IOBC/wprs Bulletin Vol. 23 (11) 2000
IOBC/wprs Bulletin Vol. 23 (11) 2000
IOBC/wprs Bulletin Vol. 23 (11) 2000
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<strong>IOBC</strong> / WPRS<br />
Working Group „Integrated Plant Protection in Orchards“<br />
Subgroup “Soft Fruits”<br />
in cooperation with the<br />
ISHS<br />
Working Group „Integrated Fruit Production”<br />
Proceedings of the Second Workshop on<br />
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
at<br />
Warszawa / Miedzeszyn, Poland<br />
13 – 16 September, 1999<br />
Edited by<br />
Dariusz Gajek & Fritz Polesny<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> <strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong><br />
<strong>Bulletin</strong> OILB srop <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong>
The <strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS <strong>Bulletin</strong> is published by the International Organization for Biological and Integrated<br />
Control of Noxious Animals and Plants, West Palearctic Regional Section (<strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS)<br />
Le <strong>Bulletin</strong> OILB/SROP est publié par l‘Organisation Internationale de Lutte Biologique et Intégrée<br />
contre les Animaux et les Plantes Nuisibles, section Regionale Ouest Paléarctique (OILB/SROP)<br />
Copyright: <strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS <strong>2000</strong><br />
The Publication Commission of the <strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS:<br />
Horst Bathon<br />
Federal Biological Research Center<br />
for Agriculture and Forestry (BBA)<br />
Institute for Biological Control<br />
Heinrichstr. 243<br />
D-64287 Darmstadt (Germany)<br />
Tel +49 6151 407-225, Fax +49 6151 407-290<br />
e-mail: h.bathon.biocontrol.bba@t-online.de<br />
Luc Tirry<br />
University of Gent<br />
Laboratory of Agrozoology<br />
Department of Crop Protection<br />
Coupure Links 653<br />
B-9000 Gent (Belgium)<br />
Tel +32-9-2646152, Fax +32-9-2646<strong>23</strong>9<br />
e-mail: luc.tirry@ rug.ac.be<br />
Address General Secretariat:<br />
INRA – Centre de Recherches de Dijon<br />
Laboratoire de recherches sur la Flore Pathogène dans le Sol<br />
17, Rue Sully, BV 1540<br />
F-21034 DIJON CEDEX<br />
France<br />
ISBN 92-9067-127-0
The meeting was sponsored by:<br />
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR BIOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATED<br />
CONTROL OF NOXIOUS ANIMALS AND PLANTS,<br />
West Palearctic Regional Section (<strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS)<br />
PRECOPTIC Co. Medical & Optical Instruments<br />
BAYER Sp. z o. o., Warsaw, Poland<br />
SUMI-AGRO Sp. z o. o. Warsaw, Poland
iii<br />
Second Workshop on Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
Warszawa / Miedzeszyn, Poland, September 13-16, 1999<br />
19.00 – 21.00 Welcome supper<br />
7.00 – 9.30 Breakfast<br />
9.30 – 9.40 Welcome opening<br />
PROGRAMME<br />
SEPTEMBER, 13 (MONDAY)<br />
Arrival and registration day<br />
SEPTEMBER, 14 (TUESDAY)<br />
Session I. Chair person: E.Niemczyk<br />
9.40 – 10.00 F.Polesny An overview on the work and activities of <strong>IOBC</strong><br />
orchard group and subgroups<br />
10.00 – 10.20 E.Joerg and J.Cross The <strong>IOBC</strong> -Guidelines for Integrated Production<br />
of Soft Fruits<br />
10.20 – 10.40 R.W.Olszak,<br />
B.Łabanowska,<br />
A.Bielenin, D.Gajek<br />
10.40 – <strong>11</strong>.10 Coffee break<br />
Prospects of developping integrated methods of<br />
small fruit production in Poland<br />
Session II. Chair person: R.W.Olszak<br />
<strong>11</strong>.10 – <strong>11</strong>.30 B.Łabanowska, The standard and the integrated strawberry<br />
A.Bielenin<br />
production in Poland<br />
<strong>11</strong>.30 – <strong>11</strong>.50 V.Laugale Strawberry production in Latvia<br />
<strong>11</strong>.50 – 12.10 J.Gwozdecki Cultivars of currants for integrated fruit<br />
production<br />
12.10 – 12.30 Discussion and summarising of sessions I and II<br />
12.30 – 14.30 Lunch<br />
(during break optical instruments will be presented by ‘Precoptic Co.’)<br />
Session III. Chair person: A.Bielenin<br />
14.30 – 14.50 T.Malinowski,<br />
S.Pluta, A.Kuras,<br />
E.Żurawicz<br />
14.50 – 15.10 E. Jörg, U. Harzer,<br />
W. Ollig<br />
15.10 – 15.30 A.M.Berrie, Xn Xo,<br />
D.C.Itaris,<br />
C.M.Burgess<br />
Evaluation of two methods of detection of<br />
blackcurrant reversion associated virus (BRAV)<br />
Integrated Approach for the Control of American<br />
Gooseberry Mildew<br />
First results of testing a management system for<br />
strawberry Botrytis and powdery mildew
iv<br />
15.30 – 15.50 R. Steffek,<br />
J. Altenburger<br />
15.50 – 16.00 Discussion and summarising of session III<br />
16.00 – 16.30 Coffee break<br />
16.30 – 18.00 Poster session<br />
Occurrence and spread of strawberry anthracnose<br />
caused by Colletotrichum acutatum in Austrian<br />
strawberry fields – Experiences from laboratory,<br />
greenhouse and field<br />
1. Progress in breeding of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) for resistance to main fungal<br />
diseases at Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture at Skierniewice, Poland<br />
- A.Broniarek-Niemiec, S.Pluta, A.Bielenin<br />
2. Resistance of strawberry cultivars to fungal diseases<br />
- V.Laugale, I.Maroćko<br />
3. Preliminary studies on resistance of some strawberry cultivars to spider mite<br />
Tetranychus<br />
urticae<br />
- V.Petrova, Z. Čudare, I. Šteinite, V.Laugale<br />
4. Progress in selection of blackcurrant cultivars suitable for integrated mite management<br />
- D.Gajek, S.Pluta, E.Żurawicz<br />
5. Side effect of fungicides used in Botrytis control on occurrence of leather rot of<br />
strawberry<br />
- A. Bielenin, B. Meszka<br />
6. Occurrence and identification of strawberry green petal phytoplasma<br />
- M.Cieślińska, B.Zawadzka<br />
7. Efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M 50 WG in the control of grey mould Botrytis<br />
cinerea and reduction of the population of two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae<br />
Koch. in strawberries<br />
- B.Meszka, B.H. Łabanowska, A.Bielenin<br />
8. Usefulness of Mospilan 20 SP in integrated pest management of soft fruits<br />
- B. H.Łabanowska, D. Gajek, E. Niemczyk<br />
9. Preliminary IPM program of blackcurrant crop for Poland<br />
- E.Niemczyk, B.Łabanowska, D.Gajek<br />
10. Storage of soft fruits<br />
- W.Ollig, E.Joerg<br />
<strong>11</strong>. Pesticide residues in soft fruits: strawberries, currants and raspberries (Monitoring<br />
1997-98)<br />
- A.Nowacka<br />
12. Consumer acceptance for soft fruits from integrated production<br />
- K.Zmarlicki<br />
19.00 – 21.00 Supper
v<br />
7.00 – 9.30 Breakfast<br />
9.30 – 9.50 D. Gajek, E.<br />
Niemczyk,<br />
M. Sekrecka<br />
SEPTEMBER, 15 (WEDNESDAY)<br />
Session IV. Chair person: F. Polesny<br />
Effectiveness of different control methods of<br />
blackcurrant gall mite and their influence on<br />
populations of phytoseiid mites and two-spotted<br />
spider mite<br />
9.50 – 10.10 E. Niemczyk Occurrence and effectiveness of predatory mites<br />
(Phytoseiidae) in controlling two-spotted spider<br />
mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch.) on black<br />
currant crop<br />
10.10 – 10.30 S. Jaworski Occurrence of phytoseiid mites (Acari:<br />
Phytoseiidae) on blackcurrent plantations and in<br />
surrounding vegetation in southern Poland<br />
10.30 – 10.40 Discussion and summarising of session IV<br />
10.40 – <strong>11</strong>.10 Coffee break<br />
Session V. Chair person: E. Joerg<br />
<strong>11</strong>.10 – <strong>11</strong>.20 A.Shi Eriophyoid mites of blackberries and raspberries<br />
rubus spp.<br />
<strong>11</strong>.20 – <strong>11</strong>.40 J.V. Cross, P.<br />
Innocenzi, D. Hall<br />
Investigations of pheromones of soft fruit pests<br />
<strong>11</strong>.40 – 12.00 S. C. Gordon,<br />
J. A. Trefor Woodford<br />
12.00 – 12.10 Discussion and summarising of sessions V<br />
12.10 – 14.00 Lunch<br />
14.00 – 19.00 Excursion to Botanical Garden in Powsin<br />
Aims and objectives of Reduced Application of<br />
Chemicals in European Raspberry Production<br />
(RACER) project<br />
19.00 – 22.00 Return to hotel ‘Boss’ and supper in Mountaineer’s Hut
vi<br />
7.00 – 9.30 Breakfast<br />
9.30 – 9.50 H. Daugaard,<br />
P. Kryger Jensen,<br />
B. Loschenkohl<br />
9.50 – 10.10 G. Doruchowski,<br />
B. Łabanowska,<br />
A. Godyń,<br />
R. Hołownicki<br />
SEPTEMBER, 16 (THURSDAY)<br />
Session VI. Chair person: J.V. Cross<br />
Minimised fungicide application using tunnel<br />
sprayer in strawberries – biological effects and<br />
practical experiences<br />
Spray Application Techniques in Integrated<br />
Production of Soft Fruit<br />
10.10 – 10.30 J.V. Cross Spray application in strawberry<br />
10.30 – 10.40 J. Lisek Weed species on soft fruit plantations in Poland<br />
10.40 – 10.50 J. Lisek Possibilities of efficient weed control in<br />
Integrated Production of soft fruits<br />
10.50 – <strong>11</strong>.00 Discussion and summarising of session VI<br />
<strong>11</strong>.00 – <strong>11</strong>.30 Coffee break<br />
<strong>11</strong>.30 – 12.30 E. Joerg Summarising discussion<br />
12.30 – 14.30 Good bye lunch, departing to airport and Warsaw City Centre, leaving<br />
Poland<br />
19.00 – 22.00 Supper (participants of the post conference tour)<br />
SEPTEMBER, 17 (FRIDAY)<br />
7.00 – 8.00 Breakfast and leaving hotel 'Boss'<br />
Post conference trip
vii<br />
List of participants<br />
Name<br />
Angela<br />
BERRIE<br />
Anna<br />
BIELENIN<br />
Agata<br />
BRONIAREK -<br />
NIEMIEC<br />
Mirosława<br />
CIEŚLIŃSKA<br />
Jerry<br />
CROSS<br />
Holger<br />
DAUGAARD<br />
Annie<br />
DEMEYERE<br />
Grzegorz<br />
DORUCHOWSKI<br />
Address, e-mail, fax, telephone<br />
HRI East Malling, West Malling, Kent, ME 19 6 BJ, United<br />
Kingdom<br />
e-mail: angela.berrie@hri.ac.uk<br />
fax: 0044 1732 849067; tel.: 0044 1732 843 833<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Bacteriology and Mycology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: abielen@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Bacteriology and Mycology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: abroniar@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Virology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: mcieslin@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
HRI East Malling, West Malling, Kent, ME 19 6 BJ, United<br />
Kingdom<br />
e-mail: jerry.cross@hri.ac.uk<br />
fax: 0044 1732 849067; tel.: 0044 1732 843 833<br />
Danish Inst. of Agricultural Sciences, Dep. of Fruit and Vegetables,<br />
Kirstinebjergvej 10, DK – 5792 Aarslev, Denmark<br />
e-mail: holger.daugaard@agrsci.dk<br />
fax: 0045 63904396; tel.: 0045 63904343<br />
Ministry of Agriculture, Gebouw Rhena, Heibeekplein 9 - 3e,<br />
verdieping<br />
B - 3500 Hasselt, Belgium<br />
fax: 0032 <strong>11</strong> 26 39 53; tel.: 0032 <strong>11</strong> 26 39 45<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of<br />
Horticultural Engieering, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice,<br />
Poland<br />
e-mail: gdoru@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021
viii<br />
Dariusz<br />
GAJEK<br />
Stuart<br />
GORDON<br />
Józef<br />
GWOZDECKI<br />
Caroline<br />
JANSSEN<br />
Sebastian<br />
JAWORSKI<br />
Erich<br />
JOERG<br />
Danuta<br />
KROPCZYŃSKA<br />
Valda<br />
LAUGALE<br />
Jerzy<br />
LISEK<br />
Barbara<br />
ŁABANOWSKA<br />
Tadeusz<br />
MALINOWSKI<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Biological Control of Orchard Pests,<br />
Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: dgajek@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Scottish Crop Research Institute, Soft Fruit & Perential Crops<br />
Department Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, Scotland, United<br />
Kingdom<br />
e-mail: scgord@scri.sari.ac.uk<br />
fax: 0044 1382 562426; tel.: 0044 1382 562731<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Section of Small<br />
Fruits, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: jgwozd@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Royal Research Station of Gorsem, Brede Akker 3, B-3800 Sint-<br />
Truiden, Belgium<br />
fax: 0032 (0) <strong>11</strong>674318; tel.: 0032 (0) <strong>11</strong>682019<br />
Warsaw Agricultural University, Department of Applied<br />
Entomology,<br />
Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warszawa, Poland<br />
tel.: 0048 22 8434942<br />
Landesanstalt für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz,<br />
Essenheimerstr. 144, D-55128 Mainz, Germany<br />
e-mail: ejoerg.lpp-mainz@agrarinfo.rpl.de<br />
fax: 0049 6131 993080; tel.: 0049 6131 993020<br />
Warsaw Agricultural University, Department of Applied<br />
Entomology,<br />
Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warszawa, Poland<br />
e-mail: kropczynska@alpha.sggw.waw.pl<br />
tel.: 0048 22 8434942<br />
Puzes DIS, Tukuma zaj., LV-3124, Latvia<br />
e-mail: pures_dis@tukums.parks.lv<br />
fax / tel.: 0031 81263<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Section of Small<br />
Fruits, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: jlisek@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Entomology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: blabanow@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Virology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: tmalin@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021
ix<br />
Beata<br />
MESZKA<br />
Edmund<br />
NIEMCZYK<br />
Anna<br />
NOWACKA<br />
Remigiusz<br />
OLSZAK<br />
Friedrich<br />
POLESNY<br />
Aoxiang<br />
SHI<br />
Robert<br />
STEFFEK<br />
Ineta<br />
ŠTEINITE<br />
Elżbieta<br />
TOPA<br />
Helmut<br />
WEISS<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Bacteriology and Mycology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: bmeszka@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Biological Control of Orchard Pests,<br />
Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: eniemczy@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
Plant Protection Institute, Miczurina 20, 60-318 Poznań, Poland<br />
fax: 0048 618676301; tel.: 0048 618674841<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant<br />
Protection, Section of Entomology, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
e-mail: rolszak@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
fax: 0048 46 8333228; tel.: 0048 46 8332021<br />
BFL, Inst.f.Phytomedizin, Spargelfeldstr. 191, A - 1220 Vienna,<br />
Austria<br />
e-mail: fpolesny@relay.bfl.at<br />
fax: 0043 1 288165194; tel.: 0043 1 288165154<br />
Warsaw Agricultural University, Department of Applied<br />
Entomology,<br />
Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warszawa, Poland<br />
tel.: 0048 22 8434942<br />
BFL, Inst.f.Phytomedizin, Spargelfeldstr. 191, A - 1220 Vienna,<br />
Austria<br />
e-mail: robert.steffek@relay.bfl.at<br />
fax: 0043 1 288165194; tel.: 0043 1 288165171<br />
National Botanical Garden, Miera str. 1, LV-2169, Latvia<br />
e-mail: invitro@latnet.lv<br />
fax: 00371 2944735; tel.: 00371 2945467<br />
Olsztyn University of Agriculture and Technology, Department of<br />
Plant Protection, Prawocheńskiego 17, 10-722 Olsztyn- Kortowo,<br />
Poland<br />
e-mail: topa@moskit.art.olsztyn.pl<br />
fax: 004889273908<br />
LLK Steiermark, Hamerlingg. 3, A - 8010 Graz, Austria<br />
fax: 0043 316 8050 5<strong>11</strong>; tel.: 0043 316 8050 503
xi<br />
Table of Contents<br />
Program ...................................................................................................................................... i<br />
List of Participants .................................................................................................................... v<br />
Prospects of developping integrated methods of small fruit production in Poland<br />
Olszak, R.W., B. Łabanowska, A. Bielenin & D. Gajek ............................................................ 1<br />
The standard and the integrated strawberry production in Poland<br />
Łabanowska, B. & A. Bielenin .................................................................................................. 7<br />
Strawberry production in Latvia<br />
Laugale, V. ............................................................................................................................. <strong>11</strong><br />
Cultivars of currants for integrated fruit production<br />
Gwozdecki, J. .......................................................................................................................... 17<br />
Evaluation of two methods of detection of blackcurrant reversion-associated virus<br />
(BRAV)<br />
Malinowski, T., S. Pluta, A. Kuras & E. Żurawicz.................................................................. 21<br />
Integrated approach for the control of American Gooseberry Mildew<br />
Jörg, E., U. Harzer & W. Ollig ............................................................................................... 25<br />
A system for managing Botrytis and powdery mildew of strawberry: first results<br />
Berrie, A.M., D.C. Harris, Xianming Xu & C.M. Burgess...................................................... 35<br />
Occurrence and spread of strawberry anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum acutatum<br />
in Austrian strawberry fields – experiences from laboratory, greenhouse and field<br />
Steffek, R. & J. Altenburger..................................................................................................... 41<br />
Effectiveness of different methods of blackcurrant gall mite control (Cecidophyopsis<br />
ribis Westw.) and their influence on population of phytoseiid mites and two-spotted<br />
spider mite<br />
Gajek, D., E. Niemczyk & M. Sekrecka................................................................................... 47<br />
Occurrence and effectiveness of predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) in controlling twospotted<br />
spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) on black currants<br />
Niemczyk, E. ........................................................................................................................... 53<br />
Occurrence of phytoseiid mites (Acari Phytoseiidae) on blackcurrent plantations and<br />
in surrounding vegetation in southern Poland<br />
Jaworski, S. ............................................................................................................................ 57<br />
Eriophyoid mites of blackberries and raspberries (Rubus spp.)<br />
Shi, A. ..................................................................................................................................... 63<br />
Investigations of pheromones of soft fruit pests<br />
Cross, J.V., P. Innocenzi & D. Hall ........................................................................................ 67<br />
Aims and objectives of reduced application of chemicals in European raspberry<br />
production (RACER) project<br />
Gordon, S.C. & J.A. Trefor Woodford .................................................................................... 73<br />
Minimised fungicide application using tunnel sprayer in strawberries – biological<br />
effects and practical experiences<br />
Daugaard, H., P. Kryger Jensen & B. Løschenkohl ............................................................... 81
xii<br />
Spray application techniques in Integrated Production of soft fruit<br />
Doruchowski, G., B. Łabanowska, A. Godyń & R. Hołownicki.............................................. 85<br />
Improving strawberry spraying<br />
Cross, J.V., A.M. Berrie & R.A. Murray ................................................................................. 91<br />
Weed species on soft fruit plantations in Poland<br />
Lisek, J. ................................................................................................................................... 99<br />
Possibilities of efficient weed control in Integrated Production of soft fruits.<br />
Lisek, J. ................................................................................................................................. 103<br />
Poster<br />
Progress in breeding of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) for resistance to main fungal<br />
diseases at Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture at Skierniewice<br />
Broniarek-Niemiec, A., S. Pluta & A.Bielenin ..................................................................... <strong>11</strong>1<br />
Resistance of strawberry cultivars to fungal diseases<br />
Laugale, V. & I. Moročko .................................................................................................... <strong>11</strong>7<br />
Preliminary studies on resistance of some strawberry cultivars to spider mite<br />
Tetranychus urticae<br />
Petrova, V., Z. Čudare, I. Šteinite & V. Laugale .................................................................. <strong>11</strong>9<br />
Progress in selection of blackcurrant cultivars suitable for integrated mite<br />
management<br />
Gajek, D., S. Pluta & E. Żurawicz ....................................................................................... 1<strong>23</strong><br />
Side effect of fungicides used in Botrytis control on occurrence of leather rot of<br />
strawberry<br />
Bielenin, A. & B. Meszka ...................................................................................................... 127<br />
Occurence and identification of strawberry green petal phytoplasma<br />
Cieślińska, M. & B. Zawadzka ............................................................................................. 131<br />
Efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M 50 WG in the control of grey mould<br />
(Botrytis cinerea) and reduction of the population of two-spotted spider mite<br />
(Tetranychus urticae Koch) on strawberries<br />
Meszka, B., B.H. Łabanowska & A. Bielenin ....................................................................... 133<br />
Usefulness of Mospilan 20 SP in Integrated Pest Management of soft fruits<br />
Łabanowska, B.H., D. Gajek & E. Niemczyk ....................................................................... 137<br />
Preliminary IPM program for blackcurrant crop for Poland<br />
Niemczyk, E., B. Łabanowska & D. Gajek ........................................................................... 141<br />
Storage of soft fruits<br />
Ollig, W., H. Schirmer & E. Joerg ....................................................................................... 145<br />
Pesticide residues in soft fruits: strawberries, currants and raspberries (Monitoring<br />
1997-98)<br />
Nowacka, A. .......................................................................................................................... 151<br />
Consumer’s acceptance of soft fruits from Integrated Production<br />
Zmarlicki, K. ......................................................................................................................... 155<br />
Guidelines for the Integrated Production of soft fruits – <strong>IOBC</strong> - Technical Guideline III<br />
Joerg, E. & J.Cross ............................................................................................................... 159<br />
Work on Integrated Soft Fruit Production in Europe – Summarisation of the<br />
Workshop<br />
Joerg, E. ................................................................................................................................ 167
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 1 - 6<br />
Prospects of developing integrated methods of small fruit production<br />
in Poland<br />
R.W. Olszak, B.H. Łabanowska, A. Bielenin, D. Gajek<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
It is impossible to grow farm produce with a reasonably high quality without applying<br />
pesticides. On the other hand, after some decades of employing intensive chemical control<br />
one became acquainted with serious threats resulting from that. Acquaintance of these threats,<br />
being initially only a prerogative of specialists, came – as the time went by – to broader<br />
circles of food producers and consumers.<br />
Search has been initiated recently for more harmless methods, in which the use of chemicals<br />
as means for intensifying the agricultural production is just one of many approaches. A<br />
novel system of production was elaborated in cooperation of science and practice and called<br />
IP (Integrated Production). It is not just a simple integration of different plant protection<br />
methods. It is virtually a broadly understood integration of hitherto existing knowledge about<br />
the ecology of agrocenoses, biology of different plant species, their pests and pathogens and<br />
natural enemies of the pests, about the soil and agrotechnics and weather.<br />
Activities undertaken within the framework of Integrated Production systems are aimed<br />
at reducing the necessity of applying chemical means of production (mainly fertilisers and<br />
pesticides) and consequently at lowering the probability of detecting their residues in fruits –<br />
even within the limits permitted. One should be aware of the fact that fruits constitute that<br />
particular group of food whose considerable quantity is consumed fresh, without processing.<br />
Basing on earlier elaboration (<strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS <strong>Bulletin</strong> 16, 1993), new "Directives for<br />
Integrated Production of Small Fruits in Europe" have been worked out in 1997. The Polish<br />
edition of these directives will be issued soon but some information was published already.<br />
Particularly much attention is paid to elaborating the methods of integrated control of pest and<br />
pathogens, which is worked out by the staff of Plant Protection Department of the Research<br />
Institute of Pomology and Floriculture. In the present work we bring forward those elements<br />
which may be utilised at up-to-day stage of our knowledge. For presenting the problems more<br />
lucidly we put them separately for particular groups of agrophagous organisms.<br />
Integrated control of pests of small fruits (currants, raspberries and gooseberries)<br />
In the case of pests the proper monitoring and evaluation of the threats are of an extreme<br />
importance. The situation that a treatment is applied just because it is indicated in the control<br />
program for given plant species can not be approved. The second substantial factor<br />
determining the occurrence of some pests or at least decreasing their negative impact on the<br />
plantation is the quality of the nursery material to be planted. The presence of other<br />
plantations in the neighbourhood and first of all their phytosanitary stage is also of utmost<br />
importance.<br />
For making proper decisions it is necessary to know the biology of important groups of<br />
pests as well as rational means of their control. Plantivorous mites represented by two groups<br />
of a great economical importance – eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) and spider mites<br />
(Tetranychidae) – belong undoubtedly to important pests. Among eriophyid mites the species<br />
1
2<br />
most noxious and also difficult to control is blackcurrant gall mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis)<br />
(Gajek at al., 1996 and 1999). An ideal method to deal with this pest would be an introduction<br />
of resistant varieties into plantations. Unfortunately, up to the present we have not succeeded<br />
in breeding a variety with a high resistance to the pest and of high utility values and suitable<br />
for mechanical harvesting. Thus, for founding new plantations it is recommended to use only<br />
nursery material of a highest quality and – as far as possible – to localise them at places<br />
isolated from other plantings. Regular surveys of the plantation at the leafless stage and<br />
removing buds infected with the gall mite is necessary, too. Better prospects of integrated<br />
control exist in the case of such important pests as spider mites, the main representative of<br />
which on berry shrub is two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae). Results of numerous<br />
experiments prove that populations of this pest, especially on blackcurrants, can be effectively<br />
limited by predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae (Kropczyńska & Czajkowska, 1995;<br />
Niemczyk at al., 1997). The use of pesticides selective (or at least partially selective) in<br />
relation to phytoseiid mites is required in the production process. Such acaricides are e.g.<br />
Nissorun 050 EC, Nissorun 10 EC (hexitiazox) and Omite 30 WP (propargite) (Łabanowska<br />
and Maciesiak, 1996).<br />
Another pest imposing a heavy impact on currant production in some regions is the<br />
currant shoot borer (Lampronia capitella Clerk., syn. Incurvaria capitella Cl.). Caterpillars of<br />
that species begin to feed in buds during the period of their splitting. Within its development<br />
time the caterpillar damages several subsequent buds. In the last years an increased of<br />
occurrence of this pest is observed, thus its control on many plantations is necessary. The<br />
most appropriate term for executing control treatments against currant shoot borer is the<br />
period when its caterpillars are leaving winter hiding places and penetrate into buds (March<br />
and sometimes even February). Monitoring the occurrence of the pest can be executed by<br />
means of glue bands placed at the lower parts of currant shoots before bud split. In that period<br />
application of preparations partially selective, like phosphoorganics and even pyrethroids is<br />
admitted because most of the beneficial insects and mites still remain in winter hiding places.<br />
Many aphid species (Aphididae) – vectors of viral diseases, particularly menacing to<br />
raspberry cultivation – occur on berry shrubs. In natural conditions numerous enemies keep<br />
aphid populations restricted within some limits. Unfortunately, beneficial insects occur<br />
frequently too late, after considerable damages are already caused by the pests. For chemical<br />
control of pests belonging to that group selective products like Pirimicarb or Triazamate are<br />
recommended above all.<br />
Sometimes pests whose larvae devour leaves occur on berry plants. A great number of<br />
those pest can strip the plants bare of leaves. The most important species damaging leaves of<br />
currants and gooseberry are currant worm (Pteronidea ribesii Scop.) and small gooseberry<br />
sawfly (Pristiphora pallipes Lep.). In case when pests population reaches economic threshold<br />
level, they may be controlled with biopreparations based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Thiuridan,<br />
Bacilan and Bactospeine 16 000 WP).<br />
An important group of currant and raspberry pests are also midges (Cecidomyiidae).<br />
Quite numerous and causing severe losses on currants is black currant midge (Resseliella<br />
ribis Marik.) and on raspberry – the raspberry cane midge (Resseliella theobaldi Bar.). The<br />
larvae of these small dipteran insects feed under the skin of youngest shoots and cause their<br />
decay. Considering the feeding peculiarity of this pest, controlling its larvae not always gives<br />
satisfactory results. Thus, it is purposeful to control adult insects prior to their egg-laying.<br />
Optimum treatment timing can be determined by means of monitoring the occurrence of the<br />
pest. For both species of cecidomyiids mentioned above the suitable method is to signal the<br />
term of egg-laying. This method is based on making artificial wounds on shoots and<br />
observation of egg laying females (Łabanowska, 1997). Monitoring the process of egg-laying
3<br />
on blackcurrants has to be initiated soon after blossoming and conducted at least to fruit<br />
harvest. On raspberry, observations shall begin before blossoming and continue to the end of<br />
August. The control is executed in the period of intensive flight and egg-laying by females of<br />
the 1 st and 2 nd generation. The 1 st generation on currants is controlled during the period<br />
between blossoming and harvesting fruit and the 2 nd one immediately after harvest. On<br />
raspberry the pest is controlled usually just before blossoming and after harvest. Pesticides<br />
like phosalone (Zolone 35 EC) and fenitrothion (Owadofos 540 EC and Sumithion 500 EC)<br />
can be used in integrated fruit production,.<br />
Clearwing moths (Sesiidae) exert an essential impact on small fruit bushes in some<br />
regions. Their best known representative is currant clearwing moth (Synanthedon tipuliformis<br />
Cl.), whose caterpillars damage mainly currant shoots but can also destroy shoots of<br />
gooseberry. A related species – raspberry clearwing moth (Pennisetia hylaeiformis Lasp.) is<br />
known from raspberry. Its caterpillars destroy the lower part of shoots and the root neck of<br />
raspberry, what leads to drying up and breaking down shoots. This species occurs locally on<br />
raspberry in Poland and only there requires to be controlled.<br />
Controlling clearwing moths is conducted in the period of moths flights and the optimum<br />
term is determined on the base of the catches of moths into pheromone traps (Łabanowska &<br />
Gajek, 1999). Traps for catching currant clearwing moth are available at the present in<br />
Poland. They are hung on currant bushes after blossoming and the number of moths caught is<br />
observed.<br />
Strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi Herbst) and raspberry beetle (Byturus<br />
tomentosus Fabr.) are ranked as crucial pests on raspberry plantations. These beetles require<br />
systematic control. The first of them destroys flower buds of raspberry while the second<br />
causes vermination of fruits. The occurrence of the beetles on plantations can be monitored by<br />
means of white glue traps hung on bushes 2-3 weeks before raspberry blossoming and<br />
systematically inspected for the number of insects caught.<br />
Unfortunately, the choice of substances both selective and efficient in controlling beetles<br />
is scarce. Before blossoming phosalone or fenitrothion can be used, while during blossoming<br />
– one of the pyrethroids in case of a need.<br />
Integrated control of pathogens on small fruit bushes<br />
At the present stage of production controlling diseases on small fruit bushes – similarly as<br />
controlling pests – requires many chemical treatments. Limiting the application of chemical<br />
methods or improving their efficacy can be attained by applying a complex program, which<br />
combines methods aiding and completing the chemical control.<br />
The healthiness of the planting material is one of the factors very important in integrated<br />
control of diseases. This is particularly important for preventing losses caused by viral and<br />
mycoplasmatic diseases. Pathogens of these diseases are introduced into the newly-founded<br />
plantation together with the infected plant material, being then spread within the plantation by<br />
pests, mainly gall mites, e.g. blackcurrant reversion by blackcurrant gall mite, and gooseberry<br />
vein banding by aphids. Thus, the choice of the stand for new plantations is very important.<br />
The best situation is when they are not founded in the vicinity of already existing plantations.<br />
An essential element of integrated control allowing to reduce and in some cases even to<br />
eliminate chemical treatments is a skilful utilising of the natural resistance of varieties.<br />
Different control programs should be applied on blackcurrant variety Ben Lomond<br />
susceptible to mildew and on variety Triton especially susceptible to currant rust.
4<br />
Besides susceptibility of varieties also the intensity of diseases on individual plantations<br />
is taken into account in programs of integrated pathogen control. To this end, conducting<br />
frequent inspections is indispensable. Accurate surveys connected with removal of infected<br />
shrubs are particularly important in limiting damages caused by such grave diseases as black<br />
currant reversion or gooseberry vein banding.<br />
The most dangerous diseases of currants in Poland are anthracnose and leaf spot and, in<br />
the case of blackcurrants, also American gooseberry mildew and currant rust. The fungicides<br />
recommended belong to different chemical groups and, if possible, their activity is utilised<br />
against several pathogens occurring simultaneously at the plantation. In choosing fungicides,<br />
attention is paid to the necessity of their rotation in order to prevent building up pathogen’s<br />
resistance. Broad spectrum fungicides belong to the IBE group; they allow to control at the<br />
same time all fungal diseases of currants. However, taking into consideration the possibility<br />
to generate pathogen’s resistance, preparations like pirazofos (Afugan 30 EC), bupirimate<br />
(Nimrod 25 EC), dinocap (Karathane 18.25 WP) and triforin (Saprol) should be incorporated<br />
into the control program of American gooseberry mildew, while other fungicides, first of all<br />
those containing mancozeb, ditanon (Delan 750 SC) and triforin (Saprol 190 EC) – in the<br />
control programs of remaining diseases.<br />
Besides anthracnose, the heaviest losses on gooseberry plantations are caused by<br />
American gooseberry mildew. The more so that the variety White Triumph, fundamental for<br />
gooseberry production in Poland, is characterised by a high susceptibility to that disease.<br />
Recommendation for controlling American gooseberry mildew are the same as in the case of<br />
blackcurrants, though the term of starting treatments is earlier, just after blossoming of<br />
gooseberry (Goszczyński & Partyka, 1995).<br />
Basic diseases occurring on raspberry plantations are grey mould and raspberry spur<br />
blight. The efficacy of chemical control of these diseases depends in a great extent – apart<br />
from natural resistance of the variety of course – on accuracy of executing the treatments. The<br />
system of conducting the plantation is here of the utmost importance. High efficacy of<br />
chemical sprayings is impossible on overcrowded plantations. A treatment improving the<br />
efficacy of raspberry spur blight control consists of cutting off the youngest, growing shoots<br />
(Cimanowski et al., 1992/93). Fungicides recommended for controlling the diseases in<br />
question are well known and their stock did not change for several years. Considering the<br />
possibility of occurring resistant forms of the fungus causing grey mould, preparations from<br />
the group of dicarboximides (Sumilex 500 SC, Rovral 50 WP and Flo 255 SC) should be<br />
applied not more frequently than twice a season. A product meriting attention is dichlofluanid<br />
(Euparen 50 WP) for its propensity of limiting the occurrence of spider mites, when applied<br />
twice to control grey mould. Control of the last disease creates many problems in repeating<br />
varieties. Simultaneous blossoming and harvest of fruits renders impossible conducting<br />
chemical control by means of fungicides registered at present. One ought expect an<br />
improvement of the situation soon. A novel fungicide fenhexamid (Teldor) has been<br />
introduced into the register. Its very short preharvest time will allow executing treatments<br />
between subsequent harvests.<br />
In the near future one shall expect a further, fast development in breeding new, resistant<br />
varieties and at the same time a development of pesticides more and more efficient and safe,<br />
and thereby more useful for the integrated production.
5<br />
References<br />
Cimanowski J., A. Bielenin, J. Dadej, H. Osuch, H. Rechnio. 1992/93. Wpływ wycinania<br />
pierwszych, młodych pędów i ochrony chemicznej na zdrowotność, wzrost i owocowanie<br />
maliny. Pr. Inst. Sad. Ser. A, 31: 1<strong>23</strong>-128.<br />
Gajek, D., J. Boczek, J. Nowacki. 1996. Black currant cultivars resistant to the gall mite<br />
(Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.) as an element of integrated pest management.<br />
International Conference on Integrated Fruit Production', Cedzyna, Poland, August 28 –<br />
September 2, 1995, Proceedings of the Meeting. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19(4): 349-350.<br />
Gajek, D., S. Pluta, E. Zurawicz. 1999. Wstępne wyniki badań nad hodowlą odmian<br />
porzeczki czarnej odpornych na wielkopąkowca (Cecidophyopsis ribis /Westw./).<br />
Materialy VIII Ogólnopolskiego Zjazdu Naukowego Hodowców Roślin Ogrodniczych,<br />
"Hodowla Roślin Ogrodniczych u progu XXI wieku, Lublin 1999, T.II, pp. 475-479.<br />
Goszczyński, W., Z. Partyka. 1995. Ochrona agrestu przed amerykańskim mączniakiem.<br />
Ogólnopolska Konferencja Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych, 1-2 luty 1995, ISK<br />
Skierniewice, pp. 173-174.<br />
Kropczyńska, D., Czajkowska B. 1995. Skuteczność drapieżnych roztoczy (Phytoseiidae) w<br />
ograniczaniu liczebności przędziorka chmielowca na porzeczce czarnej. Materiały<br />
Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych, Skierniewice, 1-2 luty 1995,<br />
pp. <strong>11</strong>7-<strong>11</strong>9.<br />
Niemczyk, E., Z. Nowakowski, I. Kumor. 1997. Występowanie i efektywność drapieżnych<br />
roztoczy (Phytoseiidae) w zwalczaniu przędziorka chmielowca na czarnych porzeczkach.<br />
Ogólnopolska Konferencja Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych. Skierniewice, 1997, pp. 12-<br />
125.<br />
Łabanowska, B.H., 1997. Dynamika składania jaj i efektywność zwalczania pryszczarka<br />
porzeczkowca pędowego – Resseliella ribis (Marik.) (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae). Zesz.<br />
Nauk. Inst. Sadow. Kwiac. 4: 135-147.<br />
Łabanowska, B.H., D. Gajek , 1999. Monitoring i zwalczanie najważniejszych szkodników<br />
porzeczki czarnej. Progress in Plant Protection / Postępy w Ochronie Roślin, 39 (1): 305-<br />
3<strong>11</strong>.<br />
Łabanowska, B.H., A. Maciesiak, 1996. Effectiveness of new generation acaricides and<br />
mixtures of two acaricides in control of the spider mite (Tetranychidae) on apple,<br />
blackcurrant and strawberry. Proc. Symp. on „Advances of Acarology in Poland”<br />
Siedlce, September 26-27, 1995, pp. 1<strong>23</strong>-126.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 7 - 10<br />
The standard and the integrated strawberry production in Poland<br />
Barbara H. Łabanowska, Anna Bielenin<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Abstract: The total area covered by strawberry plantations in Poland is over 55 000 ha. Nearly 70-<br />
75% of the strawberry production is destined for processing, mainly for freezing. The dominant<br />
cultivar for the industry is Senga Sengana while for the fresh fruit market mainly Elsanta, Kent,<br />
Marmolada, Selva, Tarda Vicoda and Polish cultivars Dukat, Elkat and Kama are grown.<br />
In the recent years the modern technology of strawberry production has been introduced. A few<br />
groups of farmers start to grow strawberries under IFP (Integrated Fruit Production) rules. They got<br />
their first IFP certificates three years ago and the next group of farmers shall get them soon. The<br />
problems with plant protection in IFP are described.<br />
Key words: integrated production, strawberry, acaricides, soil pest control, Tetranychus urticae,<br />
Phytonemus pallidus, Anthonomus rubi, Botrytis cinerea, Mycosphaerella fragariae, Sphaerotheca<br />
macularis.<br />
Introduction<br />
For many years Poland has been one of the leaders in strawberry production. In 1999 the total<br />
area covered by strawberry plantations was over 55.000 ha, which is about sixteen percent<br />
less than it was eight years before. The annual production of strawberries in Poland is<br />
150.000 – 200.000 tons. The fruit yield depends on growing area, but the weather conditions,<br />
particularly during the blossom and harvest time have also a considerable influence. For<br />
example in 1998 and 1999 very intensive rainfall during the harvest of strawberries caused a<br />
severe grey mould occurrence which destroyed a big part of the crop. On the other hand, the<br />
price variations from year to year badly influence the future development of strawberry<br />
production. Nearly 70-75% of the strawberry production is destined for processing, mainly<br />
for freezing. Polish strawberry production has been dominated by one variety – Senga<br />
Sengana, fruit of which have excellent features for processing. This cultivar covers about<br />
75% of commercial strawberry plantations.<br />
In recent years the consumption of fresh strawberries increased considerably. The foreign<br />
cultivars such as Elsanta, Kent, Marmolada, Selva and Tarda Vicoda have been. However,<br />
they are not well adapted to Polish climatic and soil conditions. Some of these cultivars,<br />
especially Elsanta, are very sensitive to root diseases and freezing injuries during winter time.<br />
Therefore in our strawberry breeding programme we are looking for the cultivars, which<br />
better suit the local climatic conditions. The new cultivars developed in Poland and already<br />
grown by Polish farmers (Dukat, Elkat and Kama) are probably less attractive when<br />
compared with Elsanta cv., but they are resistant, or at least less sensitive to root diseases and<br />
frost. Two of them: Dukat and Elkat cvs are also resistant to leaf diseases.<br />
The largest strawberry growing areas are located in Central, South-eastern and Southwestern<br />
parts of Poland. However, the strawberries are also grown in other regions of the<br />
country. Most of the plantations are small, about 0,1-0,25 ha, and they belong to small<br />
agricultural farms. By growing strawberries the farmers get an additional income. On the<br />
7
8<br />
other hand, the growers who have small plantations are not specialised in strawberry<br />
production. They are not always planting healthy, certified planting material and they can not<br />
maintain proper crop protection. The strawberry plantations are usually exploited for 3 or<br />
even 4 years. The small area of plantations and the lack of professional skills of growers are<br />
the main reasons of low yielding.<br />
However, in recent years the modern technology of strawberry production replaces the<br />
traditional one. A number of large strawberry farms (from several to over 100 ha) increased<br />
during the last few years. Young, well-educated growers who apply the newest and most<br />
sophisticated production technologies usually manage such farms. They take advantage of<br />
much higher price they are offered for the high quality fruit for fresh market compared with<br />
the price of fruit for processing or freezing. The high quality dessert fruit are produced mainly<br />
in the vicinities of large towns, where the growers have a better possibility to sell them. Some<br />
of the growers decided already a few years ago to increase the fruit quality by implementing<br />
the IFP rules. They use only certified planting material and modern spraying techniques to<br />
protect strawberries against pests and diseases. These growers have been organised in IFP<br />
groups of farmers. The first IFP group started only six years ago and the growers got their<br />
first IFP certificates three years ago. In 1999 the certificates were issued to 65 strawberry<br />
growers, organised in six groups located mainly in the Central and Southern parts of Poland.<br />
The area of strawberries grown under IFP rules during last years reached 215 ha, and the<br />
production of fruit was about 2.250 tons. The next few groups of farmers has just started<br />
integrated strawberry production in their farms, and they will get certificates in the near<br />
future.<br />
The growers who are interested in IFP have to learn how to do it. They are organised in<br />
groups, consisting of several members and a leader, usually being their instructor. They<br />
participate in 2-3 day IFP courses, which are organised by the Research Institute of Pomology<br />
and Floriculture in Skierniewice. They are taught the principles of IFP rules described in a<br />
brochure published by the Institute (Żurawicz et al. 1995). The brochure contains instructions<br />
on soil quality, plant protection methods and simple techniques to estimate the threshold<br />
levels for main pests and diseases.<br />
The growers get the certificate after attending the course and having produced strawberries<br />
according to IFP rules for two years.<br />
The Polish strawberry growers have problems with some pests and diseases in their<br />
production. We are looking for the methods, which can help them to solve their problems in<br />
plant protection.<br />
In some plantations the farmers have problems with the soil pests such as larvae of white<br />
grubs (Melolontha melolontha), wireworms – larvae of Elateridae and larvae of strawberry<br />
root weevils (Otiorhynchus sp.). So far we have no method to control these pests and<br />
therefore the strawberries should be planted in the fields which are free of them. If there is no<br />
chance to find such a field, the soil pest control is needed prior strawberry planting. A<br />
granular formulation of diazinon should be applied during the period from the late spring up<br />
to the end of summer.<br />
A similar problem with soil diseases such as Verticillium or Phytophtora occurs in some<br />
regions of Poland where the foreign dessert cultivars are grown. Since there is no efficient<br />
method to control these diseases, the soil has to be free of them if the grower wants to plant<br />
the sensitive cultivars.<br />
The planting material has to be certified and free of pests, mainly nematodes, strawberry<br />
mite (Phytonemus pallidus spp fragariae Zimm.), two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus<br />
urticae Koch.) as well as viral and fungal diseases. So far we have no methods to control the<br />
nematodes and viruses in the field.
The strawberry mite is only a problem when it is brought with a planting material. For a<br />
long time endosulfan (Thiodan 350 EC) has been used to control the mite. In the integrated<br />
strawberry production, the use of endosulfan is permitted once a year. Therefore we keep<br />
looking for an alternative acaricides, which could be useful to control the strawberry mite.<br />
Among the acaricides tested the promising results were obtained with amitraz (Mitac 200<br />
EC), fenazaquin (Magus 200 SC), pyridaben (Sanmite 20 WP), fenpyroximate (Ortus 05 SC),<br />
propargite (Omite 30 WP), abamectin ( Vertimec 018 EC) and some others (Łabanowska<br />
1992,1995a). The most suitable for IFP program is propargite, which reduces the strawberry<br />
mite population quite well, and is also recommended for a control of two-spotted spider mite.<br />
The farmers who use healthy plants without mites don't have problems with these pests during<br />
two – three years of the strawberry growing.<br />
Two-spotted spider mite is a problem in many plantations, especially during hot and dry<br />
weather during blossom and harvest time. Among the tested acaricides good results in control<br />
of two-spotted spider mite were obtained with hexythiazox (Nissorun 050 EC, Nissorun 10<br />
EC), propargite (Omite 30 WP), fenazaquin (Magus 200 SC), mixture propargite +<br />
hexythiazox (Omite 30 WP + Nissorun 050 EC), mixture amitraz + clofentezin (Mitac 200<br />
EC + Apollo oil), fenpyroximate (Ortus 05 SC) and pyridaben (Sanmite 20 WP) (Łabanowska<br />
1995 b,c) In the plantations with IFP program hexythiazox and propargite are the most useful.<br />
The economic threshold level for two-spotted spider mite is 1-2 mites in active stage per 1<br />
leaflet before blossom, 2-3 mites per leaf after full blossom and 5-6 mites per leaf after fruit<br />
harvest.<br />
The strawberry blossom weevil is the second most important pest, which must be<br />
controlled each year on the majority of the commercial strawberry plantations. Many<br />
insecticides are effective in control of this pest (Łabanowska and Gajek 1992, Łabanowska<br />
1997), but for the IFP program phosalone (Zolone 35 EC) is the main product. During the last<br />
two years we obtained good results with acetamiprid (Mospilan 20 SP) but the chemical has<br />
not been registered yet for strawberries (Łabanowska et al., <strong>2000</strong>)<br />
Fungal diseases have to be controlled in the strawberry plantations every year. Grey mould<br />
(Botrytis cinerea) is very efficiently controlled with one of the most important fungicides<br />
dichlofluanid (Euparen 50 WP). When used 2 – 4 times during the blossom time it controls:<br />
grey mould and strawberry leaf spot (Mycosphaerella fragariae) and also reduces the<br />
population of two-spotted spider mite (Meszka et al., <strong>2000</strong>). Dichlofluanid used against grey<br />
mould also reduces powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca macularis). Additional treatments with<br />
the specific fungicides are needed only on the very susceptible cultivars such as Elsanta.<br />
Other fungicides very useful in control grey mould are: procymidon (Sumilex 500 SC),<br />
iprodion (Rovral 50 WP, Rovral FLO 255 SC) (belong to dicarboxyimide group), and<br />
pyrimetanil (Mythos 300 SC). The useful fungicide in control of grey mould and strawberry<br />
leaf spot is tiuram (Thiram Granuflo 80 WP and Pomarsol Forte 80 WG). Depending on the<br />
weather conditions and cultivar susceptibility, 3-5 chemical treatments must be done every<br />
year.<br />
The modern technologies of production with IFP rules require from growers some<br />
knowledge about the biology of pests and fungal diseases on strawberries as well as about the<br />
insecticides and fungicides used to control them. A systematic inspection of plantations for<br />
monitoring pests and diseases are necessary to keep the plants in good condition and to get a<br />
good yield of fruit.<br />
9
10<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Grateful thanks are due to Mr. J. Mochecki, Mrs. B. Zaradna and prof. E. Żurawicz for their<br />
help.<br />
References<br />
Łabanowska B. H., 1992: Effectiveness of acaricides in control of strawberry mite<br />
(Phytonemus pallidus spp. fragariae Zimm.) Fruit Sc. Rep. 19: 137-146.<br />
Łabanowska B.H., 1995 a: Acaricides for control of the strawberry mite – (Phytonemus<br />
pallidus ssp. fragariae Zimm.) The Acari, Dabor, Warszawa, 633-637. Proc. 2 nd<br />
Symposium of EURAC, 1992.<br />
Łabanowska B. H., 1995 b: Przydatność mieszanin amitraz + klofentezyna oraz propargit +<br />
heksythiazoks i innych akarycydów do zwalczania przędziorka chmielowca –<br />
Tetranychus urticae Koch na truskawce. Zesz. Nauk. Inst. Sadow. Kwiac. 2: 65-75.<br />
Łabanowska B.H. 1995 c: Effectiveness of new generation acaricides in the control of twospotted<br />
spider mite (Tetranytchus urticae) on strawberry. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19(4):<br />
415-416.<br />
Łabanowska B.H. 1997: Control of the strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi Hbst.)<br />
on strawberry. J. Fruit Ornam. Plant Res. 5: 157-162.<br />
Łabanowska B.H., Gajek D. 1992: Control of strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi<br />
Hbst.) with new insecticides. Fruit Sc. Rep. 19: 167-172.<br />
Łabanowska B.H., Gajek D., Niemczyk E. <strong>2000</strong>: Usefulness of Mospilan 20SP in integrated<br />
pest management of soft fruits. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>23</strong>(7): 137-139.<br />
Meszka B., Łabanowska B.H., Bielenin A. <strong>2000</strong>: Efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M<br />
50 WG in the control of grey mould Botrytis cinerea and reduction of the population of<br />
two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) in strawberries. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong><br />
<strong>23</strong>(7): 133-136.<br />
Niemczyk E. et al., 1993: Integrowana produkcja owoców (Praca zbiorowa). Instr. 173, wyd.<br />
IV. ISK, Skierniewice, pp. 55.<br />
Niemczyk E. et al., 1997: Integrowana produkcja owoców (Praca zbiorowa). Instr. 224,<br />
wyd.VI. ISK, Skierniewice, pp. 67.<br />
Program Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych na rok 1999. Instytut Sadownictwa i Kwiaciarstwa,<br />
Skierniewice and Agrosan, S.C. 1999, pp.120.<br />
Rynek owoców i warzyw stan i perspektywy, 1999, Nr. 14, Wyd. MriGŻ, Inst. Ekon. Rol. i<br />
Gospodarki Żywnościowej, Raporty Rynkowe, Lipiec 1999.<br />
Zurawicz E., Bielenin A., Doruchowski G., Lisek J., Łabanowska B. H., Płocharski W.,<br />
1995:Integrowana produkcja owoców truskawki. Instr. 201, wyd. ISK, Skierniewice, pp.<br />
59.<br />
Żurawicz E., Łabanowska B. H., Bielenin A., 1997: Integrated strawberry production in<br />
Poland. Proc. Third Int. Strawberry Symp. Acta Hort. 439: 957-961.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. <strong>11</strong> -16<br />
Strawberry production in Latvia<br />
Valda Laugale<br />
Pūre State Horticultural Research Station, Tukuma raj., LV-3124, Latvia<br />
Abstract: Strawberries are cultivated recently on more than 500 ha in Latvia. The income from<br />
production of strawberry is higher than from other agricultural crops and therefore the cultivated area<br />
is increasing rapidly Most of the strawberry growers have small fields, less than 1 ha in size. The level<br />
of mechanisation and plant protection is very low at many farms. The yield of strawberries is also very<br />
low – on average 6 tons/ha. Berries are sold fresh on local markets. The processing industry is still<br />
developing. Strawberries are mainly grown on flat fields in rows with density of 30 – 40 thousands<br />
plants/ha. Farmers use straw and sawdust for soil mulching, but some of them use grass as a living<br />
mulch. In the last years farmers are becoming interested in the use of different synthetic covering<br />
materials such as polypropylene and polyethylene. The most widespread and productive cultivars in<br />
Latvia are Zefyr and Induka. The following cultivars are included in the List of Recommended<br />
Cultivars for Commercial Plantings in Latvia (year 1999): Zefyr, Venta, Festvalnaya, Induka, Corona,<br />
Dukat, Tenira and Senga Sengana. Most of the farmers are growing strawberries with minimal<br />
pesticide application. It is due to the shortage of financial resources. There is also a limited number of<br />
pesticides registered for strawberries in Latvia.<br />
Key words: strawberry, area, growing systems, cultivars, plant protection, propagation<br />
Introduction<br />
The first information on garden strawberry growing in Latvia dates back to 1878 (Bite et al.,<br />
1997). The main cultivation region was Jurmala (near the capital city Riga). Before the<br />
Second World War strawberry acreage in Latvia was about 1000 ha. The area was reduced in<br />
subsequent years: in 1970 only 300 ha were cowered with strawberries and 78 % of this<br />
acreage was in small gardens. Only 0.5 kg of strawberries was produced per inhabitant. An<br />
agricultural survey in 1985 indicated that strawberry plantings totalled 397 ha, with only 15 %<br />
in public property, and 85 % in private property. In 1996 there were about 500 ha of<br />
strawberries and today it is increasing rapidly. Experience shows that strawberry production<br />
gives higher income in comparison with other agricultural crops. Moreover, in the last years<br />
our government has started to subsidise establishment of perennial horticultural plantings,<br />
including strawberries. Only in 1998 the acreage of strawberry plantations increased by 79.3<br />
ha (16 %) due to subsidies. Most of the farms have area under strawberry production smaller<br />
than 1 ha, but largest farms have more than 10 ha.<br />
The level of mechanisation and plant protection is very low on many farms and this is the<br />
main reason for very low yields – an average of 6 tons/ha. Yields at the best farms are about<br />
20 tons/ha.<br />
Strawberries are planted mainly in regions close to larger towns. Berries are sold fresh on<br />
local markets. Due to increasing area of strawberry cultivation and fairly short harvesting<br />
season, it becomes difficult to sell the production and prices fall down. The processing<br />
industry is still developing.<br />
<strong>11</strong>
12<br />
Weather conditions<br />
Latvia is located in the maritime climate zone. Climate is influenced by Baltic sea and warm<br />
Gulf Stream. Though territory of the republic is not large, weather at different locations is<br />
quite variable. The warmest month in Latvia is July and the coldest are January and February.<br />
The highest average temperature of many years in July is +17,8 o C. In the winter the average<br />
temperature of many years in the Western part of Latvia is -2.5 o C, but in the Eastern Latvia –<br />
6,9 o C. The lowest temperature on the snow surface – -48 o C – was recorded in the winter of<br />
1978/79. Climate in Latvia is characterised by humid and cold winters with a permanent snow<br />
covering, though quite often there are thaws and glazed frosts, which have negative influence<br />
to strawberry overwintering. Only during 2 months – July and August, temperature never<br />
drops below 0 o C. Especially dangerous for strawberries are late spring frosts. Strawberry<br />
blossoming in open field starts usually at the end of May and harvesting starts at the end of<br />
June and lasts for about a month.<br />
Table 1. Results of testing of some strawberry cultivars at Pûre State Horticultural Research<br />
Station (1997-1998, average of 2 years)<br />
Cultivar Winter Total % of total yield Fruit<br />
hardiness<br />
*<br />
yield<br />
(t/ha)<br />
1st<br />
quality<br />
Botrytis<br />
damaged<br />
Weight<br />
(g)<br />
Attractiveness*<br />
Flavour<br />
*<br />
Darunok<br />
Vchiteliu<br />
2.6 0.6 33 2.3 9.2 3.4 4.3<br />
Desnyanka 3.8 5.9 51 2.4 <strong>11</strong>.2 3.7 4.2<br />
Festivalnaya<br />
Romascha<br />
3.3 3.2 63 2.3 <strong>11</strong>.1 4.2 4.1<br />
Roxana 3.2 2.5 52 1.9 10.3 4.0 3.6<br />
Induka 4.3 12.5 69 2.5 13.5 4.3 4.2<br />
Korona 3.5 5.3 69 1.3 13.6 4.5 4.5<br />
Taganka 3.9 8.6 53 2.4 <strong>11</strong>.0 3.9 4.0<br />
Zefyr 4.3 7.1 66 2.7 13.3 4.1 4.2<br />
Siurprise<br />
Olimpiadi<br />
3.9 8.2 66 3.3 13.3 4.5 4.0<br />
Holiday 3.7 5.4 71 1.6 12.9 4.1 4.2<br />
Senga<br />
Sengana<br />
3.8 6.8 44 2.7 <strong>11</strong>.0 4.2 4.1<br />
Elsanta 2.2 2.5 74 0.9 13.9 4.5 4.3<br />
Kokinskaya<br />
Pozdnaya<br />
3.2 5.9 77 4.1 15.4 4.3 3.9<br />
Bogota 2.3 3.0 69 0.8 13.4 4.4 4.4<br />
* – ratings range 1-5 with ``5`` being the best<br />
Growing systems<br />
Strawberries are mainly grown on flat fields with spacing of 0.25 – 0.30 x 0.70 – 1.00 m<br />
(30 000 – 40 000 plants/ha), depending on equipment. Fields are usually kept for 3-4 years.<br />
Most of farmers are using plant rotation system.
13<br />
There are 2 main strawberry planting times in the open field in Latvia – May and August.<br />
To establish plantings growers use freshly dug plants. Some experiments had been done on<br />
use of cold-stored plants, which can significantly prolong strawberry production season<br />
(Laugale, 1998). Due to difficulties to get cold-stored planting material, the method is still not<br />
ver popular among farmers.<br />
Irrigation is one of main conditions for getting high yields. Farmers use mainly various<br />
overhead irrigation systems, but interest is risen also in drip irrigation.<br />
During the last years there is an increased interest in using different synthetic covering<br />
materials as polypropylene and polyethylene, but it demands higher investments. Because of<br />
that, only some farmers nowadays are growing strawberries on beds with black plastic mulch<br />
on larger area. Farmers use for soil mulching mainly straw and sawdust, but some of them<br />
also use grass as a living mulch.<br />
Polyethylene sheets and fibre tissue are used for strawberry forcing. This prolongs harvest<br />
season by 2 weeks and protects the flowers from spring frosts. Growing strawberry in<br />
greenhouses and plastic tunnels is not popular due to a very high economic input.<br />
Cultivars<br />
In the List of Recommended Cultivars for Growing in Latvian Conditions in Commercial<br />
Plantings (year 1999) following cultivars are included: Zefyr (Danish origin) Venta<br />
(Lithuanian), Festvalnaya (Russian), Induka (Dutch), Korona (Dutch), Dukat (Polish), Tenira<br />
(Dutch) and `Senga Sengana` (German). `Zefyr` and `Induka` are most widespread and<br />
productive ones.<br />
The testing of the newly introduced strawberry cultivars have been done in the Pure State<br />
Horticultural Research Station. The highest yield in the trials was obtained from `Induka`,<br />
while more 1st grade and larger berries gave cultivars `Kokinskaya Pozdnaya` and `Elsanta`<br />
(Tab. 1). In the evaluation of attractiveness the highest grade received `Korona`, `Siurprise<br />
Olimpidi` and `Elsanta`. `Korona` was also characterised by a very good flavour. Interesting<br />
was also cultivar Darunok Vchiteliu because of a very early ripening, but its yielding and<br />
winter hardiness were low. Cultivars Kokinskaya Pozdnaya and Bogota are characterised by a<br />
very late ripening. Unfortunately, `Bogota` had very low winter hardiness in our conditions.<br />
The same applies to `Elasanta`, which is very popular in many European countries.<br />
Plant protection<br />
The major pests on strawberries in Latvia are strawberry mite (Tarsonemus pallidus), twospotted<br />
spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi), leaf<br />
beetle (Galerucella tenella) and Lygus bugs. The major diseases are grey mold (Botrytis<br />
cinerea), leaf spot diseases (caused by Ramularia tulasnei, Marssonina potentillae f.<br />
fragariae), verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum) and powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca<br />
macularis f. fragariae). In the last years there was an increased risk of spreading other<br />
dangerous strawberry diseases in Latvia due to the import of the planting material from<br />
abroad.<br />
Most of the farmers are growing strawberries with the minimal pesticide application. It is<br />
mostly due to the shortage of financial resources. There is also a limited number of plant<br />
protection products registered for use on strawberries in Latvia (Tab. 2) and during the<br />
vegetation period the use of pesticides is allowed to a limited extent. We have not yet worked<br />
out the IFP program and the certification system for soft fruits in Latvia but since the interest<br />
in this method of fruit production is increasing, it will be one of targets.
14<br />
Table 2. The list of plant protection products registered for strawberries in Latvia (1995-<br />
2005).<br />
Plant protection product Harmful organism Max applications<br />
per season<br />
Fungicides:<br />
Baileton 25 WP (triadimefon 250 g/kg, Mildew 2<br />
Bayer)<br />
Euparen – M 50 WG (tolyfluarid 500 Grey mold, leaf spots, 2<br />
G/KG, Bayer, will be registered in <strong>2000</strong>) mildew<br />
Fundazol 50 WP (benomyl 500 g/kg, Mildew, grey mold,<br />
2<br />
Hinoin)<br />
leaf spots<br />
Ronilan OF (vinclozolin 50 %, BASF) Grey mold 2<br />
Thiovit 80 DG (sulphur 800 g/kg) Mildew, spider mite 3<br />
Insecticides:<br />
Decis 2,5 EC (deltamethrin 25 g/l, Blossom weevil 1<br />
AgrEvo)<br />
Fastac EC (alpha-cypermethrin 100 g/l, Blossom weevil,<br />
2<br />
Cyanamid)<br />
aphids, bugs<br />
Mitak 20 EC (amitraz 200 g/l, AgrEvo) Spider mite 1<br />
Herbicides:<br />
Agyl 100 EC (propaquizafop 100 g/l,<br />
Ciba-Geigy)<br />
Focus Ultra EC (cycloxidim 100 g/l,<br />
BASF)<br />
Fusilad Super (butil-P-fluazufop 125 g/l,<br />
Zeneca Agrochemicals)<br />
Goltix 70 WP (metamitron 700 g/l,<br />
Bayer)<br />
Lontrel 300 (klopyralyd 300 g/l, Dow<br />
Elanco)<br />
Zellec Super EC (etoxetilhaloxyfop<br />
104 g/l, Dow Elanco)<br />
Monocotyledonous<br />
weeds<br />
Monocotyledonous<br />
weeds<br />
Monocotyledonous<br />
weeds<br />
Dycotyledonous<br />
weeds, in spring<br />
Dycotyledonous<br />
weeds, esp. Cirsium<br />
arvense, in autumn<br />
Monocotyledonous<br />
weeds<br />
2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
Plant propagation<br />
There are not strict regulations at present for planting material quality in Latvia. In 1998 a<br />
new Ministry project on "Horticultural planting material growing and marketing" was worked<br />
out but it is not yet accepted. We have several institutions, which are dealing with the<br />
strawberry propagation by tissue culture and producing disease-free plants. Each institution is<br />
responsible for plant quality on their own. We still do not have an organised system for<br />
quality control and certification.
15<br />
The trials on the comparison of micropropagated and traditionally propagated plants set at<br />
Pūre State Horticultural Research Station show that in vitro plants produce more runners, give<br />
higher yield with better quality berries and are more resistant to unfavourable weather<br />
conditions in comparison to traditionally propagated plants (Petrevica et al., 1996).<br />
Many farmers are propagating strawberries on their farms from runners. Propagation<br />
fields usually are not separated from production fields, what increases the risk of the infection<br />
with pests and diseases.<br />
Future<br />
The introduction of new, high yielding cultivars and the improvement of cultivation systems<br />
have increased commercial significance of the strawberry production in Latvia. The main<br />
tasks for strawberry growers today are to decrease production costs, to extend production<br />
season and to develop industrial co-operation and processing. We have to pay much attention<br />
to biological production and to work out the IFP system, as demand for such production is<br />
increasing in the entire World.<br />
References<br />
Bite A., Laugale V. and Jurevica Dz., 1997. Strawberry culture in Latvia. Acta Hortic. 439:<br />
403-405.<br />
Laugale V., 1998. Studies on extending of strawberry production season in Latvia.<br />
Proceedings of 1st International Meeting of Young Scientists in Horticulture. Lednice,<br />
Czech Republic, pp. 60.<br />
Petrevica L., Heimanis P., Laugale V., 1996. The influence of the recuperation on the<br />
productivity of strawberry. Theses II. International symposium “Breeding, propagation in<br />
vitro and disease resistance of horticultural plants”. Salaspils, Latvia,.pp. 88-89.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 17 - 20<br />
Cultivars of currants for Integrated Fruit Production<br />
Józef Gwozdecki<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Pomologiczna 18., 96-100 Skierniewice,<br />
Poland<br />
Abstract: Currant collection at Skierniewice consist of about 200 cultivars. The yield was graded in<br />
July and state of foliage in September. The mean results of 1985, 1986 and 1988 assesments for<br />
several cultivars with the best foliage in autumn are presented.<br />
Key words: currant, foliage in autumn<br />
Introduction<br />
Low susceptibility of plants to pests and diseases is of a fundamental importance in Integrated<br />
Fruit Production. Healthy leaves of currants in autumn indicate a low susceptibly to some pest<br />
and diseases, mainly to leaf-fall (anthracnose) (Drepanopeziza ribis), currant rust (= white<br />
pine blister rust) (Cronartium ribicola), and spider mite (Tetranychus urticae).<br />
Material and methods<br />
The currants collection at Skierniewice consist of about 200s cultivars with 3 bushes of each<br />
and it is replanted every several years. Results obtained during 1975-1981 were already<br />
published (Gwozdecki, 1983 a, b). Results presented in this paper were obtained from the<br />
collection planted in 1984 and grubbed in 1995 (black currants) and 1999 (red currants). It<br />
was consisted of 138 black currant cultivars and 69 red/white ones. The health status of the<br />
leaves was assessed in September on years when strong defoliation occurred. Those were<br />
years 1985, 1986, 1988, and for red currant additionally 1996. Plants with no leaves received<br />
grade 0, plants with healthy leaves – grade 5. In the paper only cultivars that had the<br />
presented only cultivars healthiest leaves are presented and a few other which are more<br />
popular in production. Since for Integrated Production foliage is important but the<br />
productivity, too, the yield was measured during 9 years and expressed on a p-point scale(0 –<br />
no fruit; 5 – very abundant crop).<br />
Results<br />
The results obtained for the cultivars with the best foliage in September are presented in<br />
tables 1 and 2. Of the black currant cultivars Minay Schmiryev, Bielorusskaya Sladkaja (both<br />
from Belorus') and Swedish cv. Titania had the healthiest leaves till late autumn. However,<br />
one of them is resistant to all fungal diseases. Leaves of Titania can be injured by<br />
anthracnose, while those of two others. by mildew. After taking into consideration other<br />
features of these cultivars, Titania seems to be the best one for Integrated Production. Of the<br />
newly-bred cultivars planted in the collection very promising is Ben Connan from Scotland,<br />
with very healthy leaves.<br />
17
18<br />
Table 1. Abundance of foliage in September and yield of the healthiest black currants<br />
cultivars. Means for 1985, 1986, 1988 assesments.<br />
Cultivar Healthiness Yield<br />
Öjebyn 3,4 2,9<br />
Black Reward 3,5 3,4<br />
Triton 3,6 4,2<br />
Ben Nevis 3,7 3,0<br />
Consort 3,9 3,7<br />
Bielorusskaya Sladkaya 4,4 3,7<br />
Golubka 4,4 3,1<br />
Barkhatnaya 4,5 1,3<br />
Bija 4,6 2,5<br />
Doch Sibiryachki 4,7 2,9<br />
Kalinka 4,7 2,8<br />
Bielorusskaya Pozdnaja 4,8 1,8<br />
Titania 4,8 3,3<br />
Minay Schmiryev 5,0 3,8<br />
Table 2. Abundance of foliage in September and yield of the healthiest red and white currants<br />
cultivars. Means for 1985, 1986, 1988, 1996 assesments.<br />
Cultivar Healthiness Yield<br />
Jonkheer van Tets 4,0 3,0<br />
Mulka 4,3 3,6<br />
Erstling aus Vierlanden 4,5 3,1<br />
Heinemans Rote Spätlese 4,5 3,5<br />
Kimere 4,6 3,5<br />
Red Dutch 4,7 3,2<br />
Rondom 4,7 3,9<br />
Karelskaya 4,8 3,6<br />
Fertödi Hoszufürtü 4,9 3,6<br />
Blanka 2,7 3,7<br />
Primus 2,4 3,3<br />
Weisse aus Jüterbog 3,7 3,4<br />
Blanche de Verseilles 4,2 3,4<br />
Grosse Blanche de Dessert 5,0 3,1
19<br />
Of the red currant cultivars Fertodi Hosszufurtu, Karelskaya, Rondom and Red Dutch had<br />
the healthiest leaves. However, Fertodi Hosszufurtu has rather small berries whereas fruits of<br />
Rondom have some strange smell. Thus, Karelskaya and Red Dutch seems to be the best<br />
cultivars for Integrated Production. The newly-bred cultivars, such like Rovada, Rosetta,<br />
Tatran, and Detvan are susceptible to anthracnose.<br />
Of the white currants Grosse Blanche de Dessert, Weisse Verseiler and Weisse aus<br />
Juterbog can be recommended for Integrated Production. Blanka and Primus, new cultivars<br />
from Slovakia, have very long strigs, but their leaves are infested by anthracnose and also by<br />
powdery mildew.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Of the cultivars evaluated in collection, the following are suitable for Integrated fruit<br />
production because of a low susceptibility to leaves pathogens and good yields: Titania<br />
(black), Karelskaya, Red Dutch (red), Grosse Blanche de Dessert, Weisse Verseiler and<br />
Weisse aus Juterbog (white),<br />
References<br />
Gwozdecki J. 1983 a: Evaluation of black currant cultivars tested in 1975-1981. Fruit Sci.<br />
Rep. 10(3): 99-105.<br />
Gwozdecki J. 1983 b: Evaluation of red and white currant cultivars tested in 1975-1981. Fruit<br />
Sci. Rep. 10(3): 107-<strong>11</strong>1.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 21 – 24<br />
Evaluation of two methods of detection of blackcurrant reversionassociated<br />
virus (BRAV)<br />
Tadeusz Malinowski, Stanisław Pluta, Anita Kuras, Edward Żurawicz<br />
Instytut Sadownictwa i Kwiaciarstwa, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice; Poland<br />
e-mail: tmalin@insad.isk.skierniewice.pl<br />
Abstract: Two methods: silicacapture – reverse transcription – polymerase chain reaction (SC-RT-<br />
PCR) and immunocapture-RT-PCR (IC-RT-PCR) were applied for detection of blackcurrant<br />
reversion-associated virus (BRAV) in blackcurrant plants (Ribes nigrum L.). Leaves and flowers were<br />
used as a source of tested tissue. It has been shown that both method could be used for testing during<br />
the whole growing season and they might be useful for breeders of blackcurrant in their efforts to<br />
breed for resistance against the reversion disease. However, at the current stage of development of the<br />
method, negative results (lack of virus detection) occurred quite often and therefore they should be<br />
very carefully verified.<br />
Key words: black currant, Ribes nigrum L., breeding, reversion, BRAV, detection<br />
Introduction<br />
Reversion of blackcurrant is a devastating disease occurring in most if not all countries where<br />
blackcurrant production takes place (Wood, 1991; Trajkovski and Anderson, 1992; Jones et<br />
al., 1995). Two types of reversion symptom patterns have been described: „E” or „ETR”<br />
(common, European type reversion) and „R” or „RTR” (severe, Russian type reversion). Both<br />
types are characterised by a sterility of flowers leading to a partial or even complete loss of<br />
fruit production. The putative agent responsible for reversion has been isolated recently and<br />
named blackcurrant reversion-associated virus = BRAV (Lemmetty et al., 1997). The disease<br />
is transmitted not only with a vegetatively propagated infected plant material but it can also<br />
be spread in the field by an insect vector – big bud mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis West.). The<br />
last one is by itself a serious treat to blackcurrant plantations. However, the threshold level<br />
(used in IPM) for the insect being a vector of a serious virus disease may depend on the<br />
presence of the disease sources in the vicinity. Therefore a careful testing of planting material<br />
as well as checking suspected plants in the field is necessary.<br />
The most promising strategy of long-term virus control is breeding cultivars resistant to a<br />
disease and/or its vector. The suitable program has been established at the Research Institute<br />
of Pomology and Floriculture, Skierniewice, Poland in 1986 and enhanced in 1993 (Pluta and<br />
Żurawicz, 1993; Gajek et al., 1995). During the course of the work it is necessary to test for<br />
the presence of disease agent in a number of plants. The observation of symptoms occurring<br />
on flowers and leaves of tested plant or indicator has been the only method available for a<br />
long time. However, it may take up to two years for symptoms to develop after grafting (Pluta<br />
and Żurawicz, 1998). Revealing of the nucleotide sequence of BRAV RNA and preparation<br />
of polyclonal antibodies enabled the development of IC-RT-PCR method of virus detection<br />
(Lemmetty et al., 1997; Latvala et al., 1997).<br />
This method (IC-RT-PCR) has been checked in our laboratory for the suitability for<br />
breeding purposes. Since specific antibodies are required for IC-RT-PCR and those are not<br />
21
22<br />
always available we first tested silicacapture-RT-PCR method (SC-RT-PCR) in which the<br />
same primers and PCR protocols were used, but a total nucleic acids isolation has been<br />
utilised eliminating the need for specific antibodies.<br />
Material and methods<br />
Infected black currant plants cultivars ‘Ben Lomond’, ‘Titania’ and ‘Bona’ were prepared by<br />
grafting with the material showing symptoms of reversion type “E” or “R”. Healthy plants<br />
cvs. ‘Bona’ and ‘Titania’ were kept under screenhouses and treated with pesticides to avoid<br />
risk of uncontrolled infection.<br />
Leaves and flowers were collected and tested several times during the growing season.<br />
Primers and protocols developed by Lemmetty et al. (1998) were used for IC-RT-PCR with<br />
minor modifications. The same primers and PCR protocols were used in SC-RT-PCR.<br />
However, in the last method total nucleic acids were isolated from tested plant tissue using the<br />
method described previously (Malinowski, 1997). PCR products were analysed by agarose<br />
gel electrophoresis followed by ethidium bromide staining and observation of UV<br />
fluorescence of DNA bands.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
No products were obtained in preliminary experiments with primers BRAV1/BRAV2.<br />
Positive results were observed for primers BRAV5/BRAV6. Therefore, only BRAV5/BRAV6<br />
set was utilised in all further experiments.<br />
Positive results (detection of BRAV) were obtained with both methods used: SC-RT-<br />
PCR and IC-RT-PCR using both flowers or leaves from black currant plants showing either<br />
ETR or RTR symptoms (Fig. 1, 2).<br />
M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7<br />
Figure 1. Electrophoretic pattern of IC-RT-PCR products obtained with primers BRAV5 and<br />
BRAV6 for leaves and flowers of blackcurrant plants. M – DNA 100 bp ladder, 1 –<br />
healthy leaves of ‘Titania’ cv., 2 – healthy flowers of ‘Titania’ cv., 3 – RTR<br />
symptomatic leaves of ‘Ben Lomond’ cv., 4 – RTR symptomatic flowers of ‘Ben<br />
Lomond’ cv., 5 – ETR symptomatic leaves of ‘Titania’ cv., 6 – ETR symtomatic<br />
flowers of ‘Titania’ cv., 7 – BRAV cDNA.<br />
IC-RT-PCR method performed better than SC-RT-PCR. However, in several<br />
experiments with both methods the virus remained undetected in high percent (up to 50%) of<br />
samples collected from plants known to be infected. In one experiment results were mostly<br />
positive for flowers (8 out of 10) and mostly negative for leaves (2 out of 10) collected
<strong>23</strong><br />
simultaneously from the same plants. In the other case during the "blind test" virus was<br />
detected in the samples collected at one plantation but was not detected in the samples of the<br />
other cultivar collected at different field. The last case might have been a result of too narrow<br />
specificity of the primers used.<br />
leaves<br />
flowers<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 M 1 2 3 4 5 6<br />
Figure 2. Electrophoretic pattern of RT-PCR products obtained with primers BRAV5 and<br />
BRAV6 using total nucleic acids isolated by silicacapture method from leaves and<br />
flowers of blackcurrant plants showing ETR (sample 3 and 5) and RTR (sample 2<br />
and 4). Samples 1 and 6 – healthy plants, M – DNA marker.<br />
Therefore, on the base of this preliminary results we can conclude that RT-PCR methods<br />
of BRAV detection might already be very useful for breeders. However, at least in our hands,<br />
negative results should be verified carefully to avoid false negatives. In our opinion the<br />
methods should be further developed to achieve higher sensitivity and to ensure broad<br />
specificity.<br />
References<br />
Gajek D., Pluta S., and Zurawicz E., 1995. Perspektywy wyhodowania odmian porzeczki<br />
czarnej odpornych na wielkopąkowca porzeczkowego (Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.) i<br />
na rewersje. Mat. z V Ogolnopolski Zjazd Hodowcow Roslin Ogrodniczych, <strong>23</strong>-24.02<br />
1995, Skierniewice, Część I , pp. 199-205.<br />
Jones A.T., Lehto K., Lemmetty A., Latvala S., Susi P., McGavin W.J, and Cox S., 1995.<br />
Blackcurrant reversion disease – tracking down the causal agent. Annual Report 1995,<br />
Scottish Crop Research Institute, Dundee, Scotland, pp. 131-134.<br />
Latvala S., Susi P., Lemmetty A., Cox S., Jones A.T., and Lehto K. 1997. Ribes host range<br />
and erratic distribution within plants of blackcurrant reversion associated virus provide<br />
further evidence for its role as the causal agent of reversion disease. Ann. Appl. Biology.<br />
131: 283-295.
24<br />
Lemmetty A., Latvala S., Jones A.T., Susi P., McGavin W.J., and Lehto K., 1997.<br />
Purification and properties of a new virus from black currant; its affinities with<br />
nepoviruses and its close association with black currant reversion disease.<br />
Phytopathology 87: 404-413.<br />
Lemmetty A., Susi P., Latvala S., and Lehto K., 1998. Detection of the putative causal agent<br />
of black currant reversion disease. Acta Hort. 471: 93-98.<br />
Malinowski T., 1997. Silicacapture – reverse transcription – polymerase chain reaction (SC-<br />
RT-PCR): application for the detection of several plant viruses. In: Dehne et al. (eds.)<br />
Diagnosis and Identification of Plant Pathogens, Proceedings of 4 th International EFPP<br />
Symposium Bonn, 9-12 September 1996. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp.<br />
445-448.<br />
Pluta S., and Żurawicz E., 1993 Black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) breeding programme in<br />
Poland. Acta Hort. 352: 447-453.<br />
Pluta S., and Żurawicz E., 1998. Influence of graft-inoculation methods on the spread of two<br />
forms of reversion in black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) plants. Acta Hort. (in press)<br />
Trajkovski V., and Anderson M. 1992. Breeding black currant for resistance to powdery<br />
mildew, gall mite and reversion disease. Report for 1990-91. Balsgard, Sweden, pp. 181-<br />
189.<br />
Wood G.A. 1991. Three graft-transmissible diseases and a variegation disorder of small fruit<br />
in New Zealand. New Zealand J. Crop Hortic. Sci.19: 313-3<strong>23</strong>.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 25 - 34<br />
Integrated approach for the control of American goooseberry mildew<br />
Erich Jörg 1 , Uwe Harzer 2 and Werner Ollig 2<br />
1 Landesanstalt für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz, Essenheimerstr. <strong>11</strong>, D-55128 Mainz<br />
2 Staatl. Lehr- u. Forschungsanst. f. Landw.,Weinb. u. Gartb, Breitenweg 71,<br />
D-67435 Neustadt/Wstr. (Germany)<br />
Abstract: American Gooseberry Mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae(Schw.) Berk.) is the prevailing<br />
and most important disease in German gooseberry production. Recent gooseberry cropping systems<br />
are characterised by dense plantations, highly susceptible varieties, high nitrogen fertiliser input and<br />
numerous fungicide applications. As a consequence of the latter fungicidal efficacy is decreasing.<br />
An integrated approach is necessary to reduce the dependence upon fungicides. The strategy<br />
includes a modern planting system, considerable reductions in Nitrogen fertiliser dosage rates, on a<br />
limited scale the introduction of less susceptible varieties, the registration of new fungicidal active<br />
ingredients for American Gooseberry Mildew control and the combination of these new a.i. groups to<br />
an effective anti-resistance strategy. This will lead to a considerable reduction of the fungicide load of<br />
gooseberry crops and a sustainable production, which meets the consumers` and environmentalists`<br />
requirements.<br />
Key words: Gooseberry, American Gooseberry Mildew, Sphaerotheca mors-uvae, fungicides,<br />
cultivars, nitrogen fertilisation, integrated control.<br />
Introduction<br />
Gooseberry production area in Germany is about 200 to 250 ha. On about 80% of the area the<br />
cultivar “Achilles” is grown, which is highly susceptible to American Gooseberry Mildew<br />
(Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) Berk.). On the remaining area cultivars of medium<br />
susceptibility, such as “Rote Triumph”, “Rokula”, “Invicta” or “May Duke”, are grown.<br />
American Gooseberry Mildew is the most common fungal disease in gooseberry production<br />
and of high economical importance (Müller & Gottwald, 1988). Gooseberries normally are<br />
trained and pruned as dense bushes. The average Nitrogen fertiliser input per ha and year is<br />
about 160-180 kg N. In several crops up to 200 kg N/ha and year are applied. As a<br />
consequence of this intensive input and high variety susceptibility each year severe epidemics<br />
occur which cause considerable losses either in yield or quality.<br />
For the control of American Gooseberry Mildew numerous fungicide applications are<br />
necessary. Common fungicide strategies comprise of three to four preventive treatments with<br />
sulphur (up to 5 kg a.i./ha), four to six Triforine applications until 14 days before harvest and<br />
two Azole treatments after harvest. This results in an undesirable high fungicide load of<br />
gooseberry crops. An integrated strategy including all appropriate indirect plant protection<br />
measures while minimising the direct control measures (fungicide use) is needed to improve<br />
the situation.<br />
Integrated approach<br />
In Table 1 an overview on efficient measures which may be employed to contribute to<br />
American Gooseberry Mildew control are shown. Cultivar resistance and reduced Nitrogen<br />
input are of greatest importance among the preventive measures. The fungicide schedule<br />
25
26<br />
should aim at minimising agrochemical input and the avoidance of resistance to the fungicide<br />
a. i. In the following possibilities for the establishment of an integrated control strategy are<br />
shown.<br />
Table 1. Integration of measures for American Gooseberry Mildew control<br />
Measures<br />
Effects<br />
Indirect/Preventive<br />
- Planting system<br />
- Cultivar<br />
- Fertilisation<br />
Direct<br />
- Pruning<br />
- Fungicides<br />
good wind penetration<br />
⇒ unfavourable microclimate for AMG<br />
low susceptibility<br />
⇒ slower epidemics, less severe<br />
balanced nutrient supply, better ratio<br />
between sclerenchymatic and<br />
parenchymatic tissue<br />
⇒ slower epidemics, less severe<br />
removal of infested tips<br />
⇒ reduction of inoculum<br />
keeping disease under economic threshold<br />
⇒ avoid losses<br />
⇒ avoid fungicide resistance by a.i.<br />
rotation<br />
Cultivar choice<br />
As stated by Cravedi & Jörg (1996) the availability of resistant or less susceptible cultivars<br />
would solve many problems with fungal diseases in soft fruit production. Unfortunately<br />
cultivars combining high yields and desired quality properties with a low susceptibility to<br />
American Gooseberry Mildew are rare.<br />
Investigations at the beginning of the nineties revealed the cause of reduced susceptibility<br />
to American Gooseberry Mildew (Schlösser, 1990; Isachkin & Popelova, 1992). Astakhov<br />
(1989) showed that the environment strongly influences the expression of resistance to<br />
Sphaerotheca mors-uvae. Recent trials of Senst (1999) seem to confirm these findings as the<br />
cultivars “Invicta” and “Greenfinch”, which were considered to be resistant showed high<br />
disease severity on the leaves and on the fruits (“Invicta” only). It is also known that “Invicta”<br />
is highly susceptible to Drepanopeziza ribis (Keipert, 1992), a disease of major importance in<br />
Germany.<br />
Table 2 shows the main properties of several promising gooseberry cultivars and the<br />
“susceptible standard Achilles”. This cultivar is late ripening, fruits are red (desired quality<br />
property) and the fruit size in the first, second and third picking is high. From the point of<br />
harvest time (late) “Bekay” and “Rosko” may become alternatives for “Achilles”. Availability<br />
of planting material and fruit shape may slow down the introduction of these cultivars into
27<br />
practice. “EM 1815/125”, an East Malling breed, up to now showed no mildew symptoms in<br />
Rheinland-Pfalz, but due to the fruit colour only has little chance to be accepted by the<br />
growers. The latter also holds for “Invicta” (green fruits) which will be grown only as a<br />
“niche product”. In the early and middle segment “Rokula”, “Remarka”, “May Duke” and<br />
“Rote Triumph” are cultivars which depend less on fungicides and more and more are grown.<br />
Table 2. Properties of gooseberry cultivars<br />
Cultivar Fruit colour Fruit size Susceptibility to<br />
Am. Go. Mildew<br />
Achilles red +++ +++<br />
Remark<br />
Highly susceptible<br />
to bark and stem<br />
diseases, late<br />
Bekay red +++ +<br />
Availability of<br />
planting material?<br />
fruit shape<br />
Invicta green ++ + / ++ Hairy<br />
May<br />
Duke<br />
red ++ (+) ++ Early<br />
Rosko red ++ (+) ++ Late<br />
Rokula,<br />
Remarka<br />
Rote<br />
Triumph<br />
EM<br />
1815/125<br />
red ++ (+) + (/ ++) Early<br />
red ++ (+) ++<br />
red-yellow +++ --<br />
+++ = high, ++ = medium, + = low; -- = resistant<br />
Hairy, uniform<br />
plant. material?<br />
Late, hairy, fruit<br />
shape (“Pax-sister”)<br />
In the near future the highly susceptible cultivar “Achilles” still will be the most common<br />
cultivar but on the long run will be replaced by less susceptible ones. On short term the most<br />
promising early ripening varieties are less susceptible and offer good prospect for an<br />
integrated control of Sphaerotheca mors-uvae.<br />
Planting system<br />
The „classical“ planting system, dense bushes, is no longer advised in Rheinland-Pfalz.<br />
Instead the plants should be trained as „pillars“. This system aims at 4000 - 5000 plants per<br />
ha. Distances between the rows are 2,5 to 3 metres and plant distances within the rows should<br />
be 50 - 80 cm. Yield expectations of this cropping system in the average are 10 - 15 t/ha. The<br />
„pillar“ system allows good wind penetration which reduces the risk of American Gooseberry<br />
Mildew epidemics a bit.<br />
Fertilisation<br />
Especially in the establishing period of gooseberry orchards (the first two years) it is of<br />
significant importance to initiate a vigorous shoot growth. Therefore Nitrogen supply by no
28<br />
means must not be the limiting factor. Later on Nitrogen fertilisation may be reduced to a<br />
certain extent. Normally along with the reduction in nitrogen a decrease of American<br />
Gooseberry Mildew can be observed.<br />
Table 3. Nitrogen fertilisation scheme of gooseberry<br />
Basis: 100 kg N / ha* and year<br />
(max. single dosage rate: 50 kg N/ha)<br />
Parameter<br />
Content<br />
org. material<br />
Soil moisture<br />
Soil cover**<br />
Leaf fall<br />
(previous year)<br />
Shoot growth<br />
(previous year)<br />
Stone<br />
content***<br />
> 4 %<br />
- 30<br />
moist<br />
0<br />
high N content<br />
- 30<br />
late<br />
- 10<br />
vigorous<br />
- 20<br />
Increases / Reductions kg N/ ha<br />
2 - 4 %<br />
0<br />
balanced<br />
0<br />
no cover<br />
0<br />
normal<br />
0<br />
normal<br />
0<br />
0 - 30 %<br />
0<br />
< 2 %<br />
+ 20<br />
dry in summer<br />
+ 10<br />
low N content<br />
- 10<br />
early<br />
+ 10<br />
poor<br />
+ 30<br />
> 30 %<br />
+ 10<br />
* = refers to the weed free strip<br />
** = Soil cover increases mineralisation in soil.<br />
*** = of minor importance<br />
Maximum amount: 140 kg N / ha and year !<br />
After some trials in Rheinland-Pfalz region in the south west of Germany a Nitrogen<br />
fertilisation scheme was developed which takes into consideration several important factors<br />
which influence Nitrogen availability and uptake (see Table 3). Basis is a total dosage rate of<br />
100 kg N/ha and year. The maximum single dosage rate is limited to 50 kg, higher dosages<br />
have to be split. The maximum amount, which may be applied, is 140 kg N/ha and year.<br />
According to soil properties (content of organic matter, soil moisture content, stone content),<br />
soil cover and the crop growth in the previous year (shoot growth, leaf fall) the total amount<br />
of Nitrogen that has to be applied is increased or decreased. By using this simple scheme the<br />
grower is able to avoid superfluous fertiliser applications thus reducing American Gooseberry<br />
Mildew severity.<br />
Fungicides<br />
In Germany the fungicide schedule comprises of numerous applications (see introduction). In<br />
addition it must be stated that only two active ingredients recently (1999) are registered for<br />
the use in gooseberries, Sulphur and Lecithin. The registration of Triforine, the most<br />
commonly used a.i. has expired at the end of 1998.
29<br />
From literature it is known that the efficacy of several fungicides strongly has decreased<br />
from the eighties on (see Table 4). This especially holds for Triforine and Triadimefon, the<br />
two a.i. most frequently used for the control of Sphaerotheca mors-uvae. On the other hand<br />
modern fungicides (2 nd generation azoles, strobilurines, Quinoxyfen) showed good efficacy<br />
over longer periods.<br />
Table 4. Efficacy of fungicides against American Gooseberry Mildew<br />
Nielsen & Kirknel<br />
(1986)<br />
Jorgensen et al.<br />
(1987)<br />
Goszczynski et al.<br />
(1988)<br />
Hughes & Wilson<br />
(1988)<br />
Nowacka et al.<br />
(1990)<br />
LPD (1990)<br />
Cimanowski &<br />
Goszczynski<br />
(1992)<br />
Cimanowski et al.<br />
(1995)<br />
Triadimefon<br />
Benzimidazoles<br />
Triadimefon<br />
Pyrifenox<br />
Triadimefon<br />
Pyrifenox<br />
Flusilazole<br />
Penconazole<br />
Triforine<br />
Flusilazole<br />
Flusilazole<br />
Bupirimate<br />
Difenoconazole<br />
Triadimefon<br />
Flusilazole<br />
insufficient results<br />
unacceptable results<br />
a strain less sensitive<br />
100% control<br />
“very effective”<br />
Krüger (1992) Triadimefon efficacy 8 %<br />
efficacy 60 %<br />
efficacy 99 %<br />
effective, long inhibition of<br />
viable spores<br />
4 treatments “best results”<br />
Jung (1999)<br />
Triforine<br />
Quinoxyfen<br />
Kresoxim<br />
+Fenpropimorph<br />
efficacy 28 %<br />
efficacy 88 %<br />
efficacy 97 %<br />
The governmental crop protection service of Rheinland-Pfalz carried out several<br />
fungicide trials on American Gooseberry Mildew in order to enhance the registration of new<br />
fungicidal a.i. for gooseberry, to develop an anti-resistance strategy and to reduce the<br />
fungicide load of the crop.<br />
The trials are briefly described in Table 5 and the results are shown in Figures 1 – 3. As a<br />
worst case the susceptible cultivar ”Achilles” was used for the trials and the new a.i.<br />
(Kresoxim-methyl, Quinoxyfen) were compared to the standards Triforine and Triadimefon.<br />
Results for the efficacy of Kresoxim-methyl and Quinoxyfen are very promising.<br />
American Gooseberry Mildew was controlled insufficiently by the standards (Triforine and<br />
Triadimefon). Efficacy was 20-25 % in 1996, 20-50 % in 1997 and 35 % in 1998 (Fig. 1 - 3).<br />
Bion. a resistance activator completely failed in 1996 (Fig. 1) , and thus was no longer<br />
included in the trials. Penconazole reached an efficacy of 50 %, which also is not satisfying<br />
(Fig. 1). In all three years Kresoxim-methyl controlled the disease by more than 90 %. The
30<br />
lowest concentration of 0,0125 % proved to be sufficient. In 1998 Quinoxyfen was tested and<br />
gave even better results than Kresoxim-methyl (Figure 3). For an anti-resistance strategy<br />
rotations of the fungicide from the different groups are very important. As may be seen from<br />
Fig. 3 fungicide schedules including Kresoxim-methyl, Quinoxyfen and Triforine gave very<br />
good results, irrespective of the sequence of application of the a.i.. Only three treatments were<br />
necessary to keep Sphaerotheca mors-uvae on an insignificant severity level.<br />
Table 5. Control of American Gooseberry Mildew, Trials (1996-1998)<br />
1) Crop<br />
-Location: Neustadt/Pfalz<br />
-Cultivar: Achilles (highly susceptible)<br />
-Year of planting: 1994<br />
2) Fungicides<br />
Product active ingredient Group Conc. %<br />
Saprol Neu Triforine SBI 0,15 %<br />
Bayfidan Sp. WG Triadimefon SBI 0,05 %<br />
Omnex Penconazole SBI 0,025 %<br />
Bion<br />
Acibenzola-Smethyl<br />
Res. activator 0,005 %<br />
Discus Kresoxim-methyl Strobilurin 0,0125-0,03 %<br />
Fortress Quinoxyfen Chinoline 0,03 %<br />
Water: 1000 l/ha<br />
SBI-fungicides (Triforine, Triadimefon, Penconazole) should further be included into the<br />
fungicide strategies because of two reasons: to avoid resistance of the fungus and for the<br />
control of Drepanopeziza ribis which also is very common. Efficacy of Kresoxim-methyl and<br />
Quinoxyfen on this fungus is very poor. As negative side-effects on beneficial organisms of<br />
both a.i. never could be detected there seems to be no obstacle to an inclusion into integrated<br />
control strategies<br />
Conclusion: conventional vs. integrated control<br />
With regard to the fungicide load of gooseberry crops a considerable reduction is possible (Fig. 4).<br />
Whereas conventional fungicide schedules rely on sulphur and SBI-fungicides only in an integrated<br />
schedule fungicides from four different groups can be applied. Taking into consideration a lower<br />
cultivar susceptibility, less favourable microclimate within the crop (training system) and less<br />
favourable nutrition basis (less Nitrogen fertilisation) one may reduce the number of applications<br />
from about 12 to at maximum 6 or probably less treatments. This will result in a reduction in the<br />
amount of products applied from 24 kg/ha and year to 6 kg/ha and year (Fig. 4). For the a.i. the<br />
reduction is from 14 kg/ha and year to 4 kg/ha and year.
31<br />
100<br />
%<br />
efficacy (Abbott)<br />
diseased shoots<br />
Cv.: Achilles<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Untr.<br />
Bayfidan<br />
Saprol Neu (0,05%)<br />
(0,15%)<br />
Omnex<br />
(0,025%)<br />
Discus<br />
(0,03%)<br />
Bion<br />
(0,005%)<br />
Treatments: 24.04. / 07.05. / 20.05. / 05.06. / 18.06.<br />
Figure 1. Control of American Gooseberry Mildew 1996 in Rheinland – Pfalz<br />
100<br />
%<br />
efficacy (Abbott)<br />
diseased shoots<br />
Cv.: Achilles<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Untr.<br />
Bayfidan Sp. WG<br />
Saprol Neu (0,05%)<br />
(0,15%)<br />
Discus<br />
(0,0125%)<br />
Discus<br />
(0,02%)<br />
Treatments: 12.05. / 26.05. / 04.06. /12.06.(only Saprol Neu/ Bayfidan Sp. WG)<br />
Figure 2. Control of American Gooseberry Mildew 1997 in Rheinland - Pfalz
32<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
%<br />
efficacy (Abbott)<br />
diseased shoots<br />
Saprol Neu<br />
(0,15%)<br />
Discus<br />
(0,0125%)<br />
Treatments: <strong>11</strong>.05. / 21.05. / 04.06.<br />
Fortress<br />
(0,03%)<br />
1.Fortress<br />
2.Discus<br />
3.Saprol Neu<br />
Cv.: Achilles<br />
1.Discus<br />
2.Saprol Neu<br />
3.Fortress<br />
Figure 3. Control of American Gooseberry Mildew 1998 in Rheinland – Pfalz<br />
25 kg/ha conv. integr. Conventional:<br />
-Sulphur<br />
+SBI<br />
20<br />
Nu.Appl.: 12<br />
15<br />
10<br />
Integrated:<br />
-Sulphur<br />
+SBI<br />
+Strobilurine<br />
+Quinoxyfen<br />
Nu. Appl.: 6<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Fungicides<br />
active ingredients<br />
Figure 4. Fungicide load of gooseberry crops
33<br />
References<br />
Astakhov, A.I. (1989): Black currant genetics and breeding. III. Analysis of the genotype of the<br />
variety Brodtorp and the effect of the environment on the expression of resistance to American<br />
mildew. Genetika-Moskva 25, 9: 1599-1605.<br />
Cimanowski, J. and W. Goszczynski (1992): The influence of fungicides on the sporulation of apple<br />
powdery mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha (Ell. et Ev.) and gooseberry American Mildew<br />
(Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) Berk. et Curtis). Fruit Science Reports 19 (2): 89-93.<br />
Cimanowski, J., Rejnus, M. & A. Bielenin (1995): Effectiveness of systemic fungicides used in<br />
different programmes in the control of black currant diseases. Journal of Fruit and Ornamental<br />
Plant Research 3 (4): 177-186.<br />
Cravedi, P. & E. Jörg (1996): Special challenges for IFP in stone and soft fruit. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19<br />
(4): 48-56.<br />
Goszczynski, W., Cimanowski, J. & R. Bachnacki (1988): First note on the occurrence of a strain of<br />
Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) Berk. with decreased sensitivity to Triadimefon. Fruit Science<br />
Reports 15 (4):, 181-184.<br />
Hughes, A. & D. Wilson (1988): Development of Pyrifenox for control of foliar diseases on apples<br />
and black currants in the UK. Brighton Crop Protection Conference. Pests and Diseases 1988<br />
<strong>Vol</strong>. 1: 2<strong>23</strong>-228.<br />
Isachkin, V.A. & E.A.Popelova (1992): Inheritance of resistance to Sphaerotheca mors-uvae in the<br />
progeny of Ribes canadensis Jancz. Izvestiya Timiryazevskoi Sel`skokhozyaistvennoi. Akademii,<br />
No.2: 50-56.<br />
Jorgensen, L.N., Nielsen, B.J., Petersen, E.F. & H. Elbek-Petersen (1987): Fungicide resistance.<br />
Present situation and fungicide strategies for Benzimidazoles in Denmark. Växtskyddsrapporter<br />
48: 59-69.<br />
Jung, R. (1999): Bekämpfung von Stachelbeermehltau und Botrytis. Obstbau 4/1999: 218-219.<br />
Keipert, K. (1992): Gegen Krankheiten und Schädlinge weniger anfällige Obstsorten für Erwerbsanbau<br />
und Selbstversorger. April 1992, Aussendung LWK Rheinland, S. 10-<strong>11</strong>.<br />
Krüger, E. (1992): Biologische Produkte – eine Alternative bei der Bekämpfung des Stachelbeermehltaus.<br />
Erwerbsobsbau 34 (1): 8-12.<br />
LPD (1990): Versuchsbericht des Pflanzenschutzdienstes Rheinland-Pfalz.<br />
Müller, R. & R. Gottwald (1988): Schaderregerauftreten und Möglichkeiten der Bestandesüberwachung<br />
in Johannis- und Stachelbeeren. Nachrichtenblatt Pflanzenschutzd. DDR 42 (8):<br />
160-163.<br />
Nielsen, S.L. & E. Kirknel (1986): Mist spraying with low spray volumes and reduced dosages of<br />
pesticides against American Mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae) and rust (Cronartium ribicola) on<br />
black currant (Ribes nigrum). Tidsskrift for Planteavl. 90 (4): 377-384.<br />
Nowacka, H., Cimanowski, J., Bachnacki, R. & J. Brozbar (1990): Evaluation of several new<br />
fungicides for the control of black currant diseases. Fruit Science Reports 17 (3): 149-154.<br />
Schlösser, E. (1990): Horizontal resistance of some plant species to powdery mildew. Meded. Fac.<br />
Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent 55 (2a): 203-206.<br />
Senst, A. (1999): Mehltauresistenz bei Stachelbeeren. Obstbau 4/1999: 219-221.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 35 - 40<br />
A system for managing Botrytis and powdery mildew of strawberry:<br />
first results<br />
1 A M Berrie; D C Harris and Xiangming Xu, 2 C M Burgess<br />
1 Horticulture Research International – East Malling, West Malling, Kent, ME19 6BJ, UK<br />
2 Horticulture Research International – Efford, Lymington, Hants, SO41 0LZ, UK<br />
Abstract: A mathematical model (BOTEM), describing the influence of weather and Botrytis<br />
inoculum on flower infection in strawberry, was incorporated into a management system to assist in<br />
decisions on sprays to control Botrytis fruit rot and powdery mildew in main season strawberry crops.<br />
Decision on mildew sprays were based on the incidence of cleistothecia in the crop the previous<br />
autumn. The management system was evaluated for the first time in a large replicated field experiment<br />
on strawberry cv. Elsanta. The incidence of powdery mildew and Botrytis fruit rot, in plots sprayed<br />
according to the management system, was compared to that in plots sprayed routinely or left untreated.<br />
No mildew was recorded before or during harvest in any plots and the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot at<br />
harvest was negligible in both treated and untreated plots. Up to 27% Botrytis fruit rot developed in<br />
fruit from untreated plots seven days after harvest in post harvest tests. All the spray treatments<br />
reduced the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot in post-harvest tests, but this was achieved with up to 60%<br />
reduction in fungicide inputs in the managed plots. Further field evaluation is required before the<br />
management system is finalised.<br />
Key words: disease warning system, fungicide, cleistothecia.<br />
Introduction<br />
Botrytis is one of the most important diseases of strawberry, reducing yield and quality preand<br />
post-harvest. Current control measures rely on the use of intensive fungicide spray<br />
programmes, which are applied near and during harvest. However, despite these sprays,<br />
control can still be poor when weather conditions are warm and wet and favour Botrytis.<br />
There is, therefore, a need to explore new approaches to disease management. For these to be<br />
acceptable, they must be effective in controlling Botrytis, minimise fungicide use, integrate<br />
with control of other diseases especially powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca macularis), maintain<br />
fungicide efficacy by avoiding the development of fungicide resistance and, most important,<br />
be practical. The use of disease warning systems provide one alternative approach to the<br />
routine use of fungicides for control of Botrytis. Disease warning systems based on weather<br />
do not forecast infection since the weather cannot be predicted with any degree of accuracy.<br />
They only indicate that infection has occurred. Therefore, for such systems to be of use in<br />
disease management there must be fungicides available that can eradicate infection after it has<br />
occurred, as well as provide protection and act to suppress sporulation. A number of<br />
fungicides active against Botrytis are approved for use on strawberries in the UK. However<br />
little is known about their mode of action as eradicants protectants or antisporulants.<br />
The main objectives of the work described below were (a) To develop a disease warning<br />
system for Botrytis on strawberry; (b) To identify the mode of action of fungicides active<br />
against Botrytis; (c) To develop a management system for powdery mildew on strawberry and<br />
(d) To test in field trials the combined Botrytis/powdery mildew management system<br />
developed.<br />
35
36<br />
Materials and methods<br />
Disease warning system for Botrytis on strawberry<br />
The methods used to develop the mathematical model describing the influence of weather and<br />
Botrytis inoculum on flower infection in a strawberry crop have been described previously<br />
(Berrie et al., 1998). The Botrytis warning system (BOTEM) developed is PC-based and gives<br />
warnings of Botrytis infection during flowering. The model is driven by weather variables<br />
including day-time vapour pressure deficit and night-time temperature. These variables were<br />
recorded in the crop by a weather station (METOS, Pessl, Weiz, Austria or Skye Minimet,<br />
Skye Instruments Llandrindod Wells, Wales) and downloaded to a PC. The model output is<br />
displayed graphically (Fig. 1) and shows estimated % flower infection, the predicted % fruit<br />
infection resulting from the flower infection and the inoculum potential. The initial action<br />
threshold,chosen for the warning system, was reached when the predicted fruit infection<br />
increased to 10% or more.<br />
Fungicide mode of action<br />
The curative action of fungicides active against Botrytis cinerea (Tab. 1) was investigated in<br />
the laboratory using strawberry leaf discs. Leaf discs, which had been inoculated with B.<br />
cinerea two days earlier, were immersed in the test fungicide and then incubated under UV<br />
light in Petri dishes, maintained at 99% relative humidity to favour growth and sporulation of<br />
B. cinerea. The discs were assessed for B. cinerea two weeks later. The antisporulant action<br />
of the fungicides was similarly tested except that the leaf discs were treated with fungicide 12<br />
days after inoculation with B. cinerea. Leaf discs dipped in water or undipped were included<br />
as controls in both experiments.<br />
Table 1. Effect of fungicide treatment on Botrytis sporulation when applied 2 days after<br />
inoculation (Experiment 1) or 12 days after inoculation (Experiment 2)<br />
Mean % leaf disc area with sporing<br />
Botrytis<br />
Fungicide treatment (product) Experiment (1)<br />
(Curative action)<br />
azoxystrobin<br />
carbendazim<br />
chlorothalonil<br />
dichlofluanid<br />
tebuconazole<br />
KIF 3535<br />
iprodione<br />
pyrimethanil<br />
tolylfluanid<br />
fenhexamid<br />
Untreated<br />
Water<br />
(Amistar)<br />
(Bavistin)<br />
(Bravo)<br />
(Elvaron)<br />
(Folicur)<br />
(Experimental)<br />
(Rovral WP)<br />
(Scala)<br />
(Euparen)<br />
(Teldor)<br />
3.0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0.1<br />
16.3<br />
0<br />
0<br />
4.3<br />
8.3<br />
9.0<br />
5.7<br />
13.7<br />
Experiment (2)<br />
(Antisporulant action)<br />
16.5<br />
1.7<br />
0<br />
26.5<br />
43.2<br />
43.0<br />
0<br />
42.4<br />
10.0<br />
<strong>11</strong>.3<br />
43.8<br />
39.1
37<br />
Management system for powdery mildew on June-bearers<br />
A preliminary system for managing powdery mildew on June-bearer strawberries was<br />
developed from the results of previous research on cv. Elsanta (Berrie & Burgess, 1997,<br />
Berrie et al., 1998). These results are summarised as follows:<br />
(1) Post-harvest epidemics of powdery mildew have no significant effect on the yield in the<br />
following season on strawberry cv Elsanta.<br />
(2) In recent seasons, under the weather conditions in the UK, strawberry plants continue to<br />
grow slowly throughout the winter whereas the post-harvest mildew epidemic ceases<br />
once the temperature falls in the autumn. Consequently leaves infected with mildew in<br />
the autumn have senesced and died by the following spring and are therefore not<br />
important usually in initiating new mildew epidemics the following spring.<br />
(3) Cleistothecia appear to play a part in the epidemiology of powdery mildew and<br />
ascospores released from them in the spring are probably responsible for initiating early<br />
mildew epidemics.<br />
Therefore, the need to apply sprays for control of powdery mildew on cv Elsanta can be<br />
determined by the presence of cleistothecia in the crop the previous autumn. Where inspection<br />
of the crop in autumn reveals they are present, protectant sprays to control mildew are<br />
required the following spring. If no cleistothecia are found, then no sprays are required in<br />
spring.<br />
Table 2. Treatment programme for strawberry disease management trials 1999.<br />
Treatment<br />
Botrytis<br />
Powdery Mildew<br />
Decision/Timing Fungicide Decision/Timing Fungicide<br />
1. Untreated – – – –<br />
2. Routine Flowering – 10 day<br />
programme from white<br />
bud/first flower<br />
Elvaron Flowering – 10 day programme<br />
from white bud/first flower<br />
Corbel, Systhane,<br />
Rubigan<br />
Fruit 7-10 day programme<br />
3. BOTEM – 1 Flowering – Fungicide sprays<br />
applied only in response to<br />
BOTEM risk<br />
Bravo, Scala<br />
Teldor<br />
Rovral alternating<br />
with Bravo<br />
Fruit 7-10 day programme<br />
Flowering – Mildew monitored.<br />
Only spray if seen.<br />
Systhane,<br />
Nimrod<br />
Systhane<br />
Fruit – Fungicide sprays<br />
applied only in response to<br />
BOTEM risk<br />
4. BOTEM – 2 Flowering – Sprays applied in<br />
response to BOTEM risk, but<br />
routine spray at 30% - full<br />
flower if no sprays applied<br />
previously or long interval<br />
(>14 days) since last spray.<br />
Rovral alternating<br />
with Bravo or<br />
Teldor<br />
Rovral alternating<br />
with Bravo<br />
Routine spray-<br />
Elvaron<br />
Fruit – Spray only if mildew<br />
seen.<br />
Flowering – Monitor mildew<br />
spray when first seen or when<br />
spray for Botrytis.<br />
Routine spray at 30% - full<br />
flower as for Botrytis.<br />
Nimrod<br />
Systhane<br />
Systhane<br />
Fruit – Routine programme<br />
5. BOTEM – 3 Flowering – Fungicide sprays<br />
applied only in response to<br />
BOTEM risk.<br />
Bravo, Scala<br />
Teldor<br />
Rovral alternating<br />
with Bravo<br />
Fruit – Routine programme<br />
Flowering – Monitor for mildew.<br />
Spray when first seen or<br />
when first spray for Botrytis.<br />
Nimrod<br />
Systhane<br />
Fruit – Routine programme<br />
Bravo, Scala<br />
Teldor<br />
Fruit – Spray when spray for<br />
Botrytis.<br />
Nimrod
38<br />
Field evaluation of the Botrytis/powdery mildew management system<br />
The management system was evaluated in strawberry crops cv Elsanta at three sites – at HRI–<br />
East Malling, HRI–Efford and on a commercial fruit farm in Kent. Three management<br />
programmes were tested and compared to a conventional routine programme and an untreated<br />
control. The plots contained four beds each consisting of a double staggered row of 12 plants.<br />
A latin square experimental design was used. The criteria used to make decisions in the<br />
management programmes are given in Table 2. In two programmes (BOTEM 1 and 3)<br />
fungicides (iprodione or chlorothalonil, alternating to minimise the risk of resistance) were<br />
only applied for Botrytis control in response to infection risks identified by the model. The<br />
third programme (BOTEM 2) was designed to reduce the risk of Botrytis infection posed by<br />
the first two programmes should application of a curative treatment be prevented by weather<br />
conditions. In this programme a routine spray of dichlofluanid would be applied at 30%<br />
flowering if a treatment had not yet been applied. The criteria for treatment for powdery<br />
mildew were based on the incidence of cleistothecia in the crop the previous autumn. During<br />
fruiting and harvest, the programmes BOTEM 2 and 3 would revert to the routine spray<br />
programme. Weather data was monitored in the crops by either a METOS or Skye automatic<br />
weather station. The crops were monitored twice weekly for powdery mildew. The fruit was<br />
harvested twice weekly and the incidence of Botrytis rot and powdery mildew recorded. In<br />
addition, at each harvest, 50 fruits per plot were incubated in damp chambers to allow<br />
development of latent infection of Botrytis. The incidence of Botrytis was assessed seven days<br />
after harvest.<br />
Table 3. Treatment applied and Botrytis control achieved in strawberry using three different<br />
management programmes compared to a routine spray programme.<br />
Treatment<br />
Spray<br />
Target<br />
No. of Sprays<br />
% Botrytis rot in post-harvest tests<br />
date assessed<br />
Flowering Fruiting/<br />
harvest<br />
2/6 8/6 <strong>11</strong>/6 15/6 18/6 22/6 25/6 Mean<br />
Untreated<br />
Mildew<br />
Botrytis<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
20.4 3.6 10.4 7.6 27.2 13.9 0.8 12.0<br />
Routine<br />
Mildew<br />
Botrytis<br />
4<br />
3<br />
5<br />
5<br />
0.8 0.4 0.8 0 6.3 0 0.4 1.2<br />
Programme<br />
BOTEM 1<br />
Mildew<br />
Botrytis<br />
0<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
8.8 0 6.0 3.6 5.5 1.2 0 3.6<br />
Programme<br />
BOTEM 2<br />
Mildew<br />
Botrytis<br />
2<br />
2<br />
5<br />
5<br />
10.8 0 1.6 0.4 4.0 0 0.9 2.5<br />
Programme<br />
BOTEM 3<br />
Mildew<br />
Botrytis<br />
2<br />
2<br />
5<br />
5<br />
6.8 0 1.2 0.8 3.0 0 0 1.7<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Fungicide mode of action<br />
The best curative action was shown by carbendazim, chlorothalonil, iprodione, azoxystrobin<br />
and KIF 3535 (Tab. 1). Carbendazim, chlorothalonil and iprodione showed good antisporulant<br />
action. Tolylfluanid and fenhexamid also had antisporulant action. Iprodione and
39<br />
chlorothalonil were selected for use in the Botrytis management trials. These were used in an<br />
alternating programme to minimise the risk of fungicide resistance. Carbendazim was not<br />
included because of the high risk of fungicide resistance.<br />
The testing of the fungicides for mode of action has so far only been conducted in smallscale<br />
tests in the laboratory. Further testing in the field is required to confirm the results.<br />
Field evaluation of the Botrytis/powdery mildew management system<br />
Only the results from the trial at East Malling are reported here.<br />
The risk of Botrytis during flowering was relatively low (Fig. 1). Consequently, fewer<br />
sprays were applied in the management programmes compared to the routine (Tab. 3). The<br />
incidence of Botrytis rot at harvest was negligible. However, the incidence of Botrytis in the<br />
post-harvest tests was higher with up to 27% of the fruit developing the rot in untreated<br />
samples. All the sprayed treatments reduced rot incidence (Tab. 3).<br />
Figure 1. Predicted development of Botrytis on strawberry<br />
No cleistothecia were observed in the crop the previous autumn and no mildew was<br />
observed in any of the plots prior to harvest. No powdery mildew was recorded on the fruit.<br />
The initial results from using the management system, including BOTEM, to assist in<br />
decisions on fungicide use are promising. Similar control of Botrytis compared to the routine<br />
sprayed plots was achieved, but with reduced fungicide inputs. The criteria used to make<br />
decisions on the need for control of powdery mildew were also successful. However, these are<br />
only preliminary results and further testing is still required before the system can be released<br />
commercially. The main areas that need to be addressed are as follows:<br />
(1) The action threshold (currently 10% predicted fruit infection) used in the Botrytis warning<br />
system.<br />
(2) The practical use of the Botrytis risk information.<br />
(3) The implications of reduced fungicide inputs for control of other diseases such as<br />
Colletotrichum acutatum.<br />
(4) The choice of fungicides for use with the management system.
40<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
The authors wish to thank the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the<br />
Horticultural Development Council for funding the work.<br />
References<br />
Berrie, A. M. & Burgess, C. M. 1997: The effect of post-harvest epidemics of powdery<br />
mildew on yield and growth of strawberry cv Elsanta. Acta Hort. 439 (2): 791-798.<br />
Berrie, A. M.; Harris, D. C.; Xu, X. M. & Burgess, C. M. 1998: Progress towards integrated<br />
control of Botrytis and powdery mildew of strawberry in the UK. <strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS <strong>Bulletin</strong><br />
21 (10): 95-102.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 41 - 46<br />
Occurrence and spread of strawberry anthracnose caused by<br />
Colletotrichum acutatum in Austrian strawberry fields – experiences<br />
from laboratory, greenhouse and field<br />
Robert Steffek, Josef Altenburger<br />
BFL, Federal Office and Research Centre for Agriculture; Institute for Phytomedicine<br />
Spargelfeldstraße 191; A-1226 Vienna, Austria<br />
Abstract: 1997 the incidence of anthracnose spots on strawberry fruits and runners was observed for<br />
the first time in Austria, two isolates were confirmed as Colletotrichum acutatum in 1998. 1999 the<br />
disease occurred in three Austrian strawberry regions. In laboratory and greenhouse trials the side<br />
effect of two recently registrated botryticides: Teldor (a.i. Fenhexamid) and Switch (a.i. Cyprodinil<br />
and Fludioxonil) on Colletotrichum was tested. In laboratory both a.i. reduced the in-vitro growth of<br />
C. acutatum and were more effective in inhibiting in vitro growth than Euparen (a.i. Dichlofluanid). In<br />
greenhouse protective sprays 3 days before an infection period gave better results than curative sprays<br />
(18 hrs and 3 days after inoculation); protective sprays of Teldor were less effective than Switch and<br />
Euparen. Dipping strawberries in B. subtilis solution before planting reduced the number of diseased<br />
fruits, in laboratory B. subtilis (conc. >10 5 spores/ml PDA) inhibited the mycelial growth totally. In<br />
the field spray schedules to control botrytis gave no sufficient control of Colletotrichum in strawberry<br />
plantations who were latent infested.<br />
Key words: Colletotrichum acutatum, Fragaria x ananassa, anthracnose, strawberry<br />
Introduction<br />
Anthracnose of strawberries can be caused by C. gloeosporoides, C. fragariae and C.<br />
acutatum. 1998 isolates gained from two infested plants of two Austrian strawberry regions<br />
were confirmed by its morphological (paraquat method, Hughes et.al. 1997) and serological<br />
characteristics as Colletotrichum acutatum. This was the first recording of Colletotrichum on<br />
strawberries in Austria. The disease causes a rot of ripening fruits as well as anthracnose<br />
symptoms on runners and stalks. Early infections can lead to flower blights. Since the fungus<br />
can survive in a quiescent state these symptoms might not be visible on the nursery plants.<br />
Although Colletotrichum acutatum is a quarantine pest and planting material has to be free<br />
from the pathogen, the most important source for the dissemination of the disease is the trade<br />
of latent infested planting material.<br />
Result of laboratory, greenhouse and field trials give an overview of the ability to control<br />
the fungi. Various fungicides are described to be effective against Colletotrichum: Benomyl,<br />
Mancozeb and Chlorothalonil (Agrios, 1997), Prochloraz-Mn, Difenoconazol and<br />
Propiconazol (Freeman, 1997). In extension service publications Dichlofluanid and Thiram<br />
are recommended (SOV, 1998). With the exception of Dichlofluanid these fungicides<br />
described as effective are not registrated for the use in strawberries in Austria.<br />
Aim of our trials was to test the side effect of two recently registrated botryticides: Teldor<br />
(a.i. Fenhexamid) and Switch (a.i. Cyprodinil and Fludioxonil) on Colletotrichum. Both<br />
fungicides were tested in laboratory and greenhouse and compared to other fungicides<br />
registrated in strawberries. In addition the use of the antagonist Bacillus subtilis for the<br />
biological control of Colletotrichum on strawberries was tested.<br />
41
42<br />
Methods<br />
Laboratory<br />
For the laboratory trials we used Petri-dishes (2% PDA) containing 10; 1; 0,1 and 0,01 µg<br />
a.i/ml PDA of the fungicides: Teldor (Fenhexamid: 51% a.i.), Switch (Cyprodinil 37,5% and<br />
Fludioxonil 25%), Euparen (Dichlofluanid (50%), Benlate (Benomyl 50%), Dorado<br />
(Pyrifenox 20%), Rovral (Iprodione 50%), Ronilan (Vinclozolin 50%) and FZB 24 WG<br />
(Bacillus subtilis) 1 .<br />
5 mm mycelium disks of two different isolates of C. acutatum 2 collected from infested<br />
plants in field were transferred to the petri dishes. After 7/14 days of incubation at 20°C (16<br />
hours light/8 hours dark) the radial growth was measured and compared to the untreated<br />
control.<br />
Greenhouse<br />
Two trials were designed: potted plants of cv. Elsanta (4 replicates; 10 plants/replicate)<br />
a) Teldor, Switch, Euparen and Dorado were sprayed 7 resp. 3 days before an artificial<br />
inoculation and compared to sprays 18 hours resp. 3 days after inoculation in order to test the<br />
protective and curative activity of the fungicides . In one variant plants were dipped in B.<br />
subtilis 1) -solution before planting and watered 4 days after planting with the same solution.<br />
The artificial inoculation was conducted at BBCH 81 (white fruits) with a mixture of both<br />
Colletotrichum isolates containing 5x10 5 spores/litre. To facilitate infection the growth<br />
chamber was kept at a humidity of 100% for 18 hours after inoculation.<br />
b) The plants were dipped in a Colletotrichum acutatum solution (5x10 5 spores/litre)<br />
before potting. Fungicide treatments at different growth stages and intensities should show,<br />
how sporulation and symptoms can be suppressed in infested plants.<br />
Field<br />
Field trials with artificial inoculation were not conducted to avoid any further<br />
dissemination of the quarantine pathogen. 1999 we received Colletotrichum-infested samples<br />
from farms of three different strawberry-growing-regions in Austria. Together with local<br />
advisors and strawberry-growers the used spraying schedules and possible preventive<br />
measures were discussed.<br />
Results<br />
Laboratory<br />
For both isolates similar results were received. Figure 1 shows the reduction of the mycelial<br />
growth of the Colletotrichum acutatum isolate S in % at different concentrations (a.i.) . In a<br />
pilot test Ronilan and Rovral were not effective at a level of 10 µg a.i./ml. No detailed trials<br />
were carried out with these DMI-fungicides.<br />
Teldor and Switch reduced the in-vitro growth of C. acutatum, both fungicides were more<br />
effective in inhibiting in-vitro growth than Euparen. B. subtilis inhibited the growth of C.<br />
acutatum at concentrations >10 5 spores/ml PDA completely.<br />
1 The recommended dosage of FZB 24 WG for potato seed tubers: 1g (=5x10 10 spores) per liter was<br />
used for dipping and watering in greenhouse. In the laboratory trials the petri-dishes contained: 10 5 ,<br />
10 6 , 10 7 resp. 10 8 spores/ml PDA.<br />
2 Isolate S taken from an infested fruit of a strawberry field in Styria, Isolate B taken from a lesion on<br />
a runner of plants received from a farm in Burgenland.
43<br />
Reduction of radial growth %<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
Sw itch<br />
Teldor<br />
Dorado<br />
Euparen<br />
Be nlate<br />
Bac.subtilis<br />
1<br />
0<br />
0,01µg a.i./m l Agar 0,1 µg a.i./m l Agar 1 µg a.i./m l Agar 10 µg a.i./m l Agar<br />
Figure 1: Results of laboratory trials: reduction of mycelial growth in %<br />
Greenhouse<br />
Trial a) After inoculation and an 18 hours infection period 65 % of the fruits of the untreated<br />
control developed typical symptoms. From more than 90% of the infested fruits isolate S was<br />
re-isolated (isolate B
44<br />
Teldor. Pyrifenox was inefficient. Dipping and watering the plants with B. subtilis reduced the<br />
number of diseased fruits by 31%.<br />
Trial b) The field of trial b could not be carried out. After infection the potted plants did<br />
not take root and wilted shortly after planting. From cross-sections of the attacked crown<br />
Colletotrichum acutatum (as well as Fusarium sp. and Alternaria sp.) was re-isolated.<br />
Field<br />
Experiences from strawberry farmers showed that the most common spray schedule to control<br />
botrytis (3 sprays during blossom) gave no sufficient control of Colletotrichum once the<br />
strawberries were infested. In several fields we observed high losses in yield that were not<br />
influenced by the fungicides (DMI, Euparen, Switch, Teldor) applied during blossom.<br />
Discussion<br />
The laboratory trials showed that both new botryticides (Switch, Teldor) reduced the growth<br />
of Colletotrichum acutatum. In greenhouse the protective activity of Teldor is less than the<br />
one of Euparen and Switch. With the new botryticides side effects on the pathogen in the field<br />
can be expected in order to reduce the spread of the disease when only a limited number of<br />
plants are infested.<br />
Some fungicides were not efficient in our trials: the DMI-fungicides Rovral and Ronilan<br />
(tested only in laboratory) and the EBI-pyridin Dorado (in laboratory and in green house).<br />
Other EBI-fungicides from the chemical groups imidazole and triazole were reported to be<br />
effective against Colletotrichum (Freeman, 1997).<br />
The application of Bacillus subtilis in greenhouse lead to a reduction of diseased fruits.<br />
The antagonistic effect on C. acutatum was shown in-vitro. Further trials are needed to find<br />
out whether the use of B. subtilis in the field might be beneficial for plant health and an<br />
alternative to fungicide treatments.<br />
It is evident that under favourable climatic conditions (temperatures > 20°C, high<br />
humidity) in the field the control of plantations that are (latent) infested with Colletotrichum<br />
by chemical means is very difficult. In such cases fungicide sprays twice a week from early<br />
blossom stage until harvest (Howard et.al., 1992) resp. expansion of the spraying period from<br />
beginning of fruit stalk growth until end of blossom (SOV, 1998) are recommended.<br />
To avoid intensive spray schedules it is essential for the farmers to acquire healthy<br />
transplants. Since the disease can hardly be detected visually on planting material rapid and<br />
accurate methods for the detection of the pathogen such as the paraquat test and serological<br />
tests with monoclonal antibodies have to be used to monitor the health of plant materials<br />
(COOK, 1993). However it is a problem that the control of every single import is not feasible<br />
within the EU-market and the controls at the nurseries seem to be not efficient enough.<br />
In long-terms Colletotrichum acutatum might play an increasing role as pathogen on<br />
strawberries. Therefore the suitability of resistant varieties as well as strategies to reduce the<br />
inocullum density on plant debris in the spring and the dissemination of the inocullum in the<br />
field during the season should be evaluated.<br />
References<br />
Agrios G. (1997): Plant pathology (4 th edition). Academic press, 329-331.<br />
Cook R.T.A. (1993): Strawberry black spot caused by Colletotrichum acutatum. In: Plant<br />
health and the European single market. BCPC Monograph No. 54: 301-304.
Eastburn D.M. and Gubler W.D. (1990): Strawberry anthracnose: Detection and survival of<br />
Colletotrichum acutatum in Soil. Plant Disease 2: 161-163.<br />
Freeman S. et.al. (1997): Control of Colletotrichum in strawberry under laboratory,<br />
greenhouse and field conditions. Plant disease 81 (7): 749-752.<br />
Howard M.H. et.al. (1992): Anthracnose of Strawberry caused by the Colletotrichum complex<br />
in Florida. Plant Disease 76 (10): 976-981.<br />
Hughes K.J.D. et.al. (1997): Development of a rapid method for the detection and<br />
identification of Colletotrichum acutatum. In: Dehne H.W. et.al. (ed.): Diagnosis and<br />
identification of plant pathogens, <strong>11</strong>3-<strong>11</strong>6; Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.<br />
SOV (1998): Handbuch Beeren. Ed: Schweiz. Obstverband, Eidg. Forschungsanstalt Wädenswil<br />
und Changins und Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau.<br />
Steffek R. and Persen U. (1998): Erstmaliges Auftreten von Colletotrichum im<br />
österreichischen Erdbeeranbau. Besseres Obst 04/98: 16-17.<br />
45
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 47 - 51<br />
Effectiveness of different methods of blackcurrant gall mite control<br />
(Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.) and their influence on population of<br />
phytoseiid mite and two-spotted spider mite<br />
Dariusz Gajek, Edmund Niemczyk, Małgorzata Sekrecka<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
Poland<br />
Abstract. The blackcurrant gall mite (C. ribis Westw.) is the most important pest of blackcurrants in<br />
Poland. Effectiveness of different methods of its control (chemical and mechanical) was studied. It<br />
was ascertained that removal of infested buds combined with two treatments with endosulfan or three<br />
treatments with endosulfan alone gave the best control of the gall mite. Endosulfan applied once, twice<br />
or three times during bloom was selective to phytoseiid mites - which occurred in a high number -<br />
while kept population of two-spotted spider mite on a very low level. It was also observed that<br />
sprayings with endosulfan reduced effectively aphid population.<br />
Key words: black currant, gall mite, endosulfan, phytoseiid mite, two-spotted spider mite<br />
Introduction<br />
Blackcurrant has been an important soft fruit crop in Poland since early eighties, when its<br />
profitability was very high. At present the total acreage of this crop is estimated as 20-25<br />
thousand hectares but its profitability changes from year to year. This causes that the growers<br />
alternate plant protection strategy according to price for the fruits. In some seasons almost all<br />
chemical treatments are abstained. This resulted in a strong spread of pests and diseases,<br />
especially blackcurrant gall mite and reversion. In consequence the yield decreases and<br />
expenditures for restoration planting suddenly increase.<br />
Both phytophages mentioned above – the gall mite and reversion – constitute the most<br />
important problems in blackcurrant protection (Gajek 1997, Gajek & Boczek 1998). There are<br />
three pesticides registered for the gall mite control in Poland: endosulfan, carbosulfan and<br />
amitraz. Among them the first one is most effective. According to the actual programme of<br />
plant protection it is recommended to perform three treatments with this insecticides per<br />
season: at the beginning of the bloom, during the full bloom and at its end (Program Ochrony<br />
Sadów i Krzewów Jagodowych 1998)<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> Guidelines for Integrated Production of Soft Fruits (Jörg & Cross, <strong>2000</strong>) permits<br />
only two treatments with endosulfan on blackcurrants per a season, and only for the gall mite<br />
control. According the same <strong>IOBC</strong> Guidelines additional, mechanical method for a control of<br />
this pest is required: „Black currant crops must be closely inspected for black currant gall<br />
mite galls during the dormant period when they are easily visible and all infested plant<br />
material must be removed from the plantation and destroyed.”<br />
The study on this subject was conducted in 1998-99. Its aim was to estimate the<br />
effectiveness of chemical and mechanical methods of the gall mite control. Additionally,<br />
influence of control methods applied on population of phytoseiid mite, two-spotted spider<br />
mite and aphids was studied.<br />
47
48<br />
Materials and methods<br />
The experimental planting used for the study covered an area of about 0.2 ha and consisted of<br />
6 blackcurrant rows with cultivars ‘Ojebyn, ‘Titania’ and ‘Ben Lomond’. Each row consisted<br />
of 10 replications with 5 blackcurrant bushes. The replications were separated by 2-m gasps.<br />
The rows were divided across into 5 plots, so each plot consisted of 12 replications.<br />
Treatments against the gall mite<br />
The treatments are summarised in Table 1. A hand removal of infested buds on plots 1, 2 and<br />
3 was conducted during early spring. On the plot 4 (three treatments with endosulfan) the<br />
infested buds were counted but not removed. On the plot 5 the buds were not removed and no<br />
treatment with endosulfan was applied.<br />
Mite’s population<br />
Population of the phytoseiid mite and two-spotted spider mite was determined three times in<br />
each season. The sample unit consisted of 20 leaves and 12 such units were collected from<br />
each plot at each survey term. The number of the mobile stages of the pest and the phytoseiid<br />
specimens was examined under stereomicroscope. Collected phytoseiid were fixed in Hoyer<br />
solution and then the predatory mites were specified.<br />
Aphids infestation<br />
Intensity of aphid’s infestation was determined at the beginning of June 1998. The number of<br />
aphid colonies was counted on all replications.<br />
Table 1. Data of treatments<br />
Plot<br />
1. Removing of infested buds<br />
2. Removing of infested buds + 1 x endosulfan<br />
3. Removing of infested buds + 2 x endosulfan<br />
4. 3 x endosulfan<br />
5. Check (untreated)<br />
Beginning<br />
of flowering<br />
24.IV 26.IV<br />
1998 1999<br />
– –<br />
– –<br />
+ +<br />
+ +<br />
– –<br />
Full<br />
flowering<br />
30.IV 30.IV<br />
1998 1999<br />
– –<br />
+ +<br />
+ +<br />
+ +<br />
– –<br />
End of<br />
flowering<br />
7.V 4.V<br />
1998 1999<br />
– –<br />
– –<br />
– –<br />
+ +<br />
– –<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Effectiveness of the gall mite control<br />
Before treatments in 1998 the intensity of the blackcurrant infestation with the pest was very<br />
heavy - from more than 6 infested buds per one bush on the check plot to more than 20<br />
infested buds per one bush on the plot 1 (Tab. 2). There were significant differences in the<br />
gall mite infestation between experimental plots.<br />
Infestation level after treatments distinctly changed. It was observed that on the check<br />
plot and on the plot where only the infested buds were removed the pest number increased.<br />
On the other three plots infestation level was a little lower (plot 2 – removal of infested buds<br />
and 1 treatment with endosulfan) or much lower (plot 3 – removal of infested buds and 2<br />
treatments with endosulfan and plot 4 – three endosulfan treatments).
49<br />
These results were not easy for interpretation, so Henderson-Titlon formula (Podręcznik<br />
doświadczalnictwa polowego w ochronie roślin 1981) was used for estimation of the efficacy<br />
of control methods applied (Tab. 2). Obtained results showed that the removal of infested<br />
buds combined with 2 treatment with endosulfan (plot 3) and three treatments with<br />
endosulfan (plot 4) gave the best control of the blackcurrant gall mite. The significantly lower<br />
effect was obtained on the plot 2 where removing of infested buds was combined with one<br />
endosulfan treatment. Removal of infested buds without chemical control (plot 1) was least<br />
effective.<br />
Table 2. Efficacy of different methods of blackcurrant gall mite control<br />
Method of control<br />
1. Removing of infested buds<br />
2. Removing of infested buds + 1 x endosulfan<br />
3. Removing of infested buds + 2 x endosulfan<br />
4. 3 x endosulfan<br />
5. Check (untreated)<br />
Average number of<br />
infested buds per 1 bush<br />
Before<br />
treatment<br />
20.6 b*<br />
13.8 ab<br />
30.8 b<br />
17.8 b<br />
6.4 a<br />
After<br />
treatment<br />
36.0 b*<br />
12.8 a<br />
9.4 a<br />
10.1 a<br />
20.5 ab<br />
Efficacy in %<br />
(according<br />
Henderson -<br />
Tilton)<br />
33.1 a*<br />
59.2 b<br />
86.0 c<br />
75.8 c<br />
–<br />
* Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05, Duncan’s multiple range test<br />
Table 3. Influence of different methods of blackcurrant gall mite control (Cecidophyopsis<br />
ribis Westw.) on occurrence of phytoseiid mites (Phytoseiidae)<br />
Method of control<br />
1.Removing of infested buds<br />
2.Removing of infested buds + 1 x endosulfan<br />
3.Removing of infested buds + 2 x endosulfan<br />
4.3 x endosulfan<br />
5.Check (untreated)<br />
Number of phytoseiid mites per 20 leaves<br />
1998 1999<br />
18.V 1.VI 13.VIII 12.V 29.VI 3.VIII<br />
2.9 3.9 5.0 2.8 3.4 9.6<br />
2.0 3.1 4.4 2.7 3.7 6.1<br />
2.2 4.9 4.2 1.0 8.1 8.4<br />
1.8 5.3 7.1 2.5 6.5 13.7<br />
0.7 2.1 6.7 1.4 5.0 10.9<br />
Populations of phytoseiid mites and two-spotted spider mite<br />
Generally, the number of phytoseiid mite was much higher than a number of two-spotted<br />
spider mite (Tab. 3-4). There was no significant difference in the number of predatory mites<br />
between experimental plots at all terms of the survey in both seasons. This means that<br />
endosulfan applied against the gall mite was very selective to phytoseiids.<br />
Of the collected and identified phytoseiid mites two species were dominant –<br />
Typhlodromus pyri Sch. and Amblyseius andersoni Oud. (Tab. 5). Third species, Euseius<br />
finlandicus Oud. occurred in a very low number. There weren’t any differences observed in<br />
species structure of the phytoseiid on different experimental plots.<br />
The predators were able to keep the two-spotted spider mite population on a very low<br />
level during both seasons (Tab. 4). Only in the middle of August 1998 its population grew up
50<br />
to about 4 mites per 20 leaves on the plot 3. However, it was still much below a threshold<br />
level, which is 4-5 mites per 1 leave at this time. Possibility of the successful biological<br />
control of the two-spotted spider mite with phytoseiid mite on the blackcurrant was also<br />
ascertained in other studies (Niemczyk 1996).<br />
Table 4. Influence of different methods of blackcurrant gall mite control (Cecidophyopsis<br />
ribis Westw.) on occurrence of two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch)<br />
Method of control<br />
1.Removing of infested buds<br />
2.Removing of infested buds + 1 x endosulfan<br />
3.Removing of infested buds + 2 x endosulfan<br />
4.3 x endosulfan<br />
5.Check (untreated)<br />
Number of T. urticae per 20 leaves<br />
1998 1999<br />
18.V 1.VI 13.VIII 12.V 29.VI 3.VIII<br />
0.2 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0<br />
0.6 0.0 0.7 0.3 0.0 1.8 *<br />
0.0 0.0 4.4 * 0.9 0.0 0.2<br />
0.1 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0<br />
0.2 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1<br />
Table 5. Phytoseiid species on the plots with different methods of blackcurrant gall mite<br />
control (Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.)<br />
Species<br />
Typhlodromus pyri Sch.<br />
Amblyseius andersoni Oud.<br />
Euseius finlandicus Oud.<br />
Occurrence (% of specimens)<br />
1998 1999<br />
82<br />
46<br />
17<br />
53<br />
1<br />
1<br />
Occurrence of the aphids<br />
In 1998 aphids, especially permanent currant aphid (Aphis schneideri Born.) occurred on<br />
experimental area but the number of its colonies was different on different plots (Tab. 6). The<br />
highest number of aphid colonies was observed on the check plot and on the plot where only<br />
the infested buds were removed. On the other three plots, where endosulfan was applied once,<br />
twice or three times, population of the aphids was much lower. This means that endosulfan<br />
applied against the gall mite was also effective in the aphids control. The same was observed<br />
by Scopes and Ledien (1983).<br />
Table 6. Influence of a method of blackcurrant gall mite control on occurrence of permanent<br />
currant aphid (Aphis schneideri Born.) in 1998<br />
Method of control<br />
1. Removing of infested buds<br />
2. Removing of infested buds + 1 x endosulfan<br />
3. Removing of infested buds + 2 x endosulfan<br />
4. 3 x endosulfan<br />
5. Check (untreated)<br />
* For explanation see table 2.<br />
Number of aphid colonies<br />
per 1 bush<br />
3.9 b*<br />
1.4 a<br />
0.7 a<br />
0.4 a<br />
7.0 b
51<br />
Conclusions<br />
Of all methods tested of blackcurrant gall mite control the highest effectiveness showed:<br />
- removal of infested buds combined with two treatments with endosulfan and,<br />
- three treatments with endosulfan.<br />
In case of a high infestation of blackcurrant crops with the gall mite removal of infested buds<br />
only, without chemical treatment, did not give satisfactory control of the pest.<br />
Endosulfan used 1, 2 or 3 times for the control of the gall mite was highly selective to<br />
phytoseiid mites. Due to that, phytoseiid occurred in a relatively high number and kept<br />
population of the two-spotted spider mite on a very low level during two seasons.<br />
Only two phytoseiid species: Typhlodromus pyri and Amblyseius andersoni occurred in a<br />
relatively high number on the experimental blackcurrant plots.<br />
At least one treatment with endosulfan should be recommended during blackcurrant flowering<br />
in order to:<br />
- protect blackcurrants against the gall mite and,<br />
- control of other blackcurrant pests, mainly aphids.<br />
References<br />
Gajek, D. 1997. Mechanizmy odporności odmian porzeczki czarnej na wielkopąkowca<br />
(Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.) i biologiczne aspekty jego zwalczania. Praca doktorska.<br />
Skierniewice 1997.<br />
Gajek, D., J. Boczek. 1998. Life-cycle of the blackcurrant gall mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis<br />
Westw.). The Biology of Gall-Inducing Arthropods. Matrafured, Hungary, August 14-19,<br />
1997. USDA 1998, pp 131-135.<br />
Jörg, E., J.V. Cross, eds. <strong>2000</strong>. <strong>IOBC</strong> Guidelines for Integrated Production of Soft Fruits.<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>23</strong>(5): 71 pp.<br />
Niemczyk, E. 1996. The occurrence, species composition and effectiveness of predatory mites<br />
(Phytoseiidae) to two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) appearing on black<br />
currant plantation. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19 (4): 374-376.<br />
Podręcznik doświadczalnictwa polowego w ochronie roślin. IOR Poznań 1981.<br />
Program ochrony sadów i krzewów jagodowych. Skierniewice 1998.<br />
Scapre, N., M. Ledien. 1983. Pest and Diseases Control Handbook. BCPC Publication,<br />
London.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 53 - 56<br />
Occurrence and effectiveness of predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) in<br />
controlling two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch)<br />
on blackcurrants<br />
Edmund Niemczyk<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Abstract. Poland is the largest producer of black currants in the world and two-spotted spider mite<br />
(Tetranychus urticae Koch) belongs to the most important pests of this crop. The majority of plantations in<br />
Poland have to be treated 1-3 times a year with acaricides. However, such practice creates several<br />
disadvantageous effects. Thus it seems desirable to check whether predatory mites from family<br />
Phytoseiidae could be exploited for biological control of T. urticae on blackcurrants.<br />
Key words: Phytoseidae, blackcurrant, occurrence, control<br />
Introduction<br />
The surveys on occurrence of phytoseiids on blackcurrant in Finland were conducted during<br />
1989-1992 by Tuovinen (1995). In England Phytoseiulus persimilis (Athias-Henriot) was<br />
introduced on 40 acres of blackcurrant plantation already in 1991, where it suppressed T. urticae<br />
population (Labuschange and Wainwright, 1993). In Poland research on occurrence and<br />
effectiveness of phytoseiids in controlling spider mites on black currants was commenced in 1990<br />
at the Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture in Skierniewice and at Agricultural<br />
Academy in Warsaw (Kropczynska, Czajkowska, 1994 a, b; Niemczyk, 1994; Niemczyk, 1998;<br />
Niemczyk at al., 1995, 1996, 1997; Niemczyk and Sekrecka, 1998).<br />
Occurrence<br />
The surveys concerning phytoseiids on black currants were conducted in 1992 at a time of the<br />
highest occurrence of the predators i.e. from a second half of July to the end of August. At this<br />
period 121 plantations located in <strong>11</strong> regions of the country were examined. From each plantation<br />
100 leaves were collected and then in a laboratory the mites present on them were counted under<br />
stereomicroscope.<br />
The phytoseiids were observed on 48% of the plantations located in all regions. However<br />
predator's populations on majority of inhabited plantations were low or very low.<br />
Of 121 plantations checked, more then 20 specimen of predators per 100 leaves were found<br />
only on 16. Most probably it was connected with a toxic effect to predators of some pesticides<br />
used.<br />
Endosulfan (Thiodan) was the most often applied insecticide and mancozeb (Dithane) often<br />
used fungicide. Both were very toxic to predatory mite Neoseiulus fallacis in laboratory tests.<br />
(Niemczyk, 1997)<br />
Eight species of phytoseiid mites were identified on the leaves collected from blackcurrant<br />
plants: Amblyseius andersoni Chant., Amblyseius bryophilus Karg, Typhlodromus pyri Scheut.,<br />
Neoseiulus fallacis Garman, Euseius finlandicus Oudemans, Phytoseius macropilis Banks,<br />
53
54<br />
Typhlodromus rhenanus Oudemans and Amblyseius huron Chant et Chansel (Tab. 3). A.<br />
andersoni was the dominant and A. bryophilus subdominant species. It should be underlined that<br />
E. finlandicus was observed in a high number on blackcurrants in other observations conducted in<br />
Poland (Kropczynska and Czajkowska, 1994; Niemczyk et al., 1996). The same situation<br />
occurred in Finland (Tuovinen, 1995)<br />
The occurrence and population density of predatory mites varied in different regions. In<br />
southern part of Poland the phytoseiids were the most numerous and inhabited the highest<br />
number of plantations. On the contrary, in central and eastern parts of the country the predatory<br />
mites were noted only on a few blackcurrant plantations.<br />
Effectiveness<br />
The effectiveness of 4 phytoseiid species: Neoseiulus fallacis, Typhlodromus pyri, Phytoseiulus<br />
persimilis and Metaseiulus occidentalis was examined. Three of them (N. fallacis, T. pyri and M.<br />
occidentalis) are recognised in different geographical regions, mainly in apple orchards, as<br />
effective enemies of mites. In Poland only T. pyri occurred in a low number in some apple<br />
orchards. N. fallacis was found only in vicinity of Skierniewice on a few strawberry and black<br />
currant plantations. The remaining 2 species (P. persimilis and M. occidentalis) do not occur<br />
naturally in Poland.<br />
The effectiveness of the above-mentioned predatory mites was investigated in 6 experiments:<br />
on two-year-old potted blackcurrant plants in field insectarium protected from the rain (2<br />
experiments); on potted two-year-old plants in an open field (1 experiment) and on commercial<br />
plantations (3 experiments).<br />
The influence of the following factors on predator's effectiveness was examined: predator<br />
species, variety of the blackcurrant, quantity of predators introduced and density of the prey (T.<br />
urticae) (Niemczyk, 1994).<br />
The results of experiment conducted in the isolator with T. pyri, N. fallacis, P. persimilis and<br />
with the mixture of above-mentioned species in the situation of a high density of T. pyri (19-28<br />
individuals per leaf) during introduction of predators showed that all examined predators<br />
effectively controlled T. urticae. However distinct reduction of the prey was noted only after 6<br />
weeks from the introduction of predators and population of the pest dramatically fell down only<br />
after 8 weeks from phytoseid's introduction. Only P. persimilis was more active and suppressed<br />
distinctly mite's population already after 5 weeks. It should be underlined that occurrence of T.<br />
urticae on experimental plants in high quantities for long time caused heavy damage to the<br />
blackcurrant leaves.<br />
It was found in the experiment with potted plants conducted in an open field in conditions of<br />
a good isolation between treatments (about 40 m) and with a low population density of T. urticae<br />
(about 0.5 individuals per leaf during introduction of phytoseiids) that T. pyri and N. fallacis were<br />
able to keep the pest population at a low level during the entire time experiment, i.e. longer than<br />
10 weeks. Population density of T. urticae was the lowest (0-0.9 specimens per leaf) on control<br />
plants on which predatory mites were not released. However, these plants were inhabited<br />
naturally by native phytoseiids (Niemczyk at al., 1996).<br />
The results obtained in a net insectarium with N. fallacis introduced on the bushes of 3<br />
blackcurrant cultivars (Ojebyn, Titania, Ben Lomond) in a situation of a low initial population<br />
density of the pest indicated that the predator effectively limited T. urticae population on all three<br />
species of black currants. However, predator was the most effective in controlling mites on<br />
Titania cv. inhabited by T. urticae in a higher quantity (Niemczyk, 1998).<br />
The results of an experiment conducted on commercial plantations indicated that N. fallacis
55<br />
introduced in a very high number (200 specimens per bush = about 1 specimen per leaf)<br />
controlled very effectively two-spotted spider mite. In this case only 1.2 spider mites per leaf at<br />
average were noted during the entire course of experiment. On the bushes with lower numbers of<br />
predators introduced (10, 20, 50, 100 individuals per bush) no significant differences in limiting<br />
T. urticae population by N. fallacis was observed on control plants and on plants with the<br />
predator. The average number of spider mites ranged from 3.2 to 4.2 per leaf irrespective of the<br />
treatment.<br />
In other field experiment established on commercial plantations effectiveness of 4 different<br />
phytoseiid species (T. pyri, N. fallacis, P. persimilis, M. occidentalis and a mixture of all above<br />
mentioned specimens) in the control of two-spotted spider mite on two blackcurrant cultivars<br />
(Ojebyn and Rootknop) was checked. It was found that only T. pyri decreased the population of<br />
T. urticae on both plant cultivars. The other examined predators did not limit population of<br />
phytophagous mites both on Rootknop and Ojebyn cvs. This phenomenon could be related to the<br />
late introduction (24 June) and to a low number of predators introduced and predator's dispersion.<br />
In the third field experiment conducted in the southern part of Poland on small plantations<br />
surrounded with a rich natural vegetation (woods, native herbaceous plants) it was found that<br />
three introduced species of phytoseiids (N. fallacis, P. persimilis and M. occidentalis) released<br />
once into blackcurrant plants, were almost entirely displaced within 2 years by 6 species of<br />
naturally occurring mite predators. Dominated: Euseius finlandicus, Typhlodromus rhenanus and<br />
Amblyseius andersoni. These native predators occurred in plantation in high numbers - especially<br />
in the second year of experiment - and kept population of T. urticae much below the threshold<br />
level (Niemczyk at al., 1996). This phenomenon indicated that on unsprayed blackcurrant<br />
plantations located in environment with rich vegetation one can expect that population of T.<br />
urticae will by very effectively controlled biologically by native species of phytoseiids inhabiting<br />
different plants grown nearby the plantation.<br />
Conclusion<br />
1. Predatory mites (Phytoseiidae), the natural enemies of spider mites (Tetranychidae), may<br />
occur on blackcurrant plantations.<br />
2. According to results obtained at the Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture eight<br />
species of phytoseiids were found on blackcurrant plants: Amblyseius andersoni Chant,<br />
Amblyseius bryophilus Karg, Typhlodromus pyri Scheut., Neoseiulus fallacis Garman,<br />
Euseius finlandicus Oudemans and Amblyseius huron (Chant et Chansel). A. andersoni, E.<br />
finlandicus and A. bryophilus occurred in higher quantities<br />
3. Phytoseiids appeared in low or very low quantities on majority of commercial blackcurrant<br />
plantations – most probably because of chemical treatments.<br />
4. Native phytoseiid mites may occur in high numbers and effectively suppress two-spotted<br />
spider mite population on unsprayed blackcurrant plantations grown in environment with<br />
rich vegetation (herbaceous plants, bushes, trees)<br />
5. Predatory mites (Neoseiulus fallacis, Typhlodromus pyri, Phytoseiulus persimilis and<br />
Metaseiulus occidentalis) introduced in adequate quantities on blackcurrants may limit<br />
population of T. urticae.<br />
6. For economical reasons, the phytoseiids should be released on blackcurrant plantations at the<br />
time of a low population of the pest (1-2 specimens per leaf). Only in such a case it is<br />
possible to keep T. urticae below threshold level during the whole season<br />
7. The phytoseiids introduced on blackcurrants heavily infested by T. urticae may also limit<br />
population of this pest to a low level, but it takes several weeks. During such a long time the
56<br />
phytophagous mites cause several damage to the leaves<br />
8. The deployment of phytoseiids to control of two-spotted spider mites on blackcurrants will<br />
be possible in practice only in a framework of IPM/IFP. In another words; it is necessary to<br />
select such pesticides or elaborate such effective, non-chemical methods of pests and disease<br />
control which would be harmless to phytoseiids.<br />
References<br />
Kropczynska D., Czajkowska B. 1994. Próby stosowania drapieżnych roztoczy Acarina,<br />
Phytoseiidae) do walki z przędziorkiem chmielowcem na porzeczce czarnej. In: S.<br />
Pruszyński, J. Lipa (eds.). Materialy 34 Sesjii Naukowej IOR cz.2, Postery, pp. 266-271.<br />
Labuschange D., Wainwright H. 1993. Biological control of red spider mite in commercial<br />
blackcurrant plantations. Acta Hortic. 352: 563-568.<br />
Niemczyk E. 1994. Występowanie, efektywność i wykorzystanie drapieżnych roztoczy<br />
(Phytoseiidae) do zwalczania przędziorka chmielowca (Tetranychus urticae ) na czarnych<br />
porzeczkach. Sprawozdanie końcowe Projektu Badawczego KBN nr 5207 9203. Res. Inst. of<br />
Pomology and Floriculture, Skierniewice.<br />
Niemczyk E., Sekrecka M. 1998. Occurrence of predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) and their species<br />
composition on black currant plantations in different regions of Poland. Academia<br />
Techniczno-Rolnicza w Bydgoszczy, Zeszyty Naukowe - Ochrona Środowiska 214: 75-78.<br />
Niemczyk E., 1998. Effectiveness of predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) in limiting population of<br />
two-spider mites (Tetranychus urticae Koch) on black currants. Academia Techniczno-<br />
Rolnicza w Bydgoszczy, Zeszyty Naukowe - Ochrona Środowiska 214: 65-74.<br />
Niemczyk E., Szufa A., 1995. Preliminary experiments on effectiveness of Typhlodromus pyri<br />
Scheut. and Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman) (Phytoseiidae) to two-spotted spider mite<br />
(Tetranychus urticae Koch) on black currant. In: D. Kropczynska, J. Boczek, A. Tomczyk<br />
(eds.) The Acari. Physiological and ecological aspects of acari - host relationships, pp. 651-<br />
656, DABOR, Warszawa.<br />
Niemczyk E., Sekrecka M., Kumor I., 1996. The occurrence, species composition and<br />
effectiveness of predatory mites (Phytoseiidae ) to two spotted spider mites (Tetranychus<br />
urticae Koch) appearing on black currant. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19 (4): 374-375.<br />
Niemczyk E. 1997. Toxicity of some pesticides to different populations of predatory mite:<br />
Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman) (Phytoseiidae). In: E. Niemczyk (ed.) Proc. Symp. on<br />
effectiveness and practical application of biological control in plant protection. Plant Prot.<br />
Committee, Polish Academy of Science, pp.141-148.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 57 - 62<br />
Occurrence of phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on blackcurrant<br />
plantations and in surrounding vegetation in Southern Poland<br />
Sebastian Jaworski<br />
Warsaw Agricultural University, Department of Applied Entomology, Nowoursynowska 166,<br />
02-787 Warszawa, Poland<br />
Abstract: The research was conducted on 10 blackcurrant plantations in the Nowy Sącz region<br />
(Southern Poland). During two vegetation seasons the samples of 100 leaves each were collected at<br />
two-week intervals from the central and border zones of the plantations. Simultaneous observations<br />
were carried out in their vicinity by taking leaf samples from the surrounding vegetation. Mites of the<br />
family Phytoseiidae found on blackcurrants belonged to 9 species: A. andersoni, A. bryophilus, E.<br />
finlandicus, T. rhenanus, Ph. echinus, T. tiliarum, T. bakeri and G. longipilus. The first four species<br />
occurred most frequently. A. andersoni was distinctly predominant – in 1998 and 1999 it constituted<br />
63.9 and 75.5% of all collected phytoseiids, respectively. Predatory mites on the border of each<br />
plantation clearly outnumbered those found in the centre. The only exception was A. bryophilus,<br />
which prevailed in the central zone. Most phytoseiid species (except T. bakeri and G. longipilus)<br />
which occurred on blackcurrants were also found on the neighbouring plants. However, four species<br />
collected from the adjacent vegetation (Ph. soleiger, P. triporus, A. aberrans, N. reductus) did not<br />
appear on blackcurrant bushes.<br />
Our observations suggest that the spores of blackcurrant rust (Cronartium ribicola J. C. Fisher) can<br />
serve as alternative food source for predatory mites.<br />
Key words: Phytoseiidae, blackcurrant, border plants<br />
Introduction<br />
Two-spotted spider mite, T. urticae Koch is a serious pest of blackcurrants and in the<br />
integrated fruit production its control could be based on the use of natural enemies. Faunistic<br />
studies conducted in Finland by Tuovinen (1994, 1995) and in Poland by Niemczyk et al.<br />
(1997, 1998) revealed in each country as many as eight species of predatory mites inhabiting<br />
blackcurrants. Other surveys which focused on phytoseiid species associated with the<br />
vegetation adjacent to fruit crops suggested that those plants could become a reservoir of<br />
predators as a response to nonselective chemical treatments in orchards (Tuovinen & Rokx,<br />
1991). So far, however, such observations have not referred to currant crops. Niemczyk<br />
(1998) reported that some species obtained from mass rearing and introduced into orchards<br />
were subsequently dislodged by indigenous phytoseiids over one vegetation season. A rapid<br />
response of local predatory fauna to the increase of pest population was noted also by<br />
Kropczyńska & Czajkowska (1995).<br />
The influence of plants growing in the vicinity of fruit crops on the occurrence of<br />
predatory species was subject of the research conducted during 1998 and 1999 in Southern<br />
Poland on blackcurrant plantations surrounded by opulent vegetation.<br />
The aim of the study was to determine:<br />
– mite species inhabiting both currants and surrounding vegetation,<br />
– seasonal population dynamics of phytoseiid species on blackcurrants,<br />
– influence of surrounding vegetation on the composition of phytoseiid species and their<br />
quantity on blackcurrant plantations.<br />
57
58<br />
Material and methods<br />
The study was carried out during 1998 and 1999 in Southern Poland (Nowy Sącz region) on<br />
10 unsprayed blackcurrant plantations (0.15 – 5.0 ha) surrounded by various plant species.<br />
Every two weeks during both vegetation seasons the samples of 100 leaves each were<br />
collected separately from the central and border zones of each plantation. At the same time<br />
the neighbouring vegetation was also sampled by taking 20-100 leaves, depending on the<br />
plant species. Mite specimens found were counted and taxonomically identified.<br />
An analysis of variance (one factor) was used to assess the significance of differences for<br />
mite population density in the central and border zones of each plantation.<br />
Results<br />
Mites of the family Phytoseiidae collected from blackcurrant plantations were represented by<br />
9 species (Tab. 1).<br />
Table.1. Occurrence of phytoseiid species on blackcurrants and surrounding vegetation<br />
No of<br />
plantation<br />
Plant species adjacent to<br />
blackcurrent plantation<br />
Surrounding vegetation<br />
Phytoseiid species<br />
Blackcurrant<br />
1 Triticum vulgare Vill.<br />
Urtica dioica L.<br />
no<br />
A. andersoni, A. bryophilus<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus<br />
2 Triticum vulgare Vill. no A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
T. rhenanus,<br />
T. bakeri<br />
3 Aronia melanocarpa<br />
(Mich.)<br />
Prunus domestica L.<br />
4 Prunus domestica L.<br />
Malus domestica Borb.<br />
5 Corylus avellana L.<br />
Aruncus silvester Kost.<br />
6 Malus domestica Borb.<br />
Corylus avellana L.<br />
Fagus silvatica L.<br />
Urtica dioica L.<br />
Mentha sp.<br />
Rubus sp.<br />
A.andersoni, Ph. macropilis,<br />
T. tiliarum<br />
A.andersoni, Ph. macropilis,<br />
T. tiliarum, T. rhenanus<br />
A. andersoni, E. finlandicus,<br />
T. tiliarum, T. rhenanus,<br />
P. triporus<br />
A. bryophilus, E. finlandicus,<br />
T. tiliarum<br />
A. bryophilus, A. aberrans,<br />
Ph. macropilis, E. finlandicus<br />
A. bryophilus,T. rhenanus,<br />
A. bryophilus, Ph. macropilis,<br />
E. finlandicus, T. rhenanus<br />
T. rhenanus<br />
E. finlandicus<br />
A. andersoni, A. bryophilus<br />
A. bryophilus<br />
N. reductus<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
T. tiliarum<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
T. rhenanus<br />
A.andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
T. rhenanus
59<br />
7 Corylus avellana L.<br />
Rubus sp.<br />
8 Malus domestica Borb.<br />
Corylus avellana L.<br />
Sambucus nigra L.<br />
Prunus spinosa L.<br />
A. aberrans, Ph. macropilis,<br />
T. rhenanus, Ph. soleiger<br />
E. finlandicus, N. reductus<br />
E. finlandicus, Ph. echinus<br />
A. aberrans, Ph. echinus<br />
Ph. soleiger<br />
T. tiliarum<br />
9 Malus domestica Borb. A. andersoni, A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
Ph. macropilis, Ph. soleiger<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
T. rhenanus,<br />
Ph. macropilis<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
Ph. echinus,<br />
T. rhenanus<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
10 Malus domestica Borb.<br />
Prunus domestica L.<br />
Tilia platyphyllos Scop.<br />
Urtica dioica L.<br />
A. andersoni, A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus, Ph. macropilis,<br />
T. tiliarum, A. aberrans,<br />
Ph. echinus<br />
A. andersoni, A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus, Ph. macropilis,<br />
A. aberrans<br />
E. finlandicus<br />
A. bryophilus<br />
A. andersoni,<br />
A. bryophilus,<br />
E. finlandicus,<br />
G. longipilus<br />
Four of them were found most frequently, i.e. A. andersoni, A. bryophilus, E. finlandicus<br />
and T. rhenanus. The first two species occurred on all inspected blackcurrant crops whereas<br />
E. finlandicus and T. rhenanus were collected from 9 and 5 plantations, respectively. The<br />
remaining species were found occasionally in very low numbers.<br />
In both years of the research A. andersoni was distinctly predominant and consecutively<br />
constituted 63.9 and 75.5% of all recorded phytoseiids. Its population averaged 54,9<br />
specimens per 100 leaves in 1998 and 30.3 in the following season (Tab. 2).<br />
Table 2. Phytoseiid fauna on blackcurrant plantation<br />
Species<br />
Percentage in phytoseiid<br />
community<br />
Mean number per<br />
100 leaves<br />
1998 1999 1998 1999<br />
Amblyseius andersoni (Chant) 63,9 75,5 54,9 30,3<br />
Amblyseius bryophilus Karg 15,4 <strong>11</strong>,2 13,3 4,5<br />
Euseius finlandicus (Qud.) <strong>11</strong>,2 6,3 9,7 2,5<br />
Typhlodromus rhenanus (Qud.) 7,5 5,9 6,5 2,4<br />
Phytoseius macropilis Banks 1,4 0,2 1,3 0,06<br />
Phytoseius echinus Wain.i Arut no 0,2 0,06<br />
Typhlodromus tiliarum Qud. 0,1 0,01<br />
Galendromus longipilus (Nesb.) 0,5 0,4
60<br />
The number of mites found in 1999 was less than half of that recorded the previous year,<br />
probably due to unfavourable weather conditions (intensive rainfall).<br />
The presence of major phytoseiid species, frequency of their occurrence and their<br />
proportions observed in 1999 confirmed the relevant results from the preceding season.<br />
no of predators/100 leaves<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
A.and. A.bryoph. E.fin. T.rhen<br />
species<br />
Total numbers of phytoseiid collected at different parts of<br />
plantations 1999.<br />
borders<br />
centrum<br />
Se.<br />
no of predators<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
A.and. E.fin. Ph.mac<br />
species<br />
borders<br />
centrum<br />
Se.<br />
Total numbers of phytoseiids collected at different parts of<br />
plantations 1998.<br />
Predatory mites inhabiting the vegetation adjacent to the surveyed plantations are<br />
presented in Table 1.<br />
Of nine species collected from blackcurrants seven occurred also on the neighbouring<br />
plants. On the other hand, four species found on those plants did not appear on the
61<br />
plantations. Some herbaceous plants such as nettle and mint were inhabited by the same mite<br />
species.<br />
In both seasons the number of phytoseiids found in different zones of the plantation<br />
significantly varied for all the species. In general, specimens collected from the borders<br />
distinctly outnumbered those from the centre (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).<br />
However, reverse results were obtained for A. bryophilus which, so far in Poland, has been<br />
reported only from blackcurrants. Now its unsubstantial populations have been found on other<br />
plants growing always in the vicinity of currant plantations. It suggests that A. bryophilus is<br />
able to disperse from currant bushes to their surroundings (Topa, 1999).<br />
The results obtained showed a strong influence of the neighbouring vegetation on the<br />
occurrence of predatory mites on blackcurrant plantations, apparently as a consequence of<br />
their migration between wild plants and crops.<br />
On most plantations the two-spotted spider mite occurred in very low numbers - its mean<br />
seasonal density did not exceed 0.33 specimen per leaf. The only exception was plantation no.<br />
8 where in 1998 the infestation rate averaged 2.89 mites per leaf. Considering such a low<br />
density of the potential prey the question arises what could have served as a food source for<br />
phytoseiid mites? In this respect the present study points to a certain role of blackcurrant rust<br />
(Cronartium ribicola J. C. Fisher) and specifically, the spores of this fungus. On rust-infected<br />
plantations the predatory mites evidently increased in numbers. Moreover, some observations<br />
confirmed their predacious activity towards the spores of this fungal species.<br />
Conclusions<br />
– The two-spotted spider mite was kept under control by indigenous species of predatory<br />
mites on all surveyed plantations<br />
– The family Phytoseiidae was represented on blackcurrants by nine species of predatory<br />
mites. The predominant species was A. andersoni, which constituted over 64% of the<br />
mobile stages collected from blackcurrants during both seasons. A. bryophilus and E.<br />
finlandicus were subdominant. Other six species were found in low quantities.<br />
– All species collected on blackcurrants inhabited the adjacent vegetation. The good host<br />
plants for phytoseiids were apple and prune trees, hazel and also nettle and mint among<br />
low growing plants. The last two species constituted a good reservoir of A. andersoni and<br />
A. bryophilus.<br />
– A relatively higher density of predators observed in border rows of the plantation was an<br />
indication of the direct influence of surrounding plants on phytoseiid communities on<br />
blackcurrants.<br />
References<br />
Kropczyńska D., Czajkowska B., 1995. Skuteczność drapieżnych roztoczy (Phytoseiidae) w<br />
ograniczaniu liczebności przędziorka chmielowca na porzeczce czarnej. Materiały<br />
Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych, Skierniewice, 1-2 luty 1995,<br />
<strong>11</strong>7-<strong>11</strong>9.<br />
Niemczyk E., 1997. Występowanie i efektywność drapieżnych roztoczy (Phytoseiidae) w<br />
zwalczaniu przędziorka chmielowca na czarnych porzeczkach. Ogólnopolska<br />
Konferencja Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych. Skierniewice, 1997.
62<br />
Niemczyk E., 1998. Występowanie i zwalczanie szkodników oraz jakość plonu w sadach z<br />
produkcją integrowaną. Ogólnopolska Konferencja Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych.<br />
Skierniewice, 19-20 luty 1998.<br />
Topa E. 1999. Przędziorek chmielowiec (Tetranychus urticae Koch) - szkodnik porzeczki<br />
czarnej w województwie olsztyńskim oraz rola fauny pożytecznej w ograniczaniu jego<br />
liczebności. Praca doktorska. Akademia Rolniczo-Techniczna im. M. Oczapowskiego,<br />
Olsztyn.<br />
Tuovinen T. 1994, Phytoseiid mites on cultivated berries in Finland. In: The Acari.<br />
Physiological and ecological aspects of acari-host relationships, Dabor, 315-322.<br />
Tuovinen T., R.J. Prokopy and W.M. Coli, 1994. Influence of surrounding trees and bushes<br />
on the phytoseiid mite fauna on apple orchard trees in Finland. Agriculture, Ecosystems<br />
and Environment 50: 39-47.<br />
Tuovinen T. and J.A.H. Rokx, 1991. Phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on apple trees<br />
and in surrounding vegetation in southern Finland. Densities and species composition.<br />
Exp. & Appl. Acar. 12: 35-46.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 63 - 65<br />
Eriophyoid mites of blackberries and raspberries (Rubus spp.)<br />
Aoxiang Shi<br />
Department of Applied Entomology, Warsaw Agricultural University, ul. Nowoursynowska<br />
166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland<br />
Abstract: Eriophyoid mites inhabiting Rubus species in Poland were investigated. Some 16<br />
eriophyoid species belonging to 12 genera were recorded on wild and cultivated Rubus plants.<br />
Key words: eriophyid mite, Rubus<br />
Introduction<br />
There are over 3000 known eriophyoid species in the world. All of them are plant-feeding<br />
mites and most of eriophyids are quite host specific. The majority are described from single<br />
host plant and the rest are usually limited to a single genus. Eriophyid mites attack all plant<br />
parts except the roots. They can be found on almost every plant species and everywhere in the<br />
world. Our knowledge on this group of mites is very limited. Their diversity, distribution,<br />
relation to host plants, biology and dispersal are poorly known (Lindquist et al., 1996).<br />
There are two species of Rubus, which are very common in Europe and North America,<br />
e.g. Acalitus essigi and Phyllocoptes gracilis. They cause serious damage to cultivated plants<br />
in some regions (De Lillo and Duso, 1996). There have been comprehensive studies on these<br />
two known species. Other species are poorly known. Accurate identification of mite species,<br />
precise information of their biology and damage to the host plant are fundamental steps in<br />
taking control measures and understanding their potential roles in the ecosystem.<br />
Materials and methods<br />
Collection of mites<br />
Eriophyoid mites were collected with their host plants from a variety of nurseries, plantations,<br />
private gardens and natural stands of wild species in various places. Mites were removed from<br />
the plants under stereomicroscope and mounted in slides with Heinze medium. Unidentified<br />
plants were pressed in papers to dry for later define.<br />
Identification of mites<br />
Mites were observed under a light contrast microscope for identification according to the key<br />
by Boczek et al (1989). Key of Amrine (1996) was also referred.<br />
Population dynamics of Epitrimerus gibbosus Nal.<br />
Plant samples were taken at two-week intervals or monthly from blackberry and raspberry<br />
collection of the Department of Applied Entomology, SGGW in Ursynów, Warsaw. Buds,<br />
leaves, flowers and fruits were chosen randomly. Mites were counted on these plant organs<br />
under stereomicroscope. Slides were prepared to identify the mites to species. Proportions for<br />
various species for each mite species was obtained from the slide counts.<br />
63
64<br />
Results<br />
About 16 eriophyoid species have been found on both blackberry and raspberry. Blackberry<br />
hosted more mite species than raspberry (Tab. 1). The most abundant species on blackberry<br />
was Epitrimerus gibbosus, followed by Acalitus orthomera, Aceria sp. and Quadracus sp.,<br />
whereas on raspberry, Phyllocoptes gracilis was predominant.<br />
Table 1. Eriophyoid Mites of Blackberries and Raspberries<br />
Mite species Blackberry Raspberry Relation to the host plants<br />
Abacarus sp. + leaf vagrant<br />
Acalitus essigi + berry mite<br />
Acalitus orthomera + + bud mite<br />
Aceria silvicola + leaf vagrant<br />
Aceria sp.(3-rayed) + + leaf vagrant<br />
Aceria sp.(7-rayed) + leaf vagrant<br />
Aculodes sp. + leaf vagrant<br />
Aculus sp. + + leaf vagrant<br />
Anthocoptes rubi + leaf vagrant<br />
Epitrimerus gibbosus + + leaf vagrant<br />
Eriophyes sp. + leaf vagrant<br />
Leipothrix sp. + leaf vagrant<br />
Phyllocoptes gracilis + + leaf vagrant<br />
Phyllocoptes sp. + + leaf vagrant<br />
Quadracus sp. + leaf vagrant<br />
Tegonotus sp. + leaf vagrant<br />
Interestingly, Acalitus essigi and Anthocoptes rubi did not survive winter of 1995/96.<br />
They were dominant species on blackberry cultivars “Thornless evergreen” and “Thornfree”<br />
before that time in Ursynow, Warsaw. Temperature of that winter was about -25°C. The<br />
possible reasons for their disappearance were: 1) they were more susceptible to low<br />
temperature, 2) host plants were killed by deep frost. Shelter for mites, e.g. buds and any<br />
other parts above ground were frozen and dried out. Mites in the buds died with the plants.<br />
New canes of the blackberry grew up from the underground roots where eriophyoid mites<br />
were not present. But how did the other species survived? That was not clear. They might be<br />
more cold resistant or they could have alternate host which withstood the low temperature and<br />
served as source of re-infestation.<br />
Fourteen eriophyoid species were associated with blackberry and raspberry in the<br />
experimental field at Ursynow, Warsaw. Epitrimerus gibbosus is the most abundant species<br />
on blackberry, while Phyllocoptes gracilis dominated on raspberry. Observation on<br />
fluctuation in Epitrimerus gibbosus population on two blackberry cultivars in 1997 to 1998
65<br />
showed that mites of this species hibernated in buds or between leaf petiole scars and<br />
auxiliary buds. The first mite moved out of the hibernation site at the beginning of April.<br />
They started to feed on leaves in May and on flowers in June. Population density on<br />
blackberry leaves reached a peak during September and October.<br />
Epitrimerus gibbosus has a complex life cycle. It has protogynes (with typical dorsal ridge)<br />
in summer and deutogynes (without dorsal ridge) only in winter. When population density<br />
was high, the mites caused discoloration on leaves.<br />
Discussion<br />
There are some 60 Rubus species in Poland. In the present study, many of the mites were<br />
collected from cultivated plants. Other samples have not been identified to their species.<br />
Accurate identification of the host plant is a critical part in describing eriophyoid mites<br />
(Amrine and Stasny, 1994). There are still works to be done before final description.<br />
Although many of the eriophyoid mites do not cause severe damages to their host plants,<br />
they may serve as an alternate food for certain kind of predators of plant pests.<br />
Conclusion<br />
A total number of 16 eriophyoid mites species belonging to 12 genera were associated with<br />
blackberry and raspberry, Rubus spp. The most often recorded species were Epitrimerus<br />
gibbosus, Phyllocoptes gracilis and Acalitus orthomera. Many of them are new records for<br />
Poland and at least 6 new species will be expected from the collection.<br />
Almost all the species are leaf vagrants except Acalitus essigi and A. orthomera. No<br />
single mite species causes obvious and economic damage to the host plants. Their potential<br />
roles in the ecosystem need to be elucidated.<br />
References<br />
Amrine, J.W., Jr. & T.A. Stasny, 1994. Catalog of the Eriophyoidea (Acarina: Prostigmata) of<br />
the world. Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield, Michigan, USA, 798 pp.<br />
Amrine, J.W., Jr. 1996. Key to the world genera of the Eriophyoidea (Acari: Prostigmata).<br />
Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield, Michigan, USA.<br />
Boczek, J.H., V.G. Shevtchenko & R. Davis, 1989. Generic key to world fauna of eriophyid<br />
mites (Acarida: Eriophyoidea). Warsaw Agricultural University Press. 190 pp.<br />
De Lillo, E. & C. Duso, 1996. Damage and control of eriophyoid mites in crops: Currants and<br />
Berries. In: Lindquist E.E., Sabelis M.W., Bruin J. (eds), Eriophyoid Mites: Their<br />
Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Elsevier Sci. Publ., Amsterdam, The Netherlands,<br />
World Crop Pests, 6: 583-591.<br />
Lindquist E.E., Sabelis M.W., Bruin J. (eds.), 1996. Eriophyoid Mites: Their Biology, Natural<br />
Enemies and Control. Elsevier Sci. Publ., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, World Crop<br />
Pests 6: 329-366.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 67 - 71<br />
Investigations of pheromones of soft fruit pests<br />
J. V. Cross 1 , P. Innocenzi 1, 2 and D. R. Hall 2<br />
1 Horticulture Research International, East Malling, West Malling, Kent, ME19 6BJ<br />
2 Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB<br />
Introduction<br />
Whilst the sex pheromones of many lepidopteran (moth) pests of soft fruit have been<br />
identified, almost without exception those of other soft fruit pests have not, even though in<br />
many cases they are known or believed to exist. However, in the last decade or so,<br />
considerable progress has been made in identifying the pheromones of non-lepidopteran<br />
insect pests of a wide range of other agricultural and horticultural crops throughout the world.<br />
Pheromones have been identified from fruit flies, gall midges, a wide range of beetles,<br />
sawflies, aphids, scale insects, plant feeding bugs (capsids), grasshoppers and locusts<br />
(reviewed by Hardie & Minks, 1999). Pheromones of a number of predators and parasites<br />
have also been identified.<br />
Many insects have a high sensitivity to pheromones which provide a powerful hook for<br />
manipulating pest behaviour in a species-specific way. Pheromones can be used to detect the<br />
presence of target insects, estimate populations and/or activity and can sometimes be<br />
exploited for control e.g. by mass-trapping, lure and kill or by mating disruption. Hence, they<br />
are invaluable tools in insect pest management. Here we report progress to date into the<br />
identification of the sex pheromones of three important pests of UK soft fruit crops, European<br />
tarnished plant bug (Lygus rugulipennnis), strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi) and<br />
blackcurrant leaf midge (Dasineura tetensi). We speculate about possibilities for exploiting<br />
these pheromones in pest management in soft fruit crops and discuss other related research<br />
opportunities.<br />
European tarnished plant bug<br />
The European tarnished plant bug is now known to be an important pest of late season<br />
strawberries. Damage is caused by nymphs or adults feeding in the flowers and on young<br />
developing fruits. The flesh surrounding achenes on which the pest has fed do not develop<br />
normally whereas undamaged ones swell and ripen. This leads to the development of distorted<br />
”cat-face” “or nubbined”’ fruit which start to appear about 3 weeks after the onset of bug<br />
feeding. MAFF-funded research at HRI-East Malling and HRI-Efford has shown that the pest<br />
can cause damage at very low population densities of less than 1 bug/20 plants. Populations of<br />
the pest can be assessed by beating or suction sampling, but these methods are difficult and<br />
time consuming and are not likely to be used widely by growers. The existence of a sex<br />
pheromone was known because traps baited with live females attracted conspecific males, and<br />
work to identify the sex pheromone of the European tarnished plant bug started at HRI-East<br />
Malling and NRI, Chatham in 1998. <strong>Vol</strong>atiles emitted by males and females were collected<br />
and analysed and three physiologically-active volatile components produced by females but<br />
absent from males were identified by mass spectrometry. The compounds identified are hexyl<br />
butyrate, (E)-2-hexenyl butyrate and (E)-4-oxo-2-hexenal in 39:1:3 ratio (Innocenzi et al.,<br />
67
68<br />
1998). The first two compounds can be synthesised readily at low cost, but synthesis of the<br />
third compound is more time-consuming and costly.<br />
In 1998, preliminary field tests of blends of the three synthetic pheromone components<br />
were conducted in an abandoned 2-year old everbearer strawberry crop at HRI-East Malling.<br />
White sticky traps baited with two- and three-component blends caught more males and less<br />
females than the unbaited control traps, although the numbers of individuals caught were<br />
small and differences were not statistically significant. However, in 1999, white sticky traps<br />
baited with the blend of all three components did not catch significantly more or less bugs<br />
than unbaited white traps in a purpose-sown field of flowering herbs (Matricaria recutita,<br />
Chenopodium album and Senecio vulgaris) infested heavily with the bug. The reasons for this<br />
result are not clear. Possible explanations are that the trapping was started too late, that the<br />
pheromone release rates were incorrect or that the visual attractiveness of the white traps was<br />
overriding as the white flowers of the Matricaria recutita senesced. Similar difficulties are<br />
being encountered by other researchers with the characterisation of the sex pheromones of<br />
related species, Lygus lineolaris in North America and Lygocoris pabulinus in The<br />
Netherlands, for which similar components have been identified (reviewed by McBrien &<br />
Millar, 1999).<br />
Thus, further work is needed to characterise and test the pheromone of the European<br />
tarnished plant bug. In the laboratory, electrophysiological studies are currently being<br />
repeated to ensure a further vital component has not been overlooked, and in the field further<br />
field testing of pheromone blends is needed. Current evidence suggests that this pheromone<br />
may be difficult to exploit for control but, if an effective lure and trap can be developed, it<br />
will be very useful for monitoring the pest.<br />
Strawberry blossom weevil<br />
The strawberry blossom weevil, Anthonomus rubi, is a common pest of strawberry throughout<br />
Europe. Damage to strawberry is caused by the female which, after inserting an egg into an<br />
unopened flower bud, walks a few millimetres down the flower stem and punctures it with her<br />
rostrum, partially severing it and causing it to wither. A single female may sever numerous<br />
flowers. MAFF-funded research at HRI-East Malling and HRI-Efford has shown that, where<br />
excessive numbers of flowers are present on the June-bearer Elsanta, this damage does not<br />
adversely affect yield or quality and can be beneficial. Where the number of flowers is small<br />
in relation to the yield potential of the plant, so that an average of 15g of yield or more is<br />
needed per flower to reach full yield potential, the plant is unable to compensate for severing<br />
by maturing replacement flowers or increasing berry weight; yield is then reduced in<br />
proportion to the proportion of flowers severed. On everbearers, severing delays cropping.<br />
Strawberry blossom weevil is currently controlled by sprays of the organophosphorous<br />
insecticide chlorpyrifos applied against adults in spring at the start of flower stem extension<br />
before significant damage is done. Sprays are applied almost as a routine.<br />
In March 1999, several sacks of leaf litter were collected from the bottom of a Leylandii<br />
hedge at Parkwood Farm, Boughton Monchelsea, Maidstone, Kent. The hedge was adjacent<br />
to a field that had previously had a strawberry crop heavily infested with blossom weevil in<br />
1998, but which had been grubbed the following winter. Five blossom weevil adults, four<br />
males and one female, were found by sifting through the leaf litter in the laboratory. These<br />
were drowsy from winter hibernation but becoming active. They were transferred individually<br />
to plastic boxes and supplied with strawberry flowers on which they settled and started to<br />
feed. A few days later, they were transferred individually on fresh strawberry flowers to<br />
apparatus for collecting volatile chemicals. The volatile compounds collected from the males
69<br />
and the female were compared using gas chromatography – mass spectrometry analysis and<br />
six compounds present in the male collections but absent from the female collections were<br />
identified. Four of these compounds, known as Grandlure components I-IV, were the same as<br />
the pheromone components of the related cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis, although<br />
in different relative proportions. The other two compounds were lavandulol (one optical<br />
isomer only) and germacrene-D. The four Grandlure components and a racemic mixture of<br />
the two lavandulol optical isomers are available from chemical suppliers. Lures were<br />
produced using polyethylene sachets as slow-release dispensers for a range of different blends<br />
of the five available components, and these were tested in three commercial strawberry fields<br />
in 1999. Traps were white, sticky sheets (20 x 20 cm) held horizontally about 20 cm above<br />
the plant on a wooden stake with the lure positioned centrally on the sticky surface. Five<br />
different combinations of Grandlure 1-4 components and the lavandulol racemate were tested<br />
in a 5x3 (treatment x replicate) randomised block experiment design.<br />
Blends of Grandlure I/II + lavandulol or Grandlure I-IV + lavandulol were found to be<br />
significantly more attractive than Grandlure I/II, Grandlure I-IV or lavandulol. The latter<br />
treatments did not differ significantly from the unbaited control. We have recently discovered<br />
an easy and rapid method for sexing the weevils, based on the presence of large coxal thorns<br />
on the intermediary legs of males but absent on females, and this has enabled the trap catches<br />
to be sexed revealing that males and females are attracted.<br />
The work to date has shown that volatiles emitted by male blossom weevils attract males<br />
and females. Thus this pheromone is a sex/aggregation pheromone. The fact that the<br />
pheromone attracts females (as well as males) makes it more likely that it will be possible to<br />
exploit the pheromone for not only monitoring but also for control by mass-trapping or lure<br />
and kill approaches.<br />
Further work to optimise the pheromone blend, including testing the germacrene-D and<br />
individual lavandulol optical isomers, and to optimise the lure and trap design is the first<br />
priority. The optimised lure and trap needs testing in the field to determine the relationship<br />
between populations and trap catches and the range of attractiveness. Ultimately, masstrapping<br />
and lure and kill approaches need to be investigated in large-scale field trials.<br />
Blackcurrant leaf midge<br />
Until recently, the blackcurrant leaf midge was a widespread and damaging pest of<br />
commercial blackcurrant plantations in the UK. Larvae feed in the leaves in shoots causing<br />
characteristic distortion. Severe damage stunts shoot growth, and the pest is particularly<br />
troublesome on the re-growth of cut-down bushes. The pest has declined in importance in<br />
recent years due to the widespread use of routine sprays of fenpropathrin (Meothrin) for<br />
control of blackcurrant gall mite. However, the pest is likely to resurge in importance as the<br />
gall mite-resistant and reversion virus-resistant cultivars Ben Hope and Ben Gairn become<br />
planted more widely and are grown without routine acaricide applications.<br />
Garthwaite et al. (1986) showed that there was evidence for a powerful female-produced<br />
sex pheromone in blackcurrant leaf midge. Traps baited with newly emerged virgin females<br />
caught large numbers of males in the field whereas traps containing virgin males were<br />
unattractive to males or females. The pheromone of the blackcurrant leaf midge has not been<br />
identified. At that time, no gall midge pheromone had been identified but, since then, there<br />
has been considerable progress with the identification of the sex pheromones of two gall<br />
midge species. The first was that of the Hessian fly in New Zealand (Foster et al.,1991) and,<br />
recently, the sex pheromone of the pea midge has been identified (Hillbur et al., 1999).
70<br />
Research funded by MAFF and HDC/SmithKline Beecham to identify the sex<br />
pheromone of blackcurrant leaf midge started at HRI-East Malling and NRI, Chatham in<br />
April 1999. Mature larvae were collected from the field and reared individually to adult.<br />
<strong>Vol</strong>atiles were collected from virgin males and females separately in a similar way to that<br />
described for the strawberry blossom weevil above, but not in the presence of the host plant.<br />
Ovipositors were excised from females and collected in organic solvent. Chemical and<br />
electrophysiological analysis of the samples is in progress.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Identification of the sex pheromones of these three soft fruit pest species should lead to better<br />
means of pest monitoring to determine whether and when to apply control measures.<br />
Depending on the nature of the chemical compounds involved, their activity, stability and cost<br />
of synthesis, it may well prove possible to exploit them for control. This will then provide<br />
means of reducing the dependence of soft fruit growers on pesticides.<br />
Not all insects produce or utilise pheromones. For instance there is no evidence for a sex<br />
pheromone of the vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus (a species for which only females are<br />
known to exist and which reproduces parthenogenetically). Work is in progress at the Institute<br />
of Arable Crops Research, Rothamsted and in the Netherlands to investigate vine weevil<br />
aggregation pheromones and plant volatiles (Van Tol & Visser, 1998). The role of other<br />
semiochemicals, including plant volatiles, in the ecology of soft fruit pests has been little<br />
investigated.<br />
Pheromones of several other important non-lepidopteran pests of soft fruit crops<br />
probably exist and are worthy of investigation. In some cases, this task might prove relatively<br />
quick and straightforward. In others, identification may prove difficult and protracted. It<br />
cannot be predicted at the outset how easy the task will be or how useful any pheromone<br />
might be for monitoring and control. However, significant opportunities are apparent.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This work is funded by MAFF, the Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich,<br />
SmithKline Beecham and the HDC and Blackcurrant Grower’s R&D fund.<br />
We are very grateful to the fruit growers who have supported our work, notably John<br />
Worley, Harry Wooldridge and Graham Cuthbert and also to Richard Harnden and James<br />
Wickham for their enthusiasm and encouragement.<br />
References<br />
Foster, S. P., Harris, M. O. & Millar, J. G. 1991. Identification of the sex pheromone of the<br />
Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say.) Naturwissenschaften 78: 130-131.<br />
Garthwaite, D. G., Wall, C. & Wardlow, L. R. 1986. Further evidence for a female sex<br />
pheromone in the blackcurrant leaf midge Dasineura tetensi. Proceedings of the British<br />
Crop Protection Conference – Pests and Diseases 1986, 1: 355-357.<br />
Hardie, J. & Minks, A. K.(Eds.) 1999. Pheromones of Non-Lepidopteran Insects Associated<br />
with Agricultural Plants. CABI Publishing.<br />
Hillbur, Y., Anderson, P., Arn, H., Bengtsson, M. Löfqvist, J., Biddle, A.J., Smitt, O.,<br />
Högberg, Plass, E., Franke, S. & Francke, W. 1999. Identification of sex pheromone<br />
components of the pea midge, Contarinia pisi (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae).<br />
Naturwissenschaften 86: 292-294.
Innocenzi, P., Hall, D. R., Sumathi, C., Cross, J. V. & Jacobson R. 1998. Studies on the sex<br />
pheromone of the European tarnished plant bug, Lygus rugulipennis (Heteroptera:<br />
Miridae). Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference, 3: 829-832.<br />
McBrien, H. L. & Millar, J. G. 1999. Phytophagous bugs. In: Pheromones of Non-<br />
Lepidopteran Insects associated with Agricultural Plants (Eds. J. Hardie & A. K. Minks).<br />
CABI Publishing, pp. 277-304.<br />
Van Tol, R. W. H. M. & Visser, J. H. 1998. Host-plant preferences and antennal responses of<br />
the black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) to plant volatiles. Proceedings of<br />
Experimental and Applied Entomology, N.E.V. Amsterdam, 9: 35-40.<br />
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Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 73 - 79<br />
Aims and objectives of Reduced Application of Chemicals in European<br />
Raspberry Production (RACER) project<br />
Stuart C. Gordon, J. A. Trefor Woodford<br />
Scottish Crop Research Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom<br />
Abstract: The aims and objectives of a 2-year EU-CRAFT project to reduce pesticide application on<br />
European red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) are described. Commercial and scientific partners from six<br />
countries in Europe have joined to develop suitable monitoring and/or forecasting methods to detect<br />
and control a range of arthropod pests and to develop a standardised monitoring system for fungi<br />
causing post-harvest rots. Wherever possible, existing monitoring systems have been examined and<br />
modified for the local environment. Sticky white traps (Rebell ® bianco) have been used to develop a<br />
spray threshold for raspberry beetle (Byturus tomentosus). The efficiency of the traps has been<br />
improved by use of natural plant odours. Two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) are<br />
widespread, but can be controlled by use of naturally occurring or artificially introduced predatory<br />
mites. The raspberry cane midge (Resseliella theobaldi) emergence model, developed in the UK, is<br />
being tested in different locations in Europe. As yet, further evaluations will be required to ensure the<br />
level of reliability required. At least five species of Otiorhynchus have been found on raspberry in<br />
Europe. The populations can be assessed by trapping or beating. A standardised post-harvest rot<br />
assessment has been developed for use throughout Europe to detect a range of fruit-infecting fungi.<br />
Training workshops are an important part of this initiative to transfer the technology to growers and<br />
extension workers.<br />
Key words: IPM, monitoring, forecasting, raspberry, raspberry beetle, two-spotted spider mite,<br />
raspberry cane midge, weevils, post-harvest rots, fungi<br />
Introduction<br />
Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) is a valuable small fruit crop grown in various parts of the world.<br />
Raspberry and other Rubus berries (blackberry and other hybrids) are high value perennial<br />
crops with a long establishment period incurring high capital costs. To protect this investment<br />
and assure high quality fruit production, most growers currently rely on the use of fungicides<br />
and insecticides, often spraying prophylactically to prevent fruit damage and loss of yield<br />
(Gordon, et al. 1997).<br />
Raspberries and other cane fruits are grown in a wide range of geographical locations. In<br />
Europe, for example, locations vary from flat coastal plains and valleys to moderately steep<br />
upland areas which would be unsuitable for most arable crops. These diverse growing<br />
conditions offer opportunities for continuity of supply of fresh fruit within Europe.<br />
Consumers and their suppliers are now demanding production systems that use the minimal<br />
amount of artificial pesticides and fertilisers to produce fruit of high quality, harvested free<br />
from blemishes, rots and moulds. It was this that led some European raspberry producers to<br />
join together to form a consortium with four science centres to bid for funding to initiate a<br />
pan-European approach to Integrated Crop Management.<br />
73
74<br />
RACER Partnership<br />
The RACER partnership comprise a group of Small to Medium Sized Enterprise (SME’s) all<br />
with an interest in either producing and/or marketing cane fruit in various European countries.<br />
(See table 1).<br />
Table 1. Partnership and role within the RACER project<br />
Partner (Partner No.) Country Role Type of enterprise<br />
Scottish Soft Fruit<br />
Growers Ltd (A1)<br />
Associazione Produttori<br />
Agricoli Sant’Orsola<br />
s.c.ar.l. (A2)<br />
Great<br />
Britain<br />
Core Partner<br />
(Prime Proposer)<br />
Grower owned co-operative marketing<br />
and processing mainly frozen fruit<br />
Italy Core Partner Marketing and packaging mainly fresh<br />
fruit for growers co-operative<br />
Dr. D. Perlepes (A3) Greece Core Partner Representing a consortium of farmers<br />
establishing a new raspberry industry<br />
Valmira Frutas LDA<br />
(A4)<br />
Portugal Core Partner Fruit and vegetable production<br />
company establishing raspberries in<br />
Portugal<br />
Pakkasmarja Oy (A5) Finland Core Partner A company established by small fruit<br />
farmers to market and process fruit<br />
Stiftung<br />
Behindertenbetriebe in<br />
Kanton Schwyz (B1)<br />
Scottish Crop Research<br />
Institute (C1)<br />
Istituto Agrario<br />
Provinciale di S.<br />
Michele all’Adige (C2)<br />
Agricultural Research<br />
Centre (MTT) Institute<br />
of Plant Protection (C3)<br />
Eidgenössische<br />
Forschungsanstalt für<br />
Obst-, Wein- und<br />
Gartenbau (FAW) (C4)<br />
National Agromet Unit,<br />
ADAS (C1)<br />
Biomathematics &<br />
Statistics Scotland (C1)<br />
Great<br />
Britain<br />
Non-Core Partner<br />
Prime RTD<br />
Performer<br />
(Project<br />
Coordinator)<br />
Provider of protected-environment<br />
employment for handicapped adults<br />
and manufacture of insect traps<br />
A research and lead centre in Europe<br />
for research in cane fruit crops<br />
Italy RTD Performer A research and teaching organisation<br />
with experience in fruit research in<br />
North Italy<br />
Finland RTD Performer A research centre with experience in<br />
integrated pest management on top and<br />
small fruits<br />
Switzerland<br />
Switzerland<br />
Great<br />
Britain<br />
Great<br />
Britain<br />
RTD Performer<br />
Sub-contractor to<br />
SCRI<br />
Sub-contractor to<br />
SCRI<br />
FAW is a research and development<br />
centre involved in integrated<br />
production of environmentally<br />
acceptable and economically viable<br />
fruit production.<br />
Research and development centre with<br />
expertise in agro-meteorological<br />
modelling and forecasting<br />
UK leaders and have international<br />
reputation in applied and biological<br />
sciences mathematics and statistics
75<br />
Figure 1. Map showing location of RACER SME partners and RTD Providers (letters and<br />
numbers in boxes refer to RACER Partners - see Table 1.)<br />
Funding of RACER project<br />
This 2-year project, largely supported by Small to Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) is<br />
funded by the European Commission (FAIR FA-S2-CT97-9038) and Bundesamt für Bildung<br />
und Wissenschaft (BBW) in Switzerland.<br />
Aims of RACER project<br />
Good yields come from best practice in crop production within the variables of climatic<br />
factors to which Rubus are distinctly vulnerable. Avoiding damage as far as possible from<br />
pest infestation and disease attack is vital to the economics of Rubus fruit production.<br />
Growers must balance the need to produce high quality fruit against the increasing pressures<br />
from retailers and consumers to reduce chemical inputs (and hence residues). In countries<br />
where raspberries are an established crop, production guidelines rely heavily on chemical<br />
applications to control pests and diseases.<br />
European Rubus (raspberry and blackberry) crops have a number of pests and diseases<br />
either affecting fruit quality or fruit yield. Some are extremely damaging if not controlled by<br />
timely application of pesticides. Currently, there are approximately eight fungal diseases and<br />
eight arthropod pests which cause moderate to severe damage to raspberry. Most are<br />
controlled by routine application of pesticides, often as ‘insurance’ spray programmes. In<br />
some production areas, as many as 12 applications of pesticides are required in the prefruiting<br />
stage in any one season from leaf burst to green fruit stage, a period of 3 to 4 months.<br />
The Consortium recognised the urgent need to reduce the number of applications and to find<br />
suitable environmentally benign replacement products which can be integrated into modern<br />
production systems, e.g. Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
76<br />
The Consortium identified the following insect, mite and fungal disorders of raspberry<br />
that cause economic loss and require urgent research (Table 2.). They are raspberry beetle<br />
(Byturus tomentosus), two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), raspberry cane midge<br />
(Resseliella theobaldi), the Otiorhynchid weevils (Otiorhynchus spp.) and post-harvest fungal<br />
diseases (e.g. grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) and other fruit rotting fungi).<br />
Table 2. Target cane fruit pests and diseases – economic importance and current control<br />
Pests and diseases Economic Treatments Class of product<br />
importance per annum<br />
Raspberry beetle * * * * * 2 OP/P/C/other<br />
Two-spotted spider mite * * * * 2 - 4 OC/other<br />
Raspberry cane midge * * * * 2 OP<br />
Otiorhynchid weevils * * * * 2 OP<br />
Post-harvest rots (moulds) * * * * * 7 F<br />
***** major importance, widespread; **** very important, causing crop damage in most years;<br />
*** locally important; ** rarely causing severe damage; * minor importance throughout the Europe.<br />
Product abbreviations: OP = Organophosphorus, P = Synthetic Pyrethroid, C = Carbamate, OC =<br />
Organochlorine, F = Fungicide.<br />
The main objectives of RACER Project are described in Table 3. In addition to the main<br />
tasks, additional objectives include the transfer of technology developed in one country to<br />
another, dissemination of the results obtained throughout the producing industry and<br />
undertake training for both extension workers, field specialists and local growers through a<br />
series of training workshops given by visiting specialists. Support will be given to the SMEs<br />
in southern Europe who are diversifying from traditional crops into high value raspberry<br />
production. The final objective is to prepare a series of ‘advisory leaflets’ on the various<br />
topics addressed by the project that may then provide the foundation for a new Code of Best<br />
Practice for Rubus production in Europe.<br />
Table 3. List of main objectives of the project<br />
Task Main objective<br />
1 Monitor adult raspberry beetle flight activity with view to developing spray<br />
threshold and improve trap efficiency<br />
2 Develop methods to manage and understand two-spotted spider mite population<br />
development in raspberry<br />
3 Improve raspberry cane midge population forecasting by transfer of existing<br />
technology<br />
4 Develop monitoring system to predict Otiorhynchid weevil activity in raspberry<br />
plantations<br />
5 Develop standardised procedure to identify and assess levels of post-harvest rot<br />
fungi in European raspberry plantations and evaluate current low-input fungicide<br />
treatments
77<br />
Preliminary results and discussion<br />
Having a multi-centred IPM research on raspberry has proved to be a great success by<br />
bringing together a critical mass of research workers in different geographical and climatic<br />
growing conditions. This spread of expertise has also permitted research on a wide range of<br />
arthropods and fungi that may not have been possible at a single centre. The involvement of<br />
the SMEs in targeting the main pest species has given the project a specific focus that is<br />
essential to meet the needs of industry. On the negative side, since the research is being done<br />
under the auspices of the EU-CRAFT programme, there is only 24-months of funding for the<br />
research which is a severe limitation with long-term perennial crops like raspberry. As the<br />
Intellectual Property (IP) for this research remains with the SMEs, some aspects must remain<br />
confidential. The results given below are in out-line only.<br />
Raspberry Beetle<br />
Results from trials in the first year showed that a spray threshold for raspberry beetle based on<br />
catches on white sticky traps (Rebell ® bianco) developed in Switzerland (Höhn, 1991) is<br />
possible, but the threshold may have to differ depending on the country and final end-market.<br />
Olfactometer and electroantennogram (EAG) experiments have shown that raspberry beetles<br />
are attracted to natural plant odours (Birch et al., 1996). Wind tunnel experiments, done as<br />
part of this project, have identified chemicals that are attractive to the beetles, and one that is<br />
repellent. Testing these compounds in the field during flowering in 1998 gave inconclusive<br />
results, but when evaluated in 1999, using an improved delivery system, one compound<br />
proved to be very attractive to beetles in the period from adult emergence to flowering.<br />
Two-spotted Spider Mite<br />
The size of the two-spotted spider mite populations has been quite variable. Numbers were<br />
low in both of the most southerly sites, in Portugal and in Greece. A predatory mite<br />
(Phytoseius plumifer) collected in Greece by J A T Woodford during an expert visit in May<br />
1999, and identified by T. Tuovinen, is thought to keep two-spotted spider mite numbers low<br />
on raspberries in Greece. The influence of naturally-occurring and artificially-reared<br />
predatory mites on two-spotted spider mite populations are being studied in Italy, Finland and<br />
Switzerland.<br />
Raspberry Cane Midge<br />
Emergence of first generation raspberry cane midge is determined by the detection of first<br />
eggs in artificial wounds made in the bark of primocanes in the spring. An emergence model<br />
has been used successfully in the UK since the early 1990s (Gordon et al., 1989). Trials have<br />
been done in Italy, Finland, Switzerland and the UK in an attempt to utilise it elsewhere in<br />
Europe. The model works very well in the UK, with first oviposition occurring within 4 days<br />
of the predicted date, but further evaluations are required elsewhere to develop the same level<br />
of precision.<br />
Otiorhynchid weevils<br />
This study has shown that there are at least five species of Otiorhynchus associated with red<br />
raspberry in Europe. Monitoring traps were assessed at different locations. In the UK,<br />
nocturnal beating was more effective than traps, whereas in Finland and in Italy diurnal<br />
beating is more efficient.
78<br />
Post-harvest Rots<br />
A post-harvest rot test based on a 80 fruit sample has been developed and successfully used in<br />
most participating countries. As expected, Botrytis cinerea (grey mould) was the most<br />
frequently isolated fungi. Other fungi isolated from the fruit included Rhyzophus stolonifer,<br />
Alternaria spp., Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp.<br />
Training and Technology Transfer<br />
Contact with growers and extension workers is essential if IPM is to be accepted. The<br />
RACER project has a major aim to ensure that the project is fully understood by growers and<br />
a series of training workshops have been held.<br />
Table 4. Details of training workshops and meeting where the aims of the RACER project and<br />
details of the pests and diseases were given to growers and extension workers.<br />
Location Date Approx. Number<br />
Attending<br />
Oeschberg, Switzerland 29 January 1998 *<br />
Pergine Valsugana, Italy 25 February 1998 120<br />
Suonenjoki, Finland 2 April 1998 150<br />
Blairgowrie, Scotland mid May 1998 30<br />
Zambujeira do Mar, Portugal 26 May 1998 8<br />
Lamia, Greece 29 May 1998 6<br />
Pieksämäki, Finland 9 June 1998 *<br />
Oeschberg, Switzerland 5 February 1999 *<br />
Suonenjoki, Finland 15 February 1999 20<br />
Jyväskylä, Finland 7 March 1999 *<br />
(* number not recorded)<br />
Dissemination of information to other fruit growers is important and popular articles have<br />
appeared in local farming journals in Finland (Kasvinsuojelulehti and Puutarha & kauppa),<br />
Italy (Vita Trentina and Supplemento all'Informatore Agrario), Switzerland (Schweizerische<br />
Zeitschrift für und Obst-Weinbau) and in the UK (Grower). The project is also on the World<br />
Wide Web at http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/racer/default.htm and is up-dated periodically.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
We thank the many growers who have and are participating in this project. We also thank the<br />
staff in the participating SMEs for their time and input and all the research staff at the various<br />
Research Establishments for their hard work and dedication. Ms Joan Duffin, formerly of<br />
SCRI, is thanked for her invaluable assistance in developing the early stages of the project.<br />
We also thank the EU and Bundesamt für Bildung und Wissenschaft (BBW) for funding the<br />
project.
79<br />
References<br />
Birch, A.N.E., Gordon, S.C., Griffiths, D.W., Harrison, R.E., McNicol, R.J., Robertson,<br />
G.W., Spencer, B., Wishart, J. & Woodford, J.A.T., 1996. The role of flower volatiles in<br />
host attraction and recognition by the raspberry beetle, Byturus tomentosus. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong><br />
<strong>Bulletin</strong> 19(5): <strong>11</strong>7-122.<br />
Gordon, S.C., Barrie, I. A. & Woodford, J.A.T., 1989. Predicting spring oviposition by<br />
raspberry cane midge from accumulated derived soil temperatures. Annals of Applied<br />
Biology <strong>11</strong>4: 419-427.<br />
Gordon, S.C., Woodford, J.A.T. & Birch, A.N.E., 1997. Arthropod pests of Rubus in Europe:<br />
pest status, current and future control strategies. Journal of Horticultural Science 72: 831-<br />
862.<br />
Höhn, H., 1991. Farbtafeln zur Schädlingsüberwachung im Beerenanbau. Schweizerische<br />
Zeitschrift für Obst- und Weinbau 127: 249-252.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 81 - 84<br />
Minimised fungicide application using tunnel sprayer in strawberries<br />
– biological effects and practical experiences<br />
Holger Daugaard, Peter Kryger Jensen and Bent Løschenkohl<br />
Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Fruit, Vegetable and Food Science,<br />
DK-5792 Aarslev, Denmark; Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Crop<br />
Protection, DK-4200 Flakkebjerg, Denmark; Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences,<br />
Department of Plant Biology, DK-4200 Flakkebjerg, Denmark<br />
Abstract: Two different sprayers were tested in strawberries with regard to their biological effects on<br />
Botrytis cinerea Pers. The sprayers were an unshielded row application kit and a tunnel sprayer, both<br />
with 4 nozzles per row. The result of the comparison showed that their biological effects were<br />
comparable. It is concluded that using the tunnel sprayer may make it possible to reduce the dose of<br />
tolylfluanide, compared to a row application kit.<br />
Key words: Strawberry, Botrytis cinerea Pers., fungicide application, tunnel sprayer<br />
Introduction<br />
During the last few years, the Danish environmental authorities have critically reviewed all<br />
pesticides used in Danish agriculture and horticulture. As a result of this procedure, a<br />
considerable number of pesticides have now been banned. For other pesticides, limitations<br />
have been introduced, or exemptions have been given for a limited number of years. As fruit<br />
and berry growing is of minor importance in Denmark, the chemical companies are not very<br />
interested in getting expensive approvals for new pesticides. Especially for fruit crops<br />
requiring frequent spaying, the situation is therefore very serious. One obvious example is<br />
strawberries, in which only 1 fungicide was approved in the beginning of 1998. Due to this<br />
situation a new research project was initiated, sponsored by the environmental authorities.<br />
The project was initiated in 1997 and will be finished in year <strong>2000</strong>. One aim of this project<br />
was to investigate the possibilities of non-chemical alternatives in the control of grey mould<br />
(Botrytis cinerea Pers.). Another aim was to look into the spraying technique, trying to find<br />
alternative equipment causing a minimised loss of pesticides to the environment.<br />
Non-chemical alternatives included are defoliation after harvest, defoliation and removal<br />
of plant material after harvest and finger harrowing. This is based on common practical<br />
experiences. The use of finger weeders is claimed to affect the occurrence of Botrytis.<br />
Besides, the effect of plant distance and fertilisation practice is also included.<br />
Most of the treatments mentioned above are known to have effects on the occurrence of<br />
Botrytis and are more or less included in all IFP guidelines, but in this project we are trying to<br />
assess the combined effect of all treatments.<br />
As far as spraying technique is concerned a Swedish tunnel sprayer (JT-Bandspruta) has<br />
been selected to be tested, in order to reduce dosages and loss of fungicides to the<br />
environment. In this publication preliminary results of this test is presented.<br />
81
82<br />
Materials and methods<br />
A+ frigo plants of two cultivars (‘Elsanta’ and ‘Korona’) were planted on flat beds in the field<br />
in May 1997. Each plot consisted of 6 rows with 15 plants in each row. The plant spacing in<br />
the row was 0.37 m and the row spacing used was 0.9 m. There were 4 replications. All<br />
flowers were removed six weeks after planting. During the season, all plots were fertilised<br />
according to soil and leaf analyses and irrigated in dry periods. Weeds, pests and diseases<br />
were controlled according to normal practice in 1997. In July 1998 and 1999, yield and berry<br />
size was recorded in all plots, but only for 12 plants situated in the 2 central rows of each plot.<br />
Berries were also picked from the rest of the plants, which were considered guard plants. The<br />
weight of marketable berries, Botrytis-attacked berries and other not marketable berries was<br />
recorded separately. Berries less than 22 mm or misshapen were considered not marketable.<br />
The plants were protected during the winter period by covering with agryl (synthetic mulch).<br />
In 1998 and 1999, the experiment included a comparison of the use of different application<br />
techniques when controlling Botrytis. Two different sprayers were used, an unshielded row<br />
application kit with 4 nozzles per row and JT tunnel sprayer with a 60 cm shield and also with<br />
4 nozzles. For both sprayers, the nozzle type used was Hardi S4<strong>11</strong>0-16. During flowering, 3-5<br />
applications were made with 3 kg per hectare of dichlofluanide in 600 litres per hectare.<br />
When using the tunnel sprayer, the amount of fungicide sprayed per hectare was reduced to 2<br />
kg per hectare.<br />
All data were subject to statistical analysis using the General Model of SAS (SAS<br />
Institute, Inc., 1989-95, Cary, NC). The least significant differences between means were<br />
determined at P < 0.05 using Duncan’s test.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
In tables 1 and 2 results are presented for 1998 and 1999, respectively. In none of the years<br />
significant differences between treatments could be recorded. Especially in 1998 – the first<br />
fruiting year – the two varieties yielded differently. The yield of ‘Korona’ this year was nearly<br />
twice the yield of ‘Elsanta’ but in 1999 the difference was eliminated.<br />
Table 1. The biological effects of unshielded and tunnel sprayers in 1998<br />
Variety/<br />
Treatment<br />
Total yield<br />
T per hectare<br />
Marketable yield Botrytis cinerea<br />
T per hectare T per hectare % of berries<br />
Both varieties<br />
Unshielded 21.2a 19.0a 0.3a 1.4<br />
Tunnel 21.4a 18.8a 0.3a 1.4<br />
Unsprayed 21.0a 18.4a 0.5b 2.4<br />
Korona<br />
Unshielded 27.3a 24.4a 0.5a 1.8<br />
Tunnel 27.4a 24.0a 0.5a 1.8<br />
Unsprayed 27.3a <strong>23</strong>.5a 0.8b 2.9<br />
Elsanta<br />
Unshielded 15.0a 13.6a 0.2a 1.3<br />
Tunnel 15.4a 13.6a 0.1a 0.6<br />
Unsprayed 14.7a 13.3a 0.2a 1.4
83<br />
The Botrytis attack on berries was generally very moderate in 1998, whereas it greatly<br />
increased in 1999. Such differences between years are not uncommon and may often be<br />
explained by climatic differences during flowering. In 1999 the climate was relatively mild<br />
and humid whereas it was cooler in 1998. Also, Botrytis attacks normally tend to increase<br />
with plant age (Daugaard, 1999).<br />
When the two sprayers are considered, it was demonstrated in this trial that their<br />
biological effects on the control of Botrytis were comparable. This result is obtained despite<br />
the fact that the dose with the shielded JT tunnel sprayer was 2 kg ha -1 and the unshielded row<br />
application kit used 3 kg ha -1 . The different doses were chosen in order to compare the<br />
potential in the shielded technique, and the result cannot be used as a general conclusion that<br />
the dose can be reduced with 33% when the shielded JT tunnel sprayer is used as an<br />
alternative to an unshielded row application kit. The result indicates however that the shielded<br />
tunnel sprayer might possess a potential for reducing the fungicide dose, which needs to be<br />
further exploited. On the other hand, the use of JT tunnel sprayer did not further improve the<br />
control of Botrytis, a fact which may be expected as the type and number of nozzles and<br />
pressure used were constant.<br />
Table 2. The biological effects of unshielded and tunnel sprayers in 1999<br />
Variety/<br />
Treatment<br />
Total yield<br />
T per hectare<br />
Marketable yield Botrytis cinerea<br />
T per hectare T per hectare % of berries<br />
Both varieties<br />
Unshielded 37.1a 28.4a 7.6a 20.5<br />
Tunnel 38.3a 28.6a 8.1a 21.1<br />
Unsprayed 33.6b 24.3b 8.1a 24.1<br />
Korona<br />
Unshielded 38.4a 27.4a 10.3a 26.8<br />
Tunnel 40.0a 27.0a 12.0a 30.0<br />
Unsprayed 35.7a <strong>23</strong>.4b <strong>11</strong>.6a 32.5<br />
Elsanta<br />
Unshielded 35.7a 29.5a 4.8a 13.4<br />
Tunnel 36.7a 30.3a 4.4a 12.0<br />
Unsprayed 31.5b 25.2b 4.9a 15.6<br />
In a previous study the JT tunnel sprayer gave better coverage in the canopy of<br />
strawberries compared to a traditional boom sprayer which gave good coverage only in the<br />
upper part of the canopy (Nordmark et al., 1993). Furthermore, by using the JT tunnel sprayer<br />
the loss of pesticides to the environment is reduced compared to an unshielded row<br />
application kit (Jensen & Spliid, 1998).<br />
References<br />
Daugaard, H. 1997. Gråskimmel i jordbær – fremtidens bekæmpelse. Frugt og Bær 26: 174-<br />
175.<br />
Daugaard, H. 1998. Nytt dansk gråskimmelprosjekt. Norsk Frukt og Bær 1 (1): 9.
84<br />
Daugaard, H. 1999. Cultural methods for managing grey mould (Botrytis cinerea Pers.) of<br />
strawberry. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 16: 351-361.<br />
Jensen, P.K. and Spliid, N.H. 1998. Afdrift fra sprøjteudstyr til svampebekæmpelse i jordbær.<br />
Effekt af afskærmet jordbærbom og ledsageluft til almindelig marksprøjte. DJF-Rapport<br />
nr. 3: 229-<strong>23</strong>8.<br />
Nordmark, L., B. Mattsson and S.-A. Svensson 1993. Förbättrad appliceringsteknik –<br />
minskad användning av bekämpningsmedel inom grönsaks- och bärodling. SLU<br />
Info/Trädgård rapport 376, pp. 60.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 85 - 89<br />
Spray application techniques in Integrated Production of soft fruit<br />
Grzegorz Doruchowski, Barbara Łabanowska, Artur Godyń, Ryszard Hołownicki<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Pomologiczna 18, PL 96-100 Skierniewice,<br />
Poland<br />
Abstract: Among the requirements of the integrated production of soft fruit there are none regarding the<br />
spraying technique whereas it is recognised to be a crucial factor influencing both the biological effect of<br />
treatments and a risk of environmental pollution. The specialist sprayers designed to the type of crop<br />
should replace the conventional equipment that cannot ensure effective and safe use of chemicals. The<br />
calibration of the sprayers allowing proper selection of the sprayer’s working parameters as well as an<br />
official inspection of the sprayers guaranteeing their safe and correct operation also contribute to efficient<br />
and safe use of chemicals. The requirements concerning the type of the sprayers, calibration and<br />
inspection of spray equipment should be discussed and implemented in the general IFP rules<br />
Key words: soft fruit, integrated production, spraying technique, sprayer calibration, sprayer testing<br />
Introduction<br />
A chemical plant protection in integrated fruit production should cause minimum possible<br />
damage to the environment. The spraying technique that is used to apply plant protection<br />
products in soft fruit is a crucial factor influencing both the biological effect of treatments and<br />
risk of environmental pollution. It has especially great meaning in Poland, which is one of the<br />
leading producers of soft fruit and where the chemicals are used at a large scale to protect fruit<br />
crops against agrophagi.<br />
The sprayers and the way the treatments are made are not the only important things to be<br />
taken into account in IFP. The calibration of the sprayers allowing for proper selection of the<br />
sprayers’ working parameters as well as an official inspection of the sprayers guaranteeing their<br />
safe and correct operation considerably contribute to efficient and safe use of chemicals.<br />
Among the requirements of the integrated production of soft fruit there are many regarding<br />
chemicals but none are connected to the spraying technique. Having recognised it’s importance<br />
we suggest to implement the requirements concerning the type of sprayer as well as calibration<br />
and inspection of sprayers in the general IFP rules. In this paper some arguments are presented to<br />
support this suggestion and to be a germ of a discussion..<br />
Sprayers<br />
The environment-friendly spraying techniques should assure satisfactory biological effect with a<br />
minimal dose of a chemical applied only where needed and with minimum emission to the<br />
environment. This can be achieved with the sprayers performing a precise, target-oriented spray<br />
application. Thus, the design of the sprayer dedicated to soft fruit depends on the size and type of<br />
a crop.<br />
85
86<br />
Strawberries<br />
In the strawberry plantations the conventional field crop sprayers are still commonly used. Since<br />
they apply the spray uniformly along the boom, the same amount of chemicals is deposited on the<br />
plants and on the soil between the rows of plants. This soil deposition is an obvious economical<br />
loss and a considerable source of soil contamination, which is in contradiction with the code of a<br />
good practice in plant protection and especially with the rules of IFP.<br />
These conventional field crop sprayers should be replaced by the target-oriented row-crop<br />
sprayers (Fig. 1) in which the spray is directed on the plants to use chemicals more efficiently and<br />
to minimise the deposition on the soil. In the row-crop sprayer each row of strawberries is<br />
sprayed by the 3 or 4 plant oriented nozzles mounted on the frame or adjustable arms. These<br />
frames are attached on the horizontal boom and spaced according to the row spacing so several<br />
rows of strawberries can be sprayed during one pass. With the row-crop sprayers a satisfactory<br />
biological effect is achieved at spray volumes 600 l/ha, compared to 1200-<strong>2000</strong> l/ha used with<br />
conventional sprayers (Bera et al., 1983). In our own studies we found that even lower volume<br />
(400 l/ha) was very efficient in control of grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) and two-spotted spider<br />
mite (Tetranychus urticae) (Doruchowski, 1999).<br />
To minimise the spray drift and wind interference in the spray deposition process the minitunnels<br />
are used instead of frames. According to Daugaard (1999), a satisfactory control of grey<br />
mould can be obtained with a tunnel sprayer with a fungicide dose reduced to 2/3 of that<br />
recommended for applications done by conventional sprayers.<br />
The best results are obtained with the air-assisted row-crop sprayer (Fig. 2). This machine<br />
has the nozzles mounted in the centre of round spouts from which air-jet is emitted to take the<br />
drops at a high speed to the target surface and simultaneously ruffle its leaves. Usually two spouts<br />
are directed at different angles at each row of plants. The air assistance ensures a good<br />
penetration and cover of the spray over the plant even during windy conditions. The operational<br />
advantages of the sprayer include the ability to reduce spray volumes to 1/10 of the traditional<br />
one and use higher driving velocities (Taylor & Druin, 1987). Antonin et al. (1989) obtained<br />
better grey mould control with spray volume 200 l/ha applied with air assistance than 200 and<br />
800 l/ha without air. The volumes 200-400 l/ha are practically used by Polish strawberry growers<br />
using air-assisted row crop sprayers to control pests and diseases. Thus, the row crop sprayers are<br />
not only environmentally friendly but they also give a profit to the strawberry grower.<br />
Figure 1. Row-crop sprayers for strawberries<br />
Figure 2. Air-assisted row-crop sprayer
87<br />
Bush fruit<br />
The bush fruit such as currants, goose berries, raspberries and choke berries need air assistance<br />
for spray application. The conventional orchard sprayers with a radial air emission system are<br />
commonly used in bush fruit plantations. Since these machines were designed to spray over the<br />
trees, the range of spray emission is not well matched to the bushes, which results in poor canopy<br />
penetration and high spray loss. To reduce the range of spray plume generated by the<br />
conventional mistblowers the air deflectors can be mounted on the axial fans (Fig. 3) or the<br />
special directed air-jet systems can be used (Fig. 4). By directing the air-jet to the bushes the<br />
spray is applied more precisely with lower emission to the environment. According to Cross and<br />
Walklate (Lovelidge, 1993) one can obtain better canopy penetration with the sprayer producing<br />
several air jets coming from different angles then when the air flow comes from one direction.<br />
The researchers compared the effect of treatments in black currants made with a pneumatic<br />
sprayer where the droplets were carried by numerous air currents with a conventional radial flow<br />
mistblower. The pneumatic sprayer produced 20% higher deposit and 50% higher coverage on<br />
currant leaves than did the conventional sprayer. Due to a better penetration the pneumatic<br />
sprayer ensured more uniform spray distribution within the bush canopy, which resulted in a<br />
more efficient control of American gooseberry mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae) and leaf midge<br />
(Dasyneura tetensi).<br />
Doruchowski et al (1999) evaluated the canopy penetration and spray loss produced by the<br />
directed air jet sprayer with ten (five per side) adjustable air spouts at the end of flexible ducts<br />
and conventional radial flow mistblower. The results showed that in the directed air jet sprayer<br />
the spray deposit was considerably higher and the spray loss to the air several times lower than in<br />
a conventional sprayer. Thus, once again the more precise application technique performed by the<br />
specialistic sprayers gave better treatment quality with lower environmental pollution. These<br />
sprayers should replace the conventional mistblowers and their use should be required in<br />
integrated production of bush fruit.<br />
Figure 3. Deflector sprayer for bush fruit<br />
Figure 4. Directed air-jet sprayer for bush fruit<br />
Calibration of sprayers<br />
The calibration of the sprayer means determining the basic working parameters of the machine in<br />
order to accomplish the spray job according to the requirements. These requirements may specify<br />
the spray volume, spray quality (nozzles) or field capacity.<br />
While the introduction of the new spraying technique needs an investment the calibration of<br />
the sprayer can be done by the owner without any costs. Setting the correct working parameters
88<br />
being a result of the calibration ensures applying a precise dose of a chemical with minimum<br />
chemical residue in the tank. The optimal selection of travel velocity, nozzles and pressure results<br />
in reduced spray emission to the environment. During the calibration all the functions of the<br />
sprayer are checked, the damaged and worn out parts are replaced and all the necessary repairs<br />
are done. This eliminates or at least reduces to minimum the risk of a break-down of the sprayer<br />
during the treatments. The accuracy of spray application and reliability of the calibrated sprayer<br />
lead always to the increased efficacy and reduced costs of plant protection with minimum<br />
emission to the environment.<br />
Inspection of sprayers<br />
Deposition of insufficient dose of chemicals fails to kill the agrophagi and in long term it can lead<br />
to development of a resistance to the product. On the other hand, too high dose of applied<br />
chemical can lead to intolerable concentration of residue, which may remain for a long time in<br />
the fruit. The herbicides applied in the wrong place can easily destroy nearby plants. In every<br />
case the expensive protective agents and time are wasted at the expense of both the grower and<br />
the environment. It is therefore vitally important that the spraying equipment should be perfectly<br />
maintained, in a good operational condition and reliable. For this reason in many countries the<br />
voluntary or compulsory regular inspections of sprayers has been introduced. The inspections are<br />
carried out by the approved test stations equipped with a professional diagnostic equipment<br />
which guarantees a high quality service. During the inspection the sprayer is checked for<br />
functionality, reliability and application accuracy as well as for a safety for the operator and the<br />
environment. The whole testing procedure is usually made in the presence of the sprayer’s owner<br />
and the evaluation is done in form of discussion with him. This educational character of the<br />
inspection results in increased grower‘s knowledge and awareness on plant protection<br />
technology. In some countries in the test stations the sprayers are also repaired and/or upgraded if<br />
the sprayer’s owner wishes so.<br />
With the professionally tested and adjusted sprayer the grower can be sure that the carefully<br />
prepared chemical is applied where it is needed and in the proper quantity. All his efforts and<br />
expenses are not in vain when the spraying equipment itself works correctly and reliably. Only in<br />
such a case the spraying method meets the requirements of a safe, economical and efficient use of<br />
plant protection products.<br />
Conclusions<br />
1. The use of modern spraying techniques dedicated to the crops, careful and systematic<br />
calibration of the sprayers as well as inspection of sprayers made by professional testing<br />
stations give the growers a better biological effect of plant protection at the lowest chemical<br />
input, minimised spray loss and reduced costs of treatments.<br />
2. The requirements regarding the type of sprayer dedicated to the crop, calibration and<br />
inspection of spray equipment should be implemented in IFP rules.<br />
References<br />
Antonin, Ph., Mittaz, Ch., Fellay, D. & Udry, V., 1989. Techniques d’applications<br />
phytosanitaires en cultures de fraisiers (Spraying techniques in strawberries). Revue Suisse
Vitic. Arboric Hortic. 21(4): 247-250.<br />
Bera, B., Cichocki, J., Czuba, S. & Mrozowska, T., 1983. Porównanie skuteczności różnych<br />
technik opryskiwania plantacji truskawek przeciwko szarej pleśni. Prace Instytutu<br />
Sadownictwa i Kwiaciarstwa, Seria A, 24: 347-354.<br />
Daugaard, H., 1999. Personal communication. Danish Inst. of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of<br />
Fruit and Vegetables, kirstinebjergvej 10, DK-5792 Arslev, Denmark, tel: +45 63904343,<br />
fax: +45 63904396, e-mail: holger.daugaard@agrsci.dk<br />
Doruchowski, G., 1999. Technika ochrony truskawek. Ogólnopolska Konferencja Truskawkowa,<br />
ISK Skierniewice 9.03.1999: 37-48.<br />
Doruchowski, G., Łabanowska, B., Goszczyński, W., Godyń, A. & Holownicki, R., 1999. Spray<br />
deposit, spray loss and biological efficacy of chemicals applied with different spraying<br />
techniques in black currants. International Conference on Techniques in Plant Protection,<br />
Warsaw <strong>23</strong>.-26.05.1999, SGGW-AR Warszawa, pp: 25-32.<br />
Lovelidge, B., 1993. Spraying all directions. Grower 120(13): 20-21.<br />
Taylor, W. & Druin, B., 1987. Spray deposit on strawberries when applied with air assistance at<br />
differing volume rates. Proceedings Crop Protection in Northern Britain 1987: 324-329.<br />
89
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 91 - 98<br />
Improving strawberry spraying<br />
J. V. Cross, A. M. Berrie and R. A. Murray<br />
Horticulture Research International, East Malling, West Malling, Kent ME19 6BJ, UK<br />
Abstract: The effect of two spray volumes (160 l ha -1 ‘LV’ and 530-540 l ha -1 ‘MV’) and two spray<br />
qualities (‘fine’ VMD=181-187 µm and ‘medium’ ‘VMD’=221-<strong>23</strong>2 µm) on the efficacy of<br />
myclobutanil and bupirimate for mildew control, of dichlofluanid and iprodione for Botrytis control<br />
and of the clofentezine for two-spotted spider mite control on strawberries (cvs. Tango and Bolero)<br />
was compared factorially. The strawberries were grown on raised, polythene-mulched beds and sprays<br />
were applied with a Hardi Mini Variant air-assisted sprayer with three ducts directed at each bed.<br />
Medium volume spray treatments were consistently more effective for mildew control than the LV<br />
treatments and the fine spray quality treatments tended to be more effective than the medium spray<br />
quality treatments at the same spray volume. Efficacy of mildew control on leaves was in the order:<br />
MV fine>MV medium>LV fine>LV medium. Botrytis levels were too low to identify possible<br />
differences between treatments. Clofentezine reduced two-spotted spider mite by c 90%, but there<br />
were no significant differences between spray treatments.<br />
Tracer tests showed the percentage of the under-surfaces of leaves covered with spray deposits<br />
was 71%, 66%, 36% and 28% for the MV fine, MV medium, LV fine and LV medium treatments<br />
respectively. The relative efficacy of the treatments for powdery mildew control was attributed to<br />
these differences in spray cover.<br />
Key words: mildew, Botrytis, two-spotted spider mite, fungicide, acaricide, spray application, airassistance<br />
Introduction<br />
A survey of strawberry spraying practice in 1995 (Cross & Berrie, 1995) revealed a very wide<br />
range of strawberry spraying practices in the UK. Spray volumes varied between 150-1300<br />
l/ha; four different basic designs of sprayer were used commonly, spray qualities varied from<br />
very fine to medium; the numbers of nozzles targeting each row or bed varied from 1.3 to 8,<br />
forward speeds varied from 4 to 8.1 km h -1 . It was concluded that the very wide range of<br />
spraying practices was due to a lack of clear information on the most effective methods for<br />
spraying strawberries. A literature review (Cross & Berrie, 1995) revealed that the amount of<br />
published research on strawberry spraying is very limited, most investigations concentrating<br />
on the measurement of bulk spray deposits and the control of Botrytis on fruit. The work<br />
indicates that gross spray retention increases and that Botrytis control is not significantly<br />
reduced at lower volumes.<br />
To provide a better understanding of the requirements for effective spraying, an<br />
experiment funded by the UK Horticultural Development Council was done at HRI-East<br />
Malling in 1998. The objective was to determine the effects of spray volume and spray quality<br />
on the efficacy of control of powdery mildew, Botrytis and two-spotted spider mite, and on<br />
spray deposits and their distribution. The results of the experiment are reported here.<br />
Materials and methods<br />
A plantation of strawberries consisting of a 5 x 5 Latin square of 25 plots was established.<br />
Each plot comprised four 6m long, 1m wide, parallel, adjacent, raised, polythene-mulched<br />
91
92<br />
beds spaced 2 m apart of strawberry plants. Each bed had 25 plants in a double (zig-zag) row<br />
with 0.4m spacing between plants and between rows. Plots were separated by 1.0m at their<br />
ends and by 2.0 m at the sides. Two ever-bearer strawberry varieties, cvs. Tango and Bolero,<br />
were planted in each plot, in a split-plot design.<br />
Treatments were four different methods of spray application comprising a factorial<br />
comparison of two spray volumes (530-540 and 160 l ha -1 ), two spray qualities (medium<br />
(VMD = 221-<strong>23</strong>2 µm) and fine (VMD = 181-187 µm)), and an untreated control (Table 1).<br />
Table 1. Treatments<br />
Treatment<br />
Nozzle<br />
colour∗<br />
Pressure<br />
(bar)<br />
Flow rate<br />
(l min -1 )<br />
<strong>Vol</strong>ume rate<br />
(l ha -1 )<br />
VMD<br />
(µm)<br />
Medium volume - fine green 14.0 3.03 541 18<br />
Medium volume – medium blue 6.8 2.98 530 <strong>23</strong><br />
Low volume – fine orange 4.6 0.895 160 187<br />
Low volume – medium red 1.9 0.890 160 22<br />
Untreated control – – – – –<br />
∗ Albuz ATR series (black ringed tip)<br />
The different volumes and drop sizes were generated by selected Albuz (ATR series)<br />
ceramic, hollow-cone hydraulic nozzles operated at pressures chosen to give the required flow<br />
rates and drop size spectra. The drop size spectra were measured at Silsoe Research Institute<br />
using a Dantec phase doppler analyser. All sprays were applied with a Hardi Mini Variant air<br />
assisted sprayer. Three of the sprayer’s air ducts, each furnished with a single nozzle in the<br />
centre of its orifice, were trained to target each bed. One of the ducts was targeted at the<br />
centre of the bed from vertically above and was angled 30° forward. The other two ducts<br />
targeted the sides of the bed and were angled 30° backwards. One bed was sprayed at a time.<br />
The forward speed of the sprayer was 5.0 km h -1 and the power-take-off (PTO) rotational<br />
speed of the tractor was 430 rpm.<br />
A programme of sprays, principally of the fungicides myclobutanil (Systhane) (90 g a.i.<br />
ha -1 ) for powdery mildew control and dichlofluanid (Elvaron) (2.25 kg a.i. ha -1 ) for Botrytis<br />
control, was applied according to each treatment on 22 June, 3, 13, 28 July, 25August, 2, <strong>11</strong>,<br />
<strong>23</strong> September and 12 October 1998. Dichlofluanid was not applied on 22 June or 2 September<br />
because flowers were not present. To control two-spotted spider mite populations that had increased<br />
steadily during August, a spray of the acaricide clofentezine (Apollo)(200 g a.i. ha -1 )<br />
was applied according to each treatment on 2 September 1998.<br />
Pest and disease assessments<br />
The percentage of the under-surfaces of young, fully expanded leaves affected by powdery<br />
mildew was assessed in the field viz. <strong>23</strong>-24 July, 21 August and 16 October 1998. On each<br />
occasion, one fully-expanded, trifoliate leaf from each of the 12 plants in the centre of each<br />
bed of each plot (=24 per plot) was removed from the plant and the percentage of the leaf area<br />
affected by powdery mildew was estimated using a standard assessment key (Anon., 1976). In<br />
addition, a random sample of 50, 1-2 cm diameter green fruitlets of each variety, was<br />
collected from each plot on 26 August 1998. The numbers affected by powdery mildew were<br />
determined in the laboratory by examination for the presence of the disease. For two-spotted<br />
spider mite, a random sample of 25 fully expanded leaves of each variety was taken from the
93<br />
central plants in each plot on 16 September 1998, 14 days after acaricide treatment, and the<br />
numbers of mites estimated using the leaf brushing technique (Henderson & McBurnie,<br />
1942). Motile stages and eggs were counted separately. Data were subjected to analysis of<br />
variance after appropriate transformation.<br />
Quantitative tracer tests<br />
To determine the volumes of spray deposited on the plants by each spraying method, a spray<br />
tracer test was done on <strong>23</strong> September 1998. One row of five plots was sprayed sequentially by<br />
each spraying method in turn using a different EDTA chelated metal salt as a spray tracer (1g<br />
metal l -1 + 0.1% v/v non-ionic wetter (Minax)) for each spraying method viz. MV mediummanganese,<br />
MV fine – zinc, LV medium – copper, LV fine – cobalt. The spray deposit from<br />
one treatment was allowed to dry completely before the next was applied. The air temperature<br />
and relative humidity just before and after treatment applications were 19.8 °C and 64% at<br />
14.10 h and 17.4°C and 77% at 17.10 h respectively. The wind speed averaged 2 ms -1 (gusting<br />
to 3 ms -1 ) and was in a direction at right angles to the beds. After each spray application, the<br />
spray solution was discarded and replaced by a solution of the same tracer at the same<br />
concentration containing the dye tartrazine (10 g l -1 ). A small separate plot of approximately<br />
20 plants was sprayed with this solution. Previous experiments have shown that tartrazine can<br />
be recovered quantitatively from leaves by aqueous extraction and so was used as an internal<br />
standard for estimating the recovery factor for the primary tracers.<br />
Immediately after the deposit from the last spray application had dried, the following<br />
samples were taken from the plots that had received the four superimposed spray treatments:<br />
1. 40 replicate composite random samples of 25 leaflets, comprising 10 samples from the<br />
periphery and 10 from the inside of the canopy of the plants of each of the two varieties.<br />
2. 40 replicate composite random samples of 25 flowers, comprising 10 samples from outside<br />
the leaf canopy and 10 from inside the canopy of the plants of each of the two varieties.<br />
3. 200 individual flowers, 100 selected at random from each variety.<br />
4. 200 individual leaflets, 100 selected at random from each variety.<br />
The samples were stored overnight in aluminium mesh baskets (to prevent sweating and<br />
so minimise absorption of the tracer deposits into the leaf) in the laboratory. The following<br />
day, each sample was weighed and transferred to a polythene bag. Water was added to each<br />
bag, which then was shaken vigorously for 10-15 s to extract the tracer. The volume of water<br />
used for extraction was 50 ml for composite samples of leaflets, 10 ml for composite samples<br />
of flowers sampled from outside the leaf canopy, 20 ml for composite samples of flowers<br />
sampled from inside the leaf canopy, and 5 ml for individual leaflets and flowers. The<br />
concentrations of the metal salts were measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy, using<br />
analytical standards derived from each of the field-collected samples of spray tank solutions<br />
(ascribed a nominal concentration of 1 gl -1 ). The concentration of tatrazine was determined by<br />
measurement of optical absorbence at 436nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer. The<br />
areas of leaf samples were estimated from their area:weight ratio of 44.3 cm 2 g -1 . The volume<br />
of spray deposited by each spray treatment per cm 2 of leaf or per flower per 100 l of spray<br />
applied per hectare was then calculated. Data were subjected to analysis of variance.<br />
The mean area of leaf surface per plant was estimated by destructively sampling all the<br />
leaves of each of five plants of each variety and measuring the total area of leaf surface of<br />
each plant. The mean leaf area index for each variety was then calculated, from which the<br />
proportion of applied spray retained on the leaves of the plant could be estimated.
94<br />
Spray cover<br />
On 4 November 1998, a spray of the fluorescent, water-soluble tracer Tinopal CBS-X (2%<br />
w/v) in admixture with the non-ionic wetter Minax (0.1% w/v) was applied to the variety<br />
Bolero, using each of the four sprayer configurations. A separate plot was sprayed by each<br />
spraying method. Immediately after the spray had dried, a random sample of 100 fully<br />
expanded leaflets was taken from the periphery of the leaf canopy, and a further 100 from<br />
inside the leaf canopy. The underside of each leaflet was illuminated by UV light (366nm) in<br />
a dark chamber, and a digital image of the fluorescent deposit was captured by a video camera<br />
linked to a Macintosh computer. The image was analysed using image analysis software<br />
(NIH-Image, US National Institutes of Health available in the public domain on the Internet at<br />
http://rsb.info.nih.gov/nih-image/) to provide estimates of the percentage of the under-surface<br />
of each leaf covered with spray.<br />
Table 2. Mean % (and angular transformed %) of lower leaf surface infected with mildew on<br />
<strong>23</strong> July, 21 August and 16 October 1998 and mean % of green fruitlets (1-2 cm<br />
diameter) infected with mildew on 26 August 1998.<br />
Treatment Mean % leaf area infected Angular transformed % leaf<br />
area infected<br />
Tango Bolero Mean Tango Bolero Mean<br />
Leaves assessed <strong>23</strong> July 1998 (SED=2.29*)<br />
MV fine 0.09 0.18 0.14 0.39 0.66 0.53<br />
MV medium 0.08 0.32 0.20 0.40 1.43 0.92<br />
LV fine 0.93 2.95 1.94 2.47 5.12 3.79<br />
LV medium 5.4 1.15 3.28 6.98 3.43 5.21<br />
Untreated 40.6 40.5 40.6 38.5 38.7 38.6<br />
Leaves assessed 21 August 1998 (SED=2.74*)<br />
MV fine 8.2 19.2 13.7 <strong>11</strong>.9 20.6 16.2<br />
MV medium 10.8 29.2 20.0 13.7 29.1 21.4<br />
LV fine 16.5 42.0 29.2 19.2 38.8 29.0<br />
LV medium 29.0 60.2 44.6 28.3 53.5 40.9<br />
Untreated 80.9 82.5 81.7 69.0 70.6 69.8<br />
Leaves assessed 16 October 1998 (SED=1.75*)<br />
MV fine 3.6 2.1 2.8 6.1 3.9 5.0<br />
MV medium 6.1 4.8 5.4 7.6 6.7 7.1<br />
LV fine 5.2 8.1 6.7 8.2 12.4 10.3<br />
LV medium 5.9 9.8 7.9 8.2 13.0 10.6<br />
Untreated 24.2 26.8 25.5 26.0 26.6 26.3<br />
Green fruitlets assessed 26 August 1998 (SED=4.84*)<br />
MV fine <strong>23</strong>.1 8.7 15.9 27.3 15.5 21.4<br />
MV medium 25.4 8.1 16.7 29.3 14.7 22.0<br />
LV fine 36.0 15.3 25.7 35.7 22.2 29.0<br />
LV medium 19.9 <strong>11</strong>.7 15.8 24.3 18.5 21.4<br />
Untreated 51.2 34.2 42.7 45.3 35.5 40.4<br />
* SEDs are for comparisons between mean angular transformed values only
95<br />
Results<br />
Powdery mildew<br />
All the spray treatments reduced levels of infection significantly compared to the untreated<br />
control on the three assessment dates (Table 2). However, the MV fine treatment had<br />
consistently the smallest amounts of mildew and the LV medium treatment the greatest. The<br />
MV treatments were consistently more effective than the LV treatments and the fine spray<br />
quality treatments tended to be more effective than the medium spray quality treatments at the<br />
same spray volume, though differences were only large enough to be statistically significant<br />
on 21 August. Thus the efficacy of the treatments for mildew control on leaves fell into a<br />
clearly defined order: MV fine>MV medium>LV fine>LV medium. There were no<br />
significant differences between the mean percentage leaf areas infected on the two varieties.<br />
All the spray treatments reduced the percentage of green fruitlets 1-2 cm in diameter<br />
infected with mildew significantly compared to the untreated control. However, there were no<br />
statistically significant differences between the spray treatments.<br />
Botrytis<br />
The percentages of ripe fruits infected with Botrytis were very low, usually near zero, even on<br />
the untreated control plots. The highest percentages were recorded on 6 August 1998 when<br />
approximately 4% of fruits on the untreated control plots were infected. Percentages were<br />
smaller for the fungicide-sprayed treatments, but the data were too erratic and contained too<br />
many zero values for valid statistical analysis.<br />
Two-spotted spider mite<br />
By 16 September 1998, all the spray treatments with clofentezine (Apollo) applied on 2<br />
September had reduced the numbers of two-spotted spider mite eggs and motile stages<br />
significantly by a factor of 10 fold or more compared to the untreated control (Table 3).<br />
However, there were no significant differences between the spray treatments themselves.<br />
Table 3. Mean numbers of two-spotted spider mite<br />
Treatment Tango Bolero Mean<br />
Eggs Motiles All Eggs Motiles All Eggs Motiles All<br />
Mean numbers of mites<br />
MV fine 831 <strong>11</strong>5 946 96 31 127 464 73 537<br />
MV med. 210 65 274 163 25 188 186 45 <strong>23</strong>1<br />
LV fine 383 95 479 312 101 412 348 98 445<br />
LV med. 617 131 747 278 65 343 447 98 545<br />
Untreated 5149 1549 6698 3270 1470 4740 4210 1510 5719<br />
Spray deposits<br />
Significantly greater spray deposits were recovered from the composite samples of 25 leaves<br />
(50% greater) and from the composite samples of 25 flowers (25% greater) for the MV<br />
medium and LV fine treatments than for the MV fine and LV medium treatments (Table 4).<br />
On cv. Tango, deposits on outer leaves were approximately double those on leaves sampled<br />
from the inside of the plant but, on cv. Bolero, volumes deposited on inner and outer leaves
96<br />
were similar. The leaf area indices for cv. Tango and cv. Bolero were 1.03 and 1.30<br />
respectively indicating that grand means of 13.8% and 28.1% respectively of the applied<br />
spray were deposited on the crop. Casual observation suggested that he rest was lost mainly as<br />
deposits on the ground (mostly on the polythene) with a small percentage as spray drift.<br />
Table 4. Mean volumes of spray deposited on composite samples of 25 leaves (including<br />
upper and lower leaf surfaces) (µl cm -2 per 100l ha -1 sprayed).<br />
Treatment<br />
Tango<br />
Bolero<br />
Inside Outside Mean Inside Outside Mean<br />
Mean volumes deposited on leaves (SED = 0.022)<br />
MV fine 0.09 0.16 0.13 0.17 0.14 0.16<br />
MV medium 0.12 0.28 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.<strong>23</strong><br />
LV fine 0.13 0.31 0.22 0.27 0.29 0.28<br />
LV medium 0.12 0.15 0.13 0.27 0.13 0.20<br />
Mean volumes deposited on the undersides of leaves by the different spray treatments had<br />
the same pattern of relative values as those on the composite samples of leaves: the MV<br />
medium and the LV fine treatments had significantly greater values than the MV fine or the<br />
LV medium (Table 5). However deposits on cv. Tango were consistently greater than on cv.<br />
Bolero. The four different spray treatments gave broadly similar leaf-to-leaf distributions of<br />
deposits on the under-surfaces of leaves. Statistical analysis showed that the log-normal<br />
distribution provided a good fit to the data for each variety. Coefficients of variation were<br />
calculated. These showed that the LV medium treatment (CV = 127%) gave markedly more<br />
variable deposits than the other three treatments (CV= 85-90%).<br />
As for the individual leaves, statistical analysis showed that the log-normal distribution<br />
provided a good fit to the data for each variety. Coefficients of variation were calculated. The<br />
LV treatments tended to have higher coefficients of variation (85% for the data for both<br />
varieties combined) than the MV treatments (70-74%), though differences were small and<br />
inconsistent The four different spray treatments gave similar flower-to-flower distributions of<br />
deposits. at the individual variety and sampling zone level.<br />
Table 5. Mean volumes (µl cm -2 per 100l ha -1 sprayed) of spray deposited on the undersurfaces<br />
of individual leaves and coefficients of variation<br />
Treatment<br />
Tango<br />
Bolero<br />
mean CV% Mean CV%<br />
MV fine 0.15 86 0.10 70<br />
MV medium 0.27 87 0.17 78<br />
LV fine 0.24 88 0.18 88<br />
LV medium 0.17 128 0.12 <strong>11</strong>6<br />
Spray cover<br />
There were large, statistically significant differences in the percentage of the under-surfaces<br />
of leaves covered with spray deposits of the fluorescent tracer Tinopal CBS-X (Table 6). In
97<br />
descending order of magnitude, the overall mean % cover was greatest for the MV fine<br />
treatment (71%) followed by the MV medium treatment (66%) followed by the LV fine<br />
treatment (36%) with the smallest % cover on the LV medium treatment (28%). The MV<br />
treatments gave significantly better cover on the undersides of outer leaves than inner, but it<br />
was vice versa for the LV treatments.<br />
Table 6. Percentage of under-surfaces of leaves covered with spray estimated by image<br />
analysis of deposits of the fluorescent tracer Tinopal CBS-X<br />
Treatment Inner Outer Mean<br />
Mean % leaf under-surface covered with spray (SED = 2.13)<br />
MV fine 61.1 80.0 70.5<br />
MV medium 57.1 75.4 66.3<br />
LV fine 42.7 29.7 36.2<br />
LV medium 30.9 25.1 28.0<br />
Mean 48.0 52.6 50.3<br />
Discussion<br />
The results show clear, consistent differences in the efficacy of control of powdery mildew on<br />
leaves. The MV fine treatment was most effective, followed by the MV medium treatment<br />
followed by the LV fine treatment with the LV medium treatment being least effective. The<br />
3.4 fold increase in spray volume between the LV (160 lha -1 ) and MV (540 lha -1 ) treatments<br />
gave a greater increase in efficacy than the 1.4 fold reduction in <strong>Vol</strong>ume Median Diameter<br />
(VMD) from the medium (221-<strong>23</strong>2 µm) to the fine (181-186 µm) spray quality. Higher<br />
volume sprays of finer quality are likely to be more efficacious than lower volume, medium<br />
quality sprays for mildew control. However, differences are likely to be small, perhaps<br />
insignificant, if sprays are applied more frequently (e.g. weekly) and/or if infection pressure is<br />
lower. The degree of efficacy of mildew control appeared to be related to the percentage spray<br />
cover on the undersides of leaves. Efficacy increased with increasing spray cover.<br />
Myclobutanil (Systhane) is a partially systemic fungicide. However, a higher percentage<br />
cover ensures that a greater proportion of the leaf surface is protected by high levels of<br />
surface deposit. It is possible that uptake of fungicide into the plant is greater and more<br />
efficient when it is spread over a greater area of leaf surface. Levels of Botrytis were too low<br />
to discriminate between the efficacy of treatments. Fairly good control (c. 90%) of twospotted<br />
spider mite was achieved by all the treatments. This result is perhaps surprising, as<br />
clofentezine (Apollo) is a contact-acting ovicide. A greater proportion of eggs would be<br />
contacted directly by spray from treatments that gave a higher percentage spray cover on the<br />
undersides of leaves, where the mites occur.<br />
The significantly greater deposits with the MV medium and LV fine treatments are<br />
difficult to explain. The differences occurred on leaves and flowers of both varieties in both<br />
sampling zones, on upper and lower leaf surfaces combined and on the lower surfaces alone.<br />
It is suspected this result is an artifact of the tracer methodology used. Possible explanations<br />
are that the recoveries of the individual tracers were not accurately estimated or that<br />
successive spray treatments interfered with each other.
98<br />
The log-normal distributions of leaf-to-leaf and flower-to-flower deposits indicate that<br />
significant proportions of leaves or flowers are likely to have a very much greater deposits on<br />
them than the means. The LV medium treatment gave a markedly more variable deposit than<br />
the other treatments indicating that this treatment should be avoided.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This work was funded by the Horticultural Development Council, UK. We are very grateful<br />
to John Handford, FAST for his advice and support with the conduct of this work. We are<br />
also grateful to Claire Bultler-Ellis, Paul Miller and Peter Walklate, Silsoe Research Institute<br />
who made the drop spectra measurements.<br />
References<br />
Anon. 1976. Agricultural Development and Advisory Service Strawberry Mildew Assessment<br />
Key 8.1.1. MAFF, 2 pp.<br />
Cross J. V. & Berrie A. M. 1995. Strawberry: A review of the published literature and<br />
available information on spray application for pest and disease control on commercial<br />
crops. Report to HDC on contract No. SF 42 issued 1 December 1995, 36 pp.<br />
Henderson C. F. & McBurnie H. V. 1942. Sampling techniques to determine populations of<br />
the citrus red mite and its predators. US Department of Agriculture, Circular 671: 1-<strong>11</strong>.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 99 - 102<br />
Weed species on soft fruit plantations in Poland<br />
Jerzy Lisek<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Fruit Crop Management and<br />
Plant Nutrition, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Abstract: Weeds community has been described in 1993-1999 on strawberry, currants, raspberry,<br />
gooseberry and blueberry plantations located in Central, Eastern and Southern Poland. Annual and<br />
perennial weed species with frequent occurrence on soft fruit plantations have been mentioned. The<br />
connections among the kind of weeds on plantations and environmental factors, method of weed control<br />
and the age of plantations have been found.<br />
Key words: weed species, soft fruits<br />
Introduction<br />
Weeds on small fruit plantations not only compete for nutrients and water but also have negative<br />
allelopathic effect on growth and yield of cultural plants. They reduce harvest efficiency, increase<br />
fungal diseases and are host for virus and phytoplasma factor insects. For this reason weeds<br />
control is recommended. The efficient weed control is difficult as weeds belong to different<br />
botanical families and have different biology. The essential condition of choice of an efficient<br />
control method is the knowledge of weed species, which are a problem on plantations. Species<br />
richness of weed communities is determined by natural components (soil, climate) and artificial<br />
ones (kind of crop, method of control) and it is still evolving. Long-term field studies on the<br />
distribution of weed species and modelling its relation to the environment are useful to define an<br />
emergency of weed species infestation (Dessaint 1999, Mikulka & Chodová 1999). Only part of<br />
all Polish flora species can be a problem as weeds in different crops (Tymrakiewicz 1976, Szafer<br />
et al. 1988). Weed societies on strawberry and fruit bush plantations are specific in comparison<br />
with other crops (Lisek 1997, 1999).<br />
Material and methods<br />
Species richness of weed communities was determined on 56 plantations of strawberry, currants,<br />
raspberry, gooseberry and blueberry. The investigations were carried out in 1993-1996, in three<br />
regions of Poland (main town or village in the brackets):<br />
– Central (Skierniewice, Łowicz);<br />
– Eastern (Kraśnik, Opole Lubelskie);<br />
– Southern (Nowy Sącz, Brzezna).<br />
The assessment was done three times a year during April/May, July/August and<br />
September/Oktober. The localities differed in soil and climate conditions, forecrops, cultural<br />
practices (prior to planting and during weed evaluation) and age of plantations.<br />
Differences in methods of weed control were especially important. The most popular method<br />
of plantation management for currants, raspberry and gooseberry was mechanical soil cultivation<br />
with rotavator in the interrows and herbicide application in the zone of bushes. Numerous<br />
mowing of weeds in interrows on older plantations was typical in Central Poland. For plantations<br />
99
100<br />
localised in Southern Poland with high quantities of precipitation and in eastern part located on<br />
loam soils, low growing perennial grasses were the basic method of weed control in alleyways.<br />
On most of the strawberry plantations mechanical soil cultivation was combined with herbicide<br />
use. The soil on some of the strawberry plantations was mulched with plastic or straw. Blueberry<br />
plantations were mulched with peat or tree bark and herbicides were used as an additional method<br />
of weed control.<br />
During the assessments the presence of weed species on plantations and their frequency<br />
(percent of soil area covered with one species in comparison with the whole weed community)<br />
were evaluated.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
The plantations were infested with annual and perennial weed species (Tab. 1 and 2). The species<br />
were divided into three groups:<br />
I – dominant - species from this group were present on more than 80% of all the plantations.<br />
The frequency on the plantations infested with this species was high; often more than 20%<br />
of soil was covered with weeds during the time of one assessment.<br />
II – important - species were found on 30-80% of the evaluated plantations. The frequency<br />
differed from 5% to more than 20% of the all number of weeds, but generally was lower<br />
than for species from I group.<br />
III – specific for some plantations – occurs on less than 30% all the plantations. The typical<br />
frequency for this group on infested plantations was below 10% of soil covered with weeds<br />
but on few plantations (respectively some parts of the fields) was high.<br />
Table 1. Annual weed species on soft fruit plantations<br />
Group of frequency<br />
I – dominant<br />
II – important<br />
III – specific<br />
Weed species<br />
Stellaria media, Senecio vulgaris, Lamium purpureum,<br />
Chenopodium album, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Viola arvensis,<br />
Amaranthus retroflexus, Poa annua, Echinochloa crus-galli<br />
Conyza canadensis, Geranium pusillum, Anthemis arvensis,<br />
Anthemis cotula, Matricaria maritima subsp. inodora,<br />
Chamomilla recutita, Chamomilla suaveolens, Polygonum<br />
persicaria, Polygonum aviculare, Fallopia convolvulus,<br />
Galium aparine, Urtica urens, Setaria viridis, Setaria glauca,<br />
Veronica persica, Veronica hederifolia, Bromus hordeaceus,<br />
Lamium amplexicaule, Raphanus raphanistrum<br />
48 species, the most popular of them:<br />
Erodium cicutarium, Digitaria sanguinalis, Gnaphalium<br />
uliginosum, Lactuca serriola, Atriplex patula, Galinsoga<br />
parviflora,
101<br />
Table 2. Perennial weed species on soft fruit plantations.<br />
Group of frequency<br />
I – dominant<br />
II – important<br />
III – specific<br />
Weed species<br />
Taraxacum offcinale, Agropyron repens, Equisetum arvense,<br />
Cirsium arvense, Convolvulus arvensis<br />
Artemisia vulgaris, Rumex acetosella, Rumex crispus, Rumex<br />
obtusifolius, Achillea millefolium, Rorippa sylvestris, Sonchus<br />
arvensis, Vicia cracca, Malva neglecta, Trifolium repens<br />
39 species, the most popular of them:<br />
Urtica dioica, Polygonum amphibium var. terrestre,<br />
Ranunculus repens, Epilobium adenocaulon, Epilobium<br />
montanum, Potentilla reptans, Potentilla anserina, Mentha<br />
arvensis, Stachys palustris, Solidago canadensis, Plantago<br />
maior, seedlings of Tilia, Acer, Betula and other tree species<br />
Only a few annual and perennial weed species were found on almost all plantations. The<br />
greater number of species was connected with specific environmental conditions. For example,<br />
Erodium cicutarium and Digitaria sanguinalis were found on dry soils, Gnaphalium uliginosum,<br />
Mentha arvensis, Polygonum amphibium var. terrestre were typical for wet localities, Polygonum<br />
aviculare, Chamomilla recutita, Plantago maior were found first of all on the places near<br />
highways, but P. aviculare expanded progressively to the whole area of plantations.<br />
The weed species spectrum on strawberry plantations was similar to those from arable lands<br />
in the same conditions. Annual weed species were dominant in strawberries due to corn as a<br />
forecrop, soil tillage and short time of plantation exploitation (3-4 years). The number of<br />
perennial weeds increased with the age of plantations, especially on those strawberry fields where<br />
herbicides were used as the main way of weed control. Soil mulching with plastic did not fully<br />
protect against weed emergency. Seeds of Poa annua and Echinochloa crus-galli often emerged<br />
in the places where strawberries were planted. Straw mulching sometimes caused infestation of<br />
weeds typical of corn, e.g. Centaurea cyanus.<br />
Perennials species were more frequent on the bush plantations than on strawberry. The<br />
number of perennials increased with the age of plantation as a result of many years of soil tillage<br />
absence in the bush rows or on the whole plantation. Some of annual weed species (Thlaspi<br />
arvense, Galinsoga parviflora) were typical of newly planted bush plantations. One of the<br />
popular annual species Chenopodium album was more frequent on young plantations than on<br />
older ones. The important weed species in bush plantations were perennials hard to be controlled<br />
with herbicides (Equisetum arvense, Taraxacum officinale), annuals with long time of emergence<br />
during the year (Poa annua, Senecio vulgaris, Stellaria media), annuals with a great number of<br />
seeds, which possess a high persistence in soil (Echinochloa crus-galli, Amaranthus retroflexus).<br />
A great number of perennials were described when plantations were established after orchards or<br />
old bush plantation. The absence of a chemical control of numerous perennials prior to bushes or<br />
strawberries planting increased the frequency of this weed group on young plantations. Trends of<br />
distribution of specific weed species are similar to bush plantations and orchard (Lisek, 1997,<br />
1999). Minimum soil tillage affected this tendency. On localities near orchards Epilobium<br />
adenocaulon were noticed. Epilobium adenocaulon is a native of North America. For the first<br />
time it was found in Poland in 1917 and was described as a plant typical for forests (Szafer et al.,
102<br />
1988). 25 or 30 years ago this species was no problem (Tymrakiewicz, 1976). Now E.<br />
adenocaulon has strongly infested some orchards (Lisek, 1997) and probably can be spread on<br />
bush plantations. In last years a next perennial species - Rorippa sylvestris has infested arable<br />
crops, orchards and small fruit plantations. High precipitation in 1996-1998 in Poland influenced<br />
the invasion of R. sylvestris because this species prefers wet localisation (Tymrakiewicz, 1976,<br />
Szafer et al., 1988). On the bush plantation localised near roads and forests, the numerous<br />
seedlings of tree species, like Tilia, Acer and Betula were found.<br />
The kind of herbicide used influences the weed species spectrum (Mikulka & Chodová,<br />
1999). Some weed species, for e.g. Conyza canadensis were selected as a result of a long-term<br />
use of triazines. Plantations infested with Conyza canadensis are becoming fewer in Poland every<br />
year because the use of triazines is limited. In the seventies this species was one of the most<br />
troublesome on bush plantations.<br />
Specific weed species were noticed on the blueberries plantations: Rumex sp., Equisetum<br />
arvense, Polygonum amphibium, Epilobium adenocaulon, Chamaenerion anguistifolium and<br />
Rorippa sylvestris. The trend of the distribution of these species was connected with low pH of<br />
the soil and with the use of organic mulches, which could not stop perennial plants growing.<br />
Respectively, great number of different weed species (130) on soft fruit plantations is<br />
connected with various methods of control. Integrated Fruit Production is a good model for weed<br />
control because it combines different methods, which can be useful depending on conditions.<br />
References<br />
Dessaint F., 1999. Species richness of weed communities: modelling its relation to the<br />
environment. Proc. <strong>11</strong> th EWRS Symposium, Basel Switzerland, 28 June-1 July 1999: 31.<br />
Lisek J., 1997. Sadowniczy atlas chwastów. ISK Skierniewice, 129 pp.<br />
Lisek J., 1999. Zwalczanie chwastów na plantacjach krzewów jagodowych. Proc. Conf.<br />
Intensyfikacja Produkcji Owoców z Krzewów Jagodowych, Skierniewice Poland, 9 June<br />
1999: 60-63.<br />
Mikulka J. & Chodová D., 1999. Long-term changes in weed societies in the Czech Republic.<br />
Proc. <strong>11</strong> th EWRS Symposium, Basel Switzerland, 28 June-1 July 1999: 34.<br />
Szafer W., Kulczyński S. & Pawłowski B. 1988. Rośliny Polskie vol.1-2. PWN Warsaw, p. 1019.<br />
Tymrakiewicz W. 1976. Atlas Chwastów. PWRiL Warsaw, p. 439.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 103 - 108<br />
Possibilities of efficient weed control in Integrated Production<br />
of soft fruits<br />
Jerzy Lisek<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Fruit Crop Management and<br />
Plant Nutrition, Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Abstract: This paper contains results obtained in field experiments on weed control on small fruit<br />
plantations and describes cultural practices connected with weed control recommended for Integrated<br />
Production of Soft Fruits in Poland. Positive and negative sides of herbicide use, soil cultivation and<br />
mulching are mentioned. Specific problems with weed control in strawberries, currants, raspberries and<br />
blueberries – biological efficiency of different methods, selectivity of herbicides as well as technical<br />
possibilities are described. Phenmedipham alone or in mixtures with desmedipham and ethofumesate is<br />
recommended for strawberries. Napropamide is effective for weed control in newly planted fruit bushes.<br />
Clopyralid is a selective herbicide for blackcurrants.<br />
Key words: weeds, integrated control, herbicides, soft fruits<br />
Introduction<br />
The aim of the integrated method of weed control is both to minimise the use of herbicides and<br />
protect the soil from erosion. Strawberries and fruit bushes need weed control because of the<br />
competition for nutrients and water (Lawson & Wiseman, 1976). Persistent, residual herbicides<br />
are especially dangerous for the environment. Some herbicides recommend for standard<br />
production of strawberries and bush fruits are not suitable for Integrated Production. The time of<br />
degradation of lenacil in the soil is shorter than 6 months, but for simazine it is even longer than<br />
15 months (Ragab & Leefe, 1972; Kostowska, 1982). Phenmedipham is a proper herbicide for<br />
weed control in strawberries since it has a good selectivity for this crop (Robinson & Rath, 1970;<br />
Uprichard, 1972; Niggli & Potter, 1988). Mixtures of phenmedipham and desmedipham,<br />
phenmedipham and ethofumesate or ethofumesate alone are used to broaden the spectrum of<br />
controlled weed species in strawberries (Clay, 1979, 1981, 1982; Lawson & Wiseman, 1980; Cox<br />
& Cerr, 1981). These active ingredients have a synergistic action on weeds and short a time of<br />
degradation in the soil and plants (Davis & Dubabek, 1973’ van Hoogstraten et al., 1974;<br />
Hammond et al., 1976; Tena et al., 1982). Napropamide is a safe and effective herbicide for<br />
winter application in various soft fruit crops (Walker et al., 1985; Lawson & Wiseman, 1987).<br />
Glyphosate-containing herbicides control perennial weeds prior to strawberries and bushes<br />
planting (Lisek & Chlebowska, 1993; Cianciara & Lisek, 1993). Clopyralid is selective for<br />
strawberries (Bailey & Clay, 1980) and is safe for black currants (Cianciara et al., 1988).<br />
Glufosinat-ammonium gave good control of both strawberry runners and weeds on bush<br />
plantations (Lawson & Wiseman, 1985; Cianciara et al., 1988). Quizalofop-p-ethyl is a selective<br />
herbicide for grasses control on soft fruit plantations (Cianciara, 1985).<br />
103
104<br />
Material and methods<br />
Different methods of weed control: herbicide use, soil cultivation, mulching with plastic and<br />
straw were evaluated on plantations of strawberry, currants, gooseberry and blueberry.<br />
Herbicides were tested in experiments under field conditions carried out in the Pomological<br />
Orchard in Skierniewice (Central Poland). In 1994-1996 ready for use mixture of phenmedipham,<br />
desmedipham and ethofumesate (as Betanal Progress AM 180 EC - AgrEvo product containing<br />
60 g/l of each active ingredients) was tested in strawberries. The efficiency of this mixture was<br />
compared with some standard methods, among others phenmedipham use (as Betanal 160 EC of<br />
AgrEvo) and hand weeding, on cv Senga Sengana strawberry plantation. The selectivity of<br />
phenmedipham, desmedipham and ethofumesate mixture for nine strawberry cultivars was<br />
evaluated, too. FDE mixture was applied three times (split applications) before the beginning of<br />
the flowering of strawberries.<br />
The usefulness of a few herbicides on small fruit plantations with the aim for Integrated Fruit<br />
Production was estimated in 1993-1999. Prior to strawberries and bushes planting, glyphosate (as<br />
isopropyloamine salt - Roundup 360 SL of Monsanto and trimethylsulfonium salt - Avans 330 SL<br />
of Zeneca Agrochemicals) were applied to kill perennial weeds. For this purpose, mixtures of<br />
glyphosate with MCPA (as Chwastox Extra 300 SL of Organika, Sarzyna) or 2,4-D (as<br />
Aminopielik Standard 600 SL - Rokita) and fluroxypyr (as Starane 250 EC of Dow Elanco) were<br />
used too. Glufosinate-ammonium (Basta 150 SL of AgrEvo) was applied to control weeds on<br />
bush plantations and runners in strawberries. The possibilities of use of napropamide (as Devrinol<br />
450 SC of Zeneca Agrochemicals), clopyralid (as Lontrel 300 of Dow Elanco), quizalofop-pethyl<br />
(as Targa Super 5 EC of Nissan Chemical Ind.) were tested.<br />
The plots in the experiments were arranged in randomised blocks with four replications. The<br />
plot area was from 5 to 50 m 2 , but the number of cultural plants was no fewer than 16. Herbicide<br />
application was made in the volume of 300 l water/ha.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Strawberries<br />
Proper forecrop with a strong competition and allelopathic effect on weeds and chemical weed<br />
control prior to planting decided in great extend about efficient weed control in newly planted<br />
strawberries. Cereals or white mustard (Sinapis alba) were recommended in practice as the best<br />
forecrop for strawberries. Herbicide treatment was useful for killing numerous perennial weeds<br />
before the setting of the plantation. Glyphosate (isopropyloamine and trimethylsulfonium salt) at<br />
the rate of 1.65-1.80 kg a. i. per ha gave good control of Agropyron repens and afforded better<br />
possibilities for good cropping in comparison with the plots where A. repens was not controlled,<br />
what confirms the results of the earlier experiments of Cianciara & Lisek (1993). Good control of<br />
broadleaf perennial weeds was obtained when glyphosate, at the above-mentioned doses, was<br />
mixed with herbicides containing MCPA or 2,4-D at the rates of 0,60-0,90 kg a. i. per ha.<br />
Mixtures with MCPA were more effective in control of Equisetum arvense and with 2,4-D in<br />
control of Achillea millefolium. Fluroxypyr at the rate of 0.50 kg a. i. per ha gave better control of<br />
broadleaf perennial weeds, e.g. Rumex sp., Taraxacum officinale, than glyphosate alone or in<br />
mixtures. If the time between glyphosate with MCPA or 2,4-D spraying was shorter than 5 - 6<br />
weeks, the herbicides reduced the growth of strawberries causing leaf stunting, chlorosis and<br />
necrosis.<br />
Early postemergence treatment with phenmedipham or with the ready-to-use mixture of<br />
phenmedipham, desmedipham and ethofuseate (FDE) had the basic importance for efficient weed
105<br />
control. Results obtained in Skierniewice confirmed that phenmedipham alone or in a mixture<br />
with desmedipham and ethofumesate is useful to control weeds in strawberries (Robinson &<br />
Rath, 1970; Uprichard, 1972; Clay, 1979, 1981, 1982; Lawson & Wiseman, 1980; Cox & Cerr,<br />
1981; Niggli & Potter, 1988). FDE mixture used in split application gave better control of many<br />
important annual broadleaf weeds and grasses than phenmedipham. This mixture at the<br />
recommended dose of (90+ 90+90 g a.i. per ha) triple, controlled efficiently such species as:<br />
Chenopodium album, Stellaria media, Senecio vulgaris, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Amaranthus<br />
retroflexus, Lamium purpureum, Viola arvensis, Polygonum aviculare, Poa annua, Echinochloa<br />
crus-galli, Setaria viridis. The growth and yield of newly planted strawberries cv Senga Sengana<br />
on the plots treated three times with FDE mixture was as good as that on the plots hand weeded<br />
(Tab. 1).<br />
Table 1. Influence of a method of weed control on growth and yield of newly planted<br />
strawberries cv Senga Sengana (1994-1996)<br />
Method of weed control<br />
Untreated control<br />
Hand weeding<br />
FDE 60+60+60 g/ha x 3<br />
FDE 90+90+90 g/ha x 3<br />
FDE 120+120+120 g/ha x 3<br />
Phenmedipham 960 g/ha<br />
Hand weeding + lenacil 800g/ha<br />
Black plastic mulching<br />
Mean fresh weight of<br />
strawberry plant (g)<br />
34.4 a<br />
65.5 d<br />
46.1 abc<br />
56.3 bcd<br />
54.2 bcd<br />
44.4 ab<br />
53.8 bcd<br />
60.8 cd<br />
Mean fruit yield in year<br />
of planting (kg/plot)<br />
0.41 a<br />
0.92 b<br />
0.79 ab<br />
0.92 b<br />
0.90 b<br />
0.84 b<br />
0.85 b<br />
0.98 b<br />
Means followed by the same letter do not differ at 5% level of significance; Duncan's multiple range t-test<br />
Effects of FDE treatment were observed on young leaves, which became stunted with clear<br />
chlorosis and necrosis. There were visible differences in tolerance of herbicides among nine plant<br />
cultivars. Senga Sengana, Dukat, Kama and Real were less damaged than Dana and Gerida.<br />
Cultivars Syriusz, Redgauntlet and Elsanta were intermediate.<br />
After non residual phenmedipham herbicide use or mechanical soil cultivation at the<br />
beginning of the flowering of strawberries, soil mulching with straw was recommended. This<br />
kind of mulch is sufficient to stop the emergency of annual weeds and it is necessary to get good<br />
quality strawberry table fruits. Soil covering with black plastic was connected with more<br />
difficulties than with straw. Black plastic increased the infection with fungal diseases and sun<br />
damages of fruits but did not fully prevent weed from emerging around strawberry plants. There<br />
were serious problems with utilisation of the old plastic.<br />
In the period of late July - September, mechanical soil cultivation with rotavator in interrows<br />
was the most efficient and suitable method of weed and strawberry runners’ control in Integrated<br />
Production<br />
The combination of various methods of weed control (adequate forecrop, limited use of nonpersistent<br />
herbicides, straw mulching, mechanical soil cultivation) is an attractive model of<br />
strawberry management for Integrated Production and for the standard one as well.
106<br />
Currants, Gooseberry, Raspberry<br />
The kind of forecrop and chemical control of perennial weeds prior to bushes planting was<br />
similarly important as in strawberries. It was especially important in fields replanted after old<br />
plantations and areas uncultivated for some time. Spring and summer mechanical soil cultivation<br />
in interrows on young plantations within 2-3 years after planting proved useful. Weed control<br />
was the serious problem in the rows of bush fruit crops, particularly on big acreage of currants<br />
and gooseberry. Mechanical soil cultivation with tractor-powered machines was practically<br />
impossible. Soil mulching with plastic was not recommended for the same reason as on<br />
strawberry plantation and because of its high costs. Plastic was not an adequate kind of mulch on<br />
raspberry plantations where new canes in rows were needed. Tree bark was the best sort of<br />
organic mulch but its transportation and spread on the soil surface were costly. Mulching with<br />
straw or sawdust in some cases attracted rodents.<br />
Because of these problems, the use of napropamide in narrow (0.5-1.0 m) herbicide strips<br />
was recommended for young bush plantation. This soil-acting herbicide degrades quickly and is<br />
more adequate for Integrated Production than such herbicides as simazine, dichlobenil and<br />
pronamide, which are registered for fruit bush plantations in Poland. Napropamide was applied at<br />
low rates (1.35-1.80 kg a. i. per ha) because higher ones might be too persistent in the soil<br />
(Walker et al., 1985). Napropamide applied in winter or early spring controlled well annual<br />
grasses but was not satisfactory efficient for some broadleaf weeds, e. g. Brassicacea sp. and<br />
Lamium purpureum control (Lawson & Wiseman, 1987). Bushes grown on the plots treated with<br />
napropamide were in better condition in comparison with untreated control. It was visible first of<br />
all in raspberries, which are not tolerant of weed competition (Lawson & Wiseman, 1976).<br />
Low-growing perennial grasses (grasses/herbs) are usually established in interrows in the<br />
third year after bush planting, This method gave negative results in the central Poland, on sandy<br />
soils, with low precipitation (mean 524.0 mm per year). On these localisations frequent mowing<br />
of weeds was recommended. Perennial grasses in alleyways were more suitable in southern<br />
Poland, where rainfall is higher and in eastern Poland, on loamy soils.<br />
Similarly as in the earlier experiments (Cianciara, 1985; Cianciara et al., 1988),<br />
supplementary postemergence treatment in the bush rows with glufosinate-ammonium,<br />
quizalofop-p-ethyl and clopyralid gave good results on older plantations infested with perennial<br />
weed species. Clopyralid was useful not only for Matricaria sp., Anthemis sp. Chamomilla sp.<br />
but also for Cirsium arvense control (Bailey & Clay, 1980). This active compound controlled<br />
efficiently Equisetum arvense and Conyza canadensis at the stage of rosette. Clopyralid was safe<br />
for black currants, especially after the fruit harvest.<br />
Blueberry<br />
Specific problems with weeds on blueberry plantations were connected with the environmental<br />
requirements of this species and the cultural practices on plantations. Blueberry is grown on<br />
acidic and most often irrigated soils. The soil surface on plantations is mulched with tree bark,<br />
peat or plastic. In these conditions perennial weeds were dominant, mainly Equisetum arvense,<br />
Rorippa sylvestris, Rumex sp., Polygonum amphibium, Epilobium adenocaulon, Chamaenerion<br />
angustifolium. Mulching, especially with bark or peat, did not stop the growth of these species.<br />
Blueberry plantations management was connected with high economical costs and therefore the<br />
acreage of plantations was respectively smaller than other soft fruits crops. In these conditions,<br />
hand weeding under bushes was possible and efficient. Foliar treatments with glufosinateammonium,<br />
quizalof-p-ethyl and clopyralid was an additional method of weed control.
107<br />
References<br />
Bailey J.A. & Clay D.V., 1980. The safety and effectiveness of 3,6-dichloropicolinic acid for the<br />
control of Cirsium arvense in strawberries. Proc. 1980 Brit. Crop. Prot. Conf.-Weeds: 321-<br />
328.<br />
Cianciara T. 1985. Stosowanie powschodowych graminicydów do niszczenia perzu na<br />
plantacjach roślin jagodowych. Mat. z VII Spotk. Zesp. Herbicyd. KNO PAN:16-19.<br />
Cianciara T., Chlebowska D. & Wójciak A., 1988. Stosowanie w praktyce nowych herbicydów<br />
do odchwaszczania plantacji roślin jagodowych. Mat. z X Spotk. Zesp. Herbolog. KNO<br />
PAN: 8-13.<br />
Cianciara T. & Lisek J., 1993. Ocena przydatności preparatów 'Glyphogan' and 'CHE 3607' w<br />
uprawach sadowniczych. Mat. z XIV Spotk. Zesp. Herbolog. KNO PAN: 10-16.<br />
Clay D.V., 1979. Weeds of strawberries. Knocking clover over. Grower 92: 24-30.<br />
Clay D.V., 1981. The tolerance of strawberries to ethofumesate: differences in varietal response<br />
and effects of mixture with phenmedipham. Experimental Hortic. 32: 38-48.<br />
Clay D.V., 1982. The tolerance of strawberry cultivars to ethofumesate alone and in mixture with<br />
lenacyl and phenmedipham. Proc. 1982 Brit. Crop Prot. Conf.-Weeds: 291-298.<br />
Cox T.I. & Kerr R.M., 1981. Tolerance of Tioga strawberry to foliar herbicides. New Zealand<br />
Commercial Grower 36(3): 24.<br />
Davis D.G. & Dusbabek K.E., 1973. Effect of diallate on foliar uptake and translocation of<br />
herbicides in pea. Weed Sci. 21: 16-18.<br />
Hammond C.H., Griffiths W., Hoogstraten S.D. van & Whiteoak R.J., 1976. The use of<br />
ethofumesate in grass seed crops. Proc. 1976 Brit. Crop Protection Conf.: 657-663.<br />
Hoogstraten S.D. van, Baker C. & Horne S.D., 1974. Ethofumesate behaviour in the soil. Proc.<br />
12 th Brit. Weed Control Conf.: 503-509.<br />
Kostowska B., 1982. Zachowanie się herbicydów w glebie. Praca habilitacyjna. Inst. Uprawy<br />
Nawożenia i Gleboznawstwa. Puławy.<br />
Lawson H.M. & Wiseman J.S., 1976. Weed competition in spring-planted strawberries. Weed<br />
Research 16: 155-162.<br />
Lawson H.M. & Wiseman J.S., 1976. Weed competition in spring planted strawberries. Weed<br />
Research 16 (5): 345-354.<br />
Lawson H.M. & Wiseman J.S., 1980. Herbicide programmes for spring-planted strawberries.<br />
Proc. 1980 Brit. Crop Conf.-Weeds: 353-360.<br />
Lawson H.M. & Wiseman J.S., 1987. Evaluation of crop tolerance to napropamide applied as a<br />
late winter treatment in strawberry and raspberry. Proc. Crop Protection in Northern Britain<br />
1987: 389-393.<br />
Lisek J. & Chlebowska D., 1993. Efficiency of herbicide Avans 480 SL for weed control prior to<br />
planting of small fruits and for killing old raspberry plants. Acta Hortic. 352: 579-582.<br />
Niggli V. & Potter C.A. (1988) Ursachen von Herbizidschäden in Erdbeeren. Erwerbsobstbau 30<br />
(7): 185-188.<br />
Ragab H.T.M. & Leefe J.S. (1972) Residues in soils and strawberries resulting from simazine<br />
applications. Canad. J. Plant Sci. 52 (2): 147-149.<br />
Robinson D.W. & Rath N., 1970. The use of phenmedipham in strawberries. Proc. 10 th Brit.<br />
Weed Control Conf., pp. 803-807.<br />
Tena R., Magallanes M. & Carrido R., 1982. Soil persistance of selected sugar-beet herbicides<br />
and their combinations with lenacil. Weed Research <strong>23</strong>: 245-249.<br />
Uprichard S.D., 1972. Tolerance of six strawberry varieties to phenmedipham applied shortly<br />
after planting. Proc. <strong>11</strong> th Brit. Weed Control Conf.: 374-377.
108<br />
Walker A., Brown P.A. & Mathews P.R., 1985. Persistance and phototoxicity of napropamide<br />
residues in soil. Ann. Appl. Biol. 106: 3<strong>23</strong>-333.
109<br />
Posters
<strong>11</strong>0
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. <strong>11</strong>1 - <strong>11</strong>5<br />
Progress in breeding of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) for resistance<br />
to main fungal diseases at Research Institute of Pomology and<br />
Floriculture at Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Agata Broniarek-Niemiec, Stanisław Pluta, Anna Bielenin<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
Poland<br />
Abstract: Field resistance of 53 blackcurrant genotypes (cultivars and breeding selections) to main<br />
fungal diseases (powdery mildew, leaf spot and white pine blister rust) was investigated during 1998-<br />
1999. Of the investigated genotypes only three cultivars – ‘Ben Lomond’, 'Ben Nevis' and 'Ceres' were<br />
very susceptible to powdery mildew. The rest of cultivars and breeding selections were highly<br />
resistance to this disease. None of the genotypes tested was resistant to leaf spot. Cultivar Titania and<br />
17 selections had a full field resistance to white pine blister rust.<br />
Key words: blackcurrant, Ribes nigrum L., resistance, breeding, powdery mildew, leaf spot, white<br />
pine blister rust.<br />
Introduction<br />
Poland has been a leading producer of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) in the world for many<br />
years. Annual fruit production of this crop ranges between 100 - 130 thousand tons harvested<br />
from about 27 thousand ha (Ostrowska, 1998). The acreage of plantings has been increasing<br />
for last two years because of a big demand and good prices of fruits received by growers.<br />
'Ojebyn', 'Titania' and 'Ben Lomond' are dominant cultivars on commercial plantations.<br />
However, besides many advantages those cultivars have also some deficiencies, such as<br />
susceptibility to fungal diseases: powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae Berk.), leaf spot<br />
(Drepanopeziza ribis Kelb.) and white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola Fish.)<br />
(Broniarek et al., 1997, 1999). Introduction of new cultivars resistant to these pathogens could<br />
reduce a number of the sprays with fungicides in the growing season. Reduced use of<br />
chemicals is required in the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) of soft fruits, which have<br />
been introduced into European plantations, including blackcurrant, since 1998 (Gajek 1998).<br />
For resolving these requirements and protection of our environment new blackcurrant<br />
breeding program was initiated at the Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture in<br />
Skierniewice in 1986 (Pluta and Żurawicz, 1993). Breeding for resistance to main pest and<br />
diseases is the one of its main targets. The best, resistant genotypes are used as parental forms<br />
in crossing programs oriented on increasing the health status of breeding material. Young<br />
seedlings obtained from the crosses are inoculated with conidia of S. mors-uvae in a<br />
glasshouse. Then the seedlings are preliminary screened to eliminate susceptible ones at the<br />
early stage and resistant plants are planted in the field for further evaluation. The best<br />
individuals are vegetatively propagated and evaluated in the collection of selections (Pluta<br />
and Żurawicz, 1998; Pluta 1999).<br />
The main objective of this work was to determine the susceptibility of selected cultivars<br />
and breeding selections to main fungal diseases in the field conditions.<br />
<strong>11</strong>1
<strong>11</strong>2<br />
Material and methods<br />
Blackurrant cultivars and breeding selections used in this experiment have been grown in two<br />
cultivar trials planted in 1994 and in 1995. Additionally, over 20 advanced selections<br />
originated from the breeding program and planted in the collection in 1997 were included in<br />
this investigation. Field experiments were carried out at the Experimental Orchard in<br />
Dąbrowice near Skierniewice (Central Poland). Trials were established in the random block<br />
design with 3 replication consisted of 3 shrubs per plot. Advanced selections were planted<br />
without replications and 3 plants were planted on an individual plot. No protection against<br />
diseases was applied.<br />
All the genotypes tested were evaluated in respect of field resistance to powdery mildew,<br />
leaf spot and white pine blister rust. The evaluations were done in late July and in the middle<br />
of August in 1998 and 1999, using a 5-point ranking scale (1 - no symptoms, 5 - very severe<br />
symptoms on leaves). The data were statistically elaborated by the analysis of variance<br />
(ANOVA). The significance of differences between means was estimated with Duncan’s "t"<br />
test at P=0.05.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Field resistance of the genotypes tested to main fungal diseases is presented in Tables 1 and 2.<br />
Most of genotypes showed high resistance to powdery mildew. Only standard cultivar Ben<br />
Lomond and its sister seedling 'Ben Nevis' were very susceptible to this disease. In both years<br />
of investigation (1998-1999) level of infection of these cultivars ranged from 4.1 to 5.0 (Tab.<br />
1). These results correspond to those obtained by Pederson (1998).<br />
Unfortunately, all the genotypes tested were susceptible to leaf spot. Levels of infection<br />
were different and ranged from 1.5 to 4.4. The least symptoms were observed on plants of<br />
four cultivars - Titania, Ben Nevis, Ben Sarek and Storklas and on breeding selections marked<br />
138 x76/69A/1, 74020-6x/1, B.Lx7, B.Lx2, and PC-17. Levels of disease on these genotypes<br />
were scored from 1.5 to 3.0 in both seasons (Tab. 1).<br />
Infection of plants by white pine blister rust was rather low during the experiment. In<br />
1998-1999 no symptoms of C. ribicola were observed on the standard cultivar Titania. Plants<br />
of this cultivar are highly resistant to this pathogen and similar results were reported by other<br />
authors (Pluta et al.1993). Among tested selections a high resistance to blister rust showed<br />
<strong>11</strong>D/2, 138x76/69A/1, 74020-6x/1 and 83x80/1 (Tab. 1).<br />
Results of the resistance evaluation of breeding selections planted in the field collection<br />
are presented in Table 2. Of the genotypes tested only two cultivars - Ben Lomond and Ceres<br />
were susceptible to powdery mildew. In 1998-1999 symptoms of this disease were assessed<br />
from 2.5 to 5.0. Most of the cultivars tested and all breeding selections were highly resistant<br />
to S. mors-uvae (Tab.2).<br />
None of the genotypes tested was fully resistant to leaf spot. The relatively high field<br />
resistance to this pathogen was noticed on plants of a new cultivar Tisel (originated from our<br />
breeding program) and on breeding selections PC-241 and PC-421. For these genotypes the<br />
level of infection ranged from 2.0 to 2.5 (Tab. 2).<br />
Besides ‘Titania’, highly resistant to C. ribicola were also selections PC-2<strong>23</strong>, PC-276,<br />
PC-290, PC-332, PC-335, PC-339, PC-401, PC-413, PC-421, PC-425 and PC-427 (Tab. 2).
<strong>11</strong>3<br />
Table 1. Evaluation of the field resistance of blackcurrant genotypes grown in the cultivar<br />
trials to main fungal diseases (Experimental Orchard, Dabrowice, 1998-1999).<br />
Cultivar<br />
/selection<br />
Origin<br />
Powdery<br />
mildew<br />
Level of infection*<br />
Leaf spot<br />
White pine<br />
blister rust<br />
1998 1999 1988 1999 1998 1999<br />
Cultivars trial planted in autumn of 1994<br />
Ojebyn Unknown 1,0 a** 1,0 a 3,6 f-j 3,3b-e 2,6 cd 2,3 e-h<br />
Altajskaja D. x (Consort x<br />
Titania<br />
Kajaanin M)<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 3,0 a-d 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
(Consort x Magnus) x (Brodtorp x<br />
Ben Lomond<br />
Janslunda)<br />
4,3 b 4,3 b 3,7 g-k 3,4 c-e 1,3 a-c 1,7 c-f<br />
Ben Alder Ben More x Ben Lomond 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,7 g-k 3,3 b-e 2,1 b-f 1,9 d-f<br />
(Consort x Magnus) x (Brodtorp x<br />
Ben Nevis<br />
Janslunda)<br />
4,1 b 4,1 b 3,0 c-g 2,9 a-d 2,3 b-f 1,9 d-f<br />
Ben Sarek Goliath x Ojebyn 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,7 c-e 2,8 a-c 1,0 a 1,8 c-f<br />
Ben Tirran Ben Lomond x N29/17 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,6 f-j 3,6 d-f 2.0 a-f 1,8 c-f<br />
Ben Connan Ben Sarek x Ben Lomond 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,1 d-h 2,7 a-c 1,2 ab 1,1 ab<br />
SunderbynII x (Consort x Kajaanin<br />
Storklas<br />
M.)<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 2,9 a-d 2,0 b-f 1,6 b-e<br />
4D/10 Ben Nevis x Ojebyn 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,8 h-k 3,6 d-f 1,6 a-d 1,4 a-d<br />
<strong>11</strong>D/2 Biełoruskaja Sł. X Titania 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 2,9 a-d 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
26C/5 Titania x Ben Nevis 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,4 kl 4,2 fg 1,2 ab 1,2 a-c<br />
Ben Alder x/5 Ben Alder x op 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 3,0 a-d 3,1 f 3,0 g-j<br />
138 x<br />
76/69A/1<br />
7/72 x Ceres 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 2,9 a-d 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
74020-6 x /1 Polar x op 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,6 cd 2,6 ab 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
210 x B.<br />
Alder/8<br />
Titania x Ben Alder 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,8 l 4,7 g 2,6 d-f 2,3 e-h<br />
Cultivars trial planted in autumn of 1994<br />
Ojebyn Unknown 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 2,9 a-d 2,9 ef 3,1 hij<br />
Altajskaja D. x (Consort x<br />
Titania<br />
Kajaanin M)<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 2,9 c-f 3,3 b-e 1,0 a 1,1 ab<br />
(Consort x Magnus) x (Brodtorp x<br />
Ben Lomond<br />
Janslunda)<br />
4,4 b 5,0 c 4,2 j-l 2,9 a-d 1,7 a-d 1,7 c-f<br />
80 x 138/2 Ben Lomond x 7/72 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,4 e-j 3,0 a-d 1,5 a-d 3,2 ij<br />
B.T. x Tit./2 Ben Tirran x Titania 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,9 c-f 2,5 a 3,1 f 3,1 h-j<br />
Tit. X B.A/2 Titania x Ben Alder 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,2 d-i 3,2 a-e 1,4 a-c 2,1 d-f<br />
B.L x /7 Ben Lomond x op 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,6 b-d 2,5 a 2,3 c-f 3,3 j<br />
B.L x /2 Ben Lomond x op 1,0 a 1,0 a 1,5 a 3,0 a-d 1,2 ab 2,2 e-g<br />
83 x 80/1 Biełoruskaja Sł. x Ben Lomond 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c-g 3,2 a-e 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-15 Ben Lomond x 7/72 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,3 bc 2,7 a-c 1,5 a-d 2,2 ef<br />
PC-17 Ben Lomond x 7/72 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 ab 2,5 a 1,7 a-e 2,4 f-i<br />
Explanations: * - ranking scale 1-5 where 1 – no symptoms, 5 – very severe symptoms on plants,<br />
** - within columns means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly<br />
according to Duncan’s “t” test at P=0.05.
<strong>11</strong>4<br />
Genotypes with a high field resistance to main fungal diseases will be included in our<br />
blackcurrant breeding program for increasing the healthiness of a breeding material. The best<br />
selections inheriting resistance to these diseases as well as possessing high productivity, good<br />
quality of fruits and suitable plant habit will be given for the National Fruit Trials for the final<br />
evaluation before they will get the registration on the List of Cultivars.<br />
Table 2. Evaluation of field resistance of blackcurrant genotypes grown in collection of<br />
selections to main fungal diseases (Experimental Orchard, Dabrowice, 1998-1999).<br />
Cultivar<br />
/selection<br />
Origin<br />
Powdery<br />
mildew<br />
Level of infection*<br />
Leaf spot<br />
White pine<br />
blister rust<br />
1998 1999 1988 1999 1998 1999<br />
Ojebyn Unknown 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,3 fg 4,0 e 2,3 cd 3,3 e<br />
Altajskaja D. x (Consort x<br />
Titania<br />
Kajaanin M)<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 4,0 e 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
(Consort x Magnus) x<br />
Ben Lomond<br />
(Brodtorp x Janslunda)<br />
5,0 c 4,8 c 4,7 g 4,0 e 2,3 cd 1,7 a-c<br />
Ojebyn x (R. dikuscha x<br />
Bona<br />
Climax)<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 3,3 cd 1,0 a 2,6 de<br />
(R. dikuscha x Barchatnaja) x<br />
Ceres<br />
op<br />
2,5 b 4,3 b 4,0 ef 3,7 de 2,5 c-e 2,1 b-d<br />
Tiben Titania x Ben Nevis 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,3 cd 4,0 e 3,0 e 2,2 cd<br />
Tisel Titania x self 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 2,3 a 1,6 b 1,3 ab<br />
PC-73 Consort x Ben Nevis 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,7 de 3,7 de 2,0 bc 3,0 de<br />
PC-95 Consort x Ojebyn 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,7 de 3,0 bc 3,0 e 2,0 b-d<br />
PC-106 Titania x Ben Nevis 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 3,0 bc 3,0 e 2,0 b-d<br />
PC-<strong>11</strong>0 Ojebyn x Bieloruskaja Sl. 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 3,3 cd 2,6 de 2,8 de<br />
(C/2/1/62 x Ben Alder) x<br />
PC-2<strong>23</strong><br />
S12/1/<strong>11</strong>7<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-241 Bona x Titania 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,3 ab 2,3 a 1,0 a 1,2 a<br />
(Ben Lomond x 7/72) x Ben<br />
PC-275<br />
Nevis<br />
1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 3,0 bc 2,5 c-e 1,3 ab<br />
PC-276 Titania x Polar 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,5 b 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-280 Titania x Ceres 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c 3,5 c-e 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-287 Golubka x Titania 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,0 ef 2,5 ab 2,0 bc 1,0 a<br />
PC-290 Magnus x Ceres 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-332 Ben Lomond x Polar 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,0 ef 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-335 Ben Lomond x Polar 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,0 ef 3,5 c-e 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-339 S 47 x Ojebyn 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,5 c-e 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-401 C1/9/10 x Ceres 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,0 ef 4,0 e 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-413 Golubka x Ri 74020-16 1,0 a 1,0 a 4,0 ef 2,5 ab 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-421 Titania x C2/15/40 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,5 b 2,0 a 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-425 Titania x P/9/<strong>11</strong>/14 1,0 a 1,0 a 2,0 a 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
PC-427 Titania x self 1,0 a 1,0 a 3,0 c 3,0 bc 1,0 a 1,0 a<br />
For explanations se see table 1.
<strong>11</strong>5<br />
References<br />
Broniarek-Niemiec A., Pluta S., Bielenin A., 1997. Ocena polowej odporności porzeczki<br />
czarnej i agrestu na podstawowe choroby grzybowe w hodowlanych kolekcjach<br />
roboczych ISK. Mat. z Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych: 135-<br />
136.<br />
Broniarek-Niemiec A., Pluta S., Bielenin A. 1999. Wstępna ocena polowej odporności<br />
wybranych odmian i klonów hodowlanych porzeczki czarnej na podstawowe choroby<br />
grzybowe. Mat. VII Zjazdu Hodowców Roślin Sadowniczych, AR Lublin, 4-5. 02. 1999:<br />
449-452.<br />
Gajek D., Olszak R., Łabanowska B., H., 1998. Główne problemy integrowanej ochrony<br />
porzeczki czarnej przed szkodnikami w świetle wytycznych <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> i ISHS. Mat. z<br />
Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych: 67-70.<br />
Ostrowska K., 1998. Rozwój produkcji owoców jagodowych w Polsce. Mat. z XXXVII<br />
Ogólnopolskiej Naukowej Konferencji Sadowniczej: 227-<strong>23</strong>5.<br />
Pedersen H.L., 1998. Field resistance of black currant cultivars (Ribes nigrum L.) to diseases<br />
and pests. Fruit Varieties Journal 52: 6-10.<br />
Pluta S., Żurawicz E.,1993. Black currant (Ribes nigrum) breeding program in Poland. Acta<br />
Hortic. 352: 447-453.<br />
Pluta S., Żurawicz E., 1998. Wyniki ostatnich dziesięciu lat hodowli odmian porzeczki<br />
czarnej w Polsce. Mat. z Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Ochrony Roślin Sadowniczych:<br />
145-150.<br />
Pluta S., 1999. Perspektywy hodowli nowych odmian porzeczki czarnej i agrestu. Mat. z<br />
Konferencji “Intensyfikacja Produkcji Owoców z Krzewów Jagodowych”, 09. 06. 1999,<br />
ISK Skierniewice: 3-12.
<strong>11</strong>6
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. <strong>11</strong>7 - <strong>11</strong>8<br />
Resistance of strawberry cultivars to fungal diseases<br />
Valda Laugale, Inga Moročko<br />
Pūre State Horticultural Research Station, Pūre, Tukuma raj. LV-3124, Latvia<br />
Abstract: The spread and severity of fungal diseases were studied on 2 standard and 10 newly<br />
introduced strawberry cultivars in field conditions. The aim of study was to evaluate susceptibility of<br />
newly introduced strawberry cultivars to fungal diseases in Latvian conditions. In the trial cultivar<br />
`Jonsok` had the lowest resistance to fungal diseases.<br />
Key words: strawberry, cultivar, diseases<br />
Introduction<br />
Strawberries are one of the most popular commercial crops nowadays in Latvia and there is a<br />
tendency to increase plantations area even more. Many new, little known cultivars emerge on<br />
Latvian market but not all of them are suitable for growing in Latvian conditions. Cultivar’<br />
susceptibility to diseases could vary in different growing areas. Therefore, it is important to<br />
test newly introduced cultivars before using them for commercial growing. Special attention<br />
should be paid to dangerous strawberry diseases (Phytopthora fragariae, Phytopthora<br />
cactorum, Verticillium sp.), which are still not spread in Latvia but could be brought in with<br />
imported planting material.<br />
Materials and methods<br />
The testing had been done at Pūre State Horticultural Research Station in 1998-1999. 10<br />
newly introduced strawberry cultivars were evaluated and compared with two standards<br />
`Zefyr` and `Senga Sengana`. Assessments were done 2 times per season; in spring-summer<br />
and summer-autumn periods. The spread of disease was expressed as a percent of damaged<br />
plants of a given cultivar and severity was evaluated visually as a percent of damaged leaf<br />
surface.<br />
The following scale was used for evaluation of leaf spot: 0.0 % – plants without spots;<br />
0.1 % – 1 spot per plant; 1.0 % – 10 spots per plant; 25.0 % – 1/4 of plant surface damaged;<br />
50.0 % – 1/2 of plant surface damaged; 75.0 % – 3/4 of plant surface damaged; 100.0 % – all<br />
leaves dead.<br />
For evaluation of wilt 2-point scale was used: plant with symptoms of wilt and plant<br />
without any symptoms.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
The following fungal diseases were observed on strawberry cultivars tested: white spot<br />
(Ramularia tulasnei Sacc.), leaf scorch (Marsonina fragariae (Lih.) Kleb.), grey mould<br />
(Botrytis cinerea) on leaves and verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.).<br />
In the previous observations it was noted that root and vascular tissue diseases are not<br />
widespread in Latvia (Dūks, 1976). Only on some plantations verticillium wilt was observed.<br />
In this trial wilt symptoms were noted on cultivars Pandora, Pegasus, Laura, Eros, Emily,<br />
<strong>11</strong>7
<strong>11</strong>8<br />
Lambada, Zefyr, Jonsok and Bounty (Tab. 1). The highest number of damaged plants (15.2<br />
%) was assessed on Emily cultivar.<br />
Table 1. The spread and severity of fungal diseases on strawberry cultivars (average for 1998-<br />
1999)<br />
Spread White spot (%) Leaf scorch (%) Grey mould on<br />
Cultivar of wilt<br />
leaves (%)<br />
(%) severity spread severity spread severity spread<br />
Pandora 2.1 12.6 73.7 0.2 6.3 0.3 9.3<br />
Pegasus 4.4 <strong>11</strong>.1 95.6 2.8 20.1 0.7 <strong>11</strong>.9<br />
Laura 3.9 17.5 92.4 6.6 22.1 0.5 7.5<br />
Eros 0.4 6.9 74.8 0.1 1.3 0.1 2.1<br />
Emily 15.2 5.6 74.9 0.9 13.6 0.8 2.5<br />
Eldorado 0.0 16.0 88.8 0.2 1.9 0.1 0.4<br />
Lambada 2.8 36.1 91.0 1.9 19.6 0.1 1.3<br />
Honeoye 0.9 9.5 90.6 2.6 30.0 0.1 1.7<br />
Zefyr 0.4 7.9 95.0 1.1 13.8 0.1 2.5<br />
Senga<br />
Sengana<br />
0.0 9.4 95.8 0.4 4.6 0.4 7.4<br />
Jonsok 0.4 10.6 100.0 4.5 37.9 0.9 24.2<br />
Bounty 1.7 8.6 94.5 1.4 17.9 0.4 10.5<br />
White spot is one of the most widespread strawberry diseases (Delhomez et al., 1995).<br />
Severity of disease depends on a cultivar and growing conditions. White spot was the most<br />
common of all strawberry diseases assessed this trial, too. One average, more than 70% of<br />
plants of all cultivars tested were infected whereas in cultivar Jonsok infected were all plants<br />
(100 %). Generally, severity of this disease was low because tested plants were young (1 st and<br />
2 nd year after planting). Disease is usually more spread on the older and weaker plants. On<br />
average, during 2 years of experiment the most severe white spot damage was observed on<br />
cultivar Lambada (36.1 % of leaf surface damaged).<br />
The spread of leaf scorch varied from 1.3 to 37.9 %, depending on a cultivar. Severity of<br />
disease on all cultivars was low (less than 7.0% of leaf surface infected). Cultivars Laura and<br />
Jonsok were more severely damaged than the others.<br />
Grey mould damage was observed on plant leaves, too. Plant residues, especially those<br />
infected with grey mould, are the main source of infection for flowers and berries (Sosa-<br />
Alvarez et al., 1995). `Jonsok` was more severely infected with grey mould than the other<br />
cultivars tested in our trial.<br />
References<br />
Delhomez N., Carisse O., Lareau M., Khanizadeh S. 1995. Susceptibility of strawberry<br />
cultivars and advanced selections to leaf spot caused by Mycosphaerella fragariae. Hort.<br />
Science 30: 592-595.<br />
Dūks V. 1976. Zemenes. pp. 76.<br />
Sosa-Alvarez M., Madden L.V. and Ellis M.A. 1995. Effects of temperature and wetness<br />
duration on sporulation of Botrytis cinerea on strawberry leaf residues. Plant Disease J.<br />
79: 609-615.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. <strong>11</strong>9 - 121<br />
Preliminary studies on resistance of some strawberry cultivars<br />
to spider mite Tetranychus urticae<br />
Valentina Petrova*, Zigrida Čudare*, Ineta Šteinite**, Valda Laugale***<br />
* Institute of Biology of Latvian University, Miera str.3, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia, e-<br />
mail vpetrova@hotmail.com<br />
** National Botanical Garden, Miera str.1, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia, e-mail invitro@<br />
latnet.lv<br />
*** Pure State Horticultural Research Station, Tukuma raj., LV-3124, Latvia<br />
Abstract: Seven commercial strawberry cultivars, Senga Sengana, Tenira, Korona, Induka,<br />
Kokinskaja Pozdnaja, Venta, Zefyr, were evaluated in field tests for resistance to the spider mite<br />
Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) in 1998. According to the mean number of the mites<br />
per leaf and the percentage of the plants infested with T. urticae during the season, the early cultivar<br />
Zefyr, medium-late Tenira and medium-early Venta were less susceptible to the spider mite in field<br />
tests than medium-early cultivar Korona, late cultivar Kokinskaja Pozdnaja and medium-late Senga<br />
Sengana.<br />
Key words: strawberry, spider mite, resistance<br />
Introduction<br />
The mite Tetranychus urticae Koch is an important strawberry pest due to its nearly worldwide<br />
distribution and damage caused to strawberry.There is some knowledge obout resistance<br />
of strawberry to T. urticae. Rodriguez et al. (1970) recorded highly significant positive<br />
correlation between foliage nitrogen and mite’s injury in the individual strawberry clones.<br />
Differences in resistance to T. urticae among strawberry cultivars have been found by<br />
Eastbrook et al. (1997) in laboratory experiments, in which mite fecundity and development<br />
times were assessed.<br />
Authors of the presented work studied resistance of strawberry to phytophagous mite T.<br />
urticae in field tests in the northwestern part of Latvia.<br />
Material and methods<br />
Seven commercial cultivars of Fragaria x ananasa: Induka, Korona, Kokinskaja Pozdnaja,<br />
Senga Sengana, Tenira, Venta, Zefyr were selected for this study. The two-year-old plants<br />
grown on the strawberry fields of the Pure State Horticultural Research Station were naturally<br />
infested with spider mite T. urticae. Samplings of foliage were made in May, June, July,<br />
August and September during the season of 1998. Samples consisted of 100 randomly<br />
selected trifoliate leaves - one leaf from one plant. The leaves were collected in separate<br />
plastic bags and stored at 4° ± 1° until counted. The number of mites at each life stages: egg,<br />
juvenile, adult males and females was recorded after direct counting under dissecting<br />
microscope. Clusters of 5 eggs, larvae or protonymphs were counted as one adult.<br />
<strong>11</strong>9
120<br />
Result and discussion<br />
The number of plants infested by two-spotted spider mite T. urticae varied for strawberry<br />
field age and developmental stage of a plant. We found that in May 1998 the average density<br />
of mite population was lower (15 mites/leaf) on two-year-old plants than on one-year-old<br />
plants (<strong>23</strong> mites/leaf).<br />
Early in a season the samplings showed that spider mites colonised from 5% to 85% of<br />
strawberry plants, depending on a variety. Average data obtained from one sampling showed<br />
that the spider mite colonised 35% strawberry plants in May, 44% in June and 37.6% in July<br />
1998. After harvesting the strawberry plants hosted mites in smaller number than in the earlier<br />
period: 14.3% in August and 10.3% in September 1998.<br />
Differences in resistance to phytophagous mite T. uricae among seven field-grown<br />
evaluated strawberry cultivars of have been found. More resistant to spider mite were early<br />
cultivar Zefyr and partially medium-late cv. Tenira and medium-early cv. Venta (Fig. 1, 2).<br />
More susceptible cultivars, according to our estimation, were medium-early Korona and<br />
partially late Kokinskaja Pozdnaja and medium-late cv. Senga Sengana (Fig. 1, 2). Resistance<br />
of cv. Induka to T. urticae was intermediate. The number of plants with the pest (29.5%) and<br />
mite population density (2.4 mites per leaf) on strawberry cv. Induka were the same as<br />
average values (28.4% and 2.5 mite per leaf respectively) obtained from whole experimental<br />
field with more than 30 strawberry cultivars (Fig. 1, 2).<br />
Correlation between time of fruit ripening and cultivars’ resistance to T. urticae was not.<br />
Strawberry cultivars with resistance to pests and diseases may become alternative to<br />
pesticides or may allow to decrease pesticide application on strawberry using the biological<br />
and other non-chemical methods.<br />
number of infested plants, %<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
7,7<br />
Zefyr<br />
<strong>11</strong>,7<br />
Tenira<br />
14<br />
Venta<br />
29,5<br />
Induka<br />
41,2 42,6<br />
57,7<br />
Figure1. Number of plants infested by T.urticae on some strawberry<br />
cultivars.<br />
Korona<br />
Kokinskaja<br />
Pozdnaja<br />
Senga<br />
Sengana<br />
28,4<br />
average
121<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0,7<br />
1,2<br />
1,7<br />
2,4<br />
3,4<br />
3,6<br />
5<br />
2,5<br />
0<br />
Zefyr<br />
Tenira<br />
Venta<br />
Induka<br />
Senga<br />
Sengana<br />
number of mites per leaf<br />
Kokinskaja<br />
Pozdnaja<br />
Korona<br />
average<br />
Figure 2. Population density of T. urticae on some strawberry cultivars.<br />
References<br />
Eastbrook, M.A., Crook, A.M.E., Cross, J.V. and Simpson, D.W., 1997. Progress towards<br />
integrated pest management on strawberry in the United Kingdom. In: Proc. Third Inter.<br />
Strawberry Symp., Veldhoven, The Netherlands, 1996, vol. 2, Acta Horticulturae 439:<br />
899-904.<br />
Rodriguez, J.G., Chaplin,C.E., Stoltz, L.P., and Lasheeen, A.M., 1970. Studies on resistance<br />
of strawberries to mites. I. Effects of plant nitrogen. J. Econ. Entomol.: 63(6): 1855-1858.
122
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 1<strong>23</strong> - 126<br />
Progress in selection of blackcurrant cultivars suitable<br />
for integrated mite management<br />
Dariusz Gajek, Stanisław Pluta, Edward Żurawicz<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Pomologiczna 18,<br />
Poland<br />
Abstract: Resistance of blackcurrant cultivars and breeding clones to blackcurrant gall mite and twospotted<br />
spider mite was investigated. It was found that of 70 tested genotypes only two cultivars –<br />
‘Ceres’ and ‘Titania Z’ were fully resistant to the gall mite. No symptoms of this pest feeding were<br />
also found on four clones originated from Polish breeding programme: 1\4, 7\9, 7\13 and 12\32. It was<br />
also proved that blackcurrant genotypes differed in susceptibility (infestation level) to two-spotted<br />
spider mite. Of the cultivars tested ‘Ben Lomond’ was quite heavily infested in comparison with other<br />
genotypes whereas cv. ‘Ben Tirran’ showed very low level of infestation with this pest.<br />
Key words: blackcurrant, Ribes nigrum L., breeding, cultivar, resistance, blackcurrant gall mite, twospotted<br />
spider mite, IPM<br />
Introduction<br />
Two species of mites – gall mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.) and two-spotted spider mite<br />
(Tetranychus urticae Koch) are very dangerous pests of blackcurrants grown in Poland.<br />
(Łabanowska and Gajek, 1994; Gajek et al., 1996; Czajkowska and Kropczynska, 1996).<br />
Breeding of cultivars resistant to the blackcurrant gall mite and low intensity of infestation<br />
with the two-spotted spider mite can provide an opportunity for successful integrated<br />
management of these pests (Gajek 1995; Gajek et al., 1999).<br />
The aim of the studies was selection of such cultivars and breeding clones originated<br />
from Ribes breeding programme realised at the Research Institute of Pomology and<br />
Floriculture in Skierniewice, Poland.<br />
Materials and methods<br />
Studies on selection of blackcurrant cultivars resistant to gall mite were conducted on two<br />
experimental plots at the Experimental Orchard in Skierniewice (Central Poland). They<br />
comprised above 70 genotypes of different origin and advanced selections obtained from<br />
Polish breeding programme. All planting material was artificially infested with the pest<br />
during its migration period (April-May). Infestation was done by hanging infested buds on<br />
newly-grown shoots of tested genotypes. Cultivars, which did not show any symptoms of gall<br />
mite feeding in the first screening were infested again.<br />
Investigation on the rate of two-spotted spider mite infestation was carried out in 1998-<br />
1999 on two variety trails (trail I and trail II) planted at Dabrowice Experimental Station near<br />
Skierniewice. No artificial infestation and no pest control was applied. Population density of<br />
the mite was determined three times in each season (June, July and August).<br />
1<strong>23</strong>
124<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Blackcurrant gall mite<br />
During four years of investigations only two cultivars: Polish ‘Ceres’ and ‘Titania Z’<br />
(genotype of unknown origin) did not show any symptoms of the pest infestation (Tab. 1).<br />
Table 1. Infestation rate of some blackcurrant breeding selections and cultivars with the gall<br />
mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.); (Experimental Orchard, Skierniewice 1999)<br />
Culivar/<br />
Breeding selection<br />
Evaluation since 1996<br />
Ojebyn<br />
Titania<br />
Ben Lomond<br />
Ben Alder<br />
Tisel<br />
Ceres<br />
Titania Z<br />
Evaluation since 1997<br />
1/4<br />
87/XVI/<strong>23</strong>/34<br />
92/69A x 76/69A/22<br />
87/XVI/<strong>23</strong>/14<br />
87/I/2<br />
87/V/6/1<br />
92/69A x 76/69A/20<br />
210 x 169/13<br />
92/69A x 76/69A/31<br />
7/2<br />
213 x 76/69A/26<br />
213 x 76/69A/41<br />
213 x 76/69A/35<br />
7/13<br />
XXII/52<br />
7/9<br />
12/32<br />
XXII/46<br />
7/10<br />
12/27<br />
138 x 76/69A/7<br />
92/69A x 76/69A/8<br />
Parentage<br />
Unknown<br />
Altajskaja D. x (Consort x Kajaanin M.)<br />
(Consort x Magnus) x (Brodtorp x Janslunda)<br />
Ben More x Ben Lomond<br />
Titania x self.<br />
(R. dikuscha x Barchatnaja) x op<br />
Unknown<br />
(C2/1/62 x Ben Alder) x EM B1834/145*<br />
Ben Lomond x 7/72<br />
Bona x Ceres<br />
Ben Lomond x 7/72<br />
Gołubka x Fertodi – 1<br />
Ojebyn x Titania<br />
Bona x Ceres<br />
Titania x Ojebyn<br />
Bona x Ceres<br />
S12/3/83 x EM B1834/<strong>11</strong>3<br />
Triton x Ceres<br />
Triton x Ceres<br />
Triton x Ceres<br />
S12/3/83 x EM B1834/<strong>11</strong>3<br />
Unknown<br />
S12/3/83 x EM B1834/<strong>11</strong>3<br />
S13/14/9 x EM B1834/67<br />
Unknown<br />
S12/3/83 x EM B1834/<strong>11</strong>3<br />
S13/14/9 x EM B1834/67<br />
7/72 x Ceres<br />
Bona x Ceres<br />
Average number<br />
of infested buds<br />
per shrub<br />
8,9<br />
16,4<br />
91,4<br />
49,3<br />
9,2<br />
0,0<br />
0,0<br />
0,0<br />
3,0<br />
0,5<br />
0,4<br />
0,8<br />
0,5<br />
0,1<br />
0,4<br />
6,0<br />
0,7<br />
0,1<br />
0,5<br />
0,5<br />
0,0<br />
5,4<br />
0,0<br />
0,0<br />
2,4<br />
0,3<br />
0,4<br />
2,1<br />
1,7<br />
Explanation: breeding selections marked EM B1834 obtained in East Malling, England, (released from<br />
backcrosses – “BC” of blackcurrant x gooseberry, inherited a gene Ce for resistance to gall mite)
125<br />
The first one has already been recommended for small plantings and home gardens in<br />
Poland. Three Polish clones resulted from crossings with ‘EM’ breeding lines (originating<br />
from East Malling) had no buds inhabited with the mite. These were 1\4, 7\9, 7\13 and 12/32.<br />
Other valuable traits of these genotypes are being presently evaluated in the collection. Their<br />
market usefulness has not been known so far but they should certainly be used as sources of<br />
resistance to the gall mite in further breeding programmes (Gajek et al., 1999).<br />
Two-spotted spider mite<br />
Obtained results showed that none of the tested cultivars or clones was fully resistant to the<br />
two-spotted spider mite (Tab. 2). Population of the pest was generally low and differences in<br />
its number on genotypes tested were rather small. It was observed that cv. ‘Ben Lomond’,<br />
recommended recently for growing in Poland, was quite heavily infested with the pest on both<br />
experimental plots. Low infestation level was ascertained on another, commonly grown in<br />
Europe cultivar - ‘Ben Tirran’. In comparison with other genotypes, the rate of its infestation<br />
was the lowest (Trial I). Adequately low susceptibility of this cultivar to infestation with twospotted<br />
spider mite was also shown in another study (Gajek 1995). Among tested selections,<br />
low infestation level with this pest was also observed on Tit. x B.A./2, PC-20 and PC-26.<br />
Table 2. Intensity of blackcurrant infestation with two-spotted spider mite (T. urticae Koch)<br />
(Experimental Station at Dąbrowice, 1999)<br />
Trail I<br />
Cultivars /<br />
breeding selection<br />
Ojebyn<br />
Ben Lomond<br />
Titania<br />
Ben Nevis<br />
Ben Alder<br />
Ben Tirran<br />
Nr.14 SCRI<br />
C2/1/62x/3<br />
80x138/2<br />
B.T.xTit./2<br />
Tit.xB.A./2<br />
B.Lx/7<br />
80xself/1<br />
B.A.x/1<br />
83x80/2<br />
Average number of mites<br />
per 10 leaves in season<br />
1998 1999<br />
2,1 abc*<br />
3,8 abc<br />
3,2 abc<br />
7,9 c<br />
0,8 ab<br />
0,3 a<br />
4,1 abc<br />
2,1 abc<br />
3,5 abc<br />
5,5 bc<br />
2,2 abc<br />
6,6 c<br />
5,0 abc<br />
3,9 abc<br />
1,7 ab<br />
3,9 abc<br />
7,1 bc<br />
4,4 abc<br />
4,3 abc<br />
2,2 ab<br />
1,6 a<br />
3,6 abc<br />
5,0 abc<br />
6,7 bc<br />
3,0 ab<br />
1,7 a<br />
5,9 abc<br />
9,2 c<br />
4,4 abc<br />
5,6 ab<br />
Trail II<br />
Cultivars /<br />
breeding selection<br />
Ojebyn<br />
Ben Lomond<br />
Titania<br />
Lentaj<br />
Sjuta Kijewskaja<br />
Czereszniewa<br />
Czornyj Zemczug<br />
Sanjuta<br />
PC-1<br />
PC-3<br />
PC-8<br />
PC-9<br />
PC-20<br />
PC-26<br />
Average number of mites<br />
per 10 leaves in season<br />
1998 1999<br />
3,9 abc<br />
9,6 abcd<br />
5,6 abcd<br />
6,5 abcd<br />
15,2 bcd<br />
3,9 b abc<br />
2,3 a<br />
16,7 cd<br />
8,7 abcd<br />
8,8 abcd<br />
19,4 d<br />
3,0 ab<br />
1,5 a<br />
1,9 a<br />
1,9 a<br />
5,3 ab<br />
2,7 a<br />
2,5 a<br />
3,4 a<br />
6,5 ab<br />
4,4 a<br />
<strong>11</strong>,4 b<br />
6,0 ab<br />
2,9 a<br />
3,2 a<br />
2,1 a<br />
3,4 a<br />
1,9 a<br />
Explanation:* - means in columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P=0.05),<br />
Duncan’s multiple range test<br />
References<br />
Czajkowska, B., D. Kropczynska. 1996. Life-history parameters of T. urticae Koch on<br />
selected cultivars of black currant. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19(4): 347-348.
126<br />
Gajek, D. 1995. The intensity of the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) on<br />
some new black currant cultivars. In: The Acari, Physiological and Ecological Aspects of<br />
Acari-Host Relationship. Warszawa: 505-509.<br />
Gajek, D., J. Nowacki, J. Boczek. 1996. Black currant cultivars resistant to the gall mite<br />
(Cecidophyopsis ribis Westw.) as an element of integrated pest management. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong><br />
<strong>Bulletin</strong> 19(4): 349-350.<br />
Gajek, D., S. Pluta, E. Żurawicz. 1999. Wstępne wyniki badań nad hodowlą odmian<br />
porzeczki czarnej odpornych na wielkopąkowca (Cecidophyopsis ribis /Westw./).<br />
Materiały VIII Ogólnopolskiego Zjazdu Naukowego Hodowców Roślin Ogrodniczych,<br />
"Hodowla Roślin Ogrodniczych u progu XXI wieku, Lublin 1999, T. II: 475-479.<br />
Łabanowska, B.H., D. Gajek. 1994. Control of the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus<br />
urticae Koch) on black currant. 'Sixth International Symposium on Rubus and Ribes',<br />
Skierniewice, Poland, July 3-10, 1993. Acta Hortic. 352: 583-585.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 127 - 129<br />
Side effect of fungicides used in Botrytis control on occurrence of<br />
leather rot of strawberry<br />
Anna Bielenin, Beata Meszka<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Pomologiczna 18, Poland<br />
Abstract: Some fungicides used against grey mould control also or reduce other pathogens. Leather rot<br />
caused by Phytophthora cactorum is a new disease on our plantation. This disease is most severe during<br />
years with prolonged rainy and cloudy periods during blossom and harvest. The purpose of this study was<br />
to compare the effect of some fungicides used in grey mould control program on occurrence of leather rot<br />
of strawberry under field conditions.<br />
On untreated plots only a few rotted fruits were found. Also sprays with Euparen 50 WP and Sumilex<br />
500 SC did not increase level of infection compared to the control. A heavy infection of fruits was<br />
observed on plots treated with Rovral Flo 255 SC and Teldor 500 SC.<br />
Key words: leather rot, grey mould, fungicides, strawberries.<br />
Introduction<br />
Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea Pers.) is the most important disease of strawberry. Usually 3-4<br />
treatments are needed for its control. Some fungicides used against grey mould control also or<br />
reduce occurrence of other pathogens. Leather rot caused by Phytophthora cactorum (L&C)<br />
Schroet. is a new disease on our plantation. The first time a severe infections of fruit was noted in<br />
1995. After this time disease was observed at a high level on several plantations. In the world<br />
leather rot is well known from many years. First the disease was reported by Rose in 1924 (Rose,<br />
1924). Since that time leather rot has been found in Europe and Asia (Madden, 1991). The<br />
disease is most severe during years with prolonged rainy and cloudy periods during blossom and<br />
harvest. Such weather was in central Poland in 1996 and 1999.<br />
Phytophthora cactorum infects fruits at all stages of development (Ellis, 1983). Rotted areas<br />
on green fruits are usually yellow-brown to dark brown. Ripening fruits after infection change a<br />
little in colour or may show discoloration ranging from light brown to dark purple or brown.<br />
Moreover, fruits affected by leather rot have an unpleasant odour and taste.<br />
The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of some fungicides used in grey mould<br />
control program on occurrence of leather rot of strawberry under field conditions.<br />
Material and methods<br />
The investigation was carried out on plantation of strawberry cv. Senga Sengana in 1996 and<br />
1999 in the Experimental Orchard in Dąbrowice and on private farm in Skierniewice. Plots were<br />
one-sided treated with four fungicides: Sumilex 500 SC (procymidone), Euparen 50 WP<br />
(dichlofluanid), Rovral Flo 255 SC (iprodione) and Teldor 500 SC (fenhexamid). The experiment<br />
was set up on an area of about 64 m 2 per treatment. The sprays were made with motor knapsack<br />
sprayer "Solo" using 600 l/ha. The sprays started at the beginning of blossom and continued<br />
every 5-7 days.<br />
Evaluation of grey mould and leather rot infections in field during harvest and after 24 hours<br />
127
128<br />
of storage at room temperature (about 20 o C) was made twice during harvest on 400 randomly<br />
chosen fruits per treatment.<br />
The results were evaluated statistically by a analysis of variance and the significance of<br />
differences was estimated by Duncan' s test at P=0.05.<br />
Table 1. Percent of strawberry fruits cv. Senga Sengana affected by grey mould and leather rot in<br />
different fungicide programmes<br />
Experimental Orchard, Dąbrowice 1996<br />
Fungicide<br />
and rate per 1 ha<br />
Percent of affected fruits in the field<br />
and after 24 hrs storage at 20 0 C<br />
Grey mould<br />
Leather rot<br />
20.VI. 3.VII. 20.VI. 3.VI.<br />
Untreated 25.7 b 80.3 c 0.3 a 1.9 a<br />
Euparen 50 WP 5.0 kg 8.8 a 47.2 b 1.3 ab 1.6 a<br />
Rovral Flo 255 SC 2.5 l 7.7 a 17.7 a 2.3 b 21.6 b<br />
Dates of treatment: 20, 27.V., 3, 7.VI.<br />
Table 2. Percent of strawberry fruits cv. Senga Sengana affected by gray mould and leather rot in<br />
different fungicide programs<br />
Private farm, Skierniewice 1999<br />
Fungicide<br />
and rate per 1 ha<br />
Percent of affected fruits in the field<br />
and after 24 hrs storage in 20 0 C<br />
Grey mould<br />
Leather rot<br />
16.VI. 22.VI. 16.VI. 22.VI.<br />
Untreated 67.7 d 81.3 c 0 a 0.4 a<br />
Sumilex 500 SC 1.5 l 4.9 a 2.3 a 0 a 0.9 a<br />
Euparen 50 WP 5.0 kg 4.6 a 7.0 a 0 a 0.4 a<br />
Teldor 500 SC 1.5 l 18.9 b 8.6 a 0 a 32.0 c<br />
Dates of treatment: 17, 21, 31.V., 1.VI.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Both seasons, when leather rot was observed at a high level, were characterised by a prolonged<br />
wet period during the harvest. Such weather was favourable also for grey mould infection. The<br />
level of this disease was extremely high in the second part of harvest period in 1996 and during<br />
almost whole 1999 season. 26% and later 80% of fruits were affected on untreated plots in 1996<br />
and in 1999 68% and 81%, respectively. Fungicides used gave a good control of grey mould at<br />
the beginning of harvest time.
129<br />
Occurrence of leather rot in grey mould control experiments provided possibility to check the<br />
effect of used fungicides against Phytophthora cactorum. On untreated plots only a few rotted<br />
fruits were found. Also sprays with Euparen 50 WP and Sumilex 500 SC did not increase level of<br />
infection compared to the control. A heavy infections of fruits were observed on plots treated<br />
with Rovral Flo 255 SC and Teldor 500 SC. On these plots the percentage of fruits with leather<br />
rot symptoms was higher than fruit with grey mould infection (Tab. 1, 2).<br />
Similar effects with iprodione or vinclozolin treatments obtained Jordan at al. (1977).<br />
They showed that fruit rot caused by Phytophthora cactorum was significantly increased on<br />
plants treated with these products. Leather rot is still only occasionally problem in our<br />
commercial fields. The most important in its control is to reduce periods of free moisture<br />
presence on fruit surface ( Ellis,1996). But also correct selection of fungicides against grey<br />
mould is necessary on the plantations with leather rot problem.<br />
Conclusion<br />
1. Fungicides Rovral Flo 255 SC and Teldor 500 SC used in grey mould control program caused<br />
the increase of leather rot on strawberries. This effect it was not observed with Sumilex 500<br />
SC and Euparen 50 WP.<br />
2. Correct selection of fungicides against grey mould is necessary on plantations with leather rot<br />
problem<br />
References<br />
Ellis M.A., Grove G.G. 1983. Leather rot in Ohio Strawberries. Plant Disease 67: 549.<br />
Ellis, M.A. 1996. Integrated management of Botrytis "gray mold" and leather rot of strawberry.<br />
Pennsylvania Fruit News 76 (4): 129-135 (abstr.).<br />
Jordan V.W.L., Pappas A.C. 1977. Inoculum suppression and control of strawberry Botrytis.<br />
Proceedings 1977 British Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 2: 341-348.<br />
Madden L.V., Ellis M.A., Grove G.G., Reynolds K.M., Wilson L.L. 1991. Epidemiology and<br />
control of leather rot of strawberries. Plant Disease 75 (5): 439-445.<br />
Rose D.H. 1924. Leather rot of strawberries. J. Agric. Res. 28: 357-376.
130
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 131 - 132<br />
Occurrence and identification of strawberry green petal phytoplasma<br />
Mirosława Cieślińska, Barbara Zawadzka<br />
Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Department of Plant Protection, Virology Laboratory,<br />
Pomologiczna 18, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Abstract: Strawberry plants cvs Mara des Bois, Selva, Evita and Tango with symptoms suggestive of<br />
phytoplasma disease were identified on experimental and productive fields. Transmission of<br />
phytoplasma from infected strawberries to Catharanthus roseus was carried out using dodder. For<br />
detection of the pathogen the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was applied. Several weeks after<br />
transmitting of SGP phytoplasma from strawberry, the deformation of leaves and flowers of<br />
Catharanthus roseus were observed. When the primers fU5/rU3 were applied in PCR reaction, DNA<br />
fragments of the expected sizes were amplified from Mara des Bois, Tango, Selva, Evita cvs.<br />
strawberry, Catharanthus roseus infected with SGP phytoplasma and positive control. No<br />
amplification products were observed in the sample containing DNA from healthy (asymptomatic)<br />
strawberry with all of the primers used. SGP could be hardly detected in the spring and summer.<br />
Key words: phytoplasma, strawberry green petal, polymerase chain reaction<br />
Introduction<br />
Strawberry green petal phytoplasma (SGP) is placed in aster yellows 16S rRNA taxonomic<br />
group I, subgroup C (clover phyllody and related phytoplasmas) (Gundersen et al, 1996). SGP<br />
is transmitted by leafhoppers and by infected plant material. SGP frequently show diagnostic<br />
symptoms on flowers, which petals become green eventually pink. The petals are lower than<br />
normally and frequently become leaf-like (phylloids) and sterile. The fruits of infected plants<br />
are small, hard, dwarfed and does not ripen. New foliage is dwarfed, asymmetric, with<br />
chlorotic margins. Leaf petioles are very short. Most of the infected plants die after a few<br />
months. Incidence of the disease varies from year to year (Posnette and Chiykowski, 1987).<br />
Material and methods<br />
Strawberry plants cvs Mara des Bois, Selva, Evita and Tango with SGP symptoms were found<br />
on experimental and on productive fields in 1998-99. Transmission of phytoplasma from<br />
infected strawberries to Catharanthus roseus was carried out using dodder.<br />
For detection of the pathogen the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was applied. DNA<br />
was isolated from 0.5 g samples of leaves petioles and midribs according to Ahrens and<br />
Seemüller (1992) procedure. Extracted DNA was used in PCR reactions. 35 PCR cycles in<br />
thermocycler (95 o C for 45s., 55 o C for 45s., 72 o C for 1min. 20s.) were performed followed by<br />
a final elongation for 10 min. at 72 o C.<br />
At the first experiment three pairs of primers were used. Primers fU5/rU3 (Lorenz et al,<br />
1995) are known to be the universal for phytoplasma and amplify 874 bp fragment; primers<br />
fAT/rAS (Kirkpatrick et al., 1994) - amplify 530 bp fragment and are specific for apple<br />
proliferation and primers fPD/rO1 (Lorenz et al, 1995) are specific for DNA of pear decline<br />
phytoplasma. For the next experiments fU5/rU3 primers were chosen. For the analysis of the<br />
amplification products 20 µl of the post PCR mixture were subjected to electrophoresis in a<br />
131
132<br />
1% agarose gel in TBE buffer. The DNA was visualised under UV light after staining with<br />
ethidium bromide.<br />
Results<br />
Strawberry plants with symptoms suggestive of phytoplasma disease were identified on<br />
experimental and productive fields. The observed symptoms are similar those described by<br />
Posnette and Chiykowski (1987). Several weeks after transmitting of SGP phytoplasma from<br />
strawberry by dodders the deformation of leaves and flowers of Catharanthus roseus were<br />
observed. Infected plants were stunted and the petals of their flowers became green.<br />
When the primer pair fAT/rAS was used in PCR no visible amplification products were<br />
obtain with any of the strawberries but a DNA fragment of 530 bp was produced from apple<br />
infected with proliferation phytoplasma (positive control). There was no amplification of<br />
DNA isolated from strawberries , C. roseus and apple with proliferation symptoms when the<br />
fPD/rO1 primers were used in PCR.<br />
When the primers fU5/rU3 were applied DNA fragments of the expected sizes were<br />
amplified from Mara des Bois, Tango, Selva and Evita cvs strawberry, Catharanthus roseus<br />
infected with SGP phytoplasma and positive control. No amplification products were<br />
observed in the sample containing DNA from healthy (asymptomatic) strawberry with any of<br />
the primers used. It was hard to detect the SGP in the spring and summer.<br />
References<br />
Ahrens U., Seemüller E., 1992. Detection of plant pathogenic mycoplasmalike organisms by<br />
the polymerase chain reaction that amplifies a sequence of the 16 S RNA gene.<br />
Phytopathology 8: 828-832.<br />
Gundersen D.E., Lee I.-M., Schaff D.A., Harrison N.A., Chang C.J., Davis R.E., Kingsbury<br />
D.T. 1996. Genomic diversity and differentiation among phytoplasma strains in 16S<br />
rRNA groups I (aster yellows and related phytoplasmams) and III (X-disease and related<br />
phytoplasmas). Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 1: 64-75.<br />
Kirkpatrick B., Smart C., Blomquist C., Guerra L., Harrison N., Ahrens U., Lorenz K.H.,<br />
Schneider B., Seemüller E. 1994. Identification of MLO strain-specific primers obtained<br />
from 16/<strong>23</strong>S spacer sequences. Int. Org. Mycoplasmol. Lett. 3: 261-262.<br />
Lorenz K.H, Schneider B., Ahrens U., Seemüller E., 1995. Detection of the apple<br />
proliferation and pear decline phytoplasmas by PCR amplification of ribosomal and<br />
nonribosomal DNA. Phytopathology 85: 771-776.<br />
Posnette A. F., Chiykowski L. N. 1987. Strawberry green petal and similar diseases. In: Virus<br />
diseases of small fruits. R. H. Converse, ed. U.S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 631: 34-38.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 133 - 136<br />
Efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M 50 WG in the control of<br />
grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) and reduction of the population of<br />
two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) on strawberries<br />
Beata Meszka, Barbara H. Łabanowska, Anna Bielenin<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Pomologiczna 18, Poland<br />
Abstract: Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is one of the most important fungal diseases on strawberry in<br />
Poland. Usually 3-4 treatments are necessary for its control. Euparen 50 WP (dichlofluanid) is the most<br />
commonly used fungicide. The aim of the experiments was to compare the efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and<br />
the new formulation -Euparen M 50 WG (tolyfluanid) in control of grey mould of strawberries. The<br />
influence of dichlofluanid on development of the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch)<br />
population on strawberry was assessed, too. Both fungicides tested provided a good control of grey mould.<br />
Efficacy of dichlofluanid was similar to that obtained with procymidone, which is considered to be the<br />
best fungicide against grey mould. Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M applied 3 - 4 times against Botrytis<br />
cinerea reduced also two-spotted spider mite on plantations with a moderate population of the pest.<br />
Key words: grey mould, two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, chemical control, dichlofluanid,<br />
tolyfluanid.<br />
Introduction<br />
Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is one of the most important fungal diseases of strawberry in<br />
Poland. It must be controlled every year - usually 3-4 treatments are necessary during the<br />
blooming time, depending on weather conditions, to control the disease. The following fungicides<br />
are recommended for control of grey mould: Euparen 50 WP (dichlofluanid), Sumilex 500 SC<br />
(procymidone), Thiram Granuflo 80 WG, Pomarsol Forte 80 WG (tiuram), Rovral 50 WP and<br />
Rovral Flo 255 SC (iprodione) and Mythos 300 SC (pyrimethanil).<br />
Euparen 50 WP (dichlofluanid) is used most commonly. It provides a good control of grey<br />
mould and also reduces leaf spot (Mycosphaerella fragariae) and powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca<br />
macularis). There are also reports that dichlofluanid influences population of two-spotted spider<br />
mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) (Łabanowska and Bielenin, 1997).<br />
The aim of the experiments was to compare the efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and the new<br />
formulation - Euparen M 50 WG (tolyfluanid) in control of grey mould on strawberries. The<br />
influence of dichlofluanid on population of the two-spotted spider mite on strawberry was also<br />
assessed.<br />
Materials and methods<br />
The efficacy of fungicides in the control of grey mould was evaluated in 1998 on strawberry cv.<br />
Elkat in the Experimental Orchard in Skierniewice and in 1999 on cv. Senga Sengana at a private<br />
farm near Skierniewice. The strawberries were sprayed four times starting at the beginning of<br />
bloom and then every 5-7 days. A motor knapsack sprayer "Solo” was used and the dose was 600<br />
l of liquid per 1 ha.<br />
The evaluation of efficacy of fungicides in control of grey mould was made twice during the<br />
133
134<br />
harvest on a sample of 400 ripe fruits taken randomly from each treatment. The diseased fruits<br />
were counted at harvest and after 24 h of storage at room temperature. The results presented in<br />
table 1 represent the sum of diseased fruits assessed at both times.<br />
The influence of Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M 50 WG on two-spotted spider mite<br />
population was evaluated during 1997-1999 on plantations where Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M<br />
50 WG were used to control the grey mould. The active stages of mites were counted 3-4 times<br />
during the growing season on a sample of 120 large leaves taken at random from each treatment.<br />
These mites were counted according to Henderson – McBurnie’s technique (Henderson and<br />
McBurnie, 1943). The results are presented in table 2.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Grey mould control<br />
The severity of the infection by Botrytis cinerea strongly depends on weather conditions, mainly<br />
on temperature and humidity. In a very wet season 1999, with a lot of rain during blossom and<br />
harvest time the intensity of the disease was extremely high. On the untreated plots more than<br />
50% of fruits were lost due to the grey mould (Tab. 1).<br />
Table 1. Efficacy of Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M 50 WG in the control of grey mould on<br />
strawberries<br />
a) Elkat cv., Skierniewice, 1998<br />
Fungicide<br />
and rate per 1 ha<br />
Percent of affected fruits at harvest and<br />
after 24 hrs storage at 20 0 C<br />
Harvest:<br />
10.VI<br />
Harvest:<br />
16.VI<br />
Mean of two<br />
evaluations<br />
Euparen 50 WP (dichloflanid), 5.0 kg 2.2 a 5.3 a 2.7 a<br />
Euparen M 50 WG (tolyfluanid), 5.0 kg 2.6 a 7.7 a 4.0 a<br />
Check (untreated) 2.2 a 10.4 a 8.3 b<br />
Dates of treatment: 14,21 and 28 May<br />
b) Senga Sengana cv., Miedniewice, 1999<br />
Fungicide<br />
and rate per 1 ha<br />
Percent of affected fruits at harvest and<br />
after 24 hrs of storage at 20 0 C<br />
Harvest:<br />
15.VI<br />
Harvest:<br />
21.VI<br />
Mean of two<br />
harvests<br />
Euparen 50 WP (dichloflanid) 5.0 kg 4.6 a 7.0 ab 5.8 ab<br />
Euparen M 50 WG (tolyfluanid) 5.0 kg 9.0 a 17.9 b 13.6 b<br />
Sumilex 500 SC (procymidon) 1.5 l 4.9 a 2.3 a 3.8 a<br />
Check (untreated) 67.7 b 81.3 c 73.5 c<br />
Dates of treatment: 17, 21 and 31 May, 1 June.<br />
In a drier year 1998 only about 10 % of infected fruits were observed on control plots. Both<br />
fungicides tested provided a good control of grey mould. In 1999, under a high pressure of
135<br />
disease, Euparen 50 WP was slightly more efficient than Euparen M 50 WG. Efficacy of<br />
dichlofluanid was similar to that obtained by procymidone, which is considered to be the best<br />
fungicide against grey mould. Because the resistance of Botrytis cinerea to dicarboximide<br />
fungicides has been developed on strawberry plantations (Beever at al. 1983, Dennis at al. 1979),<br />
both tested fungicides, dichlofluanid and tolyfluanid are very useful for rotation in control of grey<br />
mould.<br />
Influence of Euparen on the population two-spotted spider mite<br />
Euparen 50 WP used 3 times during the bloom of strawberry to control grey mould reduced also<br />
the population of two-spotted spider mite. The average number of mites per one leaf was lower<br />
on the treated plants than the economic threshold level (Tab. 2a). On the untreated plants there<br />
were 4 - 6.4 mites/leaf, indicating that population was slightly higher than the economic<br />
threshold.<br />
In earlier experiments, Euparen M 50 WG used four times during the blossom time against<br />
the grey mould reduced the mite population in comparison with untreated plants but it was less<br />
effective than four treatments with Euparen 50 WP (Tab. 2b).<br />
Table 2. Influence of Euparen 50 WP used in control of grey mould on the two-spotted spider<br />
mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch.) population<br />
a) Elkat cv., Skierniewice 1999<br />
Fungicides and<br />
active ingredients<br />
Dose<br />
(kg/ha)<br />
Number of Number of mites per 1 leaf<br />
treatments June, 15 June, 30 July, 13<br />
Euparen 50 WP<br />
(dichlofluanid)<br />
5,0<br />
3 0.02 a<br />
0.1 a<br />
0.7 a<br />
Check (untreated)<br />
–<br />
3.9 b<br />
4.6 b<br />
6.4 b<br />
Date of treatments: 20 and 25 May and 1 June<br />
b) Senga Sengana cv., Miedniewice 1997<br />
Treatment Dose Number of mites per 1 leaf<br />
(kg/ha) July, 17 August, <strong>11</strong> August, 25<br />
Euparen 50 WP<br />
(dichlofluanid)<br />
5,0<br />
0.03<br />
0.1<br />
0.7<br />
Euparen M50<br />
WG (tolyfluanid)<br />
5,0<br />
0.9<br />
0.6<br />
0.9<br />
Check (untreated)<br />
–<br />
1.9<br />
2.1<br />
1.6<br />
Dates of treatments: 17, 21 and 27 of May 1 of June<br />
Conclusions<br />
1. Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M 50 WG provided similar, good control of grey mould in the in<br />
field experiments. The fungicides are useful in antiresistance program and they can be used in<br />
rotation with other groups of fungicide in control of grey mould.<br />
2. Euparen 50 WP and Euparen M used for the control of grey mould reduce also the two-spotted
136<br />
spider mite population. Euparen applied 3-4 times against Botrytis cinerea reduced the<br />
Tetranychus urticae population quite well on the plantations with a moderate population of<br />
mites. One treatment with Euparen was not sufficient.<br />
References<br />
Beever R.E., Brien H.M. 1983. A survey of resistance to the dicarboximide fungicides in Botrytis<br />
cinerea. New Zealand J. Agric. Res. 26: 391-400.<br />
Dennis C., Davis R.P. 1979. Tolerance of Botrytis cinerea to iprodione and vinclozolin. Plant<br />
Path. 28: 131-132.<br />
Henderson C.F., McBurnie H.F. 1943. Sampling technique for determining population of the<br />
citrus red mite and its predators. USDA Circ. 671: 1-<strong>11</strong>.<br />
Łabanowska B.H., Bielenin A.1997. Euparen - fungicyd ograniczajocy populację przędziorków<br />
na truskawce. Materiały Ogólnopol. Konf. Ochr. Rośl. Sad: 90.
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 137 - 139<br />
Usefulness of Mospilan 20 SP in Integrated Pest Management<br />
of soft fruits<br />
Barbara H. Łabanowska, Dariusz Gajek, Edmund Niemczyk<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Skierniewice, Poland<br />
Abstract: Mospilan 20 SP (acetamiprid) was tested to control some pests in soft fruits plantations<br />
during 1998-99 at the Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture in Skierniewice (Poland). In<br />
1999 the selectivity of the insecticide for Phytoseiid mites was also evaluated.<br />
Mospilan 20 SP showed a good control of strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi) on<br />
strawberry and raspberry, raspberry beetle (Byturus tomentosus) on raspberry, rose torthrix moth<br />
(Archips rosanus) and blackcurrant stem midge (Resseliella ribis) on blackcurrants. The chemical was<br />
selective to phytoseiid mites (Phytoseiidae) on blackcurrants.<br />
Key words: Acetamiprid, Anthonomus rubi, Byturus tomentosus, Archips rosanus, Resseliella ribis,<br />
Phytoseiidae, raspberry, strawberry, currant<br />
Introduction and methods<br />
Pests like weevils, worms and flies cause considerable damages on small fruit plantations in<br />
Poland (Łabanowska 1997a, 1997b). The chemical control of these pests is not easy,<br />
especially on plantations managed according to the integrated fruit production rules (IFP)<br />
(Łabanowska and Bielenin, <strong>2000</strong>; Olszak et al., <strong>2000</strong>). Therefore, we are looking for the<br />
selective insecticides to control the pests without any harm to the beneficial organisms. In<br />
orchards with IFP methods Mospilan 20 SP is a new, recommend insecticide. In recent years<br />
the chemical was tested in control of some pests on soft fruit plantations. The experiments<br />
were carried out in 1998-99 at the Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture in<br />
Skierniewice. Mospilan was used to control the following pests:<br />
– strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi Hbst.) on strawberry and raspberry,<br />
– raspberry beetle (Byturus tomentosus Deg.) on raspberry,<br />
– rose torthrix moth (Archips rosanus L.) and black currant stem midge (Resseliella ribis) on<br />
black currant.<br />
In 1999 selectivity of Mospilan 20 SP for phytoseiid mites on blackcurrants was also<br />
evaluated.<br />
Dose rate of the insecticide, dates of treatments and some selected results are shown on<br />
Table 1 and Figure 1.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
Efficacy of Mospilan 20 SP in pest control<br />
Mospilan 20 SP used once on strawberries just before blooming gave satisfactory control of<br />
strawberry blossom weevil (A. rubi) (Tab. 1). The results were similar to those obtained with<br />
standard insecticides such as fenitrothion (Sumithion 500 EC), etofenprox (Trebon 10 SC)<br />
and phosalone (Zolone 35 EC).<br />
137
138<br />
Table 1. The efficacy of some insecticides in control of strawberry blossom weevil<br />
(Anthonomus rubi Hbst.) on strawberry and raspberry plants and raspberry beetle<br />
(Byturus tomentosus Deg.) on raspberry<br />
Skierniewice 1999<br />
Insecticides<br />
(active ingredient)<br />
Mospilan 20 SP<br />
(acetamiprid)<br />
Mospilan 20 WP<br />
(acetamiprid)<br />
Trebon 10 SC<br />
(etofenprox)<br />
Zolone 350 EC<br />
(phosalone)<br />
+ Trebon 10 SC<br />
(etofenprox)<br />
Sumithion 500 EC<br />
(fenitrothion)<br />
Check (untreated)<br />
Dose<br />
a.i.<br />
(g/ha)<br />
25<br />
40<br />
90<br />
875<br />
90<br />
<strong>11</strong>25<br />
–<br />
A. rubi*<br />
damaged buds<br />
on<br />
strawberries<br />
1.4<br />
0.9<br />
1.4<br />
–<br />
1.2<br />
16.0<br />
B. tomentosus**<br />
damaged fruits (%)<br />
Term of harvest<br />
on<br />
raspberries I II III<br />
* Date of treatment on strawberry - May 10, 1999<br />
** Dates of treatments: before bloom (May 24), full bloom (June 7, 1999 - in the evening)<br />
0.2<br />
–<br />
0.4<br />
0.9<br />
–<br />
6.0<br />
0.0<br />
–<br />
0.0<br />
0.0<br />
–<br />
2.0<br />
0.0<br />
–<br />
0.5<br />
0.0<br />
–<br />
3.0<br />
1.0<br />
–<br />
0.3<br />
1.3<br />
–<br />
7.0<br />
Figure 1. Occurrence of Phytoseiid mites on blackcurrants after treatment with Mospilan 20<br />
SP - Skierniewice 1999<br />
Mospilan 20 SP used twice on raspberries, before and at full bloom, showed good and<br />
satisfactory control of strawberry blossom weevil (A. rubi) and raspberry beetle (B.<br />
tomentosus) (Tab. 1). The results were similar to those obtained with standard insecticides -<br />
phosalone (Zolone 35 EC) and etofenprox (Trebon 10 SC).
139<br />
Mospilan 20 SP used once just after blossom of blackcurrants against young larvae of the<br />
rose tortrix moth (A. rosanus) gave satisfactory control of the pest. The obtained results were<br />
similar to those obtained with fenitrothion (Sumithion 500 EC).<br />
Mospilan 20 SP used at the time of flight of the first and second generations of the black<br />
currant stem midge (R. ribis) gave satisfactory control of the pest. The results were similar to<br />
those obtained with a standard insecticides, e.g. etofenprox (Trebon 10 SC).<br />
Selectivity of Mospilan 20 SP to Phytoseiid mites on blackcurrants.<br />
Mospilan 20 SP at concentration 0.02% applied on blackcurrants showed selectivity to<br />
Phytoseiid mites (Fig. 1). No statistical difference in number of mites on treated and untreated<br />
bushes was observed at three terms after the insecticide application<br />
Conclusions<br />
1. In strawberries, Mospilan 20 SP used at the dose rates 0.125 and 0.2 kg/ha just before<br />
blossom, gave satisfactory control of strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi).<br />
2. In raspberries, Mospilan 20 SP used at the dose rate 0.125 kg/ha just before blossom and<br />
during blossom gave a good control of strawberry blossom weevil (A. rubi) and raspberry<br />
beetle (Byturus tomentosus).<br />
3. In black currants, Mospilan 20 SP used at the dose rates 0.125 and 0.2 kg/ha just after<br />
blossom, gave a good control of rose torthrix moth (Archips rosanus).<br />
4. Mospilan 20 SP (0.2 kg/ha) gave a good control of blackcurrant stem midge (Resseliella<br />
ribis).<br />
4. Mospilan 20 SP (0.02%) showed a selectivity to phytoseiid mites (Phytoseiidae) on<br />
blackcurrants.<br />
5. After registration, Mospilan 20 SP should be useful in integrated pest management in soft<br />
fruit.<br />
References<br />
Łabanowska B.H., 1997a. Control of the strawberry blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi Hbst.)<br />
on strawberry. J. Fruit Ornam. Plant Res. 5 (3-4): 157-162.<br />
Łabanowska B.H., 1997b. Dynamika składania jaj i efektywność zwalczania pryszczarka<br />
porzeczkowca pędowego - Resseliella ribis (Marik.) (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae). Zesz.<br />
Nauk Inst. Sad. Kwiac. 4: 135-147.<br />
Łabanowska B.H., Bielenin A., <strong>2000</strong>. The standard and integrated strawberry production in<br />
Poland. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>23</strong>(7): 7-10.<br />
Olszak R.W., Łabanowska B.H., Bielenin A., Gajek D., <strong>2000</strong>. Prospects of developing<br />
integrated methods of small fruit production in Poland. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>23</strong>(7): 1-6.
140
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 141 - 143<br />
Preliminary IPM program for blackcurrant crop for Poland<br />
E. Niemczyk, B. Łabanowska, D. Gajek<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland<br />
The main aim of IPM of blackcurrants is effective control the two main pests: currant gall mite<br />
and spider mites using non chemical methods or selective insecticides. The blackcurrant gall mite<br />
(Cecidophyopsis ribis ) may be effectively controlled only with chemicals. The efficacy of<br />
natural enemies – predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) and a parasitoid (Tetrastichus eriophyes -<br />
Eulophidae) in controlling of blackcurrant gall mite is very low (Gajek et al. <strong>2000</strong>). Therefore,<br />
the plantations of blackcurrants should be established only with healthy plants, free from most<br />
important pests and diseases.<br />
Two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) on blackcurrants may be kept on a very low<br />
level by predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) occurring in environment and inhabiting naturally the<br />
plantations (Niemczyk et al. 1996 ). Amblyseius andersoni, A. bryophilus and Euseius finlandicus<br />
are the most common phytoseiids naturally occurring on blackcurrants in Poland (Niemczyk<br />
1994, Niemczyk et al. 1996; Kropczynska et al. 1994, Jaworski <strong>2000</strong>). The other phytoseiid mites<br />
(Amblyseius californicus, Metaseiulus occidentalis, Typhlodromus pyri and Neoseius fallacis)<br />
obtainable on the marked and released on plantations may also suppress spider mite populations<br />
on blackcurrants. Therefore, only insecticides selective to phytoseiids should be used for pest<br />
control on blackcurrant plantations. Endosulfan applied even three times per season did not kill<br />
the predatory mites A. andersoni and T. pyri. At the same time it controlled aphids on<br />
blackcurrants (Gajek et al. <strong>2000</strong>). It was also found that acetamiprid (Mospilan), an effective<br />
broad-spectrum insecticide, was also selective to the phytoseiids on blackcurrants (Łabanowska<br />
et al. <strong>2000</strong>).<br />
The presented in the table IPM program should be treated as the preliminary one and has to<br />
be improved. Threshold levels should be elaborated for all the pests listed in the table. Also, the<br />
effectiveness of insecticides selective to black currant stem midge (Resseliella ribis) and currant<br />
clarwing moth (Synathedon tipuliformis) should be examined.<br />
The fungicides toxic to phytoseiids should be avoided on blackcurrant crops cultivated<br />
according to IPM rules.<br />
References<br />
Gajek D., Niemczyk E., Sekrecka M. (<strong>2000</strong>). Effectiveness of different control methods of black<br />
currant gall mite and their influence on populations of phytoseiid mites and two-spotted<br />
spider mite. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> Bull. <strong>23</strong>(7): 47-52.<br />
Jaworski S. (<strong>2000</strong>). Occurrence of phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on blackcurrant<br />
plantations and in surrounding vegetation in southern Poland. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> Bull. <strong>23</strong>(7): 57-<br />
62.<br />
Kropczynska D., Cichocka E., Czajkowska B. 1994. Biologiczne podstawy integrowanego<br />
zwalczania roztoczy i mszyc na jabłoniach i porzeczkach. Sprawozdanie końcowe Projektu<br />
Badawczego KBN nr 5065491.<br />
Łabanowska B., Gajek D., Niemczyk E. (<strong>2000</strong>). Usefulness of Mospilan 20 SP in integrated pest<br />
management of soft fruits. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> Bull. <strong>23</strong>(7): 137-140.<br />
141
142<br />
Niemczyk, E. 1994. Występowanie efektywność i wykorzystanie drapieżnych roztoczy<br />
(Phytoseiidae) do zwalcznia przędziorka chmielowca (Tetranychus urticae) na czarnych<br />
porzeczkach. Sprawozdanie końcowe Projektu Badawczego KBN nr. 5207 9203.Res. Inst.<br />
of Pomology and Floriculture, Skierniewice.<br />
Niemczyk E., Sekrecka M., Kumor I. 1996. The occurrence, species composition and<br />
effectiveness of predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) to two spotted mites (Tetranychus urticae<br />
Koch) appearing on black currant. <strong>IOBC</strong>/WPRS Bull. 19(4): 374-376.<br />
Remark and explanations to the table on the opposite page 143<br />
Remark<br />
In order to maintain the phytoseiids on black currants only selective fungicides have to be used.<br />
These are:<br />
– for control of currant blister rust (Cronartium ribicola):<br />
dithianon (Delan), triadimefon (Bayleton), flusilazol (Punch), bupirimate (Nimrod)<br />
– for control of American gooseberry mildew (Sphaerotheca mors uvae):<br />
triadimefon (Bayleton), bupirimate (Nimrod), fenarimol (Rubigan), flusilazol (Punch),<br />
difenoconazol (Score)<br />
– for control of anthracnose of currants (Drepanopeziza ribis) and septoria leaf spot<br />
(Mycosphaerella ribis):<br />
dithianon (Delan), triadimefon (Bayleton), flusilazol (Punch), difenoconazol (Score)<br />
Explanations<br />
1. overwinters in the field conditions, obtainable on the marked<br />
2. does not overwinter in Poland, obtainable on the marked<br />
3. during time of treatment predatory mites overwinter in shelters.<br />
4. not registered for black currant.
Preliminary IPM program of black currant crop for Poland<br />
Pest species<br />
Black currant gall mite<br />
(Cecidophyopsis ribis)<br />
Two spotted spider<br />
mite<br />
(Tetranychus urticae)<br />
Aphids<br />
Aphis schneideri,<br />
Hyperomyzus lactucae,<br />
Cryptomyzus ribis<br />
Currant shoot borer<br />
(Incurvania capitella)<br />
Black currant stem<br />
midge<br />
(Resseliella ribis)<br />
Currant clarwing moth<br />
(Synathedon<br />
tipuliformis)<br />
Necessity of control<br />
on standard crop<br />
2-3 treatments each<br />
year on each<br />
plantation<br />
1-2 treatments on<br />
majority of<br />
plantations<br />
On majority of<br />
plantations in some<br />
years<br />
On majority of<br />
plantations in some<br />
years<br />
On some plantations<br />
in some years<br />
On some plantations<br />
in some years<br />
Control measures on IFP crop Threshold level Detection of pest and<br />
timing of sprayings<br />
at least 1 treatment with endosulfan (Thiodan,<br />
Thionex) and removing of infested buds from<br />
established of plantation<br />
a) Introduction of predatory mites: Typhlodromus<br />
pyri 1 , Neoseiulus fallacis 1 , Metaseiulus<br />
occidentalis 2 , Amblyseius californicus 2<br />
b) Maintaining native naturally occurring predatory<br />
mites: Amblyseius andersoni, A.<br />
bryophilus, A. umbraticus, Euseius finlandicus,<br />
T. pyri.<br />
c) Spraying with hexytiazox (Nissorun)<br />
acetamiprid (Mospilan) 4<br />
pirimicarb (Pirimor)<br />
endosulfan used against gall mite controls also<br />
aphids<br />
fenitrothion (Sumithion, Owadofos) 3<br />
deltamethrine (Decis) 3<br />
acetamiprid (Mospilan) 4<br />
phosalone (Zolone)<br />
Cutting shoots during winter or early spring<br />
phosalone (Zolone)<br />
no infested buds<br />
1 mite/leaf before<br />
flowering<br />
1-2 mites/leaf after<br />
blooming<br />
3-4 mites/leaf after<br />
harvest<br />
no established<br />
no established<br />
no established<br />
no established<br />
visual inspection in<br />
dormant season -<br />
usually at early spring<br />
counting mites on the<br />
leaves: 200 leaves<br />
collected from 50<br />
bushes (4 leaves per<br />
bush)<br />
visual inspection of<br />
plantations<br />
examination of<br />
plantations during bud<br />
burst or a little later<br />
1. examination of oneyear-old<br />
canes during<br />
winter time<br />
2. cutting the skin of<br />
youngest canes where<br />
females lay eggs<br />
Pheromone traps
144
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 145 - 149<br />
Storage of soft fruits<br />
Werner Ollig 1 , Helmut Schirmer 2 and Erich Jörg 3<br />
1 State Institute for Education and Research in Agriculture, Breitenweg 71, D-67435 Neustadt/Wstr.<br />
2 Instit. of Chemistry and Biology, Fed. Res. Centre of Nutrition, Engesserstr.20, D-67131 Karlsruhe<br />
3 State Institute for Agronomy and Crop Protection, Essenheimerstr. 144, D-55128 Mainz<br />
Abstract: The storage of soft fruits is still in its infancy. An overview is given on the possibilities and<br />
conditions to store soft fruits in order to steer the market supply. Especially for gooseberries and red<br />
currants a long-term storage is possible. By applying appropriate temperature-CO2 content regimes<br />
fungal storage rots can be controlled sufficiently.<br />
Keywords: soft fruit, gooseberry, red currant, storage, fungal storage rots<br />
Introduction<br />
During the last five years the demand for fresh fruits of several soft fruit crops has increased<br />
considerably. On the other hand the supply of the fresh market with soft fruits is characterised<br />
by periods with oversupply as well as shortage on the availability of the fruits. And in<br />
addition it is not possible to supply the customers with fresh fruits of a certain variety which<br />
is well introduced in the market over a longer period.<br />
From pome fruit production it is known that CA-storage and ULO-storage may be<br />
applied successfully to store the fruits for a longer period while maintaining a high quality<br />
standard. So, it was tested if these methods can be employed for the storage of soft fruits in<br />
order to achieve:<br />
– a prolongation of the supply period of certain crops or cultivars;<br />
– a steering of market (avoid shortage or oversupply);<br />
– a sales promotion by developing new marketing lines (e.g. direct supply of gastronomy).<br />
Special attention was directed to the situation and storage facilities of self marketers who<br />
deal with smaller piles and quantities of less than a ton per crop.<br />
Prerequisites for the storage of soft fruits<br />
Not all harvested soft fruits are appropriate for a storage and not all storage facilities may be<br />
used for the CA-/ULO- storage of soft fruits. The prerequisites that have to be fulfilled to<br />
guarantee a successful storage are as follows (Ollig, 1998; Schirmer & Tauscher, 1998;<br />
Schirmer et al., 1997):<br />
• appropriate and robust cultivars (e.g. Elsanta for strawberries or Roodneus /Rovada for red<br />
currants);<br />
• healthy fruits (especially free of fungal diseases);<br />
• dry fruits (Dierend et al., 1999);<br />
• early harvesting (after ripening in the storage facility);<br />
• avoidance of condensed water;<br />
• temperature regimes and CO 2 contents must be adjustable to degree of ripeness and length<br />
of intended storage period.<br />
Results<br />
145
146<br />
Trials were carried out for gooseberries and red currants to assess the influence of storage<br />
conditions on the weight losses, development of fruit rots and the marketability of the stored<br />
fruit.<br />
Gooseberries<br />
Table 1 shows the results for 1996 and 1997 trials. They may be summarised as follows.<br />
Gooseberries stored in normal air (at 1°C) were not marketable after the storage period of five<br />
weeks, whereas fruits from the other treatments could be marketed. By CO 2 -storage the<br />
weight losses could be reduced considerably. Best results were obtained with a CO 2 -content<br />
of 15 %. In addition this treatment gave the best results in the suppression of fungal diseases<br />
occurring during the storage period.<br />
Table 1. Gooseberries – results of storage under different conditions (cv. Achilles)<br />
Treatments<br />
Weight losses (%)<br />
after 5 weeks CA storage<br />
+ 1 additional week<br />
1996<br />
after 8 weeks<br />
CA-storage<br />
1997<br />
Fruits with<br />
fungal diseases<br />
(%)<br />
after 5 weeks CAstorage<br />
1997<br />
Normal air (untreated) 10,8 14,0 67<br />
5 % CO 2 / 2 % O 2 5,0 4,5 30<br />
5 % CO 2 5,1 9,0 33<br />
15 % CO 2 4,6 7,5 0<br />
25 % CO 2 4,9 10,0 0<br />
A reduction in the O 2 -content did not result in an improvement concerning the weight<br />
losses and disease control. Maximum storage period at 1°C and in normal air is three weeks.<br />
Anyway, after the fruits are taken out of the storage facilities they should be marketed within<br />
three to four days. Afterwards the sensoric quality decreases dramatically.<br />
Red currants<br />
With red currants comparable results have been obtained. CO 2 -storage reduced weight losses<br />
up to 80 % (Table 2). Best results gave the CO 2 -contents above 10 %. Only single berries had<br />
to be sorted out. In the „untreated plot“ Botrytis cinerea showed up whereas in a CO 2 -content<br />
of above 10 % no mycelium could be observed. After removal of the fruits from the store is<br />
was possible to store the fruits for four more days in normal air and at 17°C without<br />
detrimental effects on quality.<br />
Trials on the storage of other soft fruit crops (Dierend et al., 1999; Quast 1999 a, b) gave<br />
similar results. This indicates that some soft fruit crops may be stored for longer periods up to<br />
10-14 weeks depending on the stability of the fruits. Particular post-harvest treatments are not
147<br />
necessary and will not be appreciated by the customers. With the storage under CA with<br />
higher CO 2 -contents a sufficient suppression of fungal storage rots can be achieved.<br />
Table 2. Red currants – results of storage under different conditions (cv. Rovada)<br />
Treatments Weight losses (%)<br />
Normal air (untreated) 4,6<br />
5 % CO 2 0,9<br />
10 % CO 2 0,5<br />
15 % CO 2 0,7<br />
20 % CO 2 0,5<br />
Recommendations<br />
For horticultural practice the following recommendations concerning the storage equipment<br />
(Table 3) and the storage conditions (Table 4) may be given.<br />
Table 3. Calculations for the storage of soft fruits under plastic cover<br />
Storage methods<br />
Method 1<br />
– storage cell purchased<br />
– fittings/instruments purchased<br />
– C0 2 + N 2 from bottles of gas<br />
Method 2<br />
– storage cell purchased<br />
– fittings/instruments available<br />
– C0 2 + N 2 from bottles of gas<br />
Method 3<br />
– storage cell self– made<br />
– fittings/instruments purchased<br />
– C0 2 + N 2 from bottles of gas<br />
Method 4<br />
– storage cell self– made<br />
– fittings/instruments available<br />
– C0 2 + N 2 from bottles of gas<br />
Method 5<br />
– storage cell self– made<br />
– fittings/instruments available<br />
– dry ice<br />
Annual costs<br />
DM<br />
Total annual<br />
costs for 1 pile<br />
DM<br />
Costs<br />
DM/kg fruit<br />
1 pile<br />
/year<br />
3 piles<br />
/year<br />
1041.00 <strong>11</strong>41.00 3.80 1.26<br />
405.00 505.00 1.68 0.56<br />
816.00 916.00 3.27 0.98<br />
180.00 280.00 0.93 0.31<br />
180.00 2<strong>11</strong>.00 0.70 0.<strong>23</strong>
148<br />
With costs of less than 0.30 DM/kg it is possible especially for self-marketers to store piles of<br />
soft fruit assumed that three piles/year (different crops) are to be stored<br />
In general an increased CO 2 -content prolongs the storage period. In the case of<br />
gooseberries a storage of 7 weeks is possible. For black currants no recommendation for the<br />
use of CO 2 can be given due to the lack of trial results. For red currants the reduction in O 2<br />
-content (ULO) gives a considerable improvement of the storage results. The same holds for<br />
blueberries where the normal storage period of 2-3 weeks can be doubled.<br />
Problematic is the situation for raspberries and strawberries. Even by applying CA- and<br />
ULO- technology it is not possible to store the fruits longer than 2-3 days resp. 1 week.<br />
Table 4. Storage conditions for various soft fruit crops<br />
Crop<br />
/Cultivar<br />
Storage system<br />
Temp.<br />
°C<br />
CO 2<br />
%<br />
O 2<br />
%<br />
Length of<br />
storage<br />
period<br />
Red currants CA (CO 2 only) 1 18 - 20 15 4-5 weeks<br />
/Rotet ULO 0 18 - 20 2 8-10 weeks<br />
/Rondom, Rovada ULO 0 18 - 20 2 10-12 weeks<br />
/Augustus, Cassa<br />
Roodneus, Blanka<br />
/All cultivars<br />
Other Crops<br />
ULO 0 18 - 20 2 12-14 weeks<br />
Cold storage<br />
(mechanically)<br />
0-1 2-3 weeks<br />
Raspberries CA 1-2 18-25 15 2-3 days<br />
Blueberries<br />
Cold storage 0-1 5-10 2-3 weeks<br />
(mechanically)<br />
ULO 1 10-15 10-15 4-5 weeks<br />
Gooseberries Cold storage 0-1 2-3 weeks<br />
(mechanically)<br />
CA (CO 2 only) 1 15 15 5-7 weeks<br />
Black currants Cold storage 0-1 1-2 weeks<br />
(mechanically)<br />
Strawberries Cold storage 0-1 3-5 days<br />
(mechanically)<br />
ULO 1-5 15 1.5 < 1 week<br />
/Elsanta ULO 0-1 18-20 2-3 7-10 days<br />
References<br />
Dierend, W., H. Pribyl & R. Faby (1999): Einsatz von CO 2 bei Himbeeren zur Verbesserung<br />
der Haltbarkeit. Obstbau 5/99: 252-254.<br />
Ollig, W. (1998): CA-Lagerung von Beerenobst unter Praxisbedingungen. Obstbau 6/98: 314-<br />
316.<br />
Quast, P. (1999 a): Die Empfindlichkeit von Früchten verschiedener Beerenobstarten gegenüber<br />
höheren CO 2 -Gehalten bei der CA-Lagerung. Mitt. OVR 54: 204-212.
Quast, P. (1999 b): Die mehrwöchige CA-Lagerung von Kirschen und Kulturheidelbeeren mit<br />
höheren CO 2 -Gehalten. Mitt. OVR 54: <strong>23</strong>4-<strong>23</strong>8.<br />
Schirmer, H. & B. Tauscher (1998): Rote Johannisbeeren – Einfluß von CA-Lagerungen auf<br />
die Haltbarkeit und Qualität. Obstbau 6/98: 317-319.<br />
Schirmer, H., B. Tauscher & W. Ollig (1997): Lagerung von Stachelbeeren. Obstbau 8/97:<br />
402-404.<br />
149
150
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
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pp. 151 - 153<br />
Pesticide residues in soft fruits: strawberries, currants and raspberries<br />
(Monitoring 1997-98)<br />
Anna Nowacka<br />
Institute of Plant Protection, Department of Pesticide Residues Research, Miczurina 20,<br />
60-318 Poznań, Poland<br />
Abstract: The research was carried out in 1997-98 and included the determination of 19 active<br />
ingredients in 590 samples of soft fruits: strawberries (450), currants (100) and raspberries (40).<br />
Fifteen of the 19 analysed compounds were found in 205 samples. 65.3% of samples were without<br />
pesticide residues, 34.2% of samples contained residues below Polish maximum residue levels<br />
(MRLs). Violations of MRLs were found in 0.5% of samples.<br />
Key words: pesticide residues, fruits, strawberries, currants, raspberries<br />
Introduction<br />
National Monitoring System for pesticide residues has been established in 1971 as a result of<br />
the co-operation agreement between the Polish government and the FAO/UNDP organisation.<br />
Since the 70’s fresh fruits, vegetables and cereals have been checked for pesticide residues.<br />
An average of 2500 samples is analysed every year.<br />
In 1997-98 19 pesticides were determined in 590 domestic samples of soft fruits.<br />
Materials and method<br />
450 strawberry samples, 100 currant samples and 40 raspberry samples were collected.<br />
randomly from production sites in the whole country by the trained staff of the country Plant<br />
Protection Inspectorates. Samples were analysed by multi-residue methods based on acetone<br />
extraction, partitioning with methylene chloride and SPE (solid phase extraction) cleanup on<br />
an amino or silica gel mini-column. The determination of the pesticide residues was<br />
performed by GC/ECD/NPD and HPLC/UVD. Positive results were confirmed by GC/MSD<br />
or HPLC/PDA technique. The spectrophotometric method was used for the determination of<br />
the sum of dithiocarbamates. The quality control included daily check of the instrument<br />
sensitivity and recovery checks.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
15 of the 19 pesticides analysed were found in 34.7% of samples. The residues of<br />
dichlofluanid, vinclozolin, procymidone and dithiocarbamates were the most frequently<br />
detected. The frequency of pesticide residue appearance was the highest in raspberries (55%),<br />
medium in strawberries (35.8%) and the lowest in currants (<strong>23</strong>%).<br />
Number of samples containing a particular pesticide, the average content and the range<br />
of residues found in individual fruit are shown in table 1.<br />
151
152<br />
Table 1. Pesticide residues in strawberries, currants and raspberries (Monitoring 97-98)<br />
Fruit/Number of<br />
samples analysed<br />
Pesticide<br />
Number<br />
of<br />
samples<br />
with<br />
pesticide<br />
residues<br />
Average<br />
content<br />
mg/kg<br />
Range<br />
of<br />
residues found<br />
mg/kg<br />
Number MRL 1<br />
of<br />
samples<br />
with<br />
residues<br />
> MRL 1 mg/kg<br />
Strawberries / 450 dichlofluanid 88 0,30 0,01 – 8,00 1 5<br />
endosulfan 1 0,42 0 0,5<br />
iprodione 7 0,18 0,02 – 0,80 0 10<br />
lenacyl 2 0 0 0,1<br />
procymidone 32 0,25 0,05 – 1,07 0 5<br />
vinclozolin 67 0,06 0,01 – 0,32 0 5<br />
Currants / 100 dichlofluanid 7 0,12 0,02 – 0,20 0 5<br />
dithiocarbamates 3 12 1,24 0,10 – 2,86 2 2<br />
endosulfan 9 0,06 0,01 – 0,<strong>11</strong> 0 0,5<br />
fenarimol 1 0,10 0 1<br />
flusilazole 1 0,18 0 0,2<br />
MBC 0 0 1<br />
procymidone 1 0,01 0 5<br />
vinclozolin 0 0 5<br />
Raspberries / 40 alphamethrin 4 0,02 0,01 – 0,03 0 0,05<br />
bifenthrin 0 0 0,1<br />
deltamethrin 2 0,02 0,02 – 0,02 0 0,2<br />
dichlofluanid 12 0,19 0,02 – 0,80 0 5<br />
dithiocarbamates 3 3 0,10 0,10 – 0,10 0 2<br />
fenitrotion 0 0 0,5<br />
iprodione 2 0,16 0,<strong>11</strong> – 0,21 0 10<br />
phosalone 0 0 2<br />
procymidone 8 0,22 0,03 – 0,52 0 5<br />
vinclozolin 3 0,04 0,01 – 0,08 0 5<br />
1)<br />
Polish maximum residue levels (MRLs)<br />
2) 394 samples were analysed<br />
3) Residues of maneb, mancozeb, metiram, zineb, thiram determined as CS 2<br />
The percentage distribution of pesticide residues in particular fruit is shown in Figure 1.<br />
Most samples with residues (71.2%) contained one active ingredient, but in some the<br />
residues of two (24.4%) or three (4.4%) compounds were found.<br />
The residue levels were rather low. Of the fruit samples containing pesticide residues,<br />
residue level was lower than 20% of MRLs in 94% samples of strawberries, 90.5% samples<br />
of raspberries and 84.5 % samples of currants.<br />
Violations of MRLs were found in two samples of currants containing the residues of<br />
dithiocarbamates and in one sample of strawberries with residue of dichlofluanid.<br />
The percent of all fruit samples with and without pesticide residues is shown in Figure 2.
153<br />
% of samples<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
77<br />
64,2<br />
55<br />
35,6<br />
45<br />
21<br />
0,2<br />
2<br />
0<br />
strawberries currants raspberries<br />
samples with residues > MRLs samples with residues < MRLs sample without residues<br />
Figure 1. Summary of results for individual fruit (97-98)<br />
samples with<br />
residues < MRLs<br />
34,2%<br />
samples with<br />
residues > MRLs<br />
0,5%<br />
samples without<br />
residues<br />
65,3%<br />
Figure 2. Summary of results for all fruit samples (97-98)<br />
Conclusions<br />
1. No residues were found in 385 samples (65.3%)<br />
2. Only in 3 samples (0.5 %) residues level exceeded MRLs<br />
3. In majority of samples residues level was lower than 20% of MRLs<br />
4. Currants accounted for most exceedings.
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pp. 155 - 158<br />
Consumer’s acceptance of soft fruits from Integrated Production<br />
Krzysztof Zmarlicki<br />
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, Economics Laboratory 96-100 Skierniewice,<br />
Poland<br />
Abstract The main aim of this study is to show the potential consumer’s acceptance of soft fruits from<br />
integrated production on the Polish fruit market. The market research was based on the interviews of fruit<br />
buyers.<br />
Key words: integrated production, market research, consumer’s acceptance, consumer surveys<br />
Introduction<br />
In some countries around the world like for example in Germany and in Canada fruit growers are<br />
looking more often for consumers who rate environmental stewardship as a major factor in their<br />
small fruit purchasing decisions. Surveys of consumer’s preferences conducted in developed<br />
countries during past few years show that buyers are going for the "green". Unlike trends for<br />
many specialty food items, the demand for such produce raised with environment directed<br />
practice is a mainstream, not a niche market, especially among young, educated middle and upper<br />
class people.<br />
The market research in Poland emphasizes that there is a strong trend toward more healthful<br />
food. It is very common nowadays that consumers are looking for food described as low sugar,<br />
low calories, low salt, no cholesterol as well as no artificial additives. This was absolutely<br />
unheard of just about 12 years ago on the very poor Polish food market. There is a shortage of<br />
market research concerning Polish consumer’s aptitudes towards small fruits from integrated<br />
production. For that reason the main aim of this study was to show the basic consumers point of<br />
view about the soft fruits from the integrated production.<br />
Materials and methods<br />
The study of consumer acceptance was based on the oral interviews of fresh fruits buyers. A<br />
structured response questionnaire to describe acceptance of small fruits from integrated<br />
production among consumers on the market was developed and tested. Interviewers intercepted<br />
customers who stopped at a fruit display and bought some strawberries or raspberries. The survey<br />
was carried out in June and July of 1999 in the area of Skierniewice /n =142/ and Warsaw<br />
downtown /n =79/. The following types of buying places were considered: specialist fruit and<br />
vegetable stores, supermarkets and market places.<br />
The questionnaire consisted of two types of questions. First group of questions related to<br />
integrated production: which fruits I would rather buy - those from integrated production or<br />
produced traditionally, knowledge of meaning and principles of integrated production and<br />
willingness to pay 25% more for small fruits from integrated production. The second group<br />
consisted of socioeconomic questions like age, education level, sex, income, marital status and<br />
family size and are similar to other Polish fruits consumer’s surveys (Zmarlicki 1998).<br />
155
156<br />
• Age – consumers were divided into five equal groups according to the general population<br />
structure of Poles above 18 years old. First segment consisted of consumers aged from 18 to<br />
28 years, second from 29 to 37, third from 38 to 47, fourth from 48 to 62 and to the last one<br />
belonged consumers 63 years old and older;<br />
• Education levels – grammar school, high school, university;<br />
• Sex – male, female;<br />
• Income – surveyed customers were grouped into four monthly income levels according to<br />
State Statistical Office (GUS 1998)<br />
• Marital status and family size – single, married, couple with one child, couple with two<br />
children, families with five and more members<br />
The questionnaire replies were computed through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences<br />
(SPSS) version 8.0 for Win 95.<br />
Results<br />
Consumers preferred much more frequently to buy small fruits from the integrated production /n<br />
= 177/ than traditionally produced ones /n = 19/, whereas no preference for the type of production<br />
was declared by 25 surveyed (Fig. 1). The sex, education level, income per capita in the<br />
household and the marital status of customers did not have a significant influence on the<br />
responses to this question.<br />
Most of the surveyed customers /n=203/ did not know what integrated production of<br />
strawberries and raspberries means (Fig. 2). Similarly as in the first question, sex, education,<br />
income per capita in the household and the marital status of the customers did not have<br />
significant influence on the responses to this question.<br />
Of 221 customers surveyed as many as 149 were willing to pay 25% more for the small fruit<br />
from integrated production even though most of them did not know what for they would be<br />
paying for. There were only <strong>11</strong> consumers from the first age group (18 - 28 years old) who knew<br />
the integrated production in this segment (Fig. 3). Only the income level had the impact on<br />
customer’s willingness to pay more, but not education, age or other socioeconomic factors.<br />
Conclusions<br />
1. Surveyed customers prefer to buy fruits from integrated production. Probably they associate<br />
the word ”integrated” with better quality of fruits.<br />
2. Producers that produce soft fruits by the integrated method should improve marketing of<br />
their products. Especially, some information about IFP on the market is desirable since most<br />
of the consumers do not know what integrated fruit production means.<br />
3. The demand for more expensive fruits on the market should have an impact on producers to<br />
shift to production of better quality fruits. It is expected that in the near future term “Fruit<br />
from integrated production” will be more widely understood as fruits of the highest quality.
157<br />
Fruits from Integrated Production<br />
Fruits from non Integrated Production<br />
No preferences<br />
Figure 1. From which source I would rather buy small fruits?<br />
% of surveys who did not hear about Integrated Production<br />
% of surveys familiar with Integrated Production<br />
Figure 2. Understanding of integrated fruits production in age segments
158<br />
No acceptance to pay more for fruits from Integrated Production<br />
Acceptance to pay 25% more for fruits from Integrated Production<br />
Figure 3. Surveys who would pay more for small fruits from Integrated Production<br />
References<br />
Rocznik Statystyczny GUS Warszawa 1998<br />
Zmarlicki K. 1998. The consumer preferences for plums in the central part of Poland. Acta<br />
Horticult. 478:
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 159 - 165<br />
Guidelines for the Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
- <strong>IOBC</strong> - Technical Guideline III<br />
Erich Jörg 1) & Jerry V. Cross 2)<br />
1)<br />
Landesanstalt für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz, Essenheimerstr. 144, D-55128 Mainz,<br />
Germany<br />
2)<br />
Horticultural Research International East Malling, East Malling, West Malling, Kent,<br />
ME19 6BJ, UK<br />
A short overview on <strong>IOBC</strong> guideline work for IP<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> – guideline work for Integrated Production (IP) started in 1977 with the „Declaration of<br />
Ovrannaz“ (Tab. 1). This document may be considered the forerunner of the Technical<br />
Guidelines (TG) for IP. A commission named „Commission pour la valorisation de la<br />
Production Intégrée“ was founded in 1978 being responsible for the elaboration of IP –<br />
guidelines (Baggiolini, 1998). However, it was the <strong>IOBC</strong> – Working Group „Integrated Plant<br />
Protection in Orchards“ that intensively discussed a TG for IP of pome fruits. After several<br />
meetings „General Principles, Guidelines and Standards for Integrated Production of Pome<br />
Fruits in Europe“ were published in 1991 as a provisional working document. Meanwhile the<br />
reactivated <strong>IOBC</strong> – Commission „Integrated Production – Guidelines and Endorsement“ had<br />
elaborated a comprehensive document defining the IP – Principles and Technical Guidelines I<br />
and II (published in 1993) which form the basis for crop specific IP – guidelines (TG III). In<br />
the following years the fruitful work on IP – guidelines of the <strong>IOBC</strong> – Working Groups<br />
resulted in the publication of TG III for pome fruits (revision of the 1991 document),<br />
viticulture (1996), stone fruits (1997) and arable crops (1997). In 1999 a revised and<br />
improved version of the viticultural IP – guideline was published. In the same year a TG III<br />
for soft fruit IP was finalised that shall be published in <strong>2000</strong>. The future IP – guideline work<br />
of <strong>IOBC</strong> aims at the elaboration of TG III for citrus crops, olives and field vegetable<br />
production in the coming four years.<br />
From 1996 on <strong>IOBC</strong> – Commission strongly aided the Working Groups in the<br />
elaboration of TGs III. The main task was and still is to guarantee the congruence of TG III<br />
with the basic documents (IP-Principles, TG I and II). In addition <strong>IOBC</strong> – Commission<br />
worked out evaluation schemes (Tab. 1) to check if IP – guidelines of farmers` associations<br />
fulfill the requirements of <strong>IOBC</strong> – TGs I - III and if these IP – organisations may be<br />
recognised by <strong>IOBC</strong> as meeting its IP - standards. To include the permanent progress in IP it<br />
was decided to revise the TGs in five year intervals. For the basic documents this has been<br />
done in 1999. The next IP - guidelines which need revision is TG III for pome fruits.<br />
Elaboration of TG III for Soft Fruit IP<br />
The elaboration of TG III for IP of soft fruits follwed a procedure proposed by <strong>IOBC</strong> –<br />
Commission. A panel of a few experts assembled at Vienna in late 1996 to discuss the main<br />
problems in IP of soft fruits (Tab. 2). Agronomists as well as crop protection scientists were<br />
present. Based on the progress made during the expert panel German colleagues were asked to<br />
prepare a TG III – draft. In 1997 the draft was elaborated and discussed on the First <strong>IOBC</strong> –<br />
159
160<br />
Workshop on Soft Fruits held at Vienna in October 1997. Here a version was agreed upon and<br />
submitted to <strong>IOBC</strong> – Commission for inspection. Due to general problems which concern IP<br />
of all crops the agreement on the version of TG III for soft fruit IP was postponed until an<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> – Council`s decision. After the Council`s decision in 1998 the authors were asked to<br />
finalise the guideline draft. <strong>IOBC</strong> – Commission gave the agreement in April 1999. In the<br />
following months the translation of the original English version into six further European<br />
languages (French, German, Spanish, Italian, Polish and Hungarian) was done. In December<br />
1999 the TG III for IP of soft fruits was submitted for printing as <strong>IOBC</strong> – <strong>Bulletin</strong>. The<br />
evaluation scheme is in preparation.<br />
Table 1. <strong>IOBC</strong> - Guideline Work for IP (IP-Guidelines and Evaluation Schemes)<br />
Year Guideline Evaluation<br />
Scheme<br />
1977 „Declaration of Ovrannaz“<br />
(Altner, Baggiolini, Celli, Schneider, Steiner)<br />
1991 IP of Pome Fruits (provisional working document)<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 14(3), Dickler & Schäfermeyer)<br />
1993 IP-Principles and Technical Guidelines (TG I, II)<br />
1996/7<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 16(1), 18(1.1,1.2) El-Titi, Boller & Gendrier)<br />
1994 IP of Pome Fruits (TG III)<br />
1996/7<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 17(9), Cross & Dickler)<br />
1996 IP for Viticulture (TG III)<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 19(10), Schmid)<br />
1997 IP of Stone Fruits (TG III)<br />
1997<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 20(3), Cross, Malavolta & Jörg)<br />
1997 IP of Arable Crops (TG III)<br />
1998<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 20(5), Boller, Malavolta & Jörg)<br />
1999 IP for Viticulture (TG III) 2nd ed.<br />
1999<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 22(8), Malavolta & Boller)<br />
1999 IP-Principles and Technical Guidelines (TG I, II) 2nd ed. 1999<br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. 22(4) Boller et al.)<br />
<strong>2000</strong> IP of Soft Fruits (TG III)<br />
<strong>2000</strong><br />
(<strong>IOBC</strong>-Bull. <strong>23</strong>(5), Jörg & Cross)<br />
<strong>2000</strong> - 2001 IP of Pome Fruits (TG III) 2nd Ed. 2001<br />
2001 - 2002 IP of Citrus (TG III) 2002<br />
2001 - 2002 IP of Olives (TG III) 2002<br />
2002 - 2003 IP of Field Vegetables (TG III) 2003
161<br />
Table 2. Elaboration of <strong>IOBC</strong> – TG III for Integrated Production of Soft Fruits – History<br />
1996 Expert Panel<br />
Oct. (Berrie, Gajek, Jörg, Lieten, Polesny, Steffek)<br />
1997 Preparation of a Draft Guideline<br />
(Faby, Fried, Galli, Gärtner, Harzer, Jörg)<br />
1997 First <strong>IOBC</strong>-Workshop on Soft Fruits<br />
(October 7.-10.)<br />
1998 Discussions on General Topics<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> – Council`s Decision<br />
1998/9 Preparation of the Final Draft<br />
(EJ & JVC)<br />
1999 Final Agreement by <strong>IOBC</strong> – Commission<br />
(April 17.)<br />
1999 Finalisation of the Translations (En, Fr, Ge, Sp, Pol, Hun, It)<br />
1999 <strong>IOBC</strong> – <strong>Bulletin</strong>: Final Draft submitted for printing<br />
(December)<br />
<strong>2000</strong> Evaluation Scheme<br />
General Problems<br />
As mentioned above general problems firstly had to be solved to finish this TG III. The points<br />
under discussions were:<br />
- Sustainability<br />
- Use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)<br />
GMOs are discussed controversely in society. In fruit production 14 genetically modified<br />
cultivars were available at least for research purposes in 1998 (Tab. 3). Mainly they were<br />
resistant to noxious agents or had a modified metabolism (Tab. 3 and 4). The use of such<br />
cultivars could reduce the pesticide or fungicide input considerably, which is one of the main<br />
aims of IP. On the other hand some security problems are not completely cleared up.<br />
Weighing up pros and cons <strong>IOBC</strong> – Council decided to take a case – specific decision in the<br />
permission of GMOs in Integrated Production.<br />
Table 3. Transgenic Fruit Cultivars in Europe (May 1998)<br />
Crop<br />
Total<br />
Nr.<br />
Metabolism<br />
Insect<br />
resistance<br />
Virus<br />
resistance<br />
Fungal dis.<br />
resistance<br />
Apple 2 0 1 0 1<br />
Plum 1 0 0 1 0<br />
Cherry 3 3 0 0 0<br />
Strawberry 3 1 1 0 1<br />
Kiwi 3 2 0 0 1<br />
Olives 2 1 0 0 1<br />
Ref.: BBA, from Jehle (1998)
162<br />
Table 4. Important Properties of Transgenic Fruit Cultivars (1987-1997)<br />
Crop<br />
Apple<br />
Transgenic<br />
Properties<br />
B.t.-Toxin<br />
Inherited Properties<br />
/Resistance to<br />
Lepidoptera<br />
Cecropin B<br />
Attacin E<br />
Lysocyme<br />
Fire Blight<br />
(Erwinia amylovora)<br />
Plum PPV Sharka Virus<br />
Strawberry Glucanase,<br />
Chitinase,<br />
Polygalacturonase<br />
Botrytis,<br />
Sclerotinia,<br />
Verticillium,<br />
Colletotrichum,<br />
Phytophthora,<br />
Pythium<br />
Sam-Transferase Fruit ripening<br />
Cranberry B.t. Toxin Lepidoptera<br />
Papaya PRV Papaya Ringspot Virus<br />
Ref.: BBA, from Jehle (1998)<br />
Integrated Production more and more is linked to sustainable agriculture or sustainable land<br />
use. In the future EU – incentives are coupled with land use systems that fullfil the<br />
requirements of sustainability. In several agro-environmental programmes based on EU –<br />
Regulation 2078/92 IP is considered to be such a sustainable system. The question arose if<br />
high-input systems (e.g. heated glasshouses, non-soil systems), which are quite common for<br />
some soft fruit crops, are sustainable.<br />
Allen et al. (1991), Meadows et al. (1992) and Abelson (1995) set up the following relevant<br />
principles for sustainability in general (among others):<br />
• raw materials and energy input from regenerative sources<br />
• maintenance and protection of regenerative ressources<br />
• all production processes are cycles<br />
• system stabilising diversity of processes and products<br />
• adoption of education models to the changes in paradigm<br />
Specifically for agricultural production the following requirements must be fullfilled to<br />
consider a production system a sustainable one:<br />
• efficient use of ressources<br />
• minimising off-farm input<br />
• replacement of non-renewable ressources by regenerative ones<br />
• precaution principle as the basis of production<br />
• maintenance of ecosystems and biodiversity
163<br />
• maintenance and increase of soil fertility<br />
• prices reflect „ecological truth“<br />
• pollution with respect to absorptive capacity of the ecosystems<br />
Judging the multitude of production systems for soft fruit according to the criteria listed up<br />
above, IP was restricted as follows.<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> - Technical Guidelines III are for soft fruit crops grown in the soil in the open or<br />
under non-heated protection only.<br />
Hors soil – systems and heated glasshouse – production are not in congruence with<br />
sustainability. However, they also have some advantages in comparison to soil bound systems<br />
in the open field. E.g., these systems are very appropriate for the application of biological<br />
control measures. So further discussion is needed to improve the valuation of the various<br />
systems.<br />
Structure and Content of TG III for Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
TG III for soft fruit IP (Tab. 6) is structured analogous to TG III for stone fruit IP. Chapters 1<br />
– 3, 5 – 9 and <strong>11</strong> – 14 only needed minor modifications to adapt them to soft fruit crops.<br />
Chapters 4 and 10 have been modified considerably. Because of the great importance of<br />
phytosanitary measures for soft fruit crops requirements and recommendations concerning the<br />
choice of the production site, crop rotation, cultivation and planting material are set up in<br />
Chapter 4 (Tab. 5). In addition high priority is given to cultivars which are resistant to pest<br />
and/or diseases.<br />
Table 5. TG III for Integrated Production of Soft Fruits –<br />
Chapter 4: Site, Cultivar, Planting Material and Planting System for new Soft Fruit<br />
Plantations<br />
Cultivar choice<br />
– high priority for resistant cultivars<br />
Planting material<br />
– certified<br />
– additional testing recommended<br />
– growers´ own pl.mat.⇒additional. testing<br />
– pesticide contamin.⇒biological control !<br />
Site<br />
– raspberry⇒not twice on the same site<br />
– preference for new sites for straw/raspberry<br />
– avoid soil with perennial weeds(rec.)<br />
– no soils with Phytopht. for raspberry<br />
Cultivation aspects<br />
– ridge cultivation recomm. for straw/raspberry<br />
– avoid „Verticillium crops“ before strawberry<br />
– crop rotation recommendations strawberry<br />
– maximum life span 3 yrs. for strawberry
164<br />
Table 6. Structure of TG III for Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
No.<br />
Chapter<br />
1 Definition of Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
2 Professionally Trained and Safety Conscious Grower<br />
3 Conserving the Orchard Environment<br />
4 Site, Cultivar, Planting Material and Planting System for New Soft Fruit<br />
Plantations<br />
5 Soil Management and Plant Nutrition<br />
6 Alleyways and Weed-free Strips<br />
7 Irrigation<br />
8 Horticultural Management<br />
9 Fruit Management<br />
10 Integrated Plant Protection<br />
10.1 Additional Requirements on Strawberry<br />
10.2 Additional Requirements on Cane Fruits<br />
10.3 Additional Requirements on Bush Fruits<br />
<strong>11</strong> Efficient and Safe Spray Application Methods<br />
12 Harvesting, Post-harvest Handling and Fruit Quality<br />
13 Post-harvest Chemical Treatments<br />
14 Mode of Application,Controls,Certification and Labelling<br />
In Chapter 10 of TG III for stone fruit IP two groups of crops have been differentiated<br />
(„southern“ crops, e.g. peaches, apricots, and „northern crops“, e.g. plums and cherries)<br />
because of striking differences in the crop protection systems. Concerning soft fruits three<br />
groups of crops have been distinguished: arable crops (e.g. strawberries), cane fruits and bush<br />
fruit (Tab. 6).<br />
The additional requirements and recommendations for these groups of soft fruit crops with<br />
respect to Integrated Plant Protection listed up in the chapters 10.1 to 10.3 are as follows:<br />
10.1 Strawberry<br />
– Alleviation of harmful insecticidal effects on predatory mites by downward-directed<br />
spraying.<br />
– Biological control of Two-spotted spider mites with Typhlodromics in protected crops.<br />
– Predatory mirids should be used to control Western Flower Thrips on prot. crops.<br />
– Entomopathogenic nematodes should be used to control vine weevil on prot. crops.<br />
10.2 Cane Fruits<br />
– Biological control of spider mites in protected crops.<br />
– Regular monitoring of Byturus tomentosus by traps.<br />
– Raspberry Clearwing must be monitored with pheromone traps and infested shoots must be<br />
pruned and removed.<br />
– Recommendation to prevent the development of cane diseases by removal of superfluous<br />
canes and fruiting canes after harvest and reduced N input.
165<br />
10.3 Bush Fruits<br />
– Currant Clearwing must be monitored with pheromone traps and infested shoots must be<br />
pruned and removed.<br />
– Phytosanitory activities for black currant crops:<br />
– Monitoring currant gall mite and removal of infested plant material,<br />
– Monitoring reversion disease and removal of infested plants,<br />
– Nectria – infected branches should be removed.<br />
In the general part of Chapter10 of TG III for soft fruit IP two points are of general interest.<br />
For the first time anti-resistance strategies with strict limits on the use of acaricides,<br />
insecticides and fungicides were included in a TG III. During the revision of TGs III for the<br />
other crops this also has to be done. Secondly in Integrated Plant Protection as described in<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong> - TGs III the use of crop protection products has follow certain standards comparable<br />
for all crops. <strong>IOBC</strong> – TG III for soft fruit IP permits the (very restricted) use of<br />
organochlorine pesticides for mite control thus not keeping up with the standard, due to the<br />
poor availability of registered pesticides in soft fruit crops in Europe.<br />
This <strong>IOBC</strong> – TG III explicitly has been developed for strawberry, raspberry, blackberry,<br />
currants, gooseberry, blueberry and elder. But:<br />
Although only the major soft fruit crops are covered specifically, the same principles<br />
can be extended to other closely related minor soft fruit crops.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
The authors express their gratitude to the members of the expert panel, all the colleagues<br />
involved in the workshop discussions, the translators and the members of <strong>IOBC</strong> –<br />
Commission for their valuable help.<br />
References<br />
Abelson, P.H. (1995): Sustainable agriculture and the farm bill. Nature 267: 943.<br />
Allen, P., Van Dusen, D., Lundy, J. & S. Gliesman (1991): Expanding the definition of<br />
sustainable agriculture. Journal of Alternative Agriculture 6: 34-39.<br />
Baggiolini, M. (1998): Integrated Production in Europe: 20 years after the declaration of<br />
Ovrannaz, 2.1 Historique: 50 ans de souvenir. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 21 (1): 5-12.<br />
Jehle, J. (1998): Internationale Entwicklungen in der Gentechnologie im Obstbau. Mitt. OVR<br />
53: 269-274.<br />
Meadows, D.H. et al. (1992): Beyond the limits. Report of the Club of Rome, Chelsea Green<br />
Publishers Co., Post Mills, Vermont.
166
Integrated Production of Soft Fruits<br />
<strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> <strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>23</strong> (<strong>11</strong>) <strong>2000</strong><br />
pp. 167 - 169<br />
Work on Integrated Soft Fruit Production in Europe –<br />
Summarisation of the Workshop<br />
Erich Jörg<br />
Landesanstalt für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz, Essenheimerstr. 144, D-55128 Mainz,<br />
Germany<br />
General overview<br />
During the last five years interest in soft fruits is increasing. On one hand several soft fruit<br />
crops are of high profitability compared to pome and stone fruit crops where an oversupply<br />
throughout Europe must be stated. On the other hand soft fruits offer new fields of work for<br />
researchers. A look at Table 1 shows that the numbers of papers and posters on soft fruit<br />
crops presented at international conferences and workshops has increased from 1995 (13) to<br />
1999 (31). In 1997 the first <strong>IOBC</strong>-Workshop dealing with Integrated Production of soft fruits<br />
was held and a specific subgroup working on these crops was founded.<br />
Table 1. Publications on soft fruit problems (<strong>IOBC</strong> conferences and workshops 1995-1999)<br />
Conferences /<br />
Workshops<br />
Year<br />
Numbers of<br />
presentations<br />
Black<br />
Currants<br />
Raspberry<br />
Blackb.<br />
Cedzyna (PL) 1995 13 6 6 0 0 0<br />
Vienna (A) 1997 19 8 2 2 0 1<br />
Warszawa (PL) 1999 31 12 8 2 1 0<br />
Strawberry<br />
Gooseberry<br />
Elderberry<br />
Strawberries and black currants are the main crops on which research is done. Much less<br />
activities are devoted to minor crops such as raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries or<br />
elderberries. Several crops (blueberries, cranberries etc.) have not been dealt with on the three<br />
international meetings.<br />
More than half of the reported results are on pests of soft fruit crops, among which spider<br />
mites, gall mites and weevils are quite well investigated. Some information on powdery<br />
mildew, Botrytis grey mould, Verticillium wilt and Phytophthora diseases of strawberries is<br />
available. Only a few results have been reported on weeds or application technique for soft<br />
fruit crops.<br />
Among the control measures resistance breeding is of greatest importance. Many reports<br />
are given on cultivar resistance to fungal diseases or mites and also ist limits and prospect<br />
have been shown. Research on biological control is mainly restricted to the use of Phytoseiid<br />
mites for the control of spider mites or gall mites. During the last three years many papers<br />
have been presented on the suitability of mainly fungicides but also insecticides/acaricides for<br />
Integrated Production of soft fruits. Recently decision support systems are elaborated<br />
especially for some pests and diseases of strawberries.<br />
167
168<br />
Concerning regional participation in the <strong>IOBC</strong> - soft fruit work the situation is as<br />
follows. Most of the countries are present at the conferences/workshops. Poland as the most<br />
important producer of soft fruits contributes a lot to the success of developing Integrated<br />
Production for soft fruit crops. But still several relevant countries such as Spain, Italy or the<br />
Netherlands were not represented.<br />
Research work<br />
Two main streams of work on Integrated Production of soft fruit can be identified. They may<br />
be described as the „scientists` approach“ and the „extensionists` approach“. The first<br />
primarily aims at the development of more biologically based IP-systems where the use of<br />
agrochemicals is replaced by non-chemical alternatives. Research workers e.g. deal with the<br />
elaboration of new detection methods, the development of bio-insecticides and pheromones,<br />
faster breeding methods the identification of predators/parasites of important pests. The<br />
„extensionists“ try to introduce IP into practice by minimising pesticide and fertiliser input<br />
within certain limits and by developing IP-conform systems for minor crops. Main topics of<br />
their work are pesticide efficacy and side-effects, development of decision support systems,<br />
optimisation of spray application methods, utilisation of less susceptible cultivars and judging<br />
the (still incomplete) IP-systems by results of pesticide residue analyses.<br />
Complexity<br />
Most of the work presented at the meetings is based on a systems approach rather than<br />
focussing on single aspects. Good examples are the investigations:<br />
• on the whole Phytoseiid community with respect to the control of two-spotted spider mite<br />
and inclusion of the orchard environment as a source for these beneficial organisms,<br />
• on both pesticide efficacy and side-effects from the beginning on,<br />
• on the whole life cycle of fungi (e.g. Strawberry powdery mildew) with respect to<br />
forecasting and control,<br />
• on complex yield - loss relationships and implications for control necessity (e.g. Blossom<br />
weevil on strawberries) and<br />
• on comprehensive cultivar assessments covering all relevant diseases and pests to optimise<br />
cultivar choice.<br />
Interdisciplinary research<br />
Several papers indicated that research work on soft fruit fruits is interdisciplinary. E.g in order<br />
to reduce pesticide input to the minimum spray applicationists and agronomists closely<br />
cooperate to develop appropriate growing systems.<br />
International cooperation<br />
Especially among breeders of soft fruit crops there is a good international cooperation and an<br />
exchange of planting material. But also concerning the development of advisory systems for<br />
some crops (e.g. RACER for raspberries) colleagues collaborate throughout Europe.<br />
IP-Guideline for soft fruit production<br />
In quite an early stage compared to pome and stone fruits a guideline for IP of soft fruits has<br />
been elaborated. In general this guideline keeps up with the standards of the comparable<br />
guidelines for pome and stone fruits. However, in some essential points (e.g. pesticide use)
169<br />
improvements are necessary and in so far the IP-Guideline may also serve as a guideline for<br />
steering research activities in the near future.<br />
Several intensive production systems for soft fruit crops are not covered by the guideline<br />
as they are regarded as „non-sustainable“. So after a general discussion of sustainability the<br />
soft fruit guideline probably has to be revised.<br />
Further activities<br />
The main challenges for both scientists and extensionists in soft fruit production were<br />
highlighted by Cravedi & Jörg (1996). They gave a rough and surely incomplete overview on<br />
the most striking pest and disease problems, the control measures available, the significant<br />
gaps in our knowledge and on the fields of work to which research activities shall be devoted<br />
primarily. As a supplement Jörg (1998) reviewed the availability of plant protection products<br />
and their suitability for an Integrated Production of soft fruits. Some of the problems made<br />
evident by the authors are at least partly solved now while others still exist.<br />
An actual and more comprehensive overview is needed on the status of Integrated<br />
Production of soft fruits comparable to the one given by Cross et al. (1996) for pome fruit IP.<br />
This overview should include informations on the:<br />
• growing areas of the various soft fruit crops;<br />
• different production systems (in-soil, non-soil; protected, open field; etc.);<br />
• biological constraint systems for the soft fruit crops (dominance structures of pests,<br />
diseases etc.);<br />
• availability of biological and biotechnical control measures and cultivars of low<br />
susceptibility;<br />
• availability of plant protection products;<br />
• implementation of Integrated Production into horticultural practice and on the<br />
• most urgent problems to be solved.<br />
On the basis of the results of this overview common research activities can be planned<br />
and the fruitful work that started with the two <strong>IOBC</strong> - Soft Fruit Workshops at Vienna and<br />
Warszawa can be continued.<br />
References<br />
Cross, J.V., Bonauer, A., Bondio,V., Clemente, J., Denis, J., Grauslund, J., Huguet, C., Jörg,<br />
E., Koning,S., Kvale, A., Malavolta, C., Marcelle, R., Morandell, I., Oberhofer, H.,<br />
Pontalti, M., Polesny, F., Rossini, M., Schenk, A., Schaetzen, C. de. & M. Vilajeliu,<br />
1996. The current status of Integrated Pome Fruit Production in Western Europe and its<br />
achievements. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 19 (4): 1-10.<br />
Cravedi, P. & E. Jörg, 1996. Special challenges for IFP in stone and soft fruit. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong><br />
<strong>Bulletin</strong> 19 (4): 48-56.<br />
Jörg, E., 1998. Pesticide availability in European soft fruit production. <strong>IOBC</strong>/<strong>wprs</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> 21<br />
(10): 5-15.
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