Leading in Learning exemplification in ICT - PGCE

Key Stage 3
National Strategy
Leading in Learning
Exemplification in ICT

Disclaimer
The Department for Education and Skills wishes to make clear that the Department
and its agents accept no responsibility for the actual content of any materials
suggested as information sources in this document, whether these are in the form
of printed publications or on a website.
In these materials icons, logos, software products and websites are used for
contextual and practical reasons. Their use should not be interpreted as an
endorsement of particular companies or their products.
The websites referred to in these materials existed at the time of going to print.
Tutors should check all website references carefully to see if they have changed
and substitute other references where appropriate.
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Key Stage 3 National Strategy
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Contents
Introduction 4
Thinking skills and ICT 5
ICT examples for the strategies:
Advance organisers 8
Analogies 9
Audience and purpose 10
Classifying 11
Collective memory 12
Living graphs and fortune lines 13
Mysteries 14
Reading images 15
Summarising 16
Resource 17
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Leading
in Learning: subject exemplification / ICT
Key Stage 3 National Strategy
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DfES 0052-2005 G

Introduction
The main source of guidance for teachers involved in the Leading in Learning
whole-school initiative is the Handbook for teachers. These website materials give
additional guidance for teachers of particular subjects, to help them play a full part
in the initiative by contributing to 3-lesson cycles devoted to teaching thinking
skills.
The first section illustrates the distinctive contribution that the subject can make to
the development of pupils’ thinking skills. This is the perspective that teachers are
asked to adopt when, for an occasional lesson, they subordinate subject concerns
for a common focus on a selected National Curriculum thinking skill. An aim of
Leading in Learning is that pupils should become aware that these skills are
applicable to all areas of learning and in everyday life. Committing a small amount
of subject time to serving this aim should benefit learning in the subject as well as
learning more generally.
The Handbook for teachers includes general guidance on each of the following ten
teaching strategies:
Advance organisers
Analogies
Audience and purpose
Classifying
Collective memory
Living graphs and fortune lines
Mysteries
Reading images
Relational diagrams
Summarising
The Handbook notes on each strategy usually include one substantial example in a
selected subject and brief reference to one or two other subjects. In addition, there
is an A3 poster for each strategy that illustrates the 3-lesson cycle with selected
subjects. To supplement this, these website materials give brief subject examples
for nine of the teaching strategies. Whether they describe a general type or are
more specific in nature, the examples are intended to stimulate teachers to think of
ideas of their own. Some of the strategies are readily used in most subjects but
others are more obviously suited to certain subjects. However, imaginative
teachers will see possibilities that go beyond the examples given. And as the
Leading in Learning initiative gathers pace, LEA networks should provide other rich
sources of ideas.
A resource sheet is provided for audience and purpose. It is available in Word
format so that you can adapt it to suit your purposes.
Selected references to other publications and resources are included in the notes
for particular strategies. Remember that the Handbook for teachers is the
main reference source on the Leading in Learning approach to teaching
thinking skills lessons and for detailed guidance on each of the ten
teaching strategies. These subject examples should be read in conjunction
with relevant sections of the Handbook and are not intended to stand
alone.
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Thinking skills and ICT
While the development of ICT skills, techniques and concepts naturally contribute
to the development of ICT capability, thinking skills are the key to progression in
the subject. ICT offers frequent opportunities for the development of thinking skills.
Pupils are expected to evaluate all the time in many different contexts. Key words
and phrases in the Framework for teaching ICT capability: Years 7, 8 and 9 (DfES
0321/2002) are: evaluate information, audience, purpose, develop criteria for
judging own and others’ work, bias. The following notes develop some of these
points from the perspective of the contribution that teachers of ICT can make to
the development of pupils’ thinking skills.
Information-processing skills
These enable pupils to locate and collect relevant information, to sort, classify,
sequence, compare and contrast and to analyse part/whole relationships.
ICT is an information-processing curriculum and links explicitly to the National
Curriculum thinking skills. In ICT, teachers should plan for pupils to:
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Locate and collect relevant information – for example, when they search for
information, they should ask ‘Is the information appropriate? If the
information is used to produce a finished product, will it be suitable for the
purpose identified?’.
Sort, classify and sequence – for example, when they develop a method of
organising work so that it can be found at a later date.
Compare and contrast – for example, when they consider different
applications and their suitability for a particular task.
Analyse part/whole relationships – for example, when they examine a ‘black
box’ model to determine the rules governing its operation.
Reasoning skills
These enable pupils to give reasons for opinions and actions, to draw inferences
and make deductions, to use precise language to explain what they think and to
make judgements and decisions informed by reason or evidence.
Much work in ICT involves justification of choices about design, audience and
purpose, made using criteria developed by the pupils. The interpretation of data in
order to draw conclusions is important in ICT, therefore, teachers should plan for
pupils to:
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Give reasons for opinions and actions – for example, when they explain by
annotation of publications why they have chosen particular design features.
Draw inferences and make deductions – for example, when evaluating
websites, they are asked to identify the audience from features of the
design.
Use precise language to explain what they think – for example, when they
produce a flowchart for a control solution using appropriate symbols.
Make judgements and decisions informed by reason or evidence – for
example, when they modify their solution to a problem or make judgements
about the plausibility of information they have been offered.
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Enquiry skills
These enable pupils to ask relevant questions, to pose and define problems, to
plan what to do and how to research, to predict outcomes and anticipate
consequences and to test conclusions and improve ideas.
Enquiry skills are central to work in ICT and opportunities to develop these skills will
arise frequently in the activities of defining problems and in the planning and testing
of solutions. In ICT, teachers should plan for pupils to:
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Ask relevant questions – for example, when they search for information on a
website using appropriate terms in a search engine.
Pose and define problems – for example, when they suggest an extension
to a problem, perhaps working with a mathematical model and introducing
new rules to the model to change its behaviour.
Plan what to do and how to research – for example, when they use the
stages of the system lifecycle to plan the approach to a problem.
Predict outcomes and anticipate consequences – for example, when they
consider the effect of changing variables in models.
Test conclusions and improve ideas – for example, when, having developed
a basic control solution, they produce a more efficient version.
Creative-thinking skills
These enable pupils to generate and extend ideas, to suggest hypotheses, to apply
imagination and to look for alternative innovative outcomes.
ICT has many opportunities for pupils to hypothesise, generate and extend ideas
and explore possibilities and options by asking questions. In ICT, teachers should
plan for pupils to:
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Generate and extend ideas – for example, when they work to design
websites, building from simple original schemata and criteria.
Suggest hypotheses – for example, when they use spreadsheets to explore,
using ‘What if …?’ questions.
Apply imagination – for example, when designing logos or publications for
different audiences.
Look for alternative innovative outcomes – for example, when they reach a
solution by using software features or procedures which were not in their
original brief.
Evaluation skills
These enable pupils to evaluate information, to judge the value of what they read,
hear and do, to develop criteria for judging the value of their own and others’ work
or ideas and to have confidence in their judgements.
In ICT, evaluation skills can be developed at all stages of the development of
solutions to problems, and not just in the final stages. Pupils should evaluate
information, the audience and purpose of their product and develop criteria for
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judging their own and others’ work and identifying bias. In ICT, teachers should
plan for pupils to:
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Evaluate information – for example, when they choose the information
relevant to them and discard irrelevant information when designing a datahandling
system.
Judge the value of what they read, hear and do – for example, when they
judge the validity of claims made on websites.
Develop criteria for judging the value of their own and others’ work or ideas
– for example, when they establish criteria for the design of publications and
are able to demonstrate a clear sense of audience.
Have confidence in their judgements – for example, when they recognise
accuracy, plausibility and bias in information through verification from other
sources.
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Advance organisers
In ICT, an advance organiser allows pupils to use and summarise what they already
know, either at the beginning of a new topic or before a new concept is introduced
within a topic. The strategies used should help pupils to prepare for what they are
about to learn, and could include:
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summarising previous knowledge, in text or pictorial form;
using mind-mapping software;
creating a spider diagram to show links/relationships;
using the outliner tool in Microsoft PowerPoint to structure work.
A teacher or pupil could use the outlining tool in Microsoft PowerPoint to:
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Use an imposed structure which had been set up in advance, drawing
together planning that will help pupils to complete an ICT task, e.g. they
might decide the order of importance for the content of a presentation,
taking into account the audience and purpose for that presentation.
Devise a structure through class collaboration (or independent working)
which will allow pupils to build on previous knowledge, skills and
understanding of a topic, e.g. pupils might devise the criteria for evaluating
a finished website by identifying similar criteria which they had used
successfully before.
Other ideas include the following:
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Using a data-handling cycle diagram to identify the stages pupils would
need to go through to test a given hypothesis. Pupils will be able to use the
relationships between the stages in the cycle to plan further work.
Using mind-mapping software to develop pupils’ ideas when planning a
piece of work, e.g. deciding what to include on a leaflet to suit the
audience and purpose (http://freemind.sourceforge.net).
Planning the questions needed for a questionnaire, by comparing previous
good and bad questions and their results, so that relevant data collected
can be used to test a hypothesis.
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Analogies
The ‘Analogies’ strategy is particularly helpful in ICT for illustrating the ‘big ideas’
which otherwise are difficult for pupils to relate to, especially concerning concepts
that need to be grasped in general terms rather than in detail.
One example of this is to use an analogy to represent the concepts surrounding
bandwidth and speed of transmission across a network. The analogy used here
would be to represent the larger bandwidths by multi-lane motorways which can
carry large amounts of traffic at reasonably high average speeds. Smaller dual
carriageways (narrower bandwidths) still carry large amounts of traffic but the
average speed may be lower. Single carriageway roads and small local roads (local
networks) can only carry light traffic and at somewhat lower average speeds. This
analogy can be easily extended by explaining that even large roads can get slow
when very large amounts of traffic are using them, e.g. during holiday periods
when many people are travelling, equating to large numbers of people using the
Internet. Pupils can be encouraged to extend the analogy further to represent
different scenarios for Internet and LAN usage.
Another example would be to equate the stages in a control program to the order
in which any everyday task is carried out, for example, following a recipe, where it
is important to do things in the correct order to have a successful product.
Other analogies include the following:
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A library representing a web schema.
An office with a filing cabinet system to represent RAM and storage. (The
larger the office or the desk, the more working area you have – RAM. The
more filing cabinets there are, the more storage you have – the hard drive.)
Extending the motorway analogy to demonstrate packet switching.
A classroom collection of books and magazines that pupils use regularly in
the lesson and which can be accessed quickly rather than going to the
school or local library can be used as an analogy for the caching of
regularly used web pages.
The first ‘bug’ in a computer program was an actual insect that caused an
electrical fault.
A sieve which catches the lumps in a sauce that you don’t want to serve as
an analogy of an Internet filter or, alternatively, only invited guests can come
to a party, those without passes cannot get in.
It is important to encourage pupils to extend the analogies you may give them and
to come up with their own analogies to explain complex ideas, as it helps them to
consolidate their own understanding and can demonstrate where there may be
misunderstandings.
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Audience and purpose
The concepts of audience and purpose are part of the teaching objectives for ICT
and so are central to teaching and learning in the subject. There are many places
where audience and purpose are explicit in lessons and demonstrated in the
sample teaching units (STUs). There are many other places, however, where the
‘Audience and purpose’ strategy might be used to complement and reinforce the
teaching of other work.
For example, when teaching about graphic images, the electronic file size and type
can be related clearly to audience and purpose. A simple way of encouraging
pupils to consider the needs of the audience and the suitability for the purpose
given, would be to get them to allocate a list of file types and sizes to particular
audiences and purposes. An example of this exercise is given in the resource at
the end of this exemplification (pages 17 and 18).
Pupils need to be able to match audience and purpose to different types of
publication, so you might provide them with a wide range of published materials
and get them to sort these into groups based on audience, and to justify their
decisions to the whole class. The same materials can be sorted again for purpose,
producing different results. Similarly, pupils can be asked how particular
publications could be altered to suit different audiences and purposes. This
exercise should be extended into other parts of the curriculum. Pupils should
realise that when they are creating models, databases and control systems they
could be used by others and, therefore, audience and purpose need to be taken
into consideration when producing ‘user guides’.
Other opportunities for using this strategy include the following:
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Whenever a report has to be produced there should be a focus on the
audience and purpose. This could be extended to examine how the report
may differ for alternative audiences or purposes.
Considering the needs of different audiences for websites.
In the Year 9 case studies, considering the varying needs of the users of
the ticketing system.
This is by no means an exhaustive list of the opportunities for considering audience
and purpose in ICT; it is a theme that runs through the teaching objectives and is
central to ICT capability.
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Classifying
The ‘Finding things out’ key concept in the ICT Framework puts a sharp focus on
searching, selecting and using data and information. To help assess pupils’
understanding and handling of data, the crucial and complex process of building,
developing and testing more effective hypotheses is promoted through a range of
activities. The classification of information is constantly reinforced as pupils create
questionnaires, organise field headings for data files and select methods of
searching for useful information.
An awareness of how categories and sub-categories are derived is revealed when
pupils are asked to sort data which has intentionally anomalous elements and
rogue values. Stimulating opportunities for individuals or groups to challenge the
normal process of classification include the following:
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Detective-style investigations where most, but not all, clues fit into obvious
areas such as motive, opportunity, time, place, weapon and alibi.
Deciphering remnants of customer details on fire-scorched pieces of paper
or corrupted computer files where names of individuals, streets or houses
can be deliberately obscure and ambiguous.
Using common names of selected plants and animals to develop a
botanical or zoological index system for a website giving details on habitat
and feeding habits.
Classifying vocabulary used in ICT themes and sample teaching units
(STUs) presented on cards. Some cards can be sequenced into cycles,
whereas others can be sub-categorised and explained to a wider group.
Classifying examples of URLs and e-mail addresses in different ways to
show types of origin, i.e. corporate, organisation, education, government or
private.
In all of these examples, pupils should be encouraged to make their own decisions
on classification and to share the criteria they establish with others.
ICT can provide powerful tools to aid classification, and pupils can be shown how
to insert field descriptions and data validation rules which become visible when
entering information into a data file or can be used to limit the information entered
within specific parameters.
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Collective memory
ICT can offer substantial flexibility when complex charts, diagrams and reports need
to be created, arranged, reorganised and presented. It is essential, therefore, that
links and relationships between information types are clearly understood and
communicated to the intended audience or user.
Many opportunities exist in ICT to illustrate how collective memory tasks can
promote collaborative discussion and more accurate recall. The use of e-mail,
shared folders or conferencing can offer exciting opportunities for pupils to try out
and evaluate particular strategies for sharing information. The system life cycle
shown here is ideal as a ‘Collective memory’ activity and pupils’ thinking will evolve
through establishing effective methods for accurate recall, leading to healthy debate
about directional flow, areas of responsibility and an explanation of headings.
Feasibility
Analysis
Design
Implementation
Test
Installation
Test
Maintenance
This general idea could focus on other
areas of ICT and help to promote better
understanding within a particular context.
The creation and development of control
software requires the use of flowchart
symbols and conventions, and in order to
reconstruct the image in the allotted time
the pupils must observe and be aware of
the connection between the elements of
the flowchart.
One example could be a flowchart
illustrating the controlling of a lighthouse.
This would show the way in which
individual sub-routines for the main beam,
the foghorn and aircraft beacon are
triggered and repeated in response to the
low levels of light sensed by an input
device. Groups of pupils could compare
their ability to recreate the flowchart
accurately by testing it using the selected
software.
Other ideas include the following:
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a hierarchical website schematic showing relationships, links and navigation
bars;
a template structure with embedded guidance for publishing a structured
corporate newsletter;
lines of textual and numerical information which can draw a particular shape
or cause an event in ‘MSWlogo’ (programming language);
a branching database map showing how field headings and classifications
have been evolved.
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Living graphs and fortune lines
The ‘Living graphs’ and ‘Fortune lines’ strategies offer an interesting way of getting
students in ICT to look at a topic from a different perspective. The two examples
given below can be used in many different contexts where pupils need to focus on
the interpretation of data or the impact of the work they are doing.
Living graphs – A rock concert
In the first lesson of STU 8.1, one of the objectives is to interpret collected data to
draw conclusions. A living graph activity here works well in getting pupils to think
about the data they are presented with and the possible interpretations of that
data. Although the sample data (8.1 T1enoise.xls) is a recording of the noise made
in a classroom over a period of time, the same graph can be used with statements
relating to a different context, for example, the noise made by the audience at a
rock concert. The following statements could be used: the band come on stage;
new song started; lead singer talks to the audience; hit single played; on-stage
firework display; audience calls for encore; guitar solo begins; t-shirts thrown into
audience; singing accompanied by acoustic guitar; people at the front are getting
crushed by the crowd.
Other contexts which can be tracked against time include the growth of seedlings
in a greenhouse (STU 8.5) and the progress towards completion made through the
systems life cycle (Year 9 case studies).
Fortune lines – Olympic bid presentation
A fortune line can be used to good effect as an unusual way of getting students to
focus on the success criteria needed to show higher levels of ICT capability. In
STU 7.1, pupils are asked to create a PowerPoint presentation which is suitable for
an adult audience. The fortune line can be drawn with the tasks carried out during
the completion of the presentation mapped against the happiness level of the
presentation itself – with an appropriate presentation being classed as very happy
and an inappropriate presentation being unhappy. The pupils need to be told the
purpose and audience for the presentation, for example, a presentation to the
International Olympic Committee to put the case for the Olympics to come to
Great Britain in 2012.
As the different appropriate/inappropriate tasks are completed, pupils need to
decide how happy the presentation would be. Tasks might include: the outliner
function is used to add relevant text; eight fonts are used to format the text;
images of Kelly Holmes and Matthew Pinsent are added; a gunshot effect is added
to text as it appears; etc. The activity will get pupils talking about the criteria whilst
having to explain why the presentation is happy/unhappy and, therefore,
appropriate for audience and purpose.
In Year 9 case study 1, a fortune line can be used to track the level of fear,
enjoyment or happiness on the fairground rides which pupils have designed. This
would encourage them to evaluate this aspect of their work.
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Mysteries
Mysteries in ICT offer an ideal opportunity to get pupils thinking about a number of
issues associated with the use and impact of ICT in the wider community, as well
as a challenging and enjoyable way of getting pupils to think through the broader
issues associated with a number of topics.
An interesting place to start may be with the question ‘Why were Sam’s parents
cross when he got home from school?’. This could cover a number of areas
including:
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inappropriate use of the Internet – downloading music, ordering products
without permission, using a chat line for bullying;
mobile phone use – either high bills or the use of text to tell the parents that
homework has not been completed;
a bill has been received for the use of pay-to-view television for adult
content.
In Year 9 case study 1, pupils are asked to consider the health and safety issues
associated with a fairground ride. A mystery in which the central question is ‘Why
did Charlotte get stuck on the roller-coaster for three hours?’ could introduce ideas
about the use of switches, timers, gates and sensors, alongside the human
interest stories of going to a fairground.
A number of interesting ICT-based resources could be used in a mystery designed
to get pupils thinking about accuracy, validity and bias. In STU 8.3, the first three
lessons are spent looking at these ideas before going on to apply the learning in a
new context. A mystery could be used as a vehicle for this. For example, ‘Why
was Billy unhappy about the car he bought on the Internet?’. Some of the material
could be printed, such as adverts taken from newspapers or magazines, and
some could be web-based (either by using actual websites or printouts of web
pages from car dealerships or auction sites) and used together with a set of
statements to make up the mystery. Adverts could be used which are out of date.
Web pages could be used which are clearly unreliable – pupils could check the
links to and from the web pages to help them to make this judgement, or check
for recent updates. Together the information should give a variety of possible
scenarios, with clear areas of debate to encourage pupils to discuss possible
answers to the question.
In several of the STUs pupils are asked to consider the use of appropriate images.
In STU 8.2 this extends to looking at file size and download rates for images used
on websites. A mystery could be built around the question ‘Why did Fernando
have to change the image on his website?’. This could bring in a number of other
issues such as data protection, parental permission and suitability for audience.
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Reading images
This very powerful strategy involves giving pupils an image and asking them to
annotate it. The aim is to encourage pupils to look very carefully and make links
between what they see in the picture and ICT, e.g. What ICT use is seen or implied
in the picture?
An example might be: How would the use of the EPOS till affect the running of the
supermarket?
As another example, pupils could be given an image from an L S Lowry picture
and be asked to consider the following questions. Where would ICT be used if this
picture were to be painted now? Where would it show evidence of ICT? How does
ICT affect the way we live now? Get pupils to annotate the picture to show
changes that the use of ICT would make to the scene. How would ICT affect the
lives of the people in the image? What would a similar scene look like today?
(There are many images which an Internet search would yield that teachers could
use as examples.)
The plenary of the lesson would focus on how pupils worked out the changes they
identified and the processes or links they made.
The reasoning involved when contemplating ‘then’ and ‘now’ is a powerful thinking
skill. Pupils could suggest a title or heading for the image or be asked to produce a
similar picture showing the influences of ICT.
It is important that teachers do not lead the discussion about possible links
between the picture and current ICT developments that may affect society now.
Pupils should be given the opportunity to work out their own ideas. The openended
nature of this task is deliberately designed to promote discussion.
This strategy requires pupils to make use of the following skills: information
processing, in terms of analysing part/whole relationships in ICT developments and
progress; reasoning to explain their thought processes in developing the timeline
from ‘then’ and ‘now’ shown on the annotated image; and creative thinking, where
suggesting a hypothesis shows imagination when developing an idea.
Other examples:
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The robots in this picture help with car production. (A video clip would work
well.) Where is ICT used in the process? Compare this image with a picture
of a mechanic fixing a car.
Give pupils a picture of a person. How does ICT affect this person’s life?
This is very open ended, but would allow creative thinking to highlight many
of the issues surrounding ICT and society.
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Summarising
Summarising is a key skill in ICT because it identifies the important aspects of a
topic, helping to give pupils the ‘big picture’. There are many opportunities to
benefit from developing the ‘Summarising’ strategy in ICT, from STU 7.1
(summarising information about pupils for a specified purpose and audience)
through to case study 9.3 (preparing a presentation for the theatre booking system
end user). ICT would benefit considerably through a specific focus on
summarising. The outcome need not be written; using flowcharts to sequence an
order of events can be equally effective.
One way of focusing on summarising is the ‘1, 3, 5, 7 Review’ (from Alistair Smith’s
Accelerated Learning scheme). At the end of a module pupils should be asked to:
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write one sentence to summarise the work done in the module;
identify 3 key concepts that underpin the subject;
devise 5 tricky questions relating to their work which they could answer;
write 7 bullet points which could be used to teach the topic to someone
else.
This work could be done individually or in groups, and with or without reference to
the work that they have completed.
Other opportunities for using this strategy include the following:
■ summarising the changing traffic light sequence from STU 7.6
diagrammatically;
■
writing a concise report to the head teacher in STU 7.4 about the school
disco;
■ summarising content for a limited space in a publication in STU 7.3;
■ summarising a lengthy question into a more concise one for STU 7.5;
■
developing a formula for use in Excel from a series of instructions;
■ developing a wall display as a report on the feasibility study for STU 8.5;
■
summarising information for presentations in all of the Year 9 case studies.
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Resource
Audience and purpose
The table gives you a list of five different graphic images of a cat. Look at the file
sizes, types, and dimensions then decide from the list below which file is
appropriate for each purpose. You can use each file type once, more than once or
not at all, as long as you give a reason for its use.
File type File size dimensions
1 .jpg 1076 KB 2144 x1323 pixels
2 .jpg 106 KB 600 x 344 pixels
3 .wmf 18 KB 226 x 262 pixels
4 .gif 5 KB 42 x 32 pixels
5 .jpg 33 KB 396 X 600 pixels
1 An illustration in a school magazine.
file number …………
Because ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2 To illustrate a science book.
file number …………
Because ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2 To send as an attachment to an e-mail to show your friend your cat.
file number …………
Because ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4 To use as a picture on a web page.
file number …………
Because ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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5 To use as a hyperlink on a web page.
file number …………
Because ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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