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Transition to Modernism? Interestingly, several of the studies (eg. Allahbadia, 1990; Sachdeva, 1997; Sodhi, 2000) comment on changes in Indian society and the transition from tradition to modernism and attribute this to the influence of television. However, they make this claim without substantiating it. Savara (1994) also links growing urbanisation and consumerism to freer social relationships. While discussing the cultural context, Savara's claim that there is a positive attitude towards sexuality in India contradicts what other researchers have found. Abraham (2000), Khan, (1996) and Khanna et al (2000), for example, found that patriarchal values are prevalent and that they suppress expression of sexual autonomy. V. METHODOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES Methodological Issues Much of the earlier research on sexuality in India relied on quantitative approaches such as surveys of knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP). When conducted well, this approach can provide valuable information about sexual behaviour and the knowledge of sexual health and illnesses. Comparative surveys can usefully show differences between socio-cultural groups, men and women, people of different ages and those from different geographical areas. There has been a major shift in approach in the last ten years. More qualitative and participatory research approaches have been used, especially in the latter part of the decade. These approaches provide an understanding of the perceptions and beliefs about and the meanings that people give to sexuality, and of how these interact with socio-economic factors and with gendered power structures to result in particular sexual behaviours, norms, values and identities. Almost half of the studies reviewed here have used a qualitative approach. Of the rest, thirty percent have used quantitative methods (surveys using structured questionnaires/interviews), and the remaining twenty percent, a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches. This critique distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative methodologies - that include the theoretical frameworks and values on which the research process is based, and, specific methods and tools such as surveys and in-depth interviews. This section of the review outlines some general issues pertaining to research methodology before moving on to reviewing the qualitative and quantitative methodologies used in the studies reviewed. Research Team Few studies have specified who the research team or the field investigators were or what their training and preparation for gathering data about sensitive issues of sexuality comprised of. In some studies, individuals who were in regular contact with the researched group (either as health care providers or street educators) were trained to communicate about issues related to sexuality, and they also formed part of the research team (Amin et al, 1996; Khanna et al., 2000; Sodhi, 2000; Ubale et al., 1997). Khanna et al also trained health workers to deal with participants' feelings in the context of researching 12
sexual coercion. George's (2000) study clearly presents how the interviewers and study participants were matched by sex, ethnic background and language to facilitate the data collection process. The class and caste differences between researchers and participants is an aspect that researchers have not looked into. However, none of the studies (except Chandiramani, 1998) mentions the effects on the interviewers of having to listen to participants' accounts of pain, violence and oppression. Sample Groups Most studies, with a few exceptions (eg. Bhende, 1994), have not adequately described the characteristics of the study sample. The rationale for selecting a particular group is also absent in a majority of the studies. Studies based on 'special groups' of truck drivers or sex workers, are an exception, and the rationale for selecting these groups is based purely on the HIV/AIDS model (Bansal, 1997; Rao et al, 1994). Furthermore, many studies have used samples of convenience, especially volunteer sample groups. There is, therefore, a likelihood of obtaining biased findings because a self-selected group is likely to give responses different from those of the general population. Only a few studies have reflected upon and cautioned readers about this aspect (eg. George, 1998). Qualitative Methodologies Selection of participants: Few of the studies reviewed here explained the bases and methods of selection of the study participants. It is wise when researching a sensitive issue, to begin with participant groups that researchers are familiar with. Because of the rapport and trust already established, researchers are likely to obtain responses that are more candid. However, because these participant groups might not adequately represent a larger population, the findings might be ungeneralisable. Despite this shortcoming, these initial studies may open the way for those that are more representative of larger populations. One study that stands out as a good example (DCT, 1997) described the evolving process of selection of participants: starting with key informants who in turn proposed others, the researchers also engaged in a social mapping exercise with young men to understand the dynamics of and groupings in the local community. Tools: Most of the studies using a qualitative approach used appropriate methods to answer research questions (e.g., Sodhi's, 2000, study on the dynamics of relationships between boys and girls). The qualitative studies employed various tools, such as semi-structured one to one interviews, in-depth interviews, informal interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and informal group discussions. Participatory tools such as self-monitoring cards, mapping, and free listing (1) have also been used. Direct and participant observations were rarely used. An exception is Evans and Lambert's (1997) study on the health seeking and sexual health of female sex workers in Calcutta that fruitfully used participant and direct observation methods in the community and in a clinical set-up respectively. Bhende's study (1994) on adolescent boys and girls in Bombay also makes imaginative use of observation methods in the community. Tool development: Some of the qualitative studies have used a systematic procedure of tool development (eg. Amin et al, 1996; Evans & Lambert, 2000; George, 1998). Appropriate local terminologies were explored through informal group discussions, and subsequently included in the interview guidelines or questions (eg. George, 1998). This is a useful strategy to improve the quality of research tools. Although in most of the studies the tools were translated into the local language, very few researchers (Joseph et al, 1998) have employed the procedure of back translation (translating from the translation back to the original language to check for accuracy of translation) of tools to increase the (1) Freelisting is a list that covers the full domain of terms and concepts that pertain to a specific problem. It is used to determine the items in a cultural domain, to differentiate between items that are culturally cognizant or salient and those which are not (Gittelsohn et al. 1995). 13
Page 1 and 2: The Gender and Reproductive Health
Page 3 and 4: The Gender and Reproductive Health
Page 5 and 6: I. INTRODUCTION Sexuality is mediat
Page 7 and 8: The studies reveal that sexual acti
Page 9 and 10: anatomy and physiology. This view h
Page 11 and 12: interpersonal negotiation, - or the
Page 13 and 14: In the same study, the researchers
Page 15: an unchallenged fact in most studie
Page 19 and 20: Multiple methods: Some of the quali
Page 21 and 22: suggests that age differentials be
Page 23 and 24: differentiate among behaviour, iden
Page 25 and 26: that their conceptual frameworks ad
Page 27 and 28: REFERENCES Berer, M., 1998. Sex, Se
Page 29 and 30: Collumbien, Martine; Braj Das; Nabe
Page 31 and 32: Sharma, Anuragini; Vinit Sharma; S
Page 33: Creating Resources for Empowerment

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