efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water

More documents

Recommendations

Info

Chromium in food and drinking water • FeCr 2 O 4 + 4 C → Fe + 2 Cr + 4 CO Ferrochrome is commonly used as a raw material to produce stainless steel, a popular corrosion-proof alloy usually formed by adding chromium to iron in concentrations above 11 %. To obtain pure chromium different methods exist. For instance, chromite can be treated with oxygen in molten alkalis to oxidize Cr(III) to the hexavalent oxidation state (Cr 6+ or Cr(VI); CAS registry 18540-29-9). The latter (chromate) is dissolved in water and eventually precipitated as sodium dichromate: this is reduced to Cr(III) oxide which, in turn, is reduced with aluminium to the pure metal (aluminothermic method): • Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 2 C → Cr 2 O 3 + Na 2 CO 3 + CO • Cr 2 O 3 + 2 Al → 2 Cr + Al 2 O 3 Chromite ore and chromite concentrates are produced mainly by South Africa and, to a lesser but similar extent, India and Kazakhstan: these countries together accounted for some 70 % of total world production (approximately 24 × 10 6 metric tonnes) in 2008. Other important producers are Albania, Brazil, Finland, and Turkey. In the same year, over 90 % of the global chromite production was converted to ferrochrome for metallurgical applications (Korinek and Kim, 2010). 1.1.2. Uses and applications Most chromium produced today is used in alloys, including stainless steel, a metal with wide applications. Chromium is also used to cover the surface of other metals by electroplating (specifically, chrome-plating) to protect the base metal from corrosion and give the surface a lustrous appearance. Some chromium is also used to make refractory bricks, a material that can withstand very high temperatures such as those of high-temperature ovens. Chromium and its salts are used in the leather tanning industry, the manufacture of catalysts, pigments, paints, and fungicides/pesticides, the ceramic and glass industry, the production of synthetic ruby and recording tapes, photography, and as laboratory reagents. Cr(III) organic complexes, such as Cr(III) nicotinates and picolinate (Figures 1a and b), are used as nutritional supplements for human use (EFSA, 2008a; EFSA ANS Panel 2010a). A selection of chromium compounds is presented in Table 1. Figure 1: Chemical structures of chromium trinicotinate (a) and chromium picolinate (b). EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 12
Chromium in food and drinking water Table 1: Some relevant chromium compounds and their key properties (a) . Compound Formula CAS Registry MW Water MP BP (amu) solubility (b) ( °C) ( °C) Chromium(0) compounds Hexacarbonyl (c) Cr(CO) 6 13007-92-6 220.06 ■ 90 130 (d) Chromium(III) compounds Acetate (e) Cr(CH 3 COO) 3·H 2 O 25013-82-5 247.14 ■■ Solid (l) — Boride (f) CrB 12006-79-0 62.81 ■ 2760 — Chloride CrCl 3 10025-73-7 158.35 ■ ≈ 1150 1300 (d) Chloride (g) CrCl 3·6H 2 O 10060-12-5 266.45 ■■■ 83 — Fluoride (f) CrF 3 7788-97-8 108.99 ■ > 1000 — Dinicotinate (f,h) Cr(C 6 H 4 NO 2 ) 2+·X − — 370.26 — Solid (l) — Trinicotinate (f) Cr(C 6 H 4 NO 2 ) 3 64452-96-6 418.30 ■ Solid (l) — Nitrate (i) Cr(NO 3 ) 3·9H 2 O 7789-02-8 400.15 ■■ 60 100 (d) Oxide Cr 2 O 3 1308-38-9 151.99 ■ 2435 3000 Picolinate Cr(C 6 H 4 NO 2 ) 3 14639-25-9 418.30 ■ Solid (l) — Potassium sulphate (f,j) CrK(SO 4 ) 2·12H 2 O 7788-99-0 499.40 ■■■ 89 330 Sulphate Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 10101-53-8 392.18 ■ Solid (l) — Chromium(IV) compounds Dioxide CrO 2 12018-01-8 83.99 ■ Solid (l) — Chromium(VI) compounds Chromic acid H 2 CrO 4 7738-94-5 118.01 ■■■ 196 — (d) Lead chromate PbCrO 4 7758-97-6 323.19 ■ 844 — (d) Potassium chromate K 2 CrO 4 7789-00-6 194.19 ■■■ 975 — Potassium dichromate K 2 Cr 2 O 7 7778-50-9 294.18 ■■ 398 500 (d) Sodium chromate Na 2 CrO 4 7775-11-3 161.97 ■■■ 792 — Sodium dichromate Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 10588-01-9 261.97 ■■■ 357 400 (d) Sodium dichromate (k) Na 2 Cr 2 O 7·2H 2 O 7789-12-0 298.00 ■■■ 357 400 (d) Trioxide CrO 3 1333-82-0 99.99 ■■■ 197 — (d) MW: molecular weight; MP: melting point; BP: boiling point. (a): Most data derived from ATSDR (2012). All data shown in the table are cross-checked with diverse literature and Internet sources. (b): Generally reported at, or near, room temperature ■: insoluble or slightly soluble; ■■: fairly soluble; ■■■: very or freely soluble. (c): Data from Patnaik (2003, 2007). (d): Decomposition. (e): Monohydrate. (f): Data from Internet sources. (g): Hexahydrate. (h): X − , glycinate anion (H 2 N-CH 2 -COO − ). (i): Nonahydrate. (j): Dodecahydrate. (k): Dehydrates at 100 °C. (l): In the absence of a reliable melting point estimate, the term merely indicates the physical state under standard conditions. 1.1.3. Physico-chemical properties Elemental chromium is a silvery, shiny, hard, and brittle metal with the following key physicochemical properties (Table 2). EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 13
Page 1 and 2: EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 SCIENT
Page 3 and 4: Chromium in food and drinking water
Page 11: Chromium in food and drinking water
Page 37 and 38: 4.2.2.1. Data collection on food (e
Page 39 and 40: Sampling year Number of samples Chr
Page 41 and 42: Number of analtycal results Samplin
Page 43 and 44: 4.2.4. Occurrence data by food cate
Page 63 and 64:
Chromium in food and drinking water
Page 65 and 66:
Page 67 and 68:
Page 69 and 70:
Page 71 and 72:
Page 73 and 74:
Page 75 and 76:
7.2.1.4. Genotoxicity Chromium in f
Page 77 and 78:
Page 79 and 80:
Page 81 and 82:
Page 83 and 84:
Page 85 and 86:
7.2.2.3. Developmental and reproduc
Page 87 and 88:
Page 89 and 90:
Page 91 and 92:
Page 93 and 94:
Page 95 and 96:
Page 97 and 98:
Page 99 and 100:
Page 101 and 102:
Page 103 and 104:
Page 105 and 106:
Page 107 and 108:
Page 109 and 110:
Page 111 and 112:
7.5. Dose-response assessment Chrom
Page 113 and 114:
Page 115 and 116:
Page 117 and 118:
Page 119 and 120:
Page 121 and 122:
Page 123 and 124:
Page 125 and 126:
Human observations Chromium in food
Page 127 and 128:
Page 129 and 130:
Page 131 and 132:
Page 133 and 134:
Page 135 and 136:
Page 137 and 138:
Page 139 and 140:
Page 141 and 142:
Page 143 and 144:
Page 145 and 146:
Page 147 and 148:
Page 149 and 150:
Page 151 and 152:
Page 153 and 154:
Page 155 and 156:
Page 157 and 158:
Page 159 and 160:
Page 161 and 162:
Page 163 and 164:
Page 165 and 166:
Page 167 and 168:
Page 169 and 170:
Page 171 and 172:
Page 173 and 174:
Chromium in food and bottled water
Page 175 and 176:
Page 177 and 178:
Page 179 and 180:
Page 181 and 182:
Page 183 and 184:
Page 185 and 186:
Page 187 and 188:
Page 189 and 190:
Page 191 and 192:
Page 193 and 194:
Page 195 and 196:
Page 197 and 198:
Page 199 and 200:
Page 201 and 202:
Page 203 and 204:
Page 205 and 206:
Page 207 and 208:
Page 209 and 210:
Page 211 and 212:
Page 213 and 214:
Page 215 and 216:
Page 217 and 218:
Page 219 and 220:
Page 221 and 222:
Page 223 and 224:
Page 225 and 226:
Page 227 and 228:
Page 229 and 230:
Page 231 and 232:
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
J.1.2. mice Chromium in food and bo
Page 237 and 238:
Page 239 and 240:
Page 241 and 242:
Page 243 and 244:
Page 245 and 246:
Page 247 and 248:
Page 249 and 250:
Page 251 and 252:
Page 253 and 254:
Page 255 and 256:
Page 257 and 258:
Page 259 and 260:
Page 261:
show all

efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?