efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water

Chromium in food and drinking water
Total chromium concentrations in groundwater and water from drinking water sources/supplies may
range from quite less than 1 µg/L up to a few µg/L, although cases of a high chromium occurrence
have also been reported. Cr(VI) appears to be occasionally present in the aforesaid types of water, at
levels in the range from a few up to some tens of µg/L and possibly higher. The presence of Cr(VI) in
drinking water and/or its precursors is often evidence/consequence of anthropogenic contamination.
As water treatment facilities use strong oxidants to potabilise water, in drinking water chromium may
easily be present in the hexavalent state.
1.3. Previous risk assessments
Chromium III
IARC evaluated chromium and chromium compounds in 1990 and concluded that metallic chromium
and Cr(III) compounds are not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3) (IARC,
1990).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA, 1998a) established a reference dose (RfD) for
metallic Cr(III) of insoluble salts of 1.5 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) per day based on a subacute and
long-term feeding experiment in rats fed with chromic oxide pigment (Ivankovic and Preussmann,
1975). It was noted that the overall confidence in this RfD was low due to low confidence in the
database and the lack of an observed effect level. As to its human carcinogenicity, trivalent chromium
was classified as group D (not classified).
In 2003 the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) issued an opinion on the ‘Tolerable Upper Intake
Level of Trivalent Chromium’ and concluded that the limited oral toxicity data available in animals as
well as in humans did not give enough information on a dose-response relationship, and therefore a
tolerable upper intake level that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects could not be derived
(SCF, 2003).
The UK Expert group on Vitamins and Minerals (EVM, 2003) concluded that there were insufficient
data from human and animal studies to derive a safe upper level for Cr(III) although its oral toxicity
appeared to be low (due also to low absorption). Based on a study of oral toxicity in rats administered
with chromium chloride (Anderson et al., 1997), the EVM proposed that a total daily intake of about
0.15 mg/kg b.w. per day (or 10 mg/person) of Cr(III) would be expected to be without adverse health
effects.
The UK Committee on Mutagenicity of Chemicals in Food (COM), at the request of the UK Food
Standards Agency (FSA), reviewed all the available data pertaining to the mutagenicity of Cr(III),
particularly Cr(III) picolinate. The evaluation of the COM (COM, 2004) led to the overall conclusion
that, taken all together, the data from the in vitro genotoxicity assays suggested that Cr(III) picolinate
was negative with respect to genotoxicity.
The Concise International Chemical Assessment Document (CICAD) (WHO/IPCS, 2009a) on
inorganic trivalent chromium compounds, concluded that the key toxic endpoints for soluble inorganic
Cr(III) salts were chronic respiratory toxicity on inhalation and contact sensitization of the skin, while
oral toxicity was low. It was noted that there was no clear evidence of genotoxic and/or carcinogenic
effects of trivalent chromium compounds, there were no effects on fertility and the widespread use of
mainly organic Cr(III) complexes as food supplements at 10-fold or even higher dose levels than the
suggested dietary intakes had not shown any consistent toxic effect.
The EFSA evaluated the safety and efficacy of chromium methionine as a feed additive for all species
in 2009 (EFSA, 2009a). The EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal
Feed (FEEDAP Panel) noted that on the basis of the available literature Cr(III) may be a genotoxic
compound under in vivo conditions and then considered it prudent to avoid any additional exposure of
the consumers resulting from the use of supplementary Cr in animal nutrition.
The EFSA evaluated the safety of chromium picolinate as a source of chromium added for nutritional
purposes in food supplements in 2009 (EFSA, 2009b). The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and
Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS Panel) concluded that the use of picolinate as a source of Cr(III)
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