efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water
efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water
efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water
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Chromium in <strong>food</strong> and <strong>drinking</strong> <strong>water</strong><br />
Table 17: Developmental and reproductive toxicity studies with Cr(VI) compounds (continued).<br />
Study<br />
Doses in mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. Species<br />
per day (a)<br />
20-day (<strong>drinking</strong> <strong>water</strong>) Mice<br />
potassium dichromate, (treated F<br />
Sacrifice on GD 19<br />
mated with<br />
0, 52, 98, and 169 (e) untreated<br />
M)<br />
NOAEL<br />
LOAEL<br />
mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day<br />
Maternal toxicity:<br />
98<br />
Maternal<br />
toxicity<br />
169<br />
Developmental<br />
toxicity:<br />
52<br />
Reference<br />
Junaid et al.<br />
(1996b)<br />
b.w.: body weight; NOAEL: no-observed-adverse-effect level; LOAEL: lowest-observed-adverse-effect level; GD: gestation<br />
day; M: male; F: female; PND: post natal day.<br />
(a): In the conversions from concentration to daily doses, the molecular weight (MW) of the anhydrous salts were used<br />
when no information on hydration number was available in the original publication.<br />
(b): Data reported in the original publication;<br />
(c): Reproduction means effects on reproductive organs and spermatogenesis. Toxic effects observed in the study are<br />
reported in annex H6;<br />
(d): Conversion using the default correction factor for subacute/subchronic/chronic exposure via <strong>drinking</strong> <strong>water</strong>/feed from<br />
EFSA (2012c);<br />
(e): Conversion using <strong>drinking</strong> <strong>water</strong>/feed consumption data and average body weight reported in the publication;<br />
(f): Calculated applying allometric scaling using human data (70 kg b.w. and 2 L daily <strong>water</strong> consumption) and an exponent<br />
of 0.75.<br />
7.2.2.4. Genotoxicity<br />
The mutagenic potential of Cr(VI) has been studied extensively and recently reviewed (ATSDR,<br />
2012). Although study results vary depending on the test system, experimental conditions and type of<br />
Cr(VI) compounds tested, results of the assay systems used provide clear evidence for the mutagenic<br />
potential of Cr(VI) both in vitro and in vivo. Here, a brief summary of the literature and details only<br />
for the most relevant studies is provided.<br />
In vitro assays<br />
Bacteria and yeast<br />
Cr(VI) compounds have mostly tested positive for gene mutations in bacterial cells.<br />
Reverse mutations were observed after exposure to Cr(VI) compounds in multiple species and strains<br />
of Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli able to detect a wide spectrum of DNA lesions,<br />
including oxidative damage and DNA crosslinks, and of mutations such as base pair substitutions and<br />
frame-shift mutations (Venitt and Levy, 1974; Nishioka, 1975; Bonatti et al., 1976; Petrilli and De<br />
Flora, 1977; Nakamuro et al., 1978; Kanematsu et al., 1980; Matsui, 1980; De Flora, 1981; Gentile et<br />
al., 1981; Venier et al., 1982; Bennicelli et al., 1983; Haworth et al., 1983; Singh, 1983; De Flora et<br />
al., 1984; Dunkel et al., 1984; Arlauskas et al., 1985; Kharab and Singh, 1985; Marzin and Phi, 1985;<br />
La Velle, 1986; Llagostera et al., 1986; Brams et al., 1987; Olivier and Marzin, 1987; Bronzetti and<br />
Galli, 1989; Zeiger et al., 1992; Le Curieux et al., 1993; Seo and Lee, 1993; Watanabe et al., 1998;<br />
Ryden et al., 2000; Yamamoto et al., 2002; Tagliari et al., 2004; NTP, 2007).<br />
Positive results were also found for forward mutations and mitotic gene conversion in yeast<br />
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (Sora et al., 1986; Vashishat and Vasudeva, 1987).<br />
EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 90