efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water

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Chromium in food and bottled water Table H8: Summary of in vivo genotoxicity of Chromium (VI) - non-oral route (continued) Test system/ Endpoint MS and ddY mouse Micronuclei BALB/c mouse Micronuclei Compound Dose/route Exposure time/evaluation time Potassium chromate Potassium dichromate single i.p. doses of 0, 12.5, 25, or 50 mg/kg Doses: 0, 3.3, 6.7, 13.4 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day single i.p. doses of 0 or 400 μmol Doses: 20.8 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Tissue Response* Reference bone marrow cells bone marrow Positive 13.4 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Dose-response Positive(T) 20.8 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Hayashi et al. (1982) Wronska- Nofer et al. (1999) Pregnant Swiss albino mouse: Micronuclei Potassium dichromate Sodium dichromate dihydrate single i.p. doses of 0 or 50 mg K 2 Cr 2 O 7 /kg on day 17 of pregnancy Doses: 0, 17.7 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day single i.p. doses of 0 or 50 mg SSD/kg on day 17 of pregnancy. Doses: 0, 17.4 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Mice were sacrificed on day 18 of pregnancy bone marrow from dams; liver and peripheral blood from fetuses Positive 50 mg Cr(VI)/kg De Flora et al. (2006) BDF1 male mouse Micronuclei Sprague- Dawley rat Chromosomal aberrations ddY mouse DNA damage Comet assay Male albino mouse DNA damage Comet assay Potassium dichromate Potassium dichromate Potassium chromate Potassium dichromate single i.p. doses of 0 or 50 mg K 2 Cr 2 O 7 /kg. Doses: 0, 17.7 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Single i.p. doses of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 mg/kg per day for 5 days Doses: 0, 0.88, 1.77, 2.65, or 3.54 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day single i.p. doses of 0 or 120 mg/kg Doses: 0 or 32.1 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day single i.p. Doses: 0 or 20 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Samples analysed 3, 8 and 24 hrs after treatemnt Samples analysed 15 min and 3 hrs after treatment bone marrow cells bone marrow cells Stomach, colon, liver. kidney, bladder, lung, brain and bone marrow liver. kidney, spleen, lung and brain Positive 0.88 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Dose-response; Positive in stomach, colon, bladder, lung and brain 32.1 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Negative in liver, kidney and bone marrow Positive in liver and kidney 15 min after treatment 20 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. per day Patlolla et al. (2008) Sekihashi et al. (2001) Ueno et al. (2001) Negative in spleen, lung and brain marrow b.w.: body weight; i.p.: intraperitoneal. * The lowest effective dose is indicated for positive results and the highest dose tested for negative results. EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 222
Chromium in food and bottled water Appendix I: Observation in humans I1. Six fatal outcomes accidental or intentional ingestion of hexavalent chromium Cases of accidental or intentional ingestion of Cr(VI) that have resulted in death have been reported in the past and continue to be reported even in more recent literature. A selection is listed below, even when the amount of ingested Cr(VI) was unknown. A 22-month-old boy died 18.5 hours after ingesting an unknown amount of a sodium dichromate solution despite gastric lavage. Autopsy revealed generalized edema, pulmonary edema, severe bronchitis, acute bronchopneumonia, early hypoxic changes in the myocardium, liver congestion, and necrosis of the liver, renal tubules, and gastrointestinal tract (Ellis et al., 1982). A 1-year-old girl died after ingesting an unknown amount of ammonium dichromate with severe dehydration, caustic burns in the mouth and pharynx, blood in the vomitus, diarrhea, irregular respiration, and labored breathing. The ultimate cause of death was shock and hemorrhage into the small intestine (Reichelderfer, 1968). A 17-year-old male died after ingesting 29 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. as potassium dichromate in a suicide. He died 14 hours after ingestion from respiratory distress with severe hemorrhages. Caustic burns in the stomach and duodenum and gastrointestinal hemorrhage were also found (Iserson et al., 1983; Clochesy,1984). A 35-year-old female died after ingesting approximately 357 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. as chromic acid in a suicide (Loubières et al., 1999) and died of multiple organ failure. (metabolic acidosis, gastrointestinal hemorrhage and necrosis, fatty degeneration of the liver, and acute renal failure and necrosis). A 14-year-old boy died 8 days after admission to the hospital following ingestion of 7.5 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. as potassium dichromate from his chemistry set. Death was preceded by gastro-intestinal ulceration and severe liver and kidney damage (Kaufman et al., 1970). A 44-year-old man died of severe gastrointestinal hemorrhage one month after ingesting 4.1 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. as chromic acid (Saryan and Reedy, 1988). I2. Haematological effects after accidental or intentional ingestion of Cr (VI) A 18-year-old woman who ingested a few grams of potassium dichromate exhibited decreased hemoglobin content and hematocrit, and increased total white blood cell counts, reticulocyte counts, and plasma hemoglobin 4 days after ingestion. Intravascular hemolysis was suggested (Sharma et al., 1978). A 25-year-old woman who drank a solution containing potassium dichromate had a clinically significant increase in leukocytes due to a rise in polymorphonuclear cells (Goldman and Karotkin, 1935). A 44-year-old man had decreased hemoglobin levels 9 days after ingestion of 4.1 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. as chromic acid solution that probably resulted from gastrointestinal hemorrhage (Saryan and Reedy, 1988). Blood coagulation was inhibited in a 17-year-old male who died after ingesting ~ 29 mg Cr(VI)/kg b.w. as potassium dichromate (Iserson et al., 1983; Clochesy, 1984). I3. Gastrouintestinal effects after accidental or intentional ingestion of Cr (VI) A 25-year-old woman who drank a solution containing potassium dichromate experienced abdominal pain and vomiting (Goldman and Karotkin, 1935). EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 223
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EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 SCIENT
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4.2.2.1. Data collection on food (e
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Sampling year Number of samples Chr
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Number of analtycal results Samplin
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7.2.1.4. Genotoxicity Chromium in f
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7.5. Dose-response assessment Chrom
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Human observations Chromium in food
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