) (Aston et al., 2000; De Putter & Karlshausen, 1992). “Breccia Verde Antica” was used by the Romans to make many beautiful bowls and other objects, the most outstanding ones being the column, made by the order of Emperor Justinian (VI Century A.D.) for the church of San Vitale in Ravenna (Italy), where it still is, and three other columns in Rome (Borghini, 1989; Harrel et al., 2002). 4.3 Granite of the Wadi Umm Fawakhir Close to Bir Umm Fawakhir there are some small granite quarries. 4.3.1 - Geology The granite is actually a mainly a pinkishgrey, coarse- to mainly medium-grained granodiorite referable to the older granitic complexes. The granite is massive, affected by two sets of sub-vertical fractures N-S and E-W trending, respectively. These fractures can be grouped into bands with fractures up to a meter wide or can be scattered and spaced some meters wide; flat lying joints (Closs, 1922) are also present. The granite surface is fresh to slightly weathered mostly along the fractures (Thuro & Sholz, 2003); all the fine particles had been removed by wind and rainfall; large amounts of residual core stones are present. 4.3.2 - Quarrying The quarriers used boulders and cobbles or, due to it massive setting (Fig.7). Figure 7. The main of the small granite quarries at Bir Umm Fawakhir. 15
Page 1 and 2: Chapter - A OPEN PIT MINING
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analisys degradation and erosion ri
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3 METHOLOGICAL APPROACH AND EQUIPME
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Figure 3. The UAV multirotor platfo
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Table 2. Final results of data proc
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23 rd Ultimate Pit Limit Design on
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23 rd Figure 1 shows the procedure
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23 rd Figure 4. UPL of the sample
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23 rd Efficient Real Time Stabilit
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23 rd stripping ratio of 2.28:1 to
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23 rd The broad area coverage make
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23 rd 4 FINAL REMARKS Slope monito
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23 rd A Genetic Algorithm for Pit
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23 rd every ore block and searches
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23 rd BS. The mathematical model o
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23 rd producing the new vector x i
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. 23 rd Figure 6. Ultimate pit lim
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23 rd Selecting the Suitable Haula
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23 rd Environment Economy Society
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23 rd shape and depth of deposit,
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23 rd 6 THE HIERARCHICAL PREFERENC
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23 rd ranking place Truck & Shovel
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23 rd Noguchi H., Ogawa M., Ishii
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23 rd An Approach to Determine the
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23 rd material to the nearby dumps
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23 rd network and allocating spoke
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23 rd IPC unit, but this is not wi
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23 rd REFERENCES Alumur, S. A., &
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23 rd In - Pit Crushing and Convey
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23 rd According to Lopes, the bigg
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23 rd Identification of Causal Rel
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23 rd Table 1. Geotechnical charac
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23 rd 3.7 Results and Discussion T
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23 rd Using Satellite Images (ASTE
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23 rd this figure, the lithology u
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23 rd Figure 6. ASTER satellite im
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23 rd mineralization in the sanand
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23 rd Gas Pollutants and Dust of T
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23 rd Figure 2. Truck transport th
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23 rd Table 4. Determined values o
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23 rd 4 DISCUSSION The results of
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23 rd Surface Mining Statistics in
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23 rd Dinogetia (Garvan). The chal
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23 rd Table 1. The surface mining
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23 rd pits along the Crisu Negru,
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23 rd Voda, Nisipari, Rasova, Sili
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A OPEN PIT MINING AÇIK OCAK MADENCİLİĞİ

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