Proceedings of the meeting - IOBC-WPRS

IOBC / WPRS 

Working Group „Integrated Control in Cereal Crops“ 

OILB / SROP 

Groupe de Travail „Lutte Intégrée en Céréales“ 

Proceedings of the meeting 

at 

Gödöllö, Hungary 

9 - 12 September, 1999 

editors: 

Christian Borgemeister & Hans-Michael Poehling 

IOBC wprs Bulletin 

Bulletin OILB srop Vol. 24 (4) 2001

The IOBC/WPRS Bulletin is published by the International Organization for Biological and Integrated 

Control of Noxious Animals and Plants, West Palearctic Regional Section (IOBC/WPRS) 

Le Bulletin OILB/SROP est publié par l‘Organisation Internationale de Lutte Biologique et Intégrée 

contre les Animaux et les Plantes Nuisibles, section Regionale Ouest Paléarctique (OILB/SROP) 

Copyright: IOBC/WPRS 2001 

The Publication Commission of the IOBC/WPRS: 

Horst Bathon 

Federal Biological Research Center 

for Agriculture and Forestry (BBA) 

Institute for Biological Control 

Heinrichstr. 243 

D-64287 Darmstadt (Germany) 

Tel +49 6151 407-225, Fax +49 6151 407-290 

e-mail: h.bathon.biocontrol.bba@t-online.de 

Luc Tirry 

University of Gent 

Laboratory of Agrozoology 

Department of Crop Protection 

Coupure Links 653 

B-9000 Gent (Belgium) 

Tel +32-9-2646152, Fax +32-9-2646239 

e-mail: luc.tirry@rug.ac.be 

Address General Secretariat: 

INRA – Centre de Recherches de Dijon 

Laboratoire de recherches sur la Flore Pathogène dans le Sol 

17, Rue Sully, BV 1540 

F-21034 DIJON CEDEX 

France 

ISBN 92-9067-135-8

i 

Preface 

This bulletin contains most of the papers presented on the last biennial meeting of the 

IOBC/WPRS working group “Integrated Control in Cereal Crops”. The meeting took place at 

Gödöllö University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Department of 

Plant Protection, Hungary, from 09 to 12 September 1999. The meeting was hosted by Prof. 

Dr. Jozef Kiss. First of all on the behalf of our group I want to express my deepest gratitude to 

Jozef Kiss and his staff who organised an excellent meeting and a very pleasant stay for us in 

Gödöllö. Also thanks to the supporting organisations, i.e. IOBC, Gödöllö University of 

Agricultural Sciences, The Ministry of Agriculture & Regional Development of Hungary and 

OMFB (National Committee for Technological Development of Hungary). More than 30 

participants attended the meeting and spent fruitful days to present papers, discuss scientific 

progress and establish new contacts. Particularly the increasing number of participants from 

eastern and southern European countries was stimulating. However, quite obviously 

integrated control of cereal pests is no longer a major research topic in many middle and 

northern European countries that previously dominated our working group. This situation 

needs to be critically discussed on the next meeting to assure a new orientation of the working 

group. 

Finally I am extremely thankful to Christian Borgemeister for his tremendous effort in 

compiling these proceedings. 

Hans-Michael Poehling, Convenor 

Hannover University

ii 

List of the Participants 

AFONINA, V.M. 

ALBAJES, R. 

BASKY, Z. 

BERECS-BAHDI, G. 

FIEBIG, M. 

FREIER, B. 

GALLER, M. 

GOSSELKE, U. 

GUEORGUIEVA, T. 

GOTLIN CULIAK, T. 

Moscow State University 

Faculty of Biology, Dept. Entomology 

Moscow 119899, RUSSIA 

Centre UdL-IRTA. 

Area de Protecció de Conreus 

Rovira Roure, 177 

E-25198 Lleida, SPAIN 

Plant Protection Institute 

Hungarian Academy of Sciences 

P.O.Box 102 

H-1525 Budapest, HUNGARY 

Plant Health and Soil Conservation Station 

H-2100 Gödöllő, HUNGARY 

Institut für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 

Universität Hannover 

Herrenhäuser Str. 2 

D-30419 Hannover, GERMANY 

BBA - Institut für integrierten Pflanzenschutz 

Stahnsdorfer Damm 81 

D-14532 Kleinmachnow, GERMANY 








Agricultural University, Dept. of Entomology 

12 Mendeleev St. 

4000 - Plovdiv, BULGARIA 

Faculty of Agriculture 

Dept. of Zoology 

Svetosimunska 25 

10000 Zagreb, CROATIA

iii 

HATVANI, A. 

HULLÉ, M. 

HUUSELA-VEISTOLA, E. 

IGRC-BARČIĆ, J. 

KISS, J. 

KOZMA, E. 

KROMP, B. 

LHALOUI, S. 

LUCZA, Z. 

MAKKÓ, V. 

MATEEVA-RADEVA, A. 

MEINDL, P. 

MIHÁLY, B. 

PAPP, E. 

University of Horticulture 

Erdei F. tér 1-3 

H-6000 Kecskemét, HUNGARY 

INRA, Laboratoire de Zoologie 

Domaine de la Motte-au-Vicomte, BP 29 

F-356530 Le Rheu Cedex, FRANCE 

Agricultural Research Centre of Finland 

Plant Protection Research 

FIN-31600 Jokioinen, FINLAND 

Faculty of Agriculture 


Svetosimunska 25 

10000 Zagreb, CROATIA 

Szent István University 

Páter K u. 1 


University of Agricultural Sciences 

Dept. of Plant Protection 

Pater U u. 1 


L. Boltzmann Institut für biologische Landwirtschaft 

Rinnboeckstr. 15 

A-1110 Wien, AUSTRIA 

INRA-CRPA-Settat 

P.O. Box 589 

Settat, MOROCCO 

Plant Health and Soil Conservation Station Sapitol 


University of Horticulture, Dept. of Entomology 

Mènes. ut 44 


Agricultural University, Dept. of Entomology 

12 Mendeleev St. 

4000 - Plovdiv, BULGARIA 

L. Boltzmann Institut für biologische Landwirtschaft 

Rinnboeckstr. 15 

A-1110 Wien, AUSTRIA 

Institute for Nature Conservation of the 

Institute for Environmental Management 

Költő u. 21 



H-1119 Budapest, HUNGARY

iv 

POEHLING, H.-M. 

PONS, X. 

SAMU, F. 

SZAKÀL, M. 

SZENTKIRÁLYI, F. 

TÓKÉS, G. 

TÓTH, F. 

TRILTSCH, H. 

TSHERNYSHEV, W. 

VÖRÖS, G. 

WINKLER, I. 





Centre UdL-IRTA 

Area de Protecció de Conreus 

Rovira Roure, 177 

E-25198 Lleida, SPAIN 

Hungarian Academy of Sciences 

Dept. of Plant Protection 

PO Box 102 



Kòtlán ε u. 3 


Institute of Plant Protection H.A.S. 


P.O. Box 102 



Budaörsi út 141 


Szent István University 

Páter K u. 1 





Moscow State University 

Faculty of Biology, Dept. Entomology 

Moscow 119899, RUSSIA 

Tolna County Plant Health and Soil 

Conservation Station, SZEKSZARD 


Kòtlán ε u. 3 

H-2100 Gödöllő, HUNGARY

v 

Contents 

Variability in the timing of sexual morph production in the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi 

Hullé, M., D. Maurice, V. Stevoux, J. Bonhomme, C. Rispe & J.-Chr. Simon ................. 1 

Biotypic variation of Diuraphis noxia (Homoptera: Aphididae) between South Africa 

and Hungary 

Basky, Z. & J. Jordaan ...................................................................................................... 9 

Impact of barley yellow dwarf virus infection on physiological conditions of wheat and 

the consequences for cereal aphids attack 

Fiebig, M. & H.-M. Poehling .......................................................................................... 25 

The Russian wheat aphid on barley in Morocco: 

survey and identification of new sources of resistance 

Lhaloui, S., M. El Bouhssini, S. Ceccarelli, S. Grando & A. Amri ................................. 33 

Effects of induced tolerance and induced resistance against aphids in wheat 

Galler, M. & H.-M. Poehling .......................................................................................... 39 

How does a ladybird respond to aphids? 

Triltsch, H., G. Hechenthaler, U. Gosselke & B. Freier ................................................. 49 

Computer simulations on the efficiency of cereal aphid predators in winter wheat 

Gosselke, U., D. Roßberg, H. Triltsch & B. Freier ......................................................... 59 

Potentials and limitations of long-term field data to identify numerical and functional 

responses of predators to aphid density in wheat 

Freier, B., Triltsch, H. & U. Gosselke............................................................................. 65 

Density of epigeal predators on maize plants untreated and treated with imidacloprid 

Pons, X. & R. Albajes ...................................................................................................... 73 

Arthropod natural enemies of the cereal leaf beetle (Oulema melanopus L.) in organic 

winter wheat fields in Vienna, Eastern Austria 

Meindl, P., B. Kromp, B. Bartl & E. Ioannidou .............................................................. 79 

Habitat preference of carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in Central Hungary in winter 

wheat field and in adjacent habitats 

Hatvani, A., F. Kádár, J. Kiss & G. Péter....................................................................... 87 

Role of field margin in the winter phenophase of Carabid beetles (Coleoptera: 

Carabidae) in winter wheat field 

Péter, G., F. Kádár, J. Kiss & F. Tóth............................................................................. 91 

Insect pests of cereals in Croatia 

Igrc-Barčić, J. & T. Gotlin Culjak................................................................................... 95 

The Hessian fly in Morocco: Surveys, loss assessment, and genetic resistance in bread 

wheat 

Lhaloui, S., M. El Bouhssini & A. Amri......................................................................... 101

vi 

Ecological Pest Management (EPM): General Problems 

Tshernyshev, W.B........................................................................................................... 109 

Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor Say) damage in relay intercropping of cereals in 

Finland 

Huusela-Veistola, E., A. Vasarainen & J. Grahn.......................................................... 113 

Results of a nation-wide survey of spider assemblages in Hungarian cereal fields 

Samu, F., F. Tóth, C. Szinetár, G. Vörös & E. Botos .................................................... 119 

Agrobiological and biocenological study of winter oats (A. sativa L.) 

Gueorguieva, T. & A. Mateeva...................................................................................... 129 

Side effects of some pesticides on aphid specific predators in winter wheat 

Mateeva, A., M. Vassileva & T. Gueorguieva ............................................................... 139 

Influence of the stubble burning on some pests and earth-worms density 

Mateeva, A., D. Svetleva, D. Andonov & St. Stratieva .................................................. 143 

A study of aphid predation by Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera: 

Coccinellidae) using gut dissection 

Triltsch, H...................................................................................................................... 147 

Arthropod complex of winter wheat crops and its seasonal dynamics 

Afonina, V.M., W.B. Tshernyshev, I.I. Soboleva-Dokuchaeva, A.V. Timokhov, 

O.V. Timokhova & R.R. Seifulina.................................................................................. 153 

Studies of the pests of Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis L.) 

Kozma, E., G. Gólya & Z. Záhorszki.............................................................................. 165

Integrated Control in Cereal Crops 

IOBC wprs Bulletin 24 (6) 2001 

pp. 1 - 7 

Variability in the timing of sexual morph production 

in the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi 

Maurice Hullé, Damien Maurice, Véronique Stevoux, Joel Bonhomme, Claude Rispe 

and Jean-Christophe Simon 

INRA, Laboratoire de Zoologie, 35653 Le Rheu Cedex, France 

Summary 

In host-alternating aphid species, the latest a clone switches to sexual production the highest is its rate 

of increase because the parthenogenetic phase is longer. Nevertheless clones are constrained to lay 

eggs before leaf fall of the primary host. In this paper, we have studied the variation in sexual morph 

production of several cyclical parthenogenetic clones of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi which 

alternate between cereals and Prunus padus, the bird cherry. Ten clones of this species differing by 

their geographic origin (five from western and five from eastern France) were placed in two 

laboratory-simulated environments, mimicking the changes of photo-period and thermo-period 

occurring naturally from the end of summer and during the autumn in oceanic and continental 

conditions. The analysis of clonal responses in both climatic conditions showed (i) no geographic 

adaptation among clones, (ii) an earlier production of sexuals in continental conditions and (iii) a 

higher production of males in oceanic conditions. Furthermore, we have compared the dates of first 

appearance of sexuals in our experiments with those occurring in the field based on suction trap 

database. Sexuals were observed in nature at least four weeks earlier than in the lab. Placed in seminatural 

conditions, the responses of the clones were similar to those observed under field conditions. 

These results underline the need for a better understanding of the influence of the whole array of 

environmental factors, inducing the transition from parthenogenetic to sexual reproduction in aphids. 

Key words: Rhopalosiphum padi, geographic clones, overwintering, reproductive strategy, thermoperiod, 

photo-period 

Introduction 

In cyclical parthenogenetic populations of many host-alternating species, the parthenogenetic 

phase occurs during the spring and summer on herbaceous plants (the secondary hosts), and 

sexual reproduction occurs on a woody plant (the primary host). At the end of summer and 

the beginning of autumn, two morphs are involved in the return flight to the primary host: 

gynoparae and males. Gynoparae are winged parthenogenetic females, giving birth on the 

primary host to oviparous sexual females. The timing of the switch to the sexual phase is 

important for a clone to maximise its fitness. The later cyclical parthenogenetic clones switch 

to sexual reproduction to increase their fitness, because the growth season is longer. 

Nevertheless, these clones are constrained to switch to the sexual phase before the leaf fall of 

the primary host on which eggs are laid. All individuals involved in sexual reproduction have 

to be produced synchronously between clones to ensure the mating rendezvous. Together, 

short day-lengths and low temperatures induce the development of both gynoparae and males 

in species like Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) (Dixon & Glen, 1971), Myzus persicae (Sulzer) 

(Blackman, 1975), Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini) (Bonnemaison, 1970). Aphids may, 

however, show a variability in their responses to these environmental cues. 

Rhopalosiphum padi, which is a major vector of BYDV on winter cereals (Dedryver & 

Gelé, 1982; Leather et al. 1989) alternates between Poaceae (secondary hosts) and the bird 

1

2 

cherry, Prunus padus (primary host). In the autumn, the date of gynoparae and males 

production may influence the date of departure from the secondary hosts and therefore the 

risk of BYDV transmission. Regional variation in the timing of the first males of R. padi 

caught in suction traps were reported in Great Britain and were related to photoperiodic 

differences among sites. Males were recorded earlier in the north of the UK (Tatchell, 1988), 

and these observations were confirmed experimentally. Clones from northern UK switch to 

sexual reproduction earlier than clones from southern regions (Austin et al., 1996). Results 

from these authors suggested also that the effect of photo-period was modulated by 

temperature. 

Concerning R. padi, several questions remain open. When should a clone switch to sexual 

reproduction in the field? Is there any clonal variability in the responses to conditions 

inducing the production of sexuals? Is there any geographic adaptation of the responses to 

these inducing conditions? In order to answer these questions, several clones of R. padi, 

differing by their geographic origin, were placed in two laboratory environments, mimicking 

the change of photo-period and thermo-period, occurring naturally from the end of summer in 

oceanic and continental conditions, respectively. Experimental results concerning the timing 

of sexual morph production of clones were compared with field observations and semi-natural 

experiment. 

Materials and methods 

Aphid clones 

Two groups of five cyclical parthenogenetic clones of R. padi were tested. These clones were 

collected on the primary host, and before the spring migration in two regions of France 

differing in winter climate. The first five clones were collected in a continental region 

(Colmar, eastern France), and the last five in an oceanic region (Rennes, western France). 

These two regions were 800 km apart. 

After collection and before the experiments, the 20 clones were maintained at 20°C and a 

light regime of L:D 16:8 on wheat seedlings (cv. Arminda) to ensure continuous 

parthenogenetic reproduction (Simon et al., 1991). 

Experiments 

In a first experiment and in order to mimic changes in photo-period and thermo-period at the 

end of summer and during autumn, light and temperature daily regime recorded for a mild 

season at Rennes (oceanic condition) and a cold season at Colmar (continental condition) 

were simulated in two programmable cabinets from August 15 th (before the beginning of 

sexuals production) to November 30 th (after the end of sexuals production) (Fig. 1). The 

simulated photo-periodic decrease corresponded to the latitude of Rennes and Colmar (48°07' 

North). Diurnal and nocturnal temperatures were applied during photo-phase and scoto-phase 

respectively. 

Both experiments, simulating oceanic and continental conditions, were started with ten 

fourth instar alatiform larvae of each of the 10 clones. Aphids were placed in Perspex boxes 

and reared on wheat seedlings (cv. Arminda). Twice a week, all mature winged aphids were 

removed from Perspex boxes with a fine brush, and identified as winged virginoparae, males 

or gynoparae. Gynoparae and virginoparae were distinguished with the squash blot test 

(Lowles, 1995). 

In a second experiment, and in order to monitor the timing of sexual morphs under 

natural conditions, the same clones were placed outdoor from the summer solstice, each in a 

cage containing wheat and a P. padus sapling. First gynoparae and males, which typically fly

3 

to P. padus, were recorded for each clone. During that time, these clones were also placed in 

cabinets under experimental conditions, mimicking changes in thermo-period and photoperiod 

from the summer solstice. In cabinets, thermo-period was intermediary between 

Rennes and Colmar. 

Field observations 

Field observations came from the suction traps network Agraphid, which has been operating 

in France since 1978 (Hullé, 1991). Because of practical reasons, gynoparae were not 

distinguished from winged virginoparae in trap catches. The comparison between 

experimental results and field observations was therefore limited to male catches. Data 

collected from 1978 to 1995 at Colmar and Rennes, corresponding respectively to the eastern 

and western regions, were used in this study. 

30°C 

25°C 

20°C 

Oceanic diurnal temperature 

Oceanic night temperature 

Continental diurnal temperature 

Continental night temperature 

Photophase 

16:OO 

14:OO 

12:OO 

10:OO 

15°C 

8:OO 

10°C 

6:OO 

4:OO 

5°C 

2:OO 

0°C 

15.8 

19.8 

23.8 

27.8 

31.8 

4.9 

8.9 

12.9 

16.9 

20.9 

24.9 

28.9 

2.10 

6.10 

10.10 

14.10 

18.10 

22.10 

26.10 

30.10 

3.11 

7.11 

11.11 

15.11 

19.11 

23.11 

27.11 

0:OO 

Fig. 1. Simulated temperature and photo-period conditions. Diurnal temperature was applied 

during photo-phase and night temperature during scoto-phase. 

Results 

The different sequences of sexual morph production 

Sequences of sexual morph production were similar whatever the geographic origin of clones. 

The transition between parthenogenetic and sexual phase was complete. The production of 

parthenogenetic virginoparae stopped when the production of gynoparae started. Differences 

in the number of gynoparae and males were not significant (Tab. 1). The timing of sexual 

morphs production was similar for both group of clones. First gynoparae were produced by 

the end of September (September 21 st for eastern clones and September 25 th for western 

clones) and first males one month latter (October 26 th and October 24 th , respectively) (Tab. 1).

4 

Tab. 1. Effect of geographic origin on sexual morphs production in R. padi: Date of first 

appearance and number (means with the same letter are not significantly different). 

Geographic origin 

East West 

1 st gynoparae 21 Sept (a) 25 Sept (a) 

1 st male 26 Oct (a) 24 Oct (a) 

No. of gynoparae 740 (a) 1012 (a) 

No. of males 146 (a) 326 (a) 

In contrast sequences of sexual morphs production were different between thermoperiodic 

regimes (Tab. 2). Gynoparae were produced earlier in continental than in oceanic 

conditions (September 17 th and September 28 th , respectively), while males appeared at the 

same time in both conditions. Number of gynoparae was similar in both conditions but 

number of males was lower in continental than in oceanic conditions. 

Tab. 2. Effect of experimental condition on sexual morphs production in R. padi: date of first 

appearance and number (means with the same letter are not significantly different) 

Thermoperiodic regime 

Continental Oceanic 

1st gynoparae 17 Sept (a) 28 Sept (b) 

1st male 27 Oct (a) 21 Oct (a) 

No. of gynoparae 879 (a) 974 (a) 

No. of males 104 (a) 388 (b) 

Tab. 3. Effect of experimental condition on sexual morphs production in R. padi: 

temperature and photo-phase corresponding to the date of first appearance 

Experimental condition 

Continental Oceanic 

Day °C 1 st gynoparae 20 22 

1 st male 11 17 

Night °C 1 st gynoparae 9 12 

1 st male 3 9 

Photo-phase 1 st gynoparae 12h25 11h47 

1 st male 10h09 10h29 

Mean conditions of temperature and photo-period for sexual morph production 

First gynoparae appeared when the day and the night temperature decreased below 20 and 

9°C, respectively in continental conditions, and below 22 and 12°C in oceanic conditions 

(Tab. 3). First males were recorded at a lower temperature in continental than in oceanic 

conditions (11 during the day and 3°C during the night, versus 17 and 9°C). The photo-phase 

corresponding to the first record of gynoparae was longer under continental than oceanic 

conditions (12h25 versus 11h47).

5 

Comparison with field data 

The first appearance of males ranged from August 12 th to September 24 th in the eastern 

continental region (Colmar suction trap), and from August 17 th to October 14 th in the western 

oceanic region (Rennes suction trap) (Tab. 4). In both sites, these dates were earlier than in 

experimental results: The mean date of first male was seven weeks earlier in the Colmar 

suction trap than in continental conditions (Sept 4 th versus Oct 27 th ), and four weeks earlier in 

the Rennes suction trap than in oceanic conditions (Sept 23 rd versus Oct 22 nd ). 

Tab. 4. Date of the first males caught in suction trap from 1978 to 1995 compared to 

experimental results 

Earliest 

first catch 

Latest 

first catch 

Mean 

first catch 

Continental Suction trap 12 Aug 24 Sept 4 Sept 

(Colmar) 

Experiment 16 Oct 21 Nov 27 Oct 

Oceanic Suction trap 17 Aug 14 Oct 23 Sept 

(Rennes) 

Experiment 17 Oct 11 Nov 21 Oct 

Timing of sexual morph production in semi-natural conditions 

Under semi-natural conditions, dates of sexual morphs production were similar to field 

observations: First gynoparae were recorded on P. padus between August 18 th and September 

15 th , and males between September 22 nd and September 28 th . Conversely, under experimental 

conditions starting from summer solstice the dates of first appearance of sexual morphs were 

still late and similar to those of previous experiment: First gynoparae were produced between 

the end of September and mid October, depending on the clone and the first males two weeks 

latter (Tab. 5). 

Tab. 5. Date of first appearance of sexual morphs under experimental and semi-natural 

conditions starting from summer solstice 

Earliest 

first appearance 

Latest 

first appearance 

Gynoparae Outdoor 18 Aug 15 Sept 

Experiment 22 Sept 14 Oct 

Male Outdoor 22 Sept 28 Sept 

Experiment 9 Oct 1 Nov 

Discussion 

The same order of progeny sequence (parthenogenetic females?gynoparae?males) was 

achieved by all cyclical parthenogenetic clones. This order was similar to a pattern already 

described for cyclical parthenogenetic clones of R. padi but obtained in constant short days 

and low temperature (Dixon & Glen, 1971; Simon et al., 1991). No geographic adaptation in 

the timing of sexual morph production was found among cyclical parthenogenetic clones. 

However, these clones were all collected at the same latitude contrary to the work of Austin et

6 

al. (1996) showing an effect of latitude on the progeny sequences of R. padi clones from 

different sites in Great Britain, and the experiments of Lushai et al. (1996), which showed an 

effect of latitude on photo-periodic responses for sexual morph production. 

In our experiments, the simulated photo-phase decrease was the same in both oceanic and 

continental conditions. There was only a difference in temperature which was lower and 

decreased more rapidly in continental than in oceanic conditions. Gynoparae were produced 

earlier in continental conditions at a mean day temperature of 14.5°C, and a photo-phase of 

12h25 and later in oceanic conditions at a mean day temperature of 16.9°C, and a photo-phase 

of 11h47. These results suggest, that sexuals production depends on a combination of both 

factors which varies with geographic location. In this way and as long as temperature is high 

enough, aphids should sustain parthenogenetic reproduction. This strategy represents a 

selective advantage because it increases the fitness of clones. The reasoning was here applied 

to production date of gynoparae, as they should precede males to maximise the success of 

mating (Ward & Wellings, 1994). It could be applied just as well to the males and probably to 

previous generations because parents are sensitive to photo-period during the beginning of 

their nymphal life (Dixon & Dewar, 1974). 

The number of males produced in continental conditions seemed very low. Since males 

are produced after gynoparae, the unexpected earlier mortality of parents may explain a 

deficit in males. This might have been the case in our experiment, because the daily 

temperatures were 7°C lower in continental than in oceanic conditions, suggesting that 

complete sequences could not be achieved in a colder climate. 

The time lag of nearly 4 weeks observed between the first sexual morphs in experimental 

conditions and in field or semi-natural observations underline the need for a better 

understanding of the influence of the whole array of environmental factors inducing the 

transition from parthenogenetic to sexual reproduction, especially with the aim of predicting 

the timing of autumnal migration of virus vectors. 

References 

Austin, A.B., Tatchell, G.M., Harrington, R. & Bale, J.S., 1996: Adaptative significance of 

changes in morph production during the transition from parthenogenetic to sexual 

reproduction in the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphididae). Bulletin of 

Entomological Research 86: 93-99. 

Blackman, R.L., 1975: Photoperiodic determination of the male and female sexual morphs of 

Myzus persicae. Journal of Insect Physiology 21: 435-453. 

Bonnemaison, L., 1970: Action de la photopériode sur la production des gynopares ailées de 

Dysaphis plantaginea Pass. Ann. Zool. Ecol. Anim. 2: 523-554. 

Dedryver, C.A. & Gelé, A., 1982: Biologie des pucerons des céréales dans l'Ouest de la 

France IV. - Etude de l'hivernation de populations anholocycliques Rhopalosiphum padi 

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trois stations de Bretagne et du Bassin parisien. Acta Oecologica Oecologia Applicata 3: 

321-342. 

Dixon, A.F. & Dewar, A.M., 1974: The time of determination of gynoparae and males in the 

bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi. Annals of Applied Biology 78: 1-6. 

Dixon, A.F. & Glen, D.M., 1971: Morph determination in the bird cherry-oat aphid, 

Rhopalosiphum padi L. Annals of Applied Biology 68: 11-21. 

Hullé, M., 1991: Agraphid, un réseau de surveillance des populations de pucerons : base de 

données associée et domaines d'application. Annales ANPP 2: 103-113.

Leather, S.R., Walters, K.F. & Dixon, A.F., 1989: Factors determining the pest status of the 

bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in Europe: a 

study and a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research 79: 345-360. 

Lowles, A., 1995: A quick method for distinguishing between the two autumn winged female 

morphs of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 74: 

95-99. 

Lushai, G., Hardie, J. & Harrington, R., 1996: Diapause termination and egg hatch in the bird 

cherry aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 81: 113- 

115. 

Simon, J.C., Blackman, R.L. & Le Gallic, J.F., 1991: Local variability in the life cycle of the 

bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphididae) in western France. 

Bulletin of Entomological Research 81: 315-322. 

Tatchell, G.M., 1988: Regional adaptations in the phenology of a migrant aphid 

Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphididae) (Abstract). Proceeding of the 18th 

International Congress of Entomology, 182. 

7



pp. 9 - 23 

Biotypic variation of Diuraphis noxia (Homoptera: Aphididae) 

between South Africa and Hungary 

Zuzsa Basky 1 and Jorrie Jordaan 2 

1 

Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 102, Budapest 1525, 

Hungary 

2 

Sensaco Cooperative, Ltd., P.O. Box 566, Bethlehem 9700, Republic of South Africa 

Summary 

Impact of Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) from South Africa and Hungary was measured on susceptible 

and resistant South African wheat cultivars and a susceptible Hungarian barley cultivar. The effect of 

aphid infestation on fresh plant weight over time differed between Hungarian and South African 

D. noxia strains for the susceptible barley cultivar Isis, and the resistant wheat cultivar SST 333. 

Aphid infestation significantly affected leaf area between South Africa and Hungary for susceptible 

wheat cultivar Betta and resistant wheat cultivar SST 333. In Hungary D. noxia feeding resulted in leaf 

rolling and chlorotic spots and stripes on resistant wheat cultivar SST 333 grown in growth chamber. 

Furthermore, the dynamics of the number of aphids per plant differed between South Africa and 

Hungary for Betta and SST 333. Infestation by Hungarian D. noxia reduced plant fresh weight and 

leaf area of the resistant wheat cultivars SST 333 and PI 262660 as much as the susceptible wheat 

cultivar Betta regardless of the growing conditions (growth chamber or greenhouse). In addition, water 

imbalance occurred in resistant wheat cultivars SST 333 and PI 262660 in the greenhouse. These 

differences between Hungarian and South African D. noxia strains suggest genetic differences 

between these populations. Our results support the idea that resistant plant germplasm has 

geographical limits because of geographical variation in pest species. 

Key words: Diuraphis noxia, plant weight, leaf area, biotypic variation, South Africa, Hungary 

Introduction 

The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) (Homoptera: Aphidaidae), was first 

recorded as a pest of cereals by Mokrzhetsky (1901). It has not subsequently been a persistent 

pest in Eurasia, its area of origin, although short-lived outbreaks have been reported (e.g., 

Grossheim, 1914; Tuatay & Remaudiére, 1964; Dyadechko & Ruban, 1975; Fernández et al., 

1992). However, after its discovery in South Africa in 1978 and in the United States in 1986, 

it became a major pest of cereals in these countries (Du Toit & Walters, 1984; Brooks et al., 

1994). Diuraphis noxia was first detected in Hungary in 1989 by Basky and Eastop (1991), 

but has not become a pest. 

To reduce D. noxia damage, intensive resistance breeding programs were undertaken in 

South Africa and the United States (Du Toit, 1989; Webster et al., 1987; Webster, 1990; 

Miller et al., 1994). Biotypic variation can affect the success of such breeding programs (see 

Diehl & Bush, 1984 for review). Puterka et al. (1992) shoved variation in damage to resistant 

wheat entries among eight D. noxia collections from several regions throughout the world, 

suggesting that biotypic variation may exist in D. noxia. Here, we report experiments on 

differences in plant development as a result of attack by South African and Hungarian 

D. noxia strains. Because of the risk of introducing pest biotypes into South Africa or 

Hungary, we could not transfer D. noxia between the two countries. Therefore in South Africa 

and in Hungary we measured the effect of infestation by locally collected D. noxia specimens 

9

10 

on fresh plant weight and leaf area of South African wheat cultivars, susceptible and resistant 

to D. noxia, and a Hungarian barley cultivar susceptible to D. noxia. The experimental 

conditions were as close as possible in the two countries. 


Sources of aphids 

In South Africa, D. noxia viviparous apterae and nymphs were collected at the beginning of 

November from wheat at Zadoks growth stage 65-69 (anthesis half way, anthesis complete) 

(Tottman & Broad, 1987) in the main South African wheat growing area near Bethlehem, 

Orange Free State. Before our experiments, the aphids were reared for 3 wks on seedlings of 

wheat variety Betta at 20°C and photo-period ~14:10 (L:D) h at 5.000-15.000 light intensity 

at the Sensaco Cooperative Breeding Station. 

In Hungary, D. noxia fundatrices were collected in the middle of April from wheat at 

growth stage 30-35 (stem elongation) near Szolnok, which is at the centre of the main wheat 

growing area in Hungary. Before our experiments, the aphids were reared for about 3 months 

on wheat variety Bezoshtaja in an environmental growth chamber at 20°C and photo-period 

14:10 (L:D) h at 7.500-8.500 light intensity. 

Treatments 

To test differences between South African and Hungarian D. noxia strains, experiments were 

done in each country with the South African winter wheat cultivars Betta, which is 

susceptible to D. noxia, and SST 333, which is resistant to D. noxia, and the Hungarian spring 

barley variety Isis, which is susceptible to D. noxia. 

Because D. noxia feeding resulted the occurrence of classic leaf rolling and streaks on the 

resistant South African wheat cultivar SST 333 in environmental growth chamber in Hungary, 

an additional experiment was done in Hungary to compare effects of Hungarian D. noxia on 

Betta, SST 333, and on another D. noxia resistant wheat line PI 262660. PI 262660, in which 

resistance originates from the single dominant gene Dn2 (Du Toit, 1989), was the source of 

resistance on SST 333. 

In each experiment, sixteen seeds were sown in each of eight pots (17 cm diameter in 

Bethlehem and 15 cm in Hungary) for each variety. After emergence, seedlings were thinned 

to 12 seedlings per pot. Six days after emergence, i.e. at growth stage 11, the plants in half of 

the pots were infested with one D. noxia apterae (7 day-old) each. In South Africa, insects and 

plants were kept in a controlled-temperature greenhouse at 20-14°C (day-night) with a photoperiod 

of ~ 14:10 (L:D) h. In South Africa eight pots were placed into one box, the front and 

sides of the boxes was glass, the top and the back of the boxes was fine mesh material. The 

infested and non-infested plants were placed into separate boxes, but within the boxes pots of 

different cultivars were randomly designed. The plants were irrigated by an automated system 

with 40 ml water per pot three times per day. In Hungary in the first experiment, insects and 

plants were kept in a growth chamber at 20-14°C (day-night) with a photo-period of 14:10 

(L:D) h. The light intensity in the growth chamber varied between 7.500-8.500 lux. The 

plants were irrigated manually with 90-100 ml water per pot once per day. To avoid the 

possible confounding effect of greenhouse vs. growth chamber, the trial was repeated in 

Hungary in the greenhouse and in an environmental growth chamber. The growing conditions 

in the Hungarian greenhouse were the following: photoperiod ~14:10 (L:D) h ~20-14 o C. The 

temperature regime actually varied between 13-24°C because the greenhouse was not 

temperature-controlled, we tried to maintain the desired temperature with manual ventilation. 

The light intensity varied between 5.000 and 15.000 lux. The plants were watered twice a day 

with 60-70 ml water each time. The higher water requirement of the plants was due to the

11 

higher temperature in the greenhouse. In Hungary, both the infested and non-infested pots 

were covered with 20 cm high transparent cages. The ventilation holes and the top of the 

cages were covered with fine mesh organsa material. In in the environmental growth chamber 

and in the greenhouse plants were randomly arranged. 

Measurements 

In each experiment, four plants were destructively sampled from each plot at 7, 10 and 14 d 

after infestation. Thus, for each variety, infestation level, and sample date, four plants from 

each of the four pots were cut at soil surface. For infested plants, the numbers of D. noxia per 

plant were counted and thereafter the aphids were removed. Cut plants were weighted, and 

placed flat between two transparent sheets for photocopying. The areas of the photocopied 

plants were measured with a computer, using the Vidas Processing System (Kontron Image 

Analysis Division, Neufahrn, Germany). Although the visual scale of leaf rolling proposed by 

Webster et al. (1991) is widely used, leaf area was measured instead in order to avoid 

subjectivity (Webster et al., 1987), and to distinguish differences more precisely, and to allow 

detection of stunting. 

Data analyses 

For analysis, data from the experiment in South Africa and the first experiment in Hungary 

was combined. Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the effects 

of country, infestation with D. noxia, sample date, and their interactions on plant weight and 

leaf area of each cultivar (Statistica Stat Soft). The same type of analysis was used to test the 

effects of country, sample date, and their interactions on number of aphids per plant for each 

cultivar. Because the objective was to compare damage between countries and not between 

plant cultivars or species, separate analyses were done for each cultivar. Pots were the 

smallest experimental units; the four plants sampled from each pot on each date were subsamples. 

Therefore mean plant weight, leaf area, and number of aphids for the four plants 

sampled from a pot on a date were the observations for analysis. Comparison of means of 

plant weight and leaf area between infested and non-infested plants for each country and 

within each of these categories between countries for the third sample date (14 days after 

infestation) was done by using t-test. 

For analysis of the second experiment in Hungary, data from the experiment in 

environmental growth chamber and greenhouse was combined. Repeated measures ANOVA 

was used to test the effects of growing conditions (greenhouse, growth chamber), infestation 

with D. noxia, sample date, and their interactions on plant weight and leaf area of each 

cultivar. The same type of analysis was used to test the effects of growing conditions, sample 

date, and their interactions on number of aphids per plant for each cultivar. 

Means of plant weight and leaf area between infested and non-infested plants for growing 

conditions and within each of these categories between environmental growth chamber and 

greenhouse for the third sample date (14 days after infestation) were compared by using t-test 

(Statistica Stat Soft). 

Results 

Hungary versus South Africa 

Plant damage. The effect of aphid infestation on fresh plant weight over time differed 

between Hungary and South Africa for resistant wheat cultivar SST 333, and susceptible 

barley cultivar Isis, while leaf area differed between South Africa and Hungary for 

susceptible wheat cultivar Betta, and for resistant wheat cultivar SST 333 (Tab. 1).

12 

Tab. 1. Analysis of variance for effects of country (South Africa, Hungary) infestation (with 

or without D. noxia) time (7, 10,14 days after infestation), and their interactions on 

plant weight and leaf area of two wheat cultivars (Betta, SST 333) and one barley 

cultivar (Isis). 

Plant weight 

Leaf area 

Variety Factor df F P df F P 

Betta Country 1, 48 2.02 0.249 1, 48 13.84 0.033* 

Infestation 1, 48 22.83 0.017* 1, 48 79.78 0.002* 

Date 2, 48 22.89 0.001* 2, 48 14.95 0.004* 

Country * Infestation 1, 48 38.04 0.008* 1, 48 4.23 0.131 

Country * Date 2, 48 11.09 0.009* 2, 48 1.36 0.324 

Infestation * Date 2, 48 11.55 0.008* 2, 48 12.76 0.006* 

Country * Infestation * Date 2, 48 6.56 0.030* 2, 48 0.93 0.443 

SST 333 Country 1, 48 19.09 0.022* 1, 48 17.55 0.024* 

Infestation 1, 48 49.88 0.005* 1, 48 179.97 0.000* 

Date 2, 48 623.77 0.000* 2, 48 128.39 0.000* 

Country * Infestation 1, 48 13.16 0.036* 1, 48 230.35 0.000* 

Country * Date 2, 48 7.35 0.024* 2, 48 1.90 0.228 


Country * Infestation * Date 2, 48 6.67 0.029* 2, 48 7.71 0.021* 

Isis Country 1, 48 43.58 0.007* 1, 48 2.27 0.228 

Infestation 1, 48 207.06 0.000* 1, 48 148.30 0.001* 

Date 2, 48 177.03 0.000* 2, 48 165.54 0.000* 

Country * Infestation 1, 48 51.77 0.005* 1, 48 43.46 0.007* 

Country * Date 2, 48 4.28 0.069 2, 48 2.51 0.161 


Country * Infestation * Date 2, 48 15.99 0.003* 2, 48 68.24 0.000* 

By the time of the third sample date when the duration of infestation was long enough 

and damage caused by D. noxia became obvious, the mean fresh plant weight and mean plant 

area of the infested plants was significantly lower both in South Africa and in Hungary at 

each cultivar (Tab. 2, Fig. 1, 2). 

The fresh plant weight and leaf area of infested Isis barley cultivar did not differ 

significantly in South Africa and Hungary. There was no significant difference between the 

fresh weight of infested Betta, however, the leaf area was significantly different at infested 

Betta between South Africa and Hungary, with a reduction of 71.4 and 49.1%, respectively. 

Both South African and Hungarian D. noxia reduced the fresh weight of SST 333, but the 

percent reduction was greater in Hungary (45.4%) than in South Africa (24.1%) (Fig. 1). The 

leaf area of resistant SST 333 was reduced as a result of D. noxia feeding both in South Africa 

and in Hungary, with a leaf area reduction of 29.1 and 47.0%, respectively (Tab. 2, Fig. 2). In 

spite of the reduction in plant fresh weight and leaf area there was no sign of D. noxia feeding 

on the leaves of SST 333 in South Africa, while characteristic leaf rolling and chlorotic spots 

and stripes developed on the D. noxia infested plants in Hungary. Although we tried to keep 

the plants at the two sites under the as much as possible the same conditions, the fresh plant 

weight and leaf area of the non-infested plant was significantly different in South Africa and 

in Hungary.

13 

Tab. 2. Comparisons of means of plant weight and leaf area between infested and non-infested plants in South Africa and Hungary and 

between South Africa and Hungary for infested and non-infested plants for two wheat varieties (Betta, SST 333) and one barley 

cultivar Isis 14 d after infestation. 

Treatment 

Weight Leaf area 

mean ± SEM 

SST 333 ISIS BETTA 

mean ± SEM 

SST 333 

BETTA 

ISIS 

South Africa 

infested vs 0.236 ± 0.022a 0.466 ± 0.044a* 0.373 ± 0.040a 704.76 ± 48.67a 2054.10 ± 103.0a 1339.68 ± 79.16a 

uninfested 0.347 ± 0.017b 0.631 ± 0.066b 0.871 ± 0.045b 2466.53 ± 165.2b 2962.59 ± 124.4b 3031.52 ± 84.36b 

t values 3.81 2.06 8.19 8.46 4.01 8.86 

Hungary 

infested vs 0.229 ± 0.016a 0.261 ± 0.025a 0.375 ± 0.024a 844.70 ± 87.98a 1168.65±112.77a 1347.27 ± 27.36a 

uninfested 0.427 ± 0.020b 0.478 ± 0.022b 0.486 ± 0.031b 1661.26 ± 72.75b 2213.29 ±102.97b 2093.56 ± 195.6b 

t values 7.61 6.43 2.78 6.47 6.84 4.72 

Infested 

South Africa vs 0.236 ± 0.022a 0.466 ± 0.044a 0.373 ± 0.040a 704.76 ± 48.67a 2054.10 ±103.04a 1339.68 ± 79.16a 

Hungary 0.229 ± 0.016a 0.261 ± 0.025b 0.375 ± 0.024a 844.70 ± 87.98b 1168.65 ±112.77b 1347.27 ±127.36a 

t values 0.223 6.06 0.02 8.46 4.04 0.05 

Uninfested 

South Africa vs 0.347 ± 0.017a 0.631 ± 0.066a 0.871 ± 0.045a 2466.53 ± 165.2b 2962.59±124.47a 3031.52 ± 84.36a 

Hungary 0.427 ± 0.020b 0.478 ± 0.022b 0.486 ± 0.031b 1661.26 ± 72.75b 2213.29 ±102.97b 2093.56 ± 195.6b 

t values 5.02 6.43 2.78 2.10 3.84 3.51 

Means ± SEM within pairs followed by different letters are significantly different (P

14 

14 

DAYS AFTER INFECTION 

Fig. 1. Mean fresh plant weight of three wheat cultivars (Betta, SST 333, PI 262660) and one barley cultivar (Isis) with and without D. noxia 

in South Africa (SA) in greenhouse and in Hungary (H) in environmental growth chamber (EGC) and in greenhouse (GH) sampled at 

three dates after aphid infestation.

15 

DAYS AFTER INFECTION 

Fig. 2. Mean leaf area mm 2 of three wheat cultivars (Betta, SST 333, PI 262660) and one barley cultivar (Isis) with and without D. noxia in 

South Africa in greenhouse and in Hungary in environmental growth chamber and in greenhouse sampled at three dates after aphid 

infestation. 

15

16 

Fig. 3. Mean number of D. noxia per plant for three wheat cultivars (Betta, SST 333, PI 

262660) and one barley cultivar (Isis) in South Africa in the greenhouse and in 

Hungary in an environmental growth chamber and in the greenhouse, sampled at 

three dates after aphid infestation. 

Aphid numbers. The dynamics of the number of aphids per plant differed between 

Hungary and South Africa for the susceptible wheat cultivar Betta and the resistant wheat 

cultivar SST 333 (Tab. 3, Fig. 3a). In both countries aphids reproduced on the resistant SST 

333. The dynamics of the aphid populations were similar on the two wheat cultivars aphid 

numbers and did not differ between South Africa and Hungary at days 7 and 10. However, by 

day 14, aphid densities were 460 and 135% higher in South Africa than in Hungary on Betta 

and SST 333, respectively. The difference between countries supports the observation that 

South African D. noxia has a higher net reproductive rate than Hungarian D. noxia (Basky &

17 

Jordaan, 1997). Surprisingly, the number of aphids per plant on the susceptible barley variety 

Isis did not vary significantly with country, sample date, or their interaction (Tab. 3). 

Tab. 3. Analysis of variance for effects of country (South Africa, Hungary), sample date (7, 

10, 14 days after infestation), an their interaction on number of aphids per plant 

Aphids per plant 

Cultivar Factor df F P 

Betta Country 1,24 31.2 0.000* 

Sample date 2,24 32.7 0.000* 

Country x Sample date 2,24 21.8 0.000* 

SST 333 Country 1,24 11.4 0.010* 

Sample date 2,24 25.9 0.000* 

Country x Sample date 2,24 11.1 0.001* 

Isis Country 1,24 2.3 0.17 

Sample date 2,24 3.5 0.06 

Country x Sample date 2,24 2.6 0.10 

Environmental growth chamber versus greenhouse 

Plant damage. The significant difference of non-infested plant fresh weight and leaf area 

between South Africa and Hungary rose the question whether the difference between South 

African and Hungarian D. noxia damage was only due to different growing conditions 

(greenhouse in South Africa and environmental growth chamber in Hungary). The effect of 

aphid infestation on plant fresh weight and leaf area over time differed between growth 

chamber and greenhouse for resistant wheat cultivar SST 333 and for susceptible barley 

cultivar Isis. The growth chamber vs. greenhouse significantly affected the leaf area of 

susceptible wheat cultivar Betta and the weight of resistant wheat cultivar PI 262660 (Tab. 4). 

By the time of the third assessment the mean fresh plant weight and leaf area of infested 

plants was significantly lower for each cultivar, both in the growth chamber and the in 

greenhouse (Tab. 5, Fig. 1 and 2). However, the percent reduction was higher in the 

greenhouse than in the growth chamber for each wheat cultivar. The plant fresh weight 

reduction of Betta, Isis, SST 333 and PI 262660 in the growth chamber were 34,6, 22.5, 35 

and 40%, while in the greenhouse they were 62.2, 66.7, 65.4 and 67.9% respectively. The 

percent reduction of infested leaf area of Betta, Isis, SST 333 and PI262660 were 46.2, 35.6, 

56 and 46.6% in the growth chamber and 77, 70.6, 74.1 and 69.2% in the greenhouse, 

respectively (Tab. 5, Fig. 1 and 2). The effect of aphid infestation on fresh plant weight by the 

time of the third sample date differed between the growth chamber and the greenhouse only 

for resistant wheat cultivar SST 333. While the leaf area of infested susceptible Betta and 

resistant SST333 were significantly different between the growth chamber and the 

greenhouse, the differences were not significant for non-infested plants. At the same time 

there were significant differences between growth chamber and greenhouse both for plant 

fresh weight and for leaf area of non-infested PI 262660, while these characters did not vary 

significantly in infested plants.

18 

Tab. 4. Analysis of variance for effects of growing conditions (environmental growth 

chamber, greenhouse), infestation (with and without D. noxia), time (7, 10, 14 days 

after infestation), and their interactions on plant weight and leaf area of three wheat 

cultivars (Betta, ST 333, PI 262660) and one barley cultivar (Isis). 

Plant weight 

Leaf area 

Variety Factor df F P df F P 

Betta Location 1, 48 6.28 0.087 1, 48 43.84 0.007* 

Infestation 1, 48 144.81 0.007* 1, 48 652.11 0.000* 

Date 2, 48 99.32 0.000* 2, 48 128.75 0.000* 

Location * Infestation 1, 48 0.30 0.619 1, 48 6.52 0.08 

Location * Date 2, 48 21.78 0.001* 2, 48 8.63 0.017* 


Location*Infestation*Date 2, 48 4.05 0.076 2, 48 10.76 0.010* 

SST 333 Location 1, 48 17.39 0.025* 1, 48 46.48 0.006* 

Infestation 1, 48 148.33 0.001* 1, 48 199.81 0.000* 

Date 2, 48 540.52 0.000* 2, 48 143.32 0.000* 

Location * Infestation 1, 48 79.57 0.002* 1, 48 18.16 0.023* 

Location * Date 2, 48 12.69 0.006* 2, 48 8.58 0.017* 


Location*Infestation*Date 2, 48 12.97 0.006* 2, 48 14.67 0.004* 

Isis Location 1, 48 463.54 0.000* 1, 48 38.57 0.000* 

Infestation 1, 48 231.30 0.000* 1, 48 146.32 0.000* 

Date 2, 48 298.79 0.000* 2, 48 126.5 0.000* 

Location * Infestation 1, 48 56.61 0.004* 1, 48 6.36 0.08 

Location * Date 2, 48 56.59 0.000* 2, 48 8.32 0.016* 



PI262660 Location 1, 48 141.45 0.001* 1, 48 0.6 0.478 

Infestation 1, 48 259.33 0.000* 1, 48 132.2 0.001* 

Date 2, 48 213.11 0.000* 2, 48 64.26 0.000* 

Location * Infestation 1, 48 41.91 0.007* 1, 48 7.09 0.076 

Location * Date 2, 48 30.09 0.000* 2, 48 22.53 0.001* 



The plant growth was higher in the greenhouse than in the growth chamber, coupled by 

higher aphid damage in all cultivars (Tab. 5). The aphid damage was so severe on resistant 

SST 333 and PI 262660 that Russian wheat aphid damage induced visible water imbalance in 

the greenhouse. Signs of water imbalance, i.e. visible loss of turgor, was detected ten days 

after D. noxia infestation for both resistant cultivars (SST 333 and PI 262660), but no signs of 

water imbalance were observed on the susceptible wheat cultivar Betta and the susceptible 

barley cultivar Isis. 

Aphid numbers. The dynamics of aphid densities per plant did not differ between 

growth chamber and greenhouse for the susceptible wheat and barley cultivars Betta and Isis, 

but significantly differed between the resistant SST 333 and PI 262660 cultivars (Tab. 6).

19 

Aphid numbers were higher in growth chamber than in greenhouse on all cultivars, and 

particularly remarkable on PI 262660 where the number of aphids 14 days after infestation 

was 55.4% higher in the growth chamber than in the greenhouse. The lower aphid 

reproduction on the resistant cultivars may be related to aphid induced water imbalances. 

Reduction of aphid reproduction occurred on SST 333 between 10 and 14 days after 

infestation (Fig. 3b). 

Table 6. Analysis of variance for effects of location (environmental growth chamber, 

greenhouse), sample date (7, 10, 14 days after infestation), an their interaction on 

number of aphids per plant. 

Aphids per plant 

Cultivar Factor df F P 

Betta Location 1, 24 0.15 0.71 

Sample date 2, 24 22.59 0.001* 

Location x Sample date 2, 24 1.56 0.28 

SST 333 Location 1, 24 13.28 0.035* 

Sample date 2, 24 12.56 0.007* 

Location x Sample date 2, 24 1.09 0.39 

Isis Location 1, 24 0.005 0.944 

Sample date 2, 24 1.48 0.299 

Location x Sample date 2, 24 1.39 0.318* 

PI 262660 Location 1, 24 16.79 0.026* 

Sample date 2, 24 28.31 0.000* 

Location x Sample date 2, 24 21.02 0.001* 

Discussion 

The differences between Hungarian and South African D. noxia strains in their effects on 

plant fresh weight and leaf area suggest genetic differences between these aphid populations. 

Other observations during this experiment also indicate different biotypes: infested Betta and 

Isis had rolled leaves and chlorotic streaks in both South Africa and Hungary, whereas 

infested SST 333 had these symptoms in Hungary in a growth chamber, but not in the South 

African greenhouse. Despite differences in visual symptoms between countries, aphid 

infestation reduced fresh plant weight and leaf area of SST 333 in both countries. This effect 

on weight without visual symptoms corroborates results by Bush et al. (1989) and Scott et al. 

(1990), who found that reduction in plant weight can occur in a line when a visual damage 

rating indicates a high level of resistance. At least for plant fresh weight and leaf area, 

resistant wheat SST 333 and PI262660 appeared to suffer as much reduction from infestation 

by Hungarian D. noxia as the susceptible cultivar Betta, beside the quantitative changes 

yellow spots and stripes and leaf rolling, characteristic to D. noxia damage appeared on the 

resistant cultivars.

20 

20 

Tab. 5. Comparisons of means of plant weight and leaf area between infested and non-infested plants in the growth chamber and the 

greenhouse, and between the growth chamber and the greenhouse in Hungary for infested and non-infested plants for three wheat 

varieties (Betta, SST 333, PI 262660) 14 d after infestation. 

Treatment 

BETTA 

Weight 

mean ± SEM 

SST 333 PI 262660 BETTA 

Leaf area 

mean ± SEM 

SST 333 PI 262660 

Growth chamber 

Infested vs 0.300 + 0.029a 0.432 + 0.016a 0.297 + 0.031a 1060.75 + 87.60a 1305.03 + 22.55a 1041.90 + 111.56a 

Uninfested 0.459 + 0.009b 0.664 + 0.021b 0.494 + 0.041b 1969.75 + 87.62b 2965.38 + 78.74b 1951.65 + 144.88b 

t-values 4.04 6.88 3.08 5.73 16.21 3.97 

Greenhouse 

Infested vs 0.253 + 0.010a 0.318 + 0.028a 0.254 + 0.028a 517.97 + 56.89a 822.92 + 61.56a 811.45 + 65.322a 

Uninfested 0.670 + 0.017b 0.918 + 0.022b 0.791 + 0.030b 2242.05 + 64.03b 3166.4 + 124.62b 2630.12 + 87.428b 

t-values 16.10 13.18 10.24 16.10 12.06 13.33 

Infested 

Growth chamb vs 0.300 + 0.029a 0.432 + 0.016a 0.297 + 0.031a 1060.75 + 87.60a 1305.03 + 22.55a 1041.90 + 111.56a 

Greenhouse 0.253 + 0.010a 0.318 + 0.028b 0.254 + 0.028a 517.97 + 56.89b 822.92 + 61.56b 811.45 + 65.32a 

t values 1.18 2.75 0.80 4.14 5.88 1.42 

Uninfested 

Growth chamb vs 0.459 + 0.009a 0.664 + 0.021a 0.494 + 0.040a 1969.75 + 87.62a 2965.38 + 78.74a 1951.65 + 144.88a 

Greenhouse 0.670 + 0.017b 0.918 + 0.022b 0.791 + 0.030b 2242.05 + 64.03a 3166.4 + 124.62a 2630.12 + 87.42 b 

t values 8.41 6.54 4.707 1.95 0.98 3.200 

Means ± SEM within pairs followed by different letters are significantly different (P

21 

It is likely that damage by D. noxia was often not significant 7-10 d after infestation in 

our experiments (data not shown) because one adult and its progeny were too few aphids to 

cause detectable damage during this period. Webster et al. (1987) suggested that an initial 

infestation of at least 10 D. noxia per seedling is required for evaluation of resistance. 

Westhuizen and Bota (1993) found that D. noxia infestation induced quantitative differences 

between the polypeptide profiles of resistant and susceptible wheat leaves. Aphid infestation 

induces accumulation of specific proteins in the intercellular fluid of resistant varieties only 

(Nagel et al., 1994), but production of these proteins requires sufficient aphid numbers (A. J 

van der Westhuizen, personal communication). 

Higher plant weight and leaf area in South African greenhouse than in Hungarian 

environmental growth chamber for non-infested plants may have resulted from differences 

from light level or irrigation systems. 

When the trial was repeated in the growth chamber and the greenhouse on D. noxia 

resistant SST 333 and PI262660 cultivars, plant fresh weight and leaf area of D. noxia 

infested plants significantly decreased and typical D. noxia damage symptoms, such as 

chlorotic spots and stripes, leaf rolling, were formed on the resistant plants. Moreover, signs 

of water imbalance occurred on the resistant cultivars 10 and 14 days after infestation in the 

greenhouse. Miller et al. (1994) reported symptoms of susceptibility to D. noxia in barley, 

indicating alterations in the water status of the leaf. Infested susceptible barley took up less 

water than non-infested plants. Burd and Burton (1992), characterising the D. noxia damage, 

pointed out that “The prevention of unfolding of new leaves and reduction on leaf size caused 

by Russian wheat aphid feeding apparently results from the reduction of leaf turgor below the 

threshold for elongation and cell wall extensibility.” Burd et al. (1993) found significantly 

lower leaf turgor for infested susceptible triticale Beagle 82 and susceptible wheat TAM W 

101 and resistant wheat PI 372129 compared to the non-infested control. The leaf turgor of 

resistant D. noxia infested triticale cultivars Okay R and PI 386148 did not differ from the 

non-infested control. The water imbalance in most cases, except for resistant wheat PI 372129 

(Burd et al., 1993), occurred at susceptible plant entries. In our experiment visible water 

imbalance occurred on resistant cultivars only (SST 333 and PI 262660), even when ample 

moisture was provided to the roots. The occurrence of water imbalance, together with 

characteristic leaf rolling and yellow spots and stripes on cultivars which are resistant to 

South African D. noxia suggests biotypic differences in D. noxia between South Africa and 

Hungary. 

Our data support the idea that resistant plant germplasm has geographical limits because 

of geographical variation in pest species (Puterka et al., 1992). This means that, in an 

aggressive breeding program, resistance should be identified against collections of pests from 

throughout the whole region of crop production. Furthermore, stacking genes for resistance in 

a variety should prove to be a more durable strategy on the long run. 

Acknowledgements 

We thank Léan van der Westhuizen (University of Orange Free State, Dep. of Entomology) 

for suggestions on experimental design, Tanya Saayman (Agricultural Research Council, 

Plant Protection Research Institute Pretoria) for measuring the leaf area, Willie Maree 

(Sensaco Cooperative, Ltd.) for providing research facilities, the Cereal Research Institute, 

Szeged, Hungary for supplying germplasm, Keith R. Hopper (Beneficial Insect Introduction 

Research Laboratory, ARS, USDA Newark), Arpad Szentesi and Ferenc Kadar ( Plant

22 

Protection Institute of Hungarian Academy of Sciences) for suggestions on the statistical 

analyses. This research was funded by Sensaco Cooperative, Ltd. 

References 

Basky, Z. & Eastop, V.F., 1991: Diuraphis noxia in Hungary. Newslett. Barley Yellow Dwarf 

4: 34. 

Basky, Z. & Jordaan, J., 1997: Comparison of the development and fecundity of Russian 

wheat aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) in South Africa and in Hungary. J. Econ. Entomol. 

90: 623-627. 

Brooks, L., Hein, G., Johnson, G., Legg, D., Massey, B., Morrison, P., Weiss M. & Peairs, F., 

1994: Economic impact of the Russian wheat aphid in the western United States. 1991 - 

1992. Great Plains Agric. Council Pub. No. 147: 250-268, In: Proceedings 6 th Russian 

Wheat Aphid Workshop, 23-25 January 1994 Fort Collins Colorado. 

Bush, L., Slosser, J. E., & Worall, W.D., 1989: Variations in damage to wheat caused by 

Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) in Texas. J. Econ. Entomol. 82: 466-471. 

Burd, J.D. & Burton, R.L., 1992: Characterization of plant damage caused by Russian wheat 

aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae. J. Econ. Entomol. 85: 2017-2022. 

Burd, J.D., Burton, R.L. & Webster, J.A., 1993: Evaluation of Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: 

Aphididae) damage on resistant and susceptible hosts with comparisons of damage 

ratings to quantitatve plant measurements. J. Econ. Entomol. 86: 974-980. 

Diehl, S.R. & Bush, G.L., 1984: An evolutionary and applied perspective of insect biotypes. 

Ann. Rev. Entomol. 29: 1251-1253. 

Du Toit, F. 1989: Inheritance of resistance in two Triticum aestivum lines to Russian wheat 

aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae). J. Econ. Entomol. 82: 1251-1253. 

Du Toit, F. & Walters, M.C., 1984: Damage assessment and economic threshold values for 

the chemical control of the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) on winter 

wheat. Technical Communication of the Department of Agriculture, Republic of South 

Africa 191: 58-62. 

Dyadechko, N.P. & Ruban, M.B., 1975: The harmfulness of cereal aphid. Zashch. Rast. 

(Mosc.) 12: 17-18. 

Fernandez, V.N., Perez, E.N., Santero, E.D.& Nafria, J.M.N., 1992: Situacion en el norte de 

espana del pulgon ruso del trigo, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) (Homoptera, Aphididae). 

Georgica 1: 9-24. 

Grossheim, N.A. 1914: The barley aphid, Brachycolus noxius Mordwilko. Mem. Nat. Hist. 

Mus. Zemstwo Province Tavria 3: 35-78. (In Russian; English translation by Poprawski, 

T.J., Wraight, S.P. & Peresypkina, S. In: Morrison, W.P. (ed.), Proc. 5 th Russian Wheat 

Aphid Conference, 26-28 January 1992. Great Plains Agricultural Council Publication 

142: 34-55.). 

Miller, H., Porter, D.R., Burd, J.D., Mornhinweg, D.W. & Burton, R.L., 1994: Physiological 

effects of Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) on resistant and susceptible 

barley. J. Econ. Entomol. 87: 493-499. 

Mokrzhetsky, K.A., 1901: (Animal and Plant Pests of Crimea in 1900.) Simferopol; cited in 

Kovalev, O.V., Poprawski, T.J., Stekolshchikov, A.V., Vereshchagina, A.B. & 

Gandrabur, S.A. 1991: Diuraphis Aizenberg (Hom., Aphididae) key to apterous females, 

and review of Russian language literature on the natural history of Diuraphis noxia 

(Kurdjumov, 1913 ) J. Appl. Entomol. 112: 425-436.

Nagel, M.A., Pretorius, C.Z., Botha, A.M. & van der Westhuizen, A.J., 1994: Russian wheat 

aphid resistance markers in wheat. Abstracts of papers and posters presented at the 

Twentieth Annual Congress of the South African Association of Botanists. Witwatersrand 

10-14 January 1994: 69. 

Puterka, G.J., Burd, J.D. & Burton, R.L., 1992: Biotypic variation in a worldwide collection 

of Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) J. Econ. Entomol. 85: 1497-1506. 

Scott, R.A., Worrall, W.D. & Frank, W.A., 1990: Comparison of three techniques for 

measuring antibiosis to Russian wheat aphid. Southwestern Entomologist. 15: 439-446. 

Statistica. 1994: Statistica for the Windows TM StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK. 

Tottman, D.R. & Broad, H., 1987: Decimal code for the Growth Stage of cereals. Ann. Appl. 

Biol. 110: 683-687. 

Tuatay, N., & Remaudiére, G., 1964: Premiere contribution an catalogue des Aphididae 

(Hom.) de la Turquie. Rev. Pathol. Veg. Entomol. Agronom. Rf. 43: 237-278. 

Vidas Processing System, 1993: (Kontron Image Analysis Division) Neufahrn, Germany 

Webster, J.A. 1990: Resistance in Triticale to the Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: 

Aphididae) J. Econ. Entomol. 83: 1091-1095. 

Webster, J.A., Starks, K.J. & Burton, R.L., 1987: Plant resistance studies with Diuraphis 

noxia (Homoptera Aphididae), a new United States wheat pest. J. Econ. Entomol 80: 

944-949. 

Webster, J.A., Baker, C.A. & Porter, D.R., 1991: Detection and mechanisms of Russian wheat 

aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) resistance in barley. J. Econ. Entomol. 84: 669-673. 

van der Westhuizen, A.J. & Botha, F.C., 1993: Effect of the Russian Wheat Aphid on the 

composition and synthesis of water soluble proteins in resistant and susceptible wheat. J. 

Agronomy & Crop Science 170: 322-326. 

23



pp. 25 - 31 

Impact of barley yellow dwarf virus infection on physiological conditions 

of wheat and the consequences for cereal aphids attack 

M. Fiebig and H.-M. Poehling 

Institut für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser 

Str. 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany 

Background and introduction 

The BYDV (Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus) pathosysthem has three biotic elements: the 

luteoviruses, that form the BYDV complex, the different aphid species, which are virus 

vectors and the grass and other plant species, which are hosts of both, the virus and their 

vectors. 

As plants may harbour virus without contributing to its further spreading, vectors are 

responsible for the virus spread. A vector must move the virus from the reservoir to other 

hosts. Therefore the spread of the vectors is important for the epidemiology of BYDV and 

influences spatial and temporal pattern of infection in the field. 

BYDV causes physiological and biochemical changes in host plants (Fereres et al., 1990; 

Jensen & Sambeek, 1972; Jensen, 1968; 1970; Orlob & Arny, 1961). Often the development 

of the plants is retarded after a BYDV infection. 

It is supposed that luteoviruses do not replicate in their vectors and do not directly 

influence aphid performance (Montllor & Gildow, 1986); therefore effects of BYDV on its 

vectors reflect more induced changes in the host plant physiology. Particularly the 

development of phloem feeding aphids depends on the quality of the phloem sap (Douglas, 

1993). Weibull (1987) found a close relation between performance and population growth of 

cereal aphids to the nutritional status of the host plant and the turgescence of the plant tissues. 

Aphids use carbohydrates derived from the phloem as their predominant energy resource and 

amino acids, e.g. for their protein metabolism (Rhodes et al., 1996). In preceding experiments 

we found that infection of the summer wheat cultivar Tinos with BYD-MAV and BYD-PAV– 

isolates caused changes in host selection behaviour, feeding intensity and growth rate of 

Sitobion avenae F. (Homoptera: Aphididae). For that reason we hypothesise that BYDV 

infection changes host suitability by altering concentrations of these compounds within the 

phloem sap to influence aphid development and behaviour which may favour secondary 

spread. The following questions have arisen: 

- Does a BYDV infection change food quality of the host? 

- Are there changes in food utilisation by S. avenae? 

Measurements of sugar and amino acid contents in the phloem sap of infected and noninfected 

wheat plants were used to document BYDV-induced changes of main nutrients in the 

phloem sap, which may be responsible for effects on aphid feeding behaviour and 

development. Quantifying the honeydew composition of sugar and amino acids and the 

amount of secretion, possible changes in food utilisation by S. avenae should be recorded, 

particularly the amount of ingested phloem sap and the efficiency of resorption of different 

components from the phloem sap. The summer wheat cultivar Tinos, BYD-PAV and MAV 

virus isolate and a synchronised culture of a virus-free green clone of S. avenae, which was 

also reared on the wheat cultivar Tinos before, were used for the experiments. 

25

26 

Methods 

For phloem sap collection stylectomy was performed with a high frequency microcautery unit 

(type CA-50, 48 MHz, circa 25 Watt, Syntech). A 0.2 mm tungsten wire prepared as needle 

lead the amputation of aphids stylets, when they showed the phloem sap ingestion pattern E2 

by the electronic monitoring system (EPG, Tjallingii, 1988). 

For honeydew collection specific cages (6 cm x 4 cm x 2 cm) were prepared allowing the 

aphids to settle above a glass object slide, where the honey drops could be collected. The 

sugar analysis was performed according to a modified method of Fretz (1970), Juvik et al. 

(1982) and Nikolov and Reilly (1983) with a Hewlett Packard gas chromatograph and the 

amino acid analysis with the amino-DABS method (Sykam) in a high pressure liquid 

chromatograph. 

The daily sequence of honeydew excretion by the aphids was measured with honeydew 

clocks. To calibrate the relationship between spot diameter and droplet volume, different 

known volumes of a 20 % sucrose solution were spotted with microcapillaries onto a prepared 

foil. The amount and diameter of excreted honeydew droplets per day were measured during 

the larval development of the aphids (L1-ecdysis). 

Results and discussion 

Content of sugar and amino acid in the phloem sap 

Whereas the BYDV infection of the wheat variety Tinos causes no differences in the sugar 

concentration of the phloem sap, there was a quantitative reduction in the amino acids 

concentration in the phloem sap of BYDV-infected wheat (Tab. 1) 

Tab. 1. Total sugar and amino acid concentration in the phloem sap of BYDV-infected and 

non-infected wheat Tinos. Different letters indicate significant differences, Scheffétest, 

p < 0.05. 

Treatment 

total concentration of 

sugar 

(µg / 100 µg) 

amino acid 

Nmol / µl 

in the phloem sap 

Non-infected 21.54 ± 0.73 a 223.63 ± 70.45 a 

(8) (9) 

BYD-MAV 22.09 ±0.97 a 74.83 ± 34.95 b 

(9) (12) 

BYD-PAV 21.85 ± 1.44 a 78.84 ± 11.23 b 

(11) (14) 

Changes in the relative concentration of single amino acids in the phloem sap of BYD-MAV 

and BYD-PAV wheat compared to non-infected wheat showed a strong reduction for most of 

the amino acids after a BYDV infection; except for the amino acid methionine, where the 

concentration increased after a BYDV infection (Fig. 1). These findings correspond with 

results of several investigations, which describe substantial differences in the free amino acid 

pool of virus infected plants compared to healthy plants (Lowe & Strong, 1963; Blua et al., 

1994).

27 

For example the three amino acids aspartic acid, glutamic acid and glutamine (Asp, Glu, Gln) 

are important for the nutritional supply of aphids and of basic importance for amino acid and 

protein metabolism (Febvay et al.,1988). In our experiments all three amino acids were the 

most abundant amino acids in the phloem sap in all treatments independent of a virus 

infection. However, the relative concentration of them were reduced in the phloem sap of 

BYDV-infected wheat. 

% 132.1 

100 

80 

BYD-MAV 

BYD-PAV 

60 

40 

20 

0 

* * * 

* * * 

* * 

* * * * * 

-20 

-40 

-60 

-80 

-100 

Asp Glu Gln Ser The Gly Ala Arg Amib Pro Val Met Try Ileu Leu Phe CySH Lys His Tyr 

Fig. 1. Changes in the relative concentration of single amino acids in the phloem sap of 

BYDV-infected wheat compared to non-infected wheat Tinos. * indicates significant 

differences, Scheffé-test, p < 0.05. 

Content of sugar and amino acid in the honeydew 

In addition to the phloem sap analysis, the hypothesis of nutritional deficiencies on virus 

infected plants is supported by the honeydew experiments. In honeydew of S. avenae the 

carbohydrate concentration was slightly higher when feeding on BYD-MAV and BYD-PAV 

infected plants in contrast to the total amino acid concentration which was marginally reduced 

on BYDV-infected wheat compared to non-infected wheat (tab. 2). 

Tab. 2. Total sugar and amino acid concentration in the honeydew of S. avenae on BYDVinfected 

and non-infected wheat Tinos. Different letters indicate significant 


Treatment 

total concentration of 

sugar 

(µg / 100 µg) 

amino acid 

Nmol / µl 

in the honeydew 

Non-infected 12.57 ± 0.97 a 14.59 ± 1.54 a 

(49) (59) 

BYD-MAV 14.70 ±1.44 a 10.99 ± 0.97 a 

(40) (46) 

BYD-PAV 14.84 ± 0.73 a 12.99 ± 1.08 a 

(62) (73)

28 

Also in the honeydew most amino acids were still reduced on both BYDV treatments 

except for aspartic acid, glutamic acid and methionine (fig. 2). The differences in 

concentration of several amino acids were not homogenous between BYD-MAV or BYD- 

PAV and healthy plants. Whereas the amino acid arginine was significantly reduced in the 

honeydew from S. avenae feeding on BYD-MAV plants, the amino acids serine and proline 

were significantly reduced on BYD-PAV plants. Honeydew from aphids on BYDV-MAV 

plants contained much lower relative amounts (compared to virus free plants) of cysteine, 

histidine and tyrosine than that of BYD-PAV infected plants. 

% 

100 

80 

BYD-MAV 

BYD-PAV 

60 

40 

20 

0 

* 

* 

* 

-20 

-40 

-60 

-80 

-100 

Asp Glu Gln Ser Thr Gly Ala Arg Amib. Pro Val Met Try Ileu Leu Phe Cys Lys His Thy 

Fig. 2. Changes in relative concentration of single amino acids in honeydew of S. avenae on 

BYDV-infected wheat compared to non-infected wheat Tinos. * indicates significant 


Comparing the amino acid concentration in the phloem sap with the concentration in the 

honeydew of S. avenae, it could be concluded that the aphids absorbed and therefore utilised 

more amino acids from phloem sap on the non-infected plants. As aphids are strongly 

nitrogen dependent, their ability to efficiently exploit the amino acids of their diet is a crucial 

factor for their development and reproduction. 

Honeydew excretion 

A compensatory effect by an increased phloem feeding on infected plants could not be 

observed. In our experiments a BYDV infection with the MAV- or the PAV-strain caused 

even a reduction in honeydew excretion by S. avenae during the whole larval development. 

In fact, the droplet size increased in all three treatments with proceeding larval 

development due to the increasing size of the aphids independent of an virus infection. 

Simultaneously the number of honeydew droplets per day decreased in all treatments. 

Particularly in the second half of the larval development, the number of excreted honeydew 

droplets per day was higher on non-infected than on BYDV-infected wheat. This entailed an 

increased amount of honeydew production on non-infected wheat during the larval 

development which could also be observed on BYD-MAV-infected wheat, but with a much 

lower rate. In total the excreted honeydew volume was significantly higher on non-infected 

compared to BYDV-infected wheat (fig. 3).

29 

As honeydew excretion corresponds to phloem ingestion (Auclair, 1963; Rhodes et al., 

1996), S. avenae seems to reduce the amount of phloem ingestion on BYDV-infected wheat. 

According to Prado and Tjallingii (1999), a reduced phloem ingestion bases mainly on the 

pressure and the viscosity of the phloem sap, because aphids ingest phloem sap passively. No 

compensatory feeding behaviour has also been observed by Weibull (1987). He found that the 

ingestion rate was related to the nutrient quality of the phloem sap, particularly the level of 

some amino acids. Therefore Weibull (1987)concluded that individual amino acids or groups 

of them may also regulate the feeding rate, but that the distinction between phagostimulatory 

and compensatory mechanisms are difficult to make. 

4,0 

amount of honeydew (µl) / aphid and day 

3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

non-infected BYD-MAV BYD-PAV 

non-infected 

BYD-PAV 

BYD-MAV 

0,0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

age of aphids (in days) 

Fig. 3. Amount of honeydew excretion (µl) per day by S. avenae during their larval 

development on BYDV-infected and non infected wheat Tinos. 

Comparing the reduced reproduction capacity and growth rate of S. avenae on BYDVinfected 

to non-infected wheat (Fiebig & Poehling, 1998) one can suppose that the nutritional 

quality of BYDV-infected wheat plants was lower for the aphids compared to uninfected 

ones, whereas phloem location depending on sugar concentration seems to be no problem for 

S. avenae on BYDV-infected wheat, as shown by electronic monitoring of stylet penetrations 

(Fiebig & Poehling, 1998). Mittler and Meikle (1991) found that aphids need to ingest a 

sufficiently large volume of phloem sap for their growth and reproduction in order to obtain 

adequate amounts of other less abundant nutrients, particularly amino acids. Therefore the 

nutrient supply for S. avenae on the virus treatments was rather low, because of the reduced 

amount of phloem ingestion by S. avenae on BYDV-infected wheat (Fiebig & Poehling, 

1998), combined with the low total amino acid concentration in this treatment. 

In general our findings confirm that the disease induced changes in host plant suitability 

for sap-feeding insects on virus infected plants. At the same time this reflects the crucial role 

of the multitrophic interaction pattern between plants, virus and vectors. The efficiency of 

aphids as vectors depends in part on their physiological and behavioural responses to the 

virus-induced biochemical or physical changes in host plants. Behavioural responses of 

aphids on infected plants include attraction, settling or feeding on the plants. Such responses 

can strongly influence vector distribution and movement and are particularly important 

because of their potential effects on the spread of the virus in the field. In addition to the 

spatial dimension, nutritional quality triggers aphid development and is related to settling,

30 

wing polymorphism and fitness. In our experiments BYD-MAV or BYD-PAV infection not 

only reduced host suitability and induced spread of wingless morphs, but additionally 

promoted the production of alatae progeny as shown by Fiebig and Poehling (1998). Hence, 

both factors could be favourable for the mutualistic effects leading to virus-induced vector 

spread. 

References 

Auclair, J.L., 1963: Aphid feeding and nutrition. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 8: 439-490. 

Blua, M.J., Perring, P.A. & Madore, M.A., 1994: Plant virus-induced changes in aphid 

population development and temporal fluctuations in plant nutrients. J. Chem. Ecol. 

20(3): 691-707. 

Douglas, A.E., 1993: The nutritional quality of phloem sap utilised by natural aphid 

populations. Ecol. Entomol. 18: 31-38. 

Fiebig, M. & Poehling, H.-M., 1998: Host-plant selection and population dynamics of the 

grain aphid Sitobion avenae (F.) on wheat infected with Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus. 

Integrated control in cereal crops. IOBC/wprs Bull. 21(8): 51-62. 

Febvay, G., Bonnin, J., Rabhé, Y., Bournoville, R., Dolret, S. & Bonnemain, J.L., 1988: 

Resistance of different lucerne cultivars to the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum: influences 

of phloem composition on aphid fecundity. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 48: 127-134. 

Fereres, A., Araya, J.E., Housley, T.L. & Foster, J.E., 1990: Carbohydrate composition of 

wheat infected with barley yellow dwarf virus. Z. Pflanzenkrankh. Pflanzenschutz 97(3): 

600-608. 

Fretz, T.A., Dunham, C.W. & Woodmansee, C.W., 1970: A gas chromatographic procedure 

for determining soluble carbohydrates extracted from leaf tissue of Ilex opaca Ait. Cv. 

´Miss Helen`. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95(1): 99-102. 

Jensen, S.G., 1968: Photosynthesis, respiration and other physiological relationships in barley 

infected with barley yellow dwarf virus. Phytopathology 58: 204-208. 

Jensen, S.G., 1970: Metabolism and carbohydrate composition in barley yellow dwarf virusinfected 

wheat. Phytopathology 62: 587-592. 

Jensen, S.G. & van Sambeek, J.W., 1972: Differential effects of barley yellow dwarf virus on 

the physiology of tissues of hard red spring wheat. Phytopathology 62: 290-293. 

Juvik, J.A., Stevens, M.A., Rick, C.M., 1982: Survey of the genus Lycopersicon for 

variability in α-tomatin content. Hort. Science 17(5): 764-766. 

Lowe, S. & Strong, F.E., 1963: The unsuitability of some viruliferous plants as hosts for the 

green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. J. Econ. Entomol. 56(3): 307-309. 

Mittler, T.E. & Meikle, T., 1991: Effects of dietary sucrose concentration on aphid honeydew 

carbohydrate level and rate of excretion. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 59: 1-7. 

Montllor, C.B., Gildow, F.E., 1986: Feeding responses of two grain aphids to barley yellow 

dwarf virus-infected oats. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 42: 63-69. 

Nikolov, Z.L. & Reilly, P.J., 1983: Isothermal Capillary Column Gas Chromatography of 

trimethylsilyl disaccharides. J. Chromatography 254: 157-162. 

Orlob, G.B. & Arny, D.C., 1961: Some metabolic changes accompanying infection by barley 

yellow dwarf virus. Phytopathology 51: 768-775. 

Prado, E. & Tjallingii, W.F., 1999: Effects of experimental stress factors on probing 

behaviour by aphids. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 90: 289-300. 

Rhodes, J.D., Croghan, P.C. & Dixon, A.F.G., 1996: Uptake, excretion and respiration of 

sucrose and amino acids by the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum. J. Exp. Biol. 199: 1269- 

1276.

Tjallingii, F., 1988: Electrical recording of stylet penetration activities. In: Minks, A.K. & 

Harrewijn, P. (eds.): Aphids: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B., 

Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands: 95-107 

Weibull, J., 1987: Seasonal changes in the free amino acids of oat and barley phloem sap in 

relation two plant growth stage and growth of Rhopalosiphum padi. Ann. Appl. Biol. 

111: 729-737. 

31



pp. 33 - 37 

The Russian wheat aphid on barley in Morocco: 

survey and identification of new sources of resistance 

Lhaloui, S. 1 , M. El Bouhssini 2 , S. Ceccarelli 2 , S. Grando 2 and A. Amri 2 

1 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre Aridoculture, P.O. Box 589, Settat, 

Morocco 

2 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, 

Syria 

Summary 

Recently the Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia Mordvilko) has become a serious problem for 

production of cereals in Morocco. The damage has first been limited to high altitude regions, but 

lately, the pest has spread to all the cereal growing areas of the country. The heaviest populations are 

still found in the mountain regions where our surveys of 1996 and 1997 showed that 100% of the 

barley fields were infested, with a mean of 46% of plants showing feeding symptoms of the pest. As 

part of a pest management package, large collections of barley lines were screened for resistance to the 

pest. Six plant introductions were identified with very high levels of tolerance (PI366447, PI366449, 

PI366450, PI366453, Ciho1412, and Ciho9897). Recently, the screening of an ICARDA Barley 

nursery, both in the field and under controlled environmental conditions, showed that 17 entries were 

highly resistant (100%), 2 others had 95% of their plants resistant, and a third one had an 85% 

resistance. These lines, as well as the selected plant introductions, have been incorporated into the 

Moroccan barley breeding program in order to transfer this resistance into adapted cultivars. 

Key words: Russian wheat aphid, survey, incidence, barley, plant resistance. 

Introduction 

The Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko), a pest of wheat and barley, is 

native to Russia and its neighbouring countries, but has now spread to most of the cereal 

growing regions of the world, including Africa (Hewitt et al., 1988) and America (Gilchrist et 

al., 1986). 

In Morocco, damage due to this pest has first been noticed during the 80’s, mainly in high 

altitude regions, but recently, the pest has become more serious, and spread to all the cereal 

growing areas of the country. The heaviest populations are still found in the mountain regions 

where our surveys of 1996 and 1997 (Tab. 1) showed that 100% of the barley fields were 

infested, with a mean of 46% of the plants showing aphid-feeding symptoms (Lhaloui et al., 

1998). 

Damage caused by this pest presents very typical symptoms, i.e. long longitudinal 

chlorotic white to yellow streaks on the leaves, frequently associated with leaf rolling. This 

damage results in severe dry matter and grain yield loss when infestations are heavy. 

The best and most efficient way of controlling this pest in Morocco will be by genetic 

resistance through the development of improved resistant cultivars. Resistance is environmentally 

safe, compatible with other biological control agents, does not involve any extra cost 

for the farmer (same cost as for non-resistant seed, and no extra cost as compared to buying 

pesticides), and does not require any sophisticated equipment for its application in the field. 

The first screening for resistance to this pest in Morocco were conducted by Boulemane 

33

34 

(1995). He identified six plant introductions, that showed very adequate levels of resistance. 

These entries have been included into ICARDA’s Barley Improvement Program, and 

selections coming out of crosses with these lines are now in an advanced stage. 

Tab. 1 Russian wheat infestation levels on barley in the highland regions of Morocco. 1996 

and 1997. 

Regions 

Number fields 

sampled 

% fields 

infested 

% plants 

infested 

Annoceur 7 100 88 

Guigou 7 100 35 

Midelt 4 100 30 

El Ksibah 7 100 34 

Azilal 4 100 44 

Total/Mean 29 100 46 

The objective of this study were to screen diverse germplasm collections in order to 

identify new sources of resistance to the RWA that can be incorporated into the barley 

breeding program of Morocco, and serve as a gene bank for an eventual change in the pest 

genetics, causing new biotypes to develop. 

Material and methods 

Greenhouse screening 

A RWA nursery (31 entries) obtained from ICARDA was screened for resistance to this pest 

the Aridoculture centre, Morocco. Five of these entries have already been selected as resistant 

in Morocco, and have been included as checks. They originated from crosses made with the 

barley sources selected by Boulmane (1995). A local susceptible cultivar ‘Tamelalt’ was also 

included as a check. The study was conducted in a growth chamber adjusted to 20±2°C and a 

photo-period of 16h:8h (light:dark). Entries were planted in standard greenhouse wooden 

flats, containing a mixture of 2/3 soil and 1/3 peat, at a rate of four seeds per hill. Each flat 

contained 12 entries including a check. When plants were at the two-leaf stage, they were 

thinned to three plants per hill, then infested with RWA adults at a rate of five individuals per 

plant. Then, flats were covered with plastic cages having cheese cloth tops for ventilation. 

Insects used in the test were randomly collected from a culture maintained at the centre on the 

susceptible cultivar ‘Tamelalt’, and originally started with aphids collected from neighbouring 

fields. 

Scoring method 

Scorings were conducted one, two, and three weeks after infestation. Resistance was 

evaluated using the damage score of 1-6 rating system developed by DuToit (1987), where 1 

is the most resistant and 6 is the most susceptible. This rating system is based on the presence 

or absence of chlorotic spots, streaking, and leaf rolling. Plant damage is rated visually by 

scoring individual entries on the 1-6 damage rating scale: 

1. small isolated chlorotic spots on the leaves: highly resistant plant. 

2. larger isolated chlorotic spots on the leaves: resistant plant. 

3. chlorotic spots tend to become streaky: moderately resistant plant.

35 

4. mild streaks visible and leaves tend to roll lengthwise: moderately susceptible plant. 

5. prominent white-yellow streaks present and leaves tightly rolled: susceptible plant. 

6. severe white-streaks, leaves tightly rolled and starting to die from the tips: highly 

susceptible plant. 

Tab. 2 Reaction of ICARDA barley Russian wheat aphid nursery for resistance to this pest 

in Morocco. 

Entry number/name Resistance Resistance 

reaction (GC) reaction (Field) 

R001 R R 

STARS-9577B=R006 HR R 

R034 HR R 

R011 HR R 

RO13 HR R 

RO15 HR R 

RO16 HR R 

RO17 HR R 

R018 R R 

R022 HR R 

R023 HR R 

R024 HR R 

STARS-9301B=RO27 HR HR 

R028 HR R 

R029 MR R 

R031 HR R 

RWA.M46 HR R 

RWA.M53 HR R 

RWA.M54 S S 

RWA.M55 HR R 

RWA.M56 HR R 

Mo.B1337/WI2291//Bonita/Weeah S S 

Mo.B1337/W12291//Stirling 

/FNCI-22 NE417/Arta S MS 

H.spont.41-1//ER/Apm S MS 

H.spont.41-1//ER/Apm S S 

ER/Apm//Lignee131/4/ER/Apm/3/ 

Arr/Esp//Alger/Ceres-362-1-1 MS S 

Arar/H.spon.19-15//Arta MS S 

H.spont.38-3/6/Pld10342//Cr.115/ 

Por/3/Bahtim 9/4/Ds/Apro/5/WI2291 S S 

1 SLB 45-40/H.spont.41-5 S S 

2 WI2269/Lignee131/3/SB73358- 

B-104-16-1-3//ER/Apm MS S 

3 Susceptible check ‘Tamelalt’ S S 

CG= growth chamber, S = susceptible, MS = moderately susceptible, R = resistant, MR = moderately 

resistant, and HR = highly resistant.

36 

Field screening 

To confirm the results of the screening under controlled environmental conditions, the same 

nursery was seeded at Annoceur Experimental Station, situated in a high elevation region 

where RWA population levels are very high. Entries were seeded in one-meter long lines and 

replicated four times. A susceptible check was included in each replication. Also, a Moroccan 

barley land race collection of 759 entries, obtained from ICARDA, was screened for 

resistance to RWA at this same location. Entries were also seeded in one-meter long lines, but 

not replicated. For both collections, the damage scoring was done when symptoms became 

clearly visible on the susceptible lines. 


The RWA population levels were very high in the field during late spring, and allowed for 

excellent infestations of the field screened material. The Moroccan barley land race collection 

did not exhibit any significant levels of resistance to the RWA in the field. All entries were 

severely damaged, with ratings going from susceptible to highly susceptible plants. Thus, this 

collection is considered as not carrying any sources of resistance to this pest, therefore no 

further controlled screening will be carried on it. Inversely, the results of the RWA nursery 

screening were very striking; both field and greenhouse results showed the presence of 

excellent sources of resistance to this pest. The growth chamber results showed that 17 entries 

were highly resistant, with almost no feeding symptoms on the leaves, and two others were 

resistant. Of the remaining entries, one was moderately resistant, three were moderately 

susceptible, and 8 were susceptible (Table 2). The results of the field test confirmed those 

obtained in the laboratory. All the lines that were resistant in the growth chamber were also 

resistant in the field. A very slight difference in reaction was however noticed for line number 

15, which scored moderately resistant in the laboratory, but resistant in the field; and for lines 

23, 24, and 25 which scored susceptible in the laboratory, but moderately susceptible in the 

field, and lines 27, 28, and 31 which scored moderately susceptible in the laboratory but 

susceptible in the field (Table 2). These differences may be due to the plants having a better 

tolerance in the field and/or to the presence of some genetic variability between the 

populations of the aphid reared in the laboratory and that of the field. 

Further research will be carried out to characterise the resistance in the selected lines 

(antibiosis, antixenosis, or tolerance), and to study the eventual genetic variability within and 

among the RWA populations of different regions of Morocco. 

Conclusion 

These results indicate that more than 50% of the tested lines carry very good levels of 

resistance, and because they have good agronomic criteria, they can readily be incorporated 

into the breeding program to transfer this resistance into Moroccan adapted cultivars. 

References 

Boulemane, H., 1995: Evaluation de materiel végétal de blé, orge, et triticale pour la 

résistance au puceron russe au Maroc. Memoire de fin d’etude pour l’obtention du 

diplôme d’ingenieur d’état de l’école d’agriculture de Meknes, Maroc. 

Dutoit, F., 1987: Resistance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to Diuraphis noxia (Homoptera: 

Aphididae). Cereal Res. Commun. 15:175-178.

Hewitt, P.H., 1988: The south African experience with the Russian wheat aphid. P.1-3. In: 

Peairs, F.B. & Pilcher, S.D. (eds.): Proc. 2 nd Russian wheat aphid Workshop, Denver, Co. 

11-12 Oct. 1988. Colorado State Univ. Ft. Collins, Co, USA. 

Lhaloui, S., El Bouhssini, M. & Amri, A., 1998: Survey of the Russian wheat aphid 

populations in the Highland regions of Morocco. INRA-CRRA Settat annual research 

Report. 

37



pp. 39 - 47 

Effects of induced tolerance and induced resistance against aphids in wheat 

Martina Galler and Hans-Michael Poehling 

Institut für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser 

Str. 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany 

Summary 

In field- and greenhouse experiments resistance and tolerance in wheat induced by application of the 

microbial inducer B50 and the synthetic inducer Bion ® against the grain aphid Sitobion avenae were 

examined. B50 induced both tolerance as well as resistance to S. avenae. Resistance was thereby based 

on the mechanism of antibiosis. A tolerance effect of Bion ® could only be estimated on yield 

parameters in the field, but no tolerance effect of this inducer could be measured on wheat seedlings 

with a tolerance index. Further, no significant systemic resistance effects could be observed after a 

Bion ® treatment. First results of honeydew excretion of S. avenae indicated that the application of B50 

changed the nutritional quality of the plant for the aphids. 

Key words: S. avenae, wheat, induced tolerance, induced resistance 

Introduction 

The terms “induced tolerance” and “induced resistance” are used in the literature with 

different meanings and assumptions. Karban and Baldwin (1997) defined “induced 

resistance” as regarded from the herbivore’s point of view and “induced tolerance” as 

regarded from the plant’s point of view. Many insect-induced plant responses against 

herbivores have been shown (Brody & Karban, 1989; Wool & Hales, 1996; Agrawal, 1998), 

and some of the underlying mechanism have already been described (McCloud & Baldwin, 

1997; Trewhella et al., 1997; Agrawal et al., 1999). In addition, resistance and/or tolerance 

reactions in plants can also be triggered by chemical substances, so called defence-inducers, 

that can be of natural or synthetic origin. Effects of these substances on pathogens are well 

documented (Steiner, 1989; Schneider & Ullrich; 1994; Kogel et al., 1995; Görlach et al., 

1996). However, in only few experiments effects on foliage feeding or sucking insects have 

so far been studied (Wittmann & Schönbeck, 1996; Stout et al., 1999). In the present study we 

investigated two chemical inducers, the microbial inducer B50 and the synthetic inducer 

Bion ® for their potential to induce resistance and/or tolerance to S. avenae in wheat. 


Induction 

Plants were treated with the microbial inducer B50, metabolites of Bacillus subtilis, 

(Schönbeck et al., 1980), or the synthetical inducer Bion ® (BTH; benzo(1,2,3)thiadiazole-7- 

carbothioic acid S-methyl ester), a commercial product from Novartis. Both inducers were 

sprayed on the plants. Control plants were treated with water. 

Field experiments 

The field trials were conducted in 1997 and 1998 with summer wheat Triticum aestivum 

L.(cv. Remus) on the campus of the Faculty of Horticulture at Hannover University. A 6 × 6 

Latin square design was used with a plot size of 17.5 m 2 . The plants were fertilised with 

39

40 

120 kg N/ha (‘Nitrophoska’; N:P:K:Mg = 12:12:17:2). In addition, all plots were treated with 

the herbicide ‘Pointer’ (Tribenuron) at EC22 and the fungicide ‘Opus top’ (a.i. 

Epoxiconazol/Fenpropimorph) at EC65. The inducers were applied with a portable 

compression sprayer, B50 was sprayed twice at EC32 and EC61 (500 l/ha; 1:5 dilution of its 

normal concentration) and Bion ® once at EC32 (60g/ha). In each plot, 10 tillers of first order 

were marked and the population densities of S. avenae were monitored weekly by counting 

the number of individuals per ear from May to July. Since natural infestation was low, at 

EC69 five adult aphids from a laboratory culture were added to each marked ear. At EC71, 

the insecticide ‘Pirimor’ (a.i. Pirimicarb) was applied to three plots of each treatment to 

achieve aphid free plants. After ripening, each marked ear was harvested separately to 

determine the direct yield parameters. For quantification of tolerance effects aphid infestation 

was expressed as aphid index, which considers the number of aphids and the time of 

infestation (Wratten & Lee, 1979). 

Greenhouse experiments 

Experiments in the greenhouse were carried out to clarify whether tolerance could also be 

measured in young plants. Furthermore, the potential of the inducers to evoke antibiosis and 

antixenosis effects was investigated. 

Plant rearing, cultivation and inducer application 

Summer wheat Triticum aestivum L cv. Remus was used in the experiments. The plants were 

grown in a greenhouse chamber at 20 ± 4 °C, 50-80 % relative humidity and 16:18h 

photoperiod (L:D). They were sown in commercial soil (Fruhstorfer Einheitserde) in pots of 

11 cm diameter and watered sufficiently. In the host preference experiment, plants were 

grown in soil in Petri dishes of 12 cm diameter. The inducer solutions (B50 1:3 dilution of 

culture filtrate, 0,1 g/l Bion ® ) were applied using a laboratory spraying device. 

1. Determination of tolerance in young plants 

In these experiments the effects of the inducer B50 and Bion ® were tested separately. They 

were sprayed on the plants at EC12 and the control plants were treated with water. Four days 

after the application, half of the plants were infested with five synchronised adults of 

S. avenae, which were attached in clip-cages to the second leaf of the plant. Hence, there were 

four treatments: control plants, B50 or Bion ® treated plants, with and without aphids. One 

experimental unit consisted of six replicates of each treatment, a total of nine units were 

investigated. Seven days after infestation, half of the plants were harvested and weighed and 

the whole trial was terminated 14 days after infestation. According to Reese et al. (1994), the 

regression between the weight of non-infested and infested plants was used as tolerance 

index. To investigate potential effects of the inducers on aphid biomass, the aphids on each 

plant were counted, dried and weighed. 

2. Determination of resistance 

Antixenosis. The host preference experiment was carried out in cylinders (inner diameter: 

58 cm, 100 cm high) as a free-choice test. A total of 16 cylinders were used. Ten plants were 

sown in one Petri dish at a time and fertilised twice with 0.8 % ‘Nitrophoska’ solution. 

Induction took place at EC11. Three days after inducer application, four Petri dishes of each 

treatment were placed in a random order in one cylinder and 100 winged aphids from the 

laboratory culture were added. Thus, the aphids were allowed to choose between control 

plants, B50 and Bion ® treated plants. Six days later, aphid preference and colonisation were 

assessed, by determining the proportion of infested plants of each treatment and the number 

of aphids per plant.

41 

Antibiosis - systemic effects. The antibiosis effects of the inducers on S. avenae were tested on 

plants at EC61. The inducers were sprayed only on the lower part of the plants, but not on the 

ear and the flag leaf. Four days after the application, three synchronised apterous adults of 

S. avenae were placed in one clip-cage that was attached to the flag leaf of each plant. Adults 

were kept in the cages for 24h and then removed. Two L 1 per plant were allowed to complete 

their development. The weight of the larvae, the adult weight and developmental time were 

measured to calculate the relative growth rate (RGR) according to Howard and Dixon (1995). 

Then the adults were transferred individually to the flag leaf of new plants that had the same 

developmental stage and that had been induced 3-5 days prior to the infestation. The prereproductive 

time (d) and the effective fecundity were taken, to calculate the intrinsic rate of 

natural increase (r m ) according to Wyatt and White (1977). Further, the weight of the larvae 

which were produced in a time span equivalent to the pre-reproductive time was determined 

within the first 24 h after birth. Sample size per treatment ranged from 10 to 20 replicates. 

3. Physiological aspects 

Honeydew-excretion. Induced responses of plants to herbivores involve multiple mechanisms; 

i.e. modification of secondary metabolite concentrations, rearrangement of resources etc. 

(Karban & Myers, 1989). In the present study, honeydew excretion of S. avenae on induced 

wheat plants were investigated to gather information on potential effects on food ingestion of 

aphids. Frequency and amount of honeydew excretion are suitable parameters to calculate the 

feeding rate and the total amount of food ingested (Mittler & Sylvester, 1961). In these 

investigations, only B50 treated plants were tested in comparison to water treated plants. Four 

days after application, one synchronised apterous adult of S. avenae was fixed in a clip cage 

to the bottom side of he third leaf of each plant for 24 h. To measure the quantity of 

honeydew excreted, the frequency and size of honeydew droplets were estimated, using 

honeydew-clocks: droplets were recorded on a disc of paper treated with 4 mg Bromocresol 

green/1 ml 80% EtOH as an indicator. This indicator changed its colour from yellow to blue 

when in contact with honeydew. After removal of the clip cages, the discs were placed 

beneath the sucking aphids and slowly turned by a clockwork drive (one turn in 24 h).The 

number of droplets was counted and the diameter of the droplets was measured using an 

ocular micrometer. 

Data analysis 

In the field experiments, the yield parameters, the grain number per ear and the grain yield per 

ear, were analysed using Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance (ANOVA). Medians were 

compared with the Mann-Whitney U-test. One-way-ANOVA was used to test the effects of 

the treatments on the population development of S. avenae. Furthermore the effects on the 

parameters of host preference were tested. Posteriori comparisons of means were conducted 

using the Tukey-test. The relationship between the weight of non-infested and infested plants 

was analysed by regression analysis. Life table characteristics of S. avenae were analysed by 

applying a pair-wise t-test, thereby testing B50 and Bion ® separately in comparison to the 

control. The pair-wise t-test was also used to analyse the effects of B50 on the honeydew 

excretion. 

Results 

Field experiments 

The results indicated that both inducers, B50 and Bion ® , induced tolerance against S. avenae 

on wheat In the control, aphid infestation significantly reduced the yield per ear (Fig. 1), 

whereas no significant reduction was observed after the treatment with B50 and/or Bion ® . No

42 

significant differences in the infestation intensity (aphid index) between the treatments were 

found. The aphid index was 377 ± 218 on the control plants, 320 ± 160 on the B50 treated 

plants and 385 ± 172 on the Bion ® treated plants. The difference in the infestation intensity 

between the control and the B50 treated plants was too small to have an effect on the yield. A 

significant reduction in the yield could only be observed if great differences in the infestation 

intensity occur (Wratten & Lee, 1979; Niehoff & Stäblein, 1998). 

Figure 2 shows the population development of S. avenae on the ear in 1997 and 1998. In 

both years, no significant differences were observed between the treatments. However, a trend 

towards lower aphid infestation in B50 treated plots was visible in both years 

Fig. 1. Effect of B50 and Bion ® on the number of grains per ear (left) and on the grain yield 

per ear (right) of summer wheat cv. Remus after an infestation with S. avenae in the 

field experiment 1997 (Box-Whisker-Plot with median as localisation parameter; 

different letters indicate significant differences; Kruskal-Wallis-test with U-Test of 

Mann-Whitney, P < 0,05; n = 60). 

number of aphids / ear 

number of aphids / ear 

grains / ear 

grain yield / ear [g] 

Fig. 2. Population development of S. avenae on summer wheat cv. Remus on untreated and 

induced plants (B50 and Bion ® ) in field experiments 1997 and 1998 (mean ± 

standard deviation; n = 60).

43 

Greenhouse experiments 

1. Determination of tolerance in young plants 

The relationship between infested and control seedling weights differed in both inducers 

treatments (Fig. 3). In comparison to the control, the B50 treatment resulted in a significantly 

steeper slope, indicating increased tolerance. In contrast, no effect of the Bion ® treatment 

could be observed. No significant differences in the dry weight of aphids per plant, used for 

an estimation of the infestation density, could be observed. In the experiment with B50 the 

aphid dry weight per plant was 4.79 ± 1.35 mg in the control , and 4.71 ± 0.93 mg in the B50 

treatment. In the experiment with Bion ® the dry weight of the aphids was 4.6 ± 1,53 mg in 

the control, and 4.3 ± 1,3 mg in the Bion ® treatment. 

fresh weight of infested plants [g] 

fresh weight of infested plants [g] 

Fig. 3. Effect of an inducer treatment on the relationship between the fresh weight of noninfested 

and infested seedlings of summer wheat cv. Remus when infested with 

S. avenae (each point is the mean of each unit; n = 6). 

2. Determination of resistance 

The resistance effects of the inducers were investigated in a host preference experiment in 

order to examine the antixenotic properties and the growth parameters of S. avenae and to 

determine whether the inducers have a systemic effect on the development of S. avenae. No 

significant differences in the proportion of infested plants and in the number of aphids per 

plant could be detected among the various treatments (Tab. 1). However, the relative growth 

rate of S. avenae and also the weight of the larvae was significantly reduced on B50 treated 

plants (Tab. 2). 

3. Physiological aspects 

Honeydew-excretion 

The amount of honeydew excretion indicated that apterous imagines of S. avenae produced 

more honeydew on B50 treated plants compared with aphids on control plants. 

Sitobion avenae excreted significantly fewer drops of honeydew on control plants than on 

B50 treated plants, but the size of the honeydew drops was not affected (fig. 4).

44 

Tab. 1. Effect of B50 and Bion ® on the host preference of S. avenae on summer wheat cv. 

Remus (means ± standard deviation; n=16). 

Treatment Control B50 Bion ® 

Proportion of infested 

plants [%] 

Number of aphids / 

plant 

35.6 ± 6.1 31.4 ± 8.0 33.0 ± 7.5 

5.4 ± 2.1 3.6 ± 1.9 4.5 ± 2.3 

Tab. 2. Systemic effect of an inducer treatment on growth, development and reproduction of 

S. avenae on summer wheat cv. Remus; RGR (relative growth rate), M d (effective 

fecundity in number of offspring), r m (intrinsic rate of natural increase); (mean ± 

standard deviation; means followed by different letters differ significantly; pair-wise 

t-test, P< 0,05). 

Treatment (n>10) Control B50 Bion ® 

Adult weight (mg) 0.93 ± 0.23a 0.87 ± 0.27a 0.84 ± 0.20a 

Developmental time (d) 7.01 ± 0.83a 7.55 ± 0.71a 7.27 ± 0.70a 

RGR 0.42 ± 0.08a 0.36 ± 0.07b 0.37 ± 0.06a 

Prereproductive time (d) 8.46 ± 0.93a 8.82 ± 0.60a 8.67 ± 0.78a 

M d 32.82 ± 5.29a 29.36 ± 8.91a 32.71 ± 7.21a 

r m 0.31 ± 0.03a 0.28 ± 0.04a 0.30 ± 0.02a 

L 1 -weight 0.05 ± 0.02a 0.04 ± 0.02b 0.06 ± 0.02a 

number of honeydew drops / h [n] 

size of honeydew drops [mm] 

Fig. 4. Influence of a B50 treatment on the number and size of honeydew drops produced by 

apterous imagines of S. avenae on summer wheat cv. Remus (different letter differ 

significantly, pair-wise t-test, P< 0.05; n = 7)

45 

Discussion 

The experiments showed that the microbial inducer B50 and the synthetic inducer Bion ® , both 

developed to control plant diseases like powdery mildew on cereals, can have also affect 

plant-aphid (S. avenae) interactions. B50 mainly induces resistance and/or tolerance in cereal 

plants to obligate biotrophic pathogens (Oerke et al., 1989; Kehlenbeck & Schönbeck, 1995). 

Bion ® , a commercial product, is characterised as a resistance inducer with a broader spectrum 

of disease control (Friedrich et al., 1996; Sticher et al., 1997). In the present study, both B50 

and Bion ® induced tolerance to S. avenae in the field. A similar tolerance induction by B50 to 

the bird cherry aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) was already described by Wittmann (1996), 

indicating that this effect is not strictly species specific. As determination of tolerance in 

terms of yield in field experiments is time consuming, we investigated whether it is possible 

to already asses the effect with young plants. Commonly, to separate tolerance and antibiosis 

components, the reduction in seedling weight in relation to aphid units is used as a tolerance 

index (Dixon et al., 1990; Robinson et al., 1991; Lamb & MacKay, 1995). Reese (1994) 

proposed to use the slope of the regression between the weight of non-infested and infested 

plants for measuring tolerance effects. By this method, the problem of quantifying tolerance 

when only small differences in weight between infested and non-infested plants were 

measured could be overcome. For this reason, in the present study the index of Reese (1994) 

was used. Using this laboratory based test system tolerance could only be demonstrated for 

B50. The reasons for the different results with young and old plants remain unclear because 

knowledge on the mechanisms of induced tolerance is still limited. Tolerance induction after a 

B50 treatment has been shown to be associated with changes in the sink-source-relationship 

of wheat plants infested by R. padi or powdery mildew (Wittmann, 1996). Further, Gernns 

(1999) demonstrated that tolerance induction had an effect on the fructan reserve pools of 

powdery mildew infected barley plants, and hence on the quality and quantity of the grain. 

A resistance effect of B50 was shown in the field by reduction of population development 

of S. avenae. In greenhouse experiments we examined whether resistance was caused by 

antibiosis or antixenosis effects. Sitobion avenae showed no preference for any of the treated 

plants, suggesting that resistance was mainly caused by antibiosis effects. In addition, the 

results of the antibiosis experiments indicated a systemic effect of the B50 treatment on the 

growth parameters of the aphids, whereas Bion ® had no significant influence. This 

corroborates earlier reports which already showed local resistance induction with B50 against 

S. avenae (Galler & Poehling, 1998). Systemic effects of B50 on pathogens were already 

described by Kraska (1996). Similar effects on pathogens and insect pest are not the rule: for 

instance, Stout et al. (1999) demonstrated induced systemic resistance on tomatoes to a 

bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato by benzothiadiazole, while at the same 

time suitability of leaflets for larvae of the chewing caterpillar, Helicoverpa zea was 

improved. This indicates that the induced response is inducer specific and depends on the 

interacting organisms. 

Concerning mechanisms of resistance, antibiosis could be due to the absence or 

differences in concentrations of nutritional components and/or stimulants, as well as due to 

the presence of deterrents and/or toxic metabolites (Niraz et al., 1985). Brody and Karban 

(1989) suggested that induced mite resistance in cotton was caused by the degradation of the 

nutritional quality of the plant. 

First attempts to clarify the underlying mechanisms centred on induced differences in 

nutritional components that are important for aphid development. Honeydew analysis is a 

convenient tool to quantify the amount of phloem sap taken up, as well as to describe diet 

substances ingested by the aphids. The first results of honeydew excretion of S. avenae

46 

showed an increase in honeydew production on B50 treated plants. This may indicate that the 

B50 treatment reduced the nutritional value of the phloem sap which the aphids tried to 

compensate by increased feeding activity. Further work is in progress to analyse more in 

detail the effects of inducer treatments on concentration and composition of carbohydrates 

and amino acids in the phloem sap and honeydew of S. avenae. 

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biotic inducers. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol., 45: 291-304. 

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Sticher, L., Mauch-Mani, B. & Métraux, J.P., 1997: Systemic acquired resistance. Ann. Rev. 

Phytopathol. 35: 235-270. 

Stout, M.J., Fidantsef, A.L., Duffey, S.S. & Bostock, R.M., 1999: Signal interactions in 

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Pathology 54: 115-130. 

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pine: effects on two pine feeding insects. J. Appl. Ent. 121: 129-136. 

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47



pp. 49 - 58 

How does a ladybird respond to aphids? 

Holger Triltsch, Gunnar Hechenthaler, Uwe Gosselke and Bernd Freier 

BBA, Institute for Integrated Plant Protection, Stahnsdorfer Damm 81, 

D-14532 Kleinmachnow, Germany 

Summary 

Three different experimental designs were used to investigate prey searching behaviour of adult 

Coccinella septempunctata and Propylea quatuordecimpunctata under laboratory conditions: 1. Y- 

tube-airflow-olfactometer, 2. static 4-chamber olfactometer, and 3. semi-field bioassay-arena. Y- 

olfactometer bioassays were performed with both ladybird species. No significant attraction to odours 

of aphids or aphids on host plants was observed in olfactometer bioassays. The spatial distribution of 

ten C. septempunctata females was examined in a 2.65m² semi-field bioassay-arena which was 

subdivided into 64 panels. Different coloured panels or Petri dishes containing aphids were used to 

simulate prey and non-prey patches. Ladybird females did not respond to aphid occurrence but 

accumulated in panels of high brightness. Although different experimental designs were used it was 

not possible to detect any response to olfactory cues under laboratory conditions. Field data on the 

spatial distribution of aphids and ladybirds in an agricultural area of 4 km² were obtained by sweep 

netting at two locations from March to July in 1998 and in 1999. The spatial distribution of C. 

septempunctata was correlated only at certain time periods with aphid occurrence. Moreover, it was 

observed that C. septempunctata adults tend to migrate into fields with relatively low aphid densities. 

They promptly disappeared at higher aphid densities and abundant occurrence of conspecific larvae. 

These observations indicate a behaviour in accordance with the optimal foraging theory of ladybirds. 

In P. quatuordecimpunctata distribution was generally not related to aphid density. 

Key words: ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata, prey searching, 

bioassay, dispersal, numerical response, optimal foraging theory 

Introduction 

Ladybirds are considered to be important antagonists, regulating aphid population dynamics 

in cereals (Sunderland et al., 1983; Poehling, 1988; Freier et al., 1998). Two ecological terms 

describe the efficiency of a predator: 1. numerical response and 2. functional response (e.g. 

Gutierrez et al., 1984; Wellings & Dixon, 1987). An efficient predator should be able to 

aggregate in prey patches and should increase its predation rate with increasing prey density. 

However, in a number of field investigations it was shown that ladybird occurrence was 

not at all related to aphid density or only in certain crops or years (Honek, 1985; Hemptinne 

et al., 1994; Triltsch & Freier, 1998). Moreover, the mechanisms a ladybird uses to locate 

aphid infested patches are still unknown. Several authors have reported that ladybirds search 

randomly and discover their prey only by physical contact (Hodek, 1970; Frazer & Gilbert, 

1976). Recent findings, however, indicate that coccinellids recognise aphids visually and 

respond to aphid odours (Nakamuta, 1984a & b; Sengonca & Liu, 1994), but the perception 

distance of ladybirds was found to be very small and these findings cannot explain why 

ladybirds decide to enter or leave certain fields. 

The key stimuli ladybirds use during their movement within an agricultural area, as well 

as their aphid consumption rate under natural conditions are still a field of speculation. 

49

50 

We used three different experimental designs to investigate prey searching of adults of 

the two ladybird species Coccinella septempunctata L. and Propylea quatuordecimpunctata 

(L.). In order to gather more information about how these ladybirds respond to aphid 

occurrence under field conditions, we also investigated the spatial distribution of ladybirds 

and aphids in two agricultural areas from March to July in 1998 and in visually 1999. 


Laboratory experiments 

Y-tube-airflow-olfactometer. These experiments took place at the end of September 

1997 and in March 1998. Adults of C. septempunctata were tested in spring and autumn, 

whereas P. quatuordecimpunctata adults were investigated in autumn only. Ladybird adults 

were collected from different hibernation sites in February and in an orchard in autumn. They 

were then held in plastic boxes (5,000 cm³) under laboratory conditions (20±3 °C, 60-70 % 

rh) with aphid surplus. Before testing, the ladybirds were separated and kept without any food 

for 12-20 hours. The experiments were performed using the protocol developed by Ruther 

and Thiemann (1997). During the experiments temperature ranged between 20 and 25 °C. The 

ladybirds were allowed to move within the Y-tube for three minutes. The two legs of the Y- 

tube were connected via silicon tubes with two-part glass vessels (bioassays with AFB and 

RPW) or wash bottles (bioassays with AF and C7F). One of the bottles (or glass vessels) 

contained the test material, the other one was empty (control). The test materials used in the 

bioassays were: 

AFB: potted bean plants (DC 16) infested with Aphis fabae (Scop.) (≈500 

aphids/pot); 

RPW: potted winter wheat plants (DC 12-20) infested with Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) 

(≈500-1000 aphids/pot); 

AF: A. fabae (≈400 aphids, partly smashed); 

C7F: C. septempunctata adults (5 females). 

Static 4-chamber olfactometer. In May and June 1999 prey searching behaviour of P. 

quatuordecimpunctata females and males was investigated in a circular arena (diameter: 

200 cm) consisting of a glass ring (5 cm high) covered at both openings with gauze netting. 

The gauze covering at the bottom of the experimental arena was divided into four uniform 

areas. Each area was equipped underneath with a small vial, containing either 5 aphids (test) 

or none (control). In these experiments we used the cereal aphid Sitobion avenae (Fabr.). The 

first experiments consisted only of one test area and three control areas. In the following 

experiments we used two test and two control areas. The ladybirds were captured with a 

sweep net at a forest edge in April 1999. Before testing, all ladybirds were kept without food 

for about 20-24 hours and then placed into the centre of the bioassay arena. The movement of 

each ladybird individual was recorded for 10 minutes. The experiments took place under 

laboratory conditions with 22±2 °C and 60-70 % RH. 

Semifield bioassay-arena. A 2.65 m² quadratic bioassay arena was constructed to 

investigate searching behaviour of C. septempunctata adults under semi-field conditions. The 

bottom of this arena was subdivided into 64 uniform panels and the top was covered with 

gauze netting. In 16 out of the 64 panels one gauze-covered Petri dish, containing five aphids 

(A. fabae), was placed simulating an aphid infested field patch. Movement of 

C. septempunctata adults within this arena was studied during January – March 1999. The

51 

ladybirds for this experiment were collected from four different hibernation sites and were fed 

ad libitum with A. fabae. Only females were chosen. They were kept 24 hours without any 

food before testing. Ten females were then introduced into the arena at 07.00 a.m. and their 

distribution was recorded every 15 minutes for the next 10 hours. Temperature increased 

during each experiment from 16 °C in the morning to 23 °C in the afternoon. The experiment 

was repeated four times and the whole arena was rotated by 90° after each experiment. 

In another experiment four different coloured panels (white, yellow, orange, dark green) 

were placed at the bottom of the bioassay-arena to investigate any visual orientation of 

C. septempunctata females. 

Field work 

At the two agricultural locations, i.e. Berlin-Staaken (BS) and Northern Flaeming (NF), 15-17 

sampling points were adopted within an quadratic area of 4 km² size. Ten sampling points 

were located in different field crops, the other points were situated at forest edges or hedges. 

All sampling points were arranged in order to cover a high number of different crops and 

habitats. From March/April to July in 1998 and 1999 sweep net catches (250 catches per 

sampling point) were undertaken in time distances of about ten days to estimate ladybird and 

aphid abundance within the two agricultural areas. 

Results 


Y-tube-airflow-olfactometer. 

Coccinella septempunctata adults were not significantly attracted to odours of aphids on host 

plants, neither in spring nor in autumn. In addition, there was no indication of any attraction 

to odours of conspecific females (Fig. 1). Adults of P. quatuordecimpunctata were tested only 

in autumn and no attraction to aphids or aphids on host plants was observed. There was a 

slight tendency to avoid aphids on host plants during one experiment (Fig. 1). 

Static 4-chamber olfactometer. 

During these experiments again no significant attraction to aphid odours could be observed. 

Although during one experiment with female P. quatuordecimpunctata a slight preference of 

the aphid odour contaminated area was visible, in the following experiments with two test 

areas no such preference was recorded (Fig. 1). 

Semifield bioassay-arena. 

Results from the third type of laboratory experiments, intended to investigate prey searching 

of ladybird adults, indicate the same non-preference previously observed during the 

olfactometer experiments. Females of C. septempunctata did not prefer or aggregate in the 

aphid infested area (Fig. 2). We only found a significant reaction to different coloured panels. 

Coccinella septempunctata females showed a photo-positive orientation, whereby 47 % of all 

ladybird records belonged to the white area. The corresponding values for the other three 

areas were 20 % (yellow), 18 % (orange), and 15 % (dark green). 

Field work 

In 1998, 1,085 ladybird adults were collected at location BS, and 683 adults at location NF. In 

the following year the numbers were in the same range, with 959 collected adults at BS and 

883 at NF. Coccinella septempunctata and P. quatuordecimpunctata were the most dominant 

ladybird species representing 17-37 % and 13-32 %, respectively, of all ladybird adults found.

52 

Aphid occurrence differed between locations and years. At location BS winter rye, oats, 

spring wheat, and winter barley were heavily infested with aphids in 1998. Aphid densities 

higher than 500 aphids per sample first occurred in winter rye (beginning of May), later in 

spring cereals (end of May) and then in winter barley (June). At location NF aphids were 

abundant in winter rye, oats, peas, winter wheat and hedges in 1998. In contrast to location 

BS, aphid numbers of the different crops/habitats at NF were highest in mid June. In 1999 

aphids were not as frequent as in the preceding year and built up their populations relatively 

late in June and July. Higher aphid densities, i.e. >500 aphids/sample, were only observed in 

oats (BS, NF) and pea (NF). At location BS it was again evident that aphid population first 

peaked in winter rye (beginning of June) and later in oats (end of June) and in winter wheat 

(July). 

100% 

80% 

Y-tube airflow-olfactometer 

n. sign. 

n = 60 

spring 

n. sign. 

n = 39 

n. sign. 

n = 44 

n. sign. 

n = 43 

autumn 

P

53 

2.65m 2 semifield bioassay-arena 

30% 26% 

24% 20% 

1-5 6 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 40 

A. fabae 

Fig. 2. Mean distribution of ten Coccinella septempunctata females in a semi-field 

bioassay-arena with aphid infested and non-infested patches. 

To a certain extend the described cycle in occurrence of aphids at different crops was also 

observable in C. septempunctata but not in P. quatuordecimpunctata. At the beginning of the 

observation period adults of C. septempunctata were found only at forest edges and in hedges. 

At the end of April and the beginning of May the ladybirds were most frequently found in 

fallow lands or in early cereal crops, e.g. winter rye and winter barley. At the same time the 

first aphid colonies appeared there. In the second half of May ladybird distribution changed 

remarkably. Despite of an increased aphid density in those early crops adults of 

C. septempunctata disappeared and were subsequently very frequently found in oats and 

spring wheat. At this time, only few initial aphid colonies were present in spring cereal fields. 

In the first half of June the ladybird adults preferred other crops, e.g. peas and winter wheat. 

Now aphids occurred in higher numbers in nearly all crops but most attractively to the adults 

of C. septempunctata were fields with only few conspecific larvae. An example of such an 

aggregation of ladybird adults in a winter barley field, which was previously not used as 

breeding site and was therefore occupied only by few ladybird larvae, is shown in Figure 3.

54 

In contrast, adults of P. quatuordecimpunctata preferred winter cereals and to a lesser 

extend hedges during the whole investigation period. Remarkable changes in habitat 

preferences as described for C. septempunctata adults were not observed in P. quatuordecimpunctata. 

Berlin-Staaken 

June 02 1998 

winter rye, winter barley 

spring wheat, oats 

potato 

1 - 50 

51 - 100 

101 - 500 

501 - 1000 

1001 - 5000 

> 5000 

1 

2 - 5 

6 - 15 

16 - 50 

> 50 

hedge 

fallow 

grassland 

1 

2 - 5 

6 - 15 

16 - 50 

forest 

village 

maize 

> 50 

Individuals / 250 sweeps 

Fig. 3. Sweep net catches of Coccinella septempunctata and aphids at Berlin-Staaken

55 

In order to analyse the relation between ladybird distribution and aphid density data we 

used correlation coefficients. Density data of C. septempunctata adults (X 1 ) and aphids (X 2 ) 

from all field sampling points were chosen and correlation coefficients were calculated for 

each sampling date (Fig. 4). Considering all four investigated seasons, only in 10 out of 27 

cases the occurrence of C. septempunctata adults was positively related to the aphid density. 

But, as shown in Figure 3, a significant relation occurred at certain periods within the 

investigated time interval, namely from late April to the beginning of May and in the first half 

of June. Because of that periodically existent aphid related and non-related occurrence of C. 

septempunctata adults, which corresponded with the above described habitat/crop preferences 

of this ladybird species we defined five distribution phases (Tab. 1). 

In P. quatuordecimpunctata adult density was generally not correlated with aphid density 

in all investigations. 

Location 

Year 

April May June July 

BS 1998 0.17 0.81 0.23 0.11 0.20 0.14 0.74 

BS 1999 0.91 0.38 0.15 0.86 0.14 0.08 

NF 1998 0.24 0.49 0.09 0.02 0.40 0.09 0.18 

NF 1999 0.03 0.59 0.04 0.09 0.64 0.29 0.58 

Fig. 4 

Correlation coefficients of Coccinella septempunctata adult density related to aphid 

density data (data arranged according to the time scale, significant values in bold 

letters, P < 0.05). 

Tab. 1 Observed phases of distribution of Coccinella septempunctata adults within an 

agricultural area at two localities in 1998 - 1999 

Defined 

Phase 

Date 

Preferred 

crops/habitats 

I April forest edges, 

hedges 

II late April- winter rye, 

early May winter barley, 

III 

IV 

V 

second half 

of May 

first half 

of June 

end of June 

to July 

Observed distribution of 

Coccinella septempunctata adults 

ladybird adult activity is restricted to 

the hibernacula 

ladybirds are present in early crops 

accompanied with initial aphid 

fallow land colonies 

oats, ladybird adults preferred spring 

spring wheat cereals with sparse vegetation and 

only initial aphid colonies 

winter wheat, most ladybird adults are found in 

winter barley, crops infested with aphids but 

pea 

previously not used as breeding site, 

i.e. only few conspecific larvae 

spring cereals disappearance of overwintered 

adults due to the end of their life 

span and emergence of the new 

adult generation 

Ladybird 

density / aphid 

density 

-- 

related 

not related 

related 

not related

56 

Discussion 


Despite the fact that we used three different experimental designs to investigate searching 

behaviour of ladybird adults, we were not able to find some clear indications that 

aphidophagous ladybirds respond to olfactory cues of their essential prey. These results are 

contradictory to those findings of Sengonca and Liu (1994) who investigated 

C. septempunctata adults and larvae in an airflow olfactometer and found significant reactions 

to aphid odours. In contrast, Nakamuta (1991) found that the aphids alarm pheromone was 

not an orientation cue for C. septempunctata bruckii (Muls.), whereas Obata (1997) observed 

that adults of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) were attracted to bags containing aphid infested 

leaves and it was suggested that they use olfactory cues to detect prey. 

Our results suggest that ladybird adults search randomly. They probably can recognise 

olfactory cues over very short distances or even by physical contact with their maxillary palps 

or other sensory organs (Ferran & Dixon, 1993; Hodek & Honek, 1996). 

Field work 

Field investigations at two different agricultural locations indicate that C. septempunctata 

adults are very mobile predators. Their distribution within the agricultural area completely 

changed several times during the investigation period. The observed changes in their 

preference of certain crop and non-crop habitats were only sometimes explicable with 

differences in aphid occurrence. Occurrence of C. septempunctata adults was only 

periodically related to aphid density. It was observed that the ladybird adults prefer cereals 

and other crops with only initial aphid colonies at a relatively early stage of plant 

development. At higher aphid densities C. septempunctata adults disappeared from these 

fields and at the end of the season they aggregated in fields with low densities of conspecific 

larvae. These observations could confirm the optimal foraging theory (Hemptinne et al., 

1992; Hemptinne et al., 1995). According to this theory, there exists only a short period at the 

beginning of aphid population development which is suitable for ladybird egg laying. Because 

of their relatively long larval developmental period, ladybirds should lay their eggs in 

younger aphid colonies to maximise survival of their larvae. Moreover, ladybird adults should 

emigrate after egg deposition to avoid competition with their own offspring. A behaviour, 

confirming the optimal foraging theory, was found in a number of investigated field crops and 

an example is given in Figure 5. Adults of C. septempunctata migrated into the oat field at an 

early stage of aphid population build up. With increasing aphid density the number of 

ladybird larvae increased, but adult density decreased. Therefore a negative response of 

ladybird adults to aphid density existed. 

Propylea quatuordecimpunctata, the other very common aphidophagous ladybird 

species, differed in its behaviour from C. septempunctata. Adult density of P. 

quatuordecimpunctata was generally not related to aphid density. Propylea 

quatuordecimpunctata adults preferred winter cereals and to a certain degree hedges during 

the whole investigation period. Perhaps P. quatuordecimpunctata adults are not as mobile as 

C. septempunctata adults. Nevertheless, there is another striking difference between these two 

ladybird species: Whereas C. septempunctata like to bask in the sun on top of the vegetation 

which makes sweep netting very efficiently, P. quatuordecimpunctata occurred more hidden 

in lower strata of the vegetation.

57 

Aphid density 

HEMPTINNE et al. (1992) 

egg laying 

larval development 

 

 

developmental period 

Aphid density 

[Individuals/250 sweeps] 

2000 

oats (Northern Flaeming 1998) 

Ladybird density 

79 163 

20 

1500 

1000 

aphids 

C. 7punctata 

larvae 

overwintered adults 

newly emerged adults 

10 

500 

0 

07.05. 18.05. 27.05. 05.06. 15.06. 26.06. 

0 

Fig. 5 Occurrence of Coccinella septempunctata and aphids in oats at location NF 1998 

compared with the optimal foraging theory (Hemptinne et al., 1992). 


We would like to acknowledge the “Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft” (DFG) for funding 

the essential part of all investigations and the Federal Biological Research Centre for 

Agriculture and Forestry for facilitating large parts of the research. We are very grateful to 

Prof. M. Hilker for assistance regarding the olfactometer experiments and the possibility to 

use experimental equipment at her Institute for Applied Zoology/Animal Ecology, Freie 

Universität Berlin. We also thank Prof. J.-L. Hemptinne for his helpful comments and 

suggestions to the field investigations.

58 

References 

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Coccinellidae). Eur. J. Entomol. 90: 383-402. 

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of adult ladybirds (Col., Coccinellidae) preying on field populations of pea aphids (Hom., 

Aphididae). J. Entomol. Soc. Br. Columbia 73: 33-56. 

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L. (Col., Coccinellidae) as a predator of cereal aphids in winter wheat – results of 

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to aphids in the field? IOBC/wprs Bull. 17(4): 101-111. 

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Academic Press, London: 313-346.



pp. 59 - 64 

Computer simulations 

on the efficiency of cereal aphid predators in winter wheat 

Uwe Gosselke 1 , Dietmar Roßberg 2 , Holger Triltsch 3 and Bernd Freier 3 

1 Humboldt-University, Institute for Phytomedicine/Applied Entomology, Berlin, Germany 

2 BBA, Institute for Technology Assessment in Plant Protection, Kleinmachnow, Germany 

3 BBA, Institute for Integrated Plant Protection, Stahnsdorfer Damm 81, D-14532 

Kleinmachnow 

Summary 

Efficiency of predators in the tritrophic system winter wheat- cereal aphids – antagonists was 

investigated with computer simulations in combination with real field data. In scenario runs with the 

model GTLAUS99 real conditions, based on field data of population dynamics of aphids and their 

antagonists were simulated. Simulated data did not differ from field data by more than 20%. The 

corresponding model run without any predators was calculated afterwards, and the difference in aphid 

infestation was interpreted as a predator effect. Our study indicates that without antagonists aphid 

infestation would cause economically important yield loss in about 2/3 of all cases. The economic 

value per single predator unit seemed to be small, but the entire predator community was responsible 

for a notable benefit up to 100 DM per ha. 

Key words: computer simulations, aphid predators, cereal aphids, winter wheat, predator efficiency, 

economic predator effect 

Introduction 

Within the concept of integrated plant protection in arable farming the consideration of 

ecological self-control mechanisms like natural enemies is an important goal. Therefore, 

several attempts were made to get a realistic picture about the effect of beneficial arthropods. 

In many cases the tritrophic interactions cereals – aphids – predators was used as a model 

system. A large number of feeding experiments with predatory arthropods were performed, 

providing data about their feeding capacity under laboratory conditions (e.g. Sundby, 1966; 

Hämäläinen et al., 1975; Chiverton, 1988; Winder et al., 1994). Because of the well known 

difficulties of transferring such data to complex natural conditions, many investigations 

concentrate on field work. Certain predator-prey constellations were studied in experiments 

with field cages (e.g. Rautapää, 1975; Ghanim, 1981; Wetzel et al., 1981). In other 

experiments field barriers were introduced into the field to study population dynamics of 

aphids with and without the impact of predatory ground dwelling arthropods (Chiverton, 

1987). Nevertheless, in many field investigations data obtained from detailed field counts 

were used for different calculations of the efficiency of natural enemies (e.g. Wratten, 1987; 

Freier et al., 1999). Because of mainly methodical problems investigating the complex nature 

of predator-prey interactions under natural conditions such an approach is not likely to 

provide quantitative data on the efficiency of natural enemies. Hence, economic calculations 

of the effect of predators are still rare (Sterling et al., 1992). 

In recent years simulation models became useful tools for studies on the population 

dynamics of aphids and antagonists, their trophic interactions and dependency on driving 

forces (Freier et al., 1996; Skirvin et al., 1997). These models could offer the chance to 

investigate agro-ecosystems in a more complex way. 

59

60 

The aim of the present study was to quantify the efficiency of the most important cereal 

aphid predators within the tritrophic interactions of winter wheat – aphids – antagonists. A 

combination of detailed field counts with computer simulations was used and the 

quantification should then allow to calculate the economical benefit of the antagonists. 


We used the following methodological approach in this study: Field data on aphid and 

antagonist densities were utilised as database for computer simulations. Model runs started 

with initial values observed in the field. Simulated aphid density was then compared with 

field data and the run was termed “successful” if simulated values differed from field values 

by less then 20%. Then the corresponding model run without any predators was calculated, 

and the difference in aphid infestation was interpreted as predator effect. Aphid infestation 

was measured as number of individuals per m², and aphid days per tiller (aphid index). The 

entire predator community was measured by calculating predator units, which allows to add 

the different predator fractions according to their potential food uptake at 20°C (Freier et al., 

1997, 1998). 

Simulation model 

In our study we used the model GTLAUS 99 which is a deterministic, discrete simulation 

model written in Borland-Pascal 7.0. GTLAUS 99 contains submodels for winter wheat, 

cereal aphids (Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi, Metopolophium dirhodum), and aphid 

predators (Coccinella septempunctata, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata, syrphids). The 

impact of other aphid antagonists, i.e. chrysopids, carabids, staphylinids, spiders, parasitoids 

and entomopathogenic fungi, was considered using special regression functions. GTLAUS 

was previously validated with field data and already used in different investigations, e.g. 

about climate change and predator-prey interaction (Freier & Triltsch, 1996; Triltsch & 

Roßberg, 1997) or beneficial thresholds (Freier et al., 1998). A detailed description of the 

current model is provided in Gosselke et al. (2001). 

The GTLAUS model has a compartment structure and each compartment contains 

different age classes. Each model run begins with a range of starting values of density, 

structure and immigration type of the aphid population and their antagonists at a specific date 

during wheat flowering. Then daily density values of cereal aphids and antagonists were 

calculated by the model. 

Field counts 

Investigations were carried out in unsprayed winter wheat fields at two different localities, 

Flaeming (F) and Magdeburger Boerde (M) from 1993 to 1999. During eight weeks field 

counts were performed weekly between wheat growth stages (BBCH) 49 and 87 (Meier, 

1997). Densities of aphids and antagonists were recorded at 2x5 counting points at distances 

of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 m, respectively, from one field margin. At every point wheat tillers 

were examined for 3 m along a row. 

Results 

Population dynamics of aphids and their antagonists were simulated, using initial density 

values according to field data. In figure 1 a comparison between simulated aphid infestation 

and aphid density data observed during field counts is shown. In all 14 cases, e.g.

61 

Magdeburger Boerde and Flaeming 1993 to 1999, simulated aphid data correlate with field 

data. When running aphid index data, model runs and field data differed by less than 20%, 

e.g. 9.2% (S.D. 6.08) at Magdeburger Boerde and 9.2% (S.D. 5.78) at Flaeming. 

2500 Aphids/m² Aphid index during simulation 

Flaeming 1996 

(Aphid days/tiller) 

2000 

Field count 70.2 

Simulation 83.4 

∗ 

1500 

∗ 

1000 

500 

∗ 

∗ 

∗ ∗ 

∗ 

0 ∗ 

∃ 

11. 6. 18. 6. 25. 6. 2. 7. 9. 7. 16. 7. 23. 7. 30. 7. 6. 8. 13. 8. 

Fig. 1. Example of a computer simulation (curve) in comparison to field data (dots). 

800 

Aphid days/tiller 

600 

400 

200 

0 

93 94 95 96 97 98 99 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 

Magdeburger Boerde 

Flaeming 

Fig. 2. Results of computer simulations with (dark) and without (light) cereal aphid 

predators.

62 

According to our methodological concept the next step was to exclude aphid antagonists 

impact by simulating all cases without predators, i.e. without coccinellids, syrphids, 

chrysopids, and polyphagous predators. An overview of that is given in figure 2. The 

consequence of excluding all antagonists was an increased cereal aphid infestation, which was 

assumed to be the impact of the predators. The average aphid index of the seven investigated 

seasons increased at the Flaeming locality by 262.3 aphid days per tiller (S.D.: 359.44). At the 

second site (Magdeburger Boerde) considerably lower values were recorded (97.0, S.D.: 

31.61). Remarkable differences between the different study years as well as between the two 

localities were observed. Values ranged from 36 (1994) and 976 aphid days per tiller (1998) 

at Flaeming to 58 (1996) and 139 (1998) aphid days per tiller at Magdeburger Boerde. 

Assuming an aphid damage threshold level of 150 aphid days per tiller, without predator 

impact cereal aphid infestation would have caused damage of economical importance in 9 out 

of 14 investigated cases (Flaeming: 3 and Magdeburger Boerde: 6). Efficacy of the 

antagonists can be measured in terms of prevented increase in aphid infestation. Thereby a 

certain aphid infestation above 150 aphid days per tiller is related to a measurable loss in 

grain yield (in dt per ha). The economical predator effect can then be calculated (Tab. 1). At a 

wheat price level of 20 DM per dt average predator effect ranged from 2.99 to 109.25 DM per 

ha (mean: 28.16, S.D.: 33.65). The corresponding economical value per single predator unit 

was in the range between 8 x 10 -5 and 361 x 10 -5 DM (mean: 73 x 10 -5 , S.D.: 115 x 10 -5 ). 

Tab. 1. Calculation of the economical benefit of cereal aphid predators in winter wheat based 

on field data and computer simulations. 

Location 

Potential Predator Economic benefit 

yield loss occurrence 

(dt/ha) (PU/m²) (DM/ha) (10 -5 DM/PU) 

Flaeming 1995 0.30 10.63 6.90 6.5 

Flaeming 1996 1.63 3.66 37.49 102.4 

Flaeming 1998 4.75 3.03 109.25 360.6 

Magdeburg 1994 0.24 5.99 5.52 9.2 

Magdeburg 1995 1.74 3.55 40.02 112.7 

Magdeburg 1996 0.14 5.23 3.22 6.2 

Magdeburg 1997 0.13 3.53 2.99 8.5 

Magdeburg 1998 1.08 10.77 24.84 23.1 

Magdeburg 1999 1.01 6.40 23.23 36.3 

Mean (S.D.) 28.16 73.9 

(33.65) (115.1) 

Discussion 

Despite of a large number of investigations estimating the potential benefit of natural enemies 

on pest population dynamics, most of these attempt were accompanied by more or less 

significant shortcomings. Data based on laboratory experiments or even on experiments using 

field cages and exclusion barriers were often criticised because of artificial conditions. On the

63 

other hand calculations on the efficiency of certain predators based on detailed field counts 

are not applicable without any assumptions. However, assumptions and simplifications are 

also necessary when using computer simulation models. The model GTLAUS, used in this 

study, dates back 15 years now, and has been several times revised, improved and validated 

with new field data. Though during its last validation with long term field data from four 

different locations with 35 investigated fields in two cases the model failed to generate a 

realistic simulation. The advantage of simulation models is the possibility to take 

systematically into account large volumes of published data as well as field data and to 

simulate many different situations within a short time (Freier et al., 1996). 

Exclusion of aphid predators resulted in a remarkable increase in aphid infestation. The 

aphid index was up to 17 times higher in simulations without predators. Our study indicates 

that without antagonists aphid infestation would cause economically important yield losses in 

about 2/3 of all cases. Although the economic value per single predator unit seems to be 

rather small, the entire predator community was responsible for a notable benefit of up to 100 

DM per ha. We found remarkable differences between different locations and years with 

regard to aphid infestation pattern and effects of predators. Aphid population dynamics do not 

only depend on the influence of antagonists, but also on a number of other environmental and 

aphid population inherent factors (Freier et al., 1999). Additionally, the effectiveness of aphid 

antagonists is very variable, e.g. depending strongly on temperature (Triltsch et al., 1996), 

predator-prey-ratio (Rautapää, 1975) and synchronisation between predator and prey 

(Hemptinne et al., 1995). 

Acknowledgement 

We would like to acknowledge the Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry for partly 

funding the research. 

References 

Chiverton, P.A., 1987: Effects of exclusion barriers and inclusion trenches on polyphagous 

and aphid specific predators in spring barley. J. Appl Ent. 103: 193-203. 

Chiverton, P.A., 1988: Searching behaviour and cereal aphid consumption by Bembidion 

lampros and Pterostichus cupreus, in relation to temperature and prey density. Ent. Exp. 

Appl. 47: 137-182. 

Freier, B. & Triltsch, H., 1996: Climate chamber experiments and computer simulations on 

the influence of increasing temperature on wheat-aphid-predator interaction. Asp. Appl. 

Biol. 45: 293-298. 

Freier, B., Triltsch, H. & Roßberg, D., 1996: GTLAUS – A model of wheat-cereal aphidpredator 

interaction and its use in complex agroecological studies. Z. Pflanzenkrankh. 

Pflanzenschutz 103: 543-554. 

Freier, B., Triltsch, H., Möwes, M. & Rappaport, V., 1997: Der relative Wert von Prädatoren 

bei der natürlichen Kontrolle von Getreideblattläusen und die Verwendung von Prädatoreinheiten. 

Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzenschutzd. 49: 215-222. 

Freier, B., Möwes, M. & Triltsch, H., 1998: Beneficial threshold for Coccinella 7-punctata L. 

as predator of cereal aphids in winter wheat – results of population investigations and 

computer simulations. J. Appl. Ent. 121: 213-217. 

Freier, B., Triltsch, H. & Gosselke, U., 1999: Die Dimension der natürlichen Kontrolle von 

Getreideblattläusen durch Prädatoren. Gesunde Pflanzen 51: 65-71.

64 

Ghanim, A., 1981: Untersuchungen über den Einfluss von Parasiten und Prädatoren auf die 

Entstehung von Gradationen der Getreideblattläuse. PhD Thesis, Martin-Luther- 

Universität Halle, 136 pp. 

Gosselke, U., Roßberg, D., Freier, B. & Triltsch, H., 2001: GTLAUS99 – the latest version of 

a model for simulation of wheat-aphid-predator interaction. Ecol. Modelling 99: in press. 

Hämäläinen, M., Markkula, M. & Raij, T., 1975: Fecundity and larval voracity of four 

ladybird species (Col., Coccinellidae). Ann. Ent. Fenn. 41: 124-127. 

Hemptinne, J.-L., Doumbia, M. & Gaspar, C., 1995: The reproductive strategy of predators in 

a major constraint to the implementation of biological control in the field. Med. Fac. 

Landb. Toeg. Biol. Wetensch. 60: 735-741. 

Meier, U., 1997: Growth stages of mono- and dicotyledonous plants. BBCH-Monograph. 

Berlin, Wien: Blackwell, 622 pp. 

Rautapää, J., 1975: Control of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) (Hom., Aphididae) with Coccinella 

septempunctata L. (Col., Coccinellidae) in cages, and effect of late aphid infestation on 

barley yield. Ann. Agric. Fenniae 14: 231-239. 

Skirvin, D.J., Perry, J.N. & Harrington, R., 1997: A model describing the population 

dynamics of Sitobion avenae and Coccinella septempunctata. Ecol. Modelling 96: 29-39. 

Sundby, R.A., 1966: A comparative study of the efficiency of three predatory insects, 

Coccinella septempunctata L. (Col., Coccinellidae), Chrysopa carnea St. (Neuropt., 

Chrysopidae) and Syrphus ribesii (Dipt., Syrphidae) at two different temperatures. 

Entomophaga 11: 395-404. 

Sterling, W.L., Dean, A. & Abd el Salam, N.M., 1992: Economic benefits of spiders 

(Araneae) and insects (Hemiptera: Miridae) predators of cotton leafhoppers. J. Econ. Ent. 

85: 52-57. 

Triltsch, H., Freier, B. & Roßberg, D., 1996: Temperatur – Schlüsselfaktor für Nützlingsleistungen 

im Winterweizen? Mitt. Biol. Bundesanstalt 321: 447. 

Triltsch, H. & Roßberg, D., 1997: Cereal aphid predation by the ladybird Coccinella septempunctata 

L. (Col.: Coccinellidae) – Including its simulation in the model GTLAUS. Acta 

Jutlandica 72: 259-270. 

Wetzel, T., Ghanim, A. & Freier, B., 1981: Zur Bedeutung von Prädatoren und Parasiten für 

die Überwachung und Bekämpfung von Blattläusen in Getreidebeständen. Nachrichtenbl. 

Pflanzenschutz DDR 35: 239-244. 

Winder, L.D., Hirst, J., Carter, N., Wratten, S. D. & Sopp, P.I., 1994: Estimating predation of 

the grain aphid Sitobion avenae by polyphagous predators. J. Appl. Ecol. 31: 1-12. 

Wratten, S.D., 1987: The effectiveness of native natural enemies. In: Integrated Pest 

Management, Academic Press: 89-112.



pp. 65 - 71 

Potentials and limitations of long-term field data to identify numerical and 

functional responses of predators to aphid density in wheat 

Freier 1 , B., Triltsch 1 , H. and U. Gosselke 2 

1 

Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Integrated 

Plant Protection, D-14532 Kleinmachnow, Germany 

2 

Humboldt University, Institute of Horticultural Sciences, FG Phytomedicine/Applied 

Entomology, D-14195 Berlin, Germany 

Summary 

Long-term field studies on population dynamics of aphids and the community of predators have been 

performed in wheat fields at two extremely different sites since 1993 to investigate the dimension, 

stability and variance of natural control. To identify density feed backs of the predators, regression 

analyses of the 7-year data were performed and the equation with the highest significance (P

66 

BBCH 49 and 87 (growth stages according to Meier 1997) were recorded. To get a sufficient 

sample, each survey included 2 x 5 counting on an approximately 3 m drilling row within a 2 

ha patch of one side of the test field. The total area studied per sampling date was 4 m², that is 

2,400 tillers. The average densities of aphids and beneficials per m² were used for statistical 

analyses. 

The computer calculations included the analysis of the following data: 

– Data pairs of aphid and predator densities obtained on the same sampling date (both sites 

together and separately); symbols in Table 1: FM, F and M. 

– Data pairs of aphid density observed at a given sampling date and predator density one 

week later (d i+1 ) as an indicator of delayed responses (both sites together and separately); 

symbols in Table 1: FM (d i+1 ), F (d i+1 ) and M (d i+1 ). 

– Data pairs for seasonal average densities of aphids and predators to estimate fundamental 

responses (both sites together and separately); symbols in Table 1: FM (season), 

F (season) and M (season). 

Furthermore, numerical interactions between fractions within the predator community 

were also investigated. Special analyses of functional responses were made, especially the 

influence of the aphid infestation level on the larvae-egg abundance ratio for coccinellids, 

syrphids and chrysopids at a given date. The occurrence of individuals in the overall predator 

community were considered by calculating predator units (PU) derived from surplus feeding 

rates of each predator fraction at 20°C (Freier et al., 1998). 


Table 1 documents all results of the statistical analyses, starting with the reaction of the whole 

predator community and including aphid specific predators and all important fractions of 

predators up to the chrysopid larvae. 

The results indicate varying close relationships between population densities of cereal 

aphids and predators, although the significance of tendencies was rather weak. However, prior 

to any evaluation some methodological problems need to be considered. Firstly, counts do not 

represent the real densities of the predators. For instance the abundance of polyphagous 

arthropods is nearly always underestimated (Möwes et al,. 1997). Moreover, other 

antagonists, such as parasitoids and entomopathogenic fungi, and other factors, such as the 

weather and wheat plant acting as the aphid host, cause variable multiple effects and thus 

cause additional problems. When aphid and predator occurrence under field conditions 

exceeds a specific level, the infestation-reducing effects of the predators overlap and 

counteract with their numerical and functional responses. However, the present 7-year 

investigation on the occurrence of aphids and predators, defined as the number of individuals 

per m², document a general lack of high-density data for both, aphids and predators. 

Predator community, aphid specific predators 

The working hypothesis was that rising aphid numbers lead to an increasing predator 

potential. This could be confirmed in our analyses. The responses of the overall predator 

community and aphid-specific predator potential to increasing levels of aphid infestation were 

significant, though rather weak. They also did not become stronger when delayed reactions 

were taken into consideration. The clearer tendencies were always observed at the high-input 

site in Magdeburg (M). The season averages did not exhibit any corresponding tendencies, 

that is, aphid years did not necessarily correspond to predator years or vice versa. By using 

predator units to summarise different predator fractions according to their aphid consumption, 

the significance of relationships was higher than a simple addition of individual numbers.

67 

Coccinellids 

Apart from Coccinella 7-punctata at Flaeming (F), no relationships or delayed responses were 

observed. This suggests that the adults of both C. 7-punctata and Propylaea 14-punctata 

colonised the winter wheat fields rather independently of the aphid infestation level. 

Only a weakly positive influence of aphid infestation on coccinellid egg occurrence was 

detected. Comparing both species, these tendencies were more clearly pronounced in P. 14- 

puctata at Flaeming (F) than in Magdeburger Boerde (M). However, no delayed responses or 

seasonal effects were observed in either species. 

Tab. 1 Results of regression analyses on numerical responses of predators to the infestation 

level of cereal aphids in winter wheat fields at Flaeming (F) and Magdeburger 

Boerde (M) from 1993-1999. 

Predators Regression r² n Significance 

Predators units 

FM degressive increase 0.2465 109 P < 0.05 

F degressive increase 0.1593 54 P < 0.05 

M degressive increase 0.2894 55 P < 0.05 

FM (d i + 1) degressive increase 0.3217 95 P < 0.05 

F (d i + 1) linear increase 0.1975 47 P < 0.05 

M (d i + 1) degressive increase 0.3578 48 P < 0.05 

FM (season), F (season), M (season) 

no 

Aphid-specific predators 


F linear increase 0.1112 54 P < 0.05 






no 

Coccinellid adults 

FM, F, M 

no 

FM (d i + 1), F (d i + 1), M (d i + 1) 

no 


no 

Coccinella 7-punctata adults/Propylaea 14-punctata adults 

FM 

no 


M (only C. 7-punctata) no 

FM (d i + 1), F (d i + 1), M (d i + 1) 

no 


no 

Coccinellid eggs 

FM linear increase 0.0799 109 P < 0.05 


M linear increase 0.1194 55 P < 0.05 

FM (d i + 1), F (d i + 1), M (d i + 1) 

no 


no

68 


Coccinella 7-punctata eggs 



M 

no 

FM (d i + 1), F (d i + 1), M (d i + 1) 

no 


no 

Propylaea 14-punctata eggs 

FM 

no 



FM (d i + 1), F (d i + 1), M (d i + 1) 

no 


no 

Coccinellid larvae 

FM, F, M 

no 

FM (d i + 1) degressive increase 0.1977 P < 0.05 

F (d i + 1) linear increase 0.0866 P < 0.05 

M (d i + 1) progressive increase 0.6591 P < 0.05 

FM (season) 

no 

F (season) 

no 

M (season) progressive increase 0.6467 7 P < 0.05 

Coccinella 7-punctata larvae 

FM, F, M 

no 

FM (d i + 1) progressive increase 0.4912 95 P < 0.05 

F (d i + 1) no 

M (d i + 1) progressive increase 0.5269 48 P < 0.05 

FM (season) progressive increase 0.3617 14 P < 0.05 

F (season) 

no 

M (season) 

no 

Propylaea 14-punctata larvae 

FM 

no 

F 

no 


FM (d i + 1) 

no 

F (d i + 1) no 



no 

Syrphid eggs 




FM (d i + 1), F (d i + 1), M (d i + 1) 

no 


no

69 


Syrphid larvae 

FM progressive increase 0.3690 109 P < 0.05 


M progressive increase 0,4147 55 P < 0.05 




FM (season) progressive increase 0.5051 14 P < 0.05 

F (season) 

no 

M (season) progressive increase 0.6365 7 P < 0.05 

Chrysopid eggs 


F 

no 


FM (d i + 1) linear increase 0.1497 95 P < 0.05 

F (d i + 1) no 

M (d i + 1) linear increase 0.15137 48 P < 0.05 


no 

Chrysopid larvae 





F (d i + 1) no 



no 

This is surprising because laboratory experiments suggested an increasing egg production 

of, e.g. C. 7-punctata feeding on Aphis gossypii in cotton (Xia et al., 1999). Our statistical 

results show that coccinellids, particularly C. 7-punctata, seem to immigrate well satiated and 

with a certain fecundity fundament from the surrounding areas, so that the females produce 

eggs more or less independently of aphid population density in wheat fields. 

For coccinellid larvae, the aphid infestation had no immediate influence. The exception 

was P. 14-punctata at the high-input site Magdeburger Boerde (M). At this location, the 

P. 14-punctata larvae seemed to respond directly to an increasing aphid infestation. However, 

delayed responses of larvae to aphid occurrence one week before has been clearly established, 

particularly at the high-input site Magdeburger Boerde (M). Laboratory studies showed that 

prey density determines the survival rate of C. 7-punctata larvae (e.g. Xia et al,. 1999). Using 

the mean seasonal data, only weak density relationships were found. This means that years of 

aphid infestation do not necessarily lead to higher numbers of coccinellid larvae. 

These results corroborate previous investigations by Hemptinne et al. (1994) and Triltsch 

et al. (2001), who suggest that both C. 7-punctata and P. 14-punctata do not show a clear and 

simple pattern of response to the presence of aphids.

70 

Syrphids 

The results in table 1 show a clear positive influence of aphid infestation on syrphid egg 

occurrence at both locations, particularly at the high-input site Magdeburger Boerde (M). The 

response in egg production was immediate, and delayed density responses of egg abundance 

were not observed. Surprisingly the data analyses did not reveal a relationship between aphids 

and syrphid eggs upon seasonal analysis. The mechanisms of synchronisation of aphid 

occurrence and syrphid egg laying has been investigated in different studies in winter wheat 

crops (Poehling & Borgemeister, 1989; Krause, 1997) and in bean fields (Hemptinne et al., 

1994). 

Also, a clear density feedback on aphid infestation was observed in syrphid larvae at both 

locations. In contrast to the eggs, clear delayed effects and seasonal reactions were established 

in the case of syrphid larvae. 

Chrysopids 

The aphid infestation seemed to cause a certain immediate and delayed positive influence on 

chrysopid egg and larvae occurrence, particularly at the high-input site Magdeburger Boerde 

(M). However, when evaluated according to seasonal averages, no clear tendency was 

observed. 

The evidence of additional relationships between the occurrence of the specialised aphid 

predator coccinellids and syrphid larvae was an interesting finding. Despite intra-guild 

competition, both predator groups seem to profit by increasing aphid infestation at the same 

level. 

The ability to identify density feedbacks in long-term studies is quite limited. We know 

that counteractive infestation-reducing effects of the predators clearly overlap the 

phenomenon of density responses. Also, the different level of additional parasitoid and fungal 

attacks in aphid populations can modify the results extremely. 

In contrast to numerical responses, the functional responses (change in attack rate of an 

individual) could not be identified directly from the field counts, but indirectly by the 

assumption that increasing feeding rates lead to rising egg production (coccinellids) and 

increasing survival rates of larvae (coccinellids, syrphids, chrysopids). Such relationships 

were identified only in coccinellid larvae and syrphid eggs and larvae. 

The effect of aphid infestation level on the larvae-egg abundance ratio for coccinellids, 

syrphids and chrysopids has not yet been established, although it must be assumed that a high 

ratio reflects a good survival and is therefore an indicator of increasing food uptake. 


We are grateful to Mrs. B. Schlage for the joint performance of all field investigations, 

computer documentation, and statistical analysis of field data. Furthermore, we thank the 

farmers J. Grabo (Pflügkuff, site Flaeming) and U. Hartmann (Ochtmersleben, site 

Magdeburger Boerde) who made their unsprayed wheat fields available for field counts 

throughout all the years of the study. Our special thanks to Mrs. S. Wandrey, who had the 

kindness to edit the English manuscript with enduring patience. 

References 

Freier, B.; Möwes, M., Triltsch, H. & Rapperport, V., 1998: Predator units - an approach to 

evaluate coccinellids within the aphid predator community in winter wheat, IOBC/WPRS 

Bull. 21 (8): 103-111.

Hassell, M.P., 1978: The dynamics of arthropod predator prey systems. Monographs in 

Population Biology 13, Princeton Univ. Press. 

Hemptinne, J.-L., Doucet, J.-L. & Gaspar, C., 1994: How do ladybirds and syrphids respond 

to aphids in the field? IOBC/WPRS Bull: 17(4): 101-111. 

Krause, U., 1997: Populationsdynamik und Überwinterung von Schwebfliegen (Diptera, 

Syrphidae) in zwei unterschiedlich strukturierten Agrarlandschaften Norddeutschlands. 

Agrarökologie 22: 1-150. 

Möwes, M., Freier, B., Kreuter, Th. & Triltsch, H., 1997: Halmzählung oder 

Parzellentotalernte - wie genau sind Prädatorbonituren im Winterweizen? Anz. 

Schädlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz 70: 121-126 

Poehling, H.M. & Borgemeister, C., 1989: Abundance of coccinellids and syrphids in relation 

to cereal aphid density in winter wheat fields in northern Germany. IOBC/wprs Bull. 

12(1): 99-107. 

Solomon, M.E., 1949: The natural control of animal populations. J. Animal Ecology 18, 1-35. 

Triltsch, H., Hechenthaler, G., Gosselke, U. & Freier, B., 2001: How does a ladybird respond 

to aphids? IOBC/wprs Bull. 24(6): 49-58. 

Xia, J.Y, van der Werf, W. & Rabbinge, R., 1999: Temperature and prey density on 

bionomics of Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) feeding on Aphis 

gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) on cotton. Environ. Ent. 28: 307-314. 

71



pp. 73 - 78 

Density of epigeal predators on maize plants untreated and treated with 

imidacloprid 

Xavier Pons and Ramon Albajes 

Universitat de Lleida, Centre UdL-IRTA, Rovira Roure 177, 25198 Lleida, Spain 

Summary 

In 1997 and 1998, densities of aphids and predators on maize plants were monitored weekly in 

commercial plots treated or not treated with imidacloprid from plant emergence to flowering. The 

insecticide significantly reduced the aphid density during the whole sampling period. Orius spp., 

Nabis provencallis, Coccinella septempunctata, Adonia variegata, Demetrias atricapillus, Tachyporus 

spp., earwigs and spiders were the main predators found. Densities of Syrphidae and Chrysopidae 

were very low. Numbers of individuals per plant of Orius spp. were significantly higher in untreated 

plots than in plots treated with imidacloprid in both years, whereas density of arachnida and D. 

atricapillus were lower in treated plots only in 1998. 

Key words: aphids, polyphagous predators, maize, imidacloprid 

Introduction 

Maize is the main summer cereal grown in Catalonia, and it covers nearly 45,000 ha, more 

than 50% of which is in the Lleida Basin. Pests attacking maize crops in the region can be 

divided into: soil pests (wireworms and cutworms), corn borers (Mediterranean Sesamia and 

European corn borers), sap sucking insects (aphids and leafhoppers), leaf and grain feeders 

and mites (Piqué et al., 1998). 

Aphids have a high damaging potential in Catalonia, especially in the first half of the 

crop season when they cause direct damage and transmit viruses. The most frequent and 

abundant species are Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), Sitobion avenae (Fabricius) and 

Metopolophium dirhodum (Walker) (Pons et al., 1994). 

Methylcarbamates, applied at sowing, have been one of the most common type of 

insecticides used to prevent aphid damages. However, they are being replaced by 

imidacloprid applied as a seed treatment. 

In 1997 we began a three-year research program to study the effects of imidacloprid on 

aphid populations and on natural enemies present in maize ecosystems. Here we present the 

results of 1997 and 1998 on aphid populations and epigeal predators. 


The study was carried out on a commercial farm located 35 km to the west of Lleida. A 

complete randomised block design with four replications was used. Each block consisted of 

two plots, one treated with imidacloprid and the other untreated. Seeds were treated with 

imidacloprid (Gaucho 35 FS ® , Bayer) at 490 g a.i. per 100 kg seed. 

Plot size varied from 0.25 to 1 ha. Maize was cultivated under conventional tillage and 

was sown on 9 and 13 May in 1997 1998, respectively. Two days after sowing, plots were 

sprayed with a mixture of 35 % alachlor + 25 % atrazine (Primdal ® , Agrodan) at 6 l/ha. 

73

74 

Plots were monitored weekly from maize emergence until flowering. Twenty-five plants 

per plot were visually sampled each sampling day. The species, number and morph of aphids, 

and species and number of predators on each plant were recorded. 

Data were analysed using the SAS statistics package (SAS Institute Inc., 1989). An 

analysis of variance was performed considering sampling dates, treatment, block and the 

interaction sampling date*treatment as sources of variation. The association between aphids 

and the most frequent and abundant predators was additionally analysed using the Jacard's 

(Ludwig & Reynolds, 1988) and Horn's (Horn, 1981) indices. 

Results 

Aphids were found on maize since plant emergence. There was a significantly lower density 

of aphids in plots treated with imidacloprid during the whole sampling period (Fig. 1). Aphid 

populations in treated plots consisted almost exclusively by alatae that did not reproduce, 

especially in the first half of the sampling period. 

The predators found on maize plants during the two-year study were: Heteroptera (Orius 

spp., Nabis provencallis Remane and others, less abundant), Dermaptera, Neuroptera 

(Chrysoperla carnea Stephens and Hemerobiidae), Coccinellidae (Coccinella septempunctata 

L, Adonia variegata (Goeze), Propylea quatuordecimpunctata (L.) , Scymnus spp. and others, 

less abundant), Carabidae (Demetrias atricapillus L., Bembidion spp. and others, much less 

abundant), Staphylinidae (Tachyporus spp. and others) and Arachnida (Spiders, Trombidids 

and others less abundant). Their relative abundance is shown in Table 1. 

Tab. 1. Occurrence of groups of predators found on maize plants in surveys of 1997 and 

1998 taken as a whole, in untreated plots and plots treated with imidacloprid. 

Predator 

Untreated 

(%) 

Treated 

(%) 

Orius spp. 27.5 19.2 

N. provencallis 3.1 3.7 

Other Heteroptera 0.4 0.2 

C. 7-punctata 1 0.7 

A. variegata 2.7 3.2 

Larvae Coccinellidae 2.8 2.8 

Other Coccinellidae 1 0.7 

D. atricapillus 9.6 7.9 

Bembidion spp. 1.6 0.9 

Other Carabidae 0.5 0.4 

Staphylinidae 5 6.2 

Dermaptera 0 0.9 

Arachnida 43.9 52.8 

Others 0.7 0.5 

The same pattern was found in treated as in untreated plots. Arachnida and Orius spp. 

were the most common predators. The carabid D. atricapillus was also quite abundant in both

75 

years, and its relative abundance was slightly higher than that of the Coccinellidae taken as a 

group. Staphylinidae was the next group in abundance. Lacewings and hoverflies showed low 

presence. Cecidomids were not recorded. 

Plots treated with imidacloprid showed lower densities of Orius spp. than untreated plots 

in both study years, whereas D. atricapillus and arachnids were more abundant in untreated 

plots only in 1998 (Tab. 2). No significant differences (P < 0.05) were found for any other 

predator species or group considered (Tab. 2). Jacard's and Horn's indices between aphids and 

Orius spp., arachnids and D. atricapillus always yielded non-significant values. 

Discussion 

Although little is known about the effects of imidacloprid on aphids or predators in maize, it 

has been reported to reduce aphid densities and the spread of virus in winter cereals (Gourmet 

et al., 1994; Gray et al., 1996). The results of our study show that the seed treatment was 

effective in controlling aphids until maize flowering. The aphid population structure in treated 

plots suggests that the effect on aphids was fast, and that their reproduction was prevented but 

not the risk of maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV) transmission, due to its non-persistent 

nature. 

The relative abundance of predators found in this study agrees with that reported by Asín 

and Pons (1998a) and confirms that, in Catalonia, polyphagous predators are the main natural 

control agents in maize ecosystems. 

The lower densities of Orius spp., arachnids and D. atricapillus in treated plots could be 

due to: 

(i) An indirect effect of imidacloprid through its action on aphid populations, so plots 

with lower aphid densities would have lower predator densities. However, there was no 

association between aphids and these predators. Asin and Pons (1998b) also found poor 

correlations between densities of aphids and predators and between relative rates of increase 

of aphids and predators, and imputed this fact to the polyphagy of predators. 

(ii) A direct detrimental effect of imidacloprid on predators. This phenomenon would be 

more plausible in species that may feed on maize plant fluids or pollen, such as Orius spp. 

Seed treatment with imidacloprid does not appear to have any negative effect on: 

coccinellids, nabids, staphylinids, dermapters or other carabids preying on maize plants. 

This study indicates that: 

a) Maize seed dressing with imidacloprid is very effective in controlling aphids. 

b) Aphids are probably not the only determinant of the abundance of polyphagous predators 

in maize ecosystems, and they can prey on other arthropods living on maize plants which 

may be less affected or unaffected by the seed treatment with imidacloprid.

76 

a) 1997 

aphids/plant 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

* * 

* 

* * 

* 

* * * * * 

13/5 19/5 26/5 2/6 9/6 16/6 23/6 30/6 7/7 21/7 28/7 

sampling date 

Untreated 

Treated 

b) 1998 

25 

20 

aphids/plant 

15 

10 

5 

0 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* * 

* 

* 

* * 

22/5 27/5 1/6 8/6 15/6 23/6 29/6 9/7 14/7 20/7 27/7 

sampling date 

Untreated 

Treated 

Fig. 1. Aphid densities on untreated plots and plots treated with imidacloprid from maize 

emergence (first sampling date) to flowering (last sampling date) in a) 1997 and b) 

1998. Asterisks upon bars mean that significant differences between treatments were 

found (P

77 

77 

Tab. 2. Mean seasonal densities of different groups of predators in maize plots untreated and treated with imidacloprid. (NS: non significant 

differences between plots; **: P

78 


This research was funded by the Spanish Inter-Ministry of Science and Technology 

Committee (Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnología - CICYT), project AGF96- 

0482. 

References 

Asín, L. & Pons, X. 1998 a: Aphid predators in maize fields. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 21 (8): 163- 

170. 

Asín, L. & Pons, X. 1998 b: Role of predators on maize aphid populations. In Aphids in 

natural and managed ecosystems (Nieto Nafría, J.M. & Dixon, A.F.G. (eds.). Universidad 

de León (Secretariado de Publicaciones). León (Spain). pp: 505-511. 

Gourmet, C., Hewings, A.D., Kolb, F.L. & Smyth, C.A. 1994: Effect of imidacloprid on 

nonflight movement of Rhopalosiphum padi and the subsequent spread of barley yellow 

dwarf virus. Plant. Dis. 78: 1098-1101. 

Gray, S.M., Bergstrom, G.C., Vaughan, R., Smith, D.M. & Kalb, D.W. 1996: Insecticidal 

control of cereal aphids and its impact on the epidemiology of the barley yellow dwarf 

luteoviruses. Crop Prot. 15: 687-697. 

Horn, D.J. 1981: Effect of weedy backgrounds on colonization of collards by green peach 

aphid, Myzus persicae, and its major predators. Environ. Entomol. 10: 285-289. 

Ludwig, J.A. & Reynolds, J.F. 1988: Statistical Ecology. A primer on methods and 

computing. John Wiley & Sons. New York. 337 pp. 

Piqué, J., Eizaguirre, M. & Pons, X. 1998: Soil insecticide treatments against maize soil pests 

and corn borers in Catalonia under traditional crop conditions. Crop Prot. 17: 557-561. 

Pons, X., Asín, L., Comas, J. & Albajes, R. 1994: Las especies de pulgones del maíz. Inv. 

Agr. Prod. Prot. Veg. Fuera de Serie 2: 125-129.



pp. 79 - 86 

Arthropod natural enemies of the cereal leaf beetle (Oulema melanopus L.) 

in organic winter wheat fields in Vienna, Eastern Austria 

Peter Meindl, Bernhard Kromp, Barbara Bartl and Eleni Ioannidou 

L.-Boltzmann-Institute for Biological Agriculture and Applied Ecology, Rinnboeckstr. 15, 

A-1110 Vienna, Austria 

Summary 

In organic winter wheat fields in Vienna the species composition and rates of parasitism of the cereal 

leaf beetle (CLB) (Oulema melanopus) by egg- and larval parasitoids were investigated. Up to 95.7% 

of the eggs were parasitised by Anaphes flavipes (Hymenoptera, Mymaridae), averaging 67.3%. These 

rates were apparently not well synchronised with CLB egg density dynamics. 

Diaparsis carinifer (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) was the dominant larval parasitoid, with rates 

of parasitism averaging 28%. 

In a laboratory feeding experiment we tested 28 different arthropod species from 12 families (e.g. 

Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Coccinellidae, Miridae, Nabidae, Araneae), sampled from the fields for their 

readiness to consume CLB eggs and larvae; the majority accepted CLB developmental stages as a 

food source. 

In an outdoor cage experiment, the impact of three predatory beetle species (Poecilus cupreus, 

Philonthus cognatus, Coccinella septempunctata) on mortality of CLB eggs was investigated. 

Key words: Oulema melanopus, cereal leaf beetle, parasitoids, predators 

Introduction 

Cereal leaf beetles (CLB) (Oulema ssp.) are pests of small grains and may cause 

economically important yield losses by larval feeding on the flag leaves, mainly in Central 

and South-eastern Europe. In the United States, CLB threatened grain production as an 

introduced pest in the 1960s, spreading rapidly due to the absence of natural antagonists 

(Haynes & Gage, 1981). 

An increase in CLB population density accompanied by an increase in damage and yield 

losses has recently been reported from several European countries (Heyer & Wetzel, 1990; 

Kaniuczak, 1994; Jossi & Bigler, 1996). For Eastern Austria, CLB is also recorded as a 

harmful pest (Stangelberger, 1995), although no quantifiable long-term data on importance 

and population increase of Oulema spp. are available. Nevertheless, based on extension 

services and farmers, CLB is considered the most important cereal pest in Austria, mainly in 

oats and winter wheat. 

Since pesticides are largely banned in organic agriculture (see EC-Regulation 2092/91, 

Appendix II B), pest control there mainly depends on preventive measures. Unfortunately, 

little information on the applicability and efficacy of preventive, indirect control measures is 

available (Kromp et al., 1999). 

From 1996 until 1998, we conducted a research project on non-chemical control 

measures against CLB. One of the objectives was to estimate the potential of naturally 

occurring antagonists of CLB in organic cereal fields. In this paper, the species composition 

and rates of parasitism of CLB eggs and the impact of larval parasitoids are reported, along 

with the results of a screening of predatory arthropods for their readiness to feed on CLB 

79

80 

developmental stages. Finally, data from an outdoor cage experiment, estimating the impact 

of three predatory coleopteran species on CLB egg mortality is presented. 


Egg parasitoids 

To determine rates of parasitism of CLB eggs, eggs were sampled in two winter wheat 

cultivars (cv. Capo and Spartacus). The eggs were transferred directly from the leaves onto a 

sticky tape. The tapes were placed in Petri dishes and stored in the laboratory (23° C, 70-80% 

relative humidity). On each sampling date (May 16, 23, June 2, 11, 1997), 37-110 eggs were 

collected in each cultivar. The eggs were controlled daily under a dissecting microscope. 

Hatched parasitoids or larvae, stuck to the tape beside the egg in which they had developed, 

were recorded. The emerged egg parasitoids were removed from the tape and later determined 

by the mymarid specialist J. Huber, Ontario, Canada. 

Larval parasitoids 

Species composition and rates of parasitism by larval parasitoids were determined by 

collecting 264 CLB 4 th instar larvae in a winter wheat and in an oat field on June 9 and 12, 

1997, respectively. In the laboratory, the larvae were placed in plastic dishes filled with sand. 

Cereal leaves were put in a test-tube accompanied with moistened filter paper and sealed with 

adhesive tape, in order to supply food for the larvae if they were not yet ready to pupate in the 

sand. After hatching of the CLB adults, the sand was sieved and the remaining cocoons were 

dissected in order to obtain parasitoids. Parasitoid larvae were determined according to the 

keys by Montgomery and Dewitt (1975) and Haeselbarth (1989). 

Laboratory feeding experiment 

In addition, 28 different predatory arthropods were screened for their acceptance of CLB eggs 

and larvae as prey (for a complete list, see results section). The predatory arthropods had been 

previously collected from wheat fields by pitfall trapping and sweep netting, were then 

transferred to the laboratory and kept individually in Petri dishes. One CLB larva or three 

eggs were added to each Petri dish. In case eggs and larvae were consumed by the predators, 

fresh ones were introduced. The experiments were replicated three to six times. 

Outdoor cage experiment 

The possible impact of three predatory beetle species (Philonthus cognatus [Staphylinidae]; 

Coccinella septempunctata [Coccinellidae]; P. cupreus [Carabidae]) on egg mortality in the 

field, gauze cages (40 cm in diameter, mesh width 1 mm) were placed over five stems of 

winter wheat and buried 20 cm deep into the ground around the stems. After removing all 

arthropods from inside the cage, a few CLB adults were introduced into the cage for egg 

laying. Thereafter the CLB adults were removed, the total number of eggs and their position 

recorded and two predators per cage inserted. The experiment was replicated 6-fold. The eggs 

were individually controlled by means of a portable dissecting microscope. 


Egg parasitism 

The most important egg parasitoid of Oulema spp. is Anaphes flavipes (Hymenoptera, 

Mymaridae), which is only 0.6 mm in size (Huber, 1992). The biology of A. flavipes and its 

significance as a natural control agent of CLB has been reported during the attempts to 

establish the mymarid in the United States in the 1960s (Anderson & Paschke, 1968; Maltby 

et al., 1971). For Austria, first data on rates of parasitism of Oulema spp. eggs by A. flavipes

81 

were reported by Bartl (1997). Average parasitism was around 40% with maximal rates of 

87%, regardless whether eggs had been sampled in the centre of the fields or close to field 

margins. 

In our study, eggs were collected from two winter wheat cultivars (cv. Capo and 

Spartacus) that were part of a cultivar plot trial. 

When comparing egg parasitism and CLB egg densities, A. flavipes development clearly 

lagged behind the development of its host. Figure 1 shows a decrease of CLB eggs per stem 

from mid-May onwards, accompanied by an increase in egg parasitism. At the time of 

maximal CLB egg density (0.55 eggs per stem) the rate of parasitism was still below 20%. 

Nevertheless, A. flavipes played a role in CLB egg mortality, as indicated by the rapid 

increase in egg parasitism from May 16 onwards. Moreover, rates of parasitism remained at a 

constant high level until the end of the CLB egg-laying period. 

Ellis and Kormos (1988) attributed an outbreak of CLB in Ontario in 1987 to the absence 

of parasitoids; in their study only 0.1% of Oulema spp. eggs were parasitised by A. flavipes. 

Heyer (1992) recorded no parasitism in 323 CLB eggs, sampled during surveys between 1988 

–and 1990, possibly due intensive, conventional agricultural practices in the study area. 

Enhancing the impact of A. flavipes could be the most promising venue for future research on 

biological control of CLB. 

eggs/stem x 100 

parasitation rate % 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

May 14 May 16 May 20 May 23 May 26 June 2 June 11 

parasitation rate 

egg density 

Fig. 1. Synchronisation of Oulema spp. egg density and rates of parasitism egg by A. 

flavipes. 

Larval parasitism 

Diaparsis carinifer, Lemophagus curtus (both Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) and 

Tetrastichus julis (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) are known as larval parasitoids of O. 

melanopus (Haynes & Gage, 1981). Among other countries, they have been reported from 

Austria during a Europe-wide survey designed to introduce these parasitoids into the United 

States (Dysart et al., 1973). Their potential for controlling CLB in the United States has been

82 

discussed (Dysart et al., 1973; Ellis & Kormos, 1988). Recent data from Austria, obtained 

from organic cereal fields around Vienna, showed average rates of larval parasitism by D. 

carinifer of 5.4% (maximum 12.9%) and by L. curtus of 0.4% (Bartl, 1997). 

In our samples from 1997, we could only rear D. carinifer from Oulema spp. larvae. On 

two sampling dates in winter wheat and oats, rates of parasitism ranged between 21.8% and 

33%, with an average of 28% (Tab. 1). 

Tab. 1: Larval parasitism of Oulema melanopus by the ichneumonid Diaparsis carinifer, 

Vienna, 1997. 

Grain Sampling date Nr. of Oulema larvae Rates of parasitism 

(%) 

Winter wheat June 9 77 21.8 

June 12 76 29.2 

Oats June 9 81 27.9 

June 12 30 33 

Rates of parasitism by D. carinifer of 6.7% and 6.2% were reported from central Lower- 

Austria in 1968 and 1969, respectively (Dysart et al., 1973). Our data indicates that D. 

carinifer can be a significant mortality factor for O. melanopus larvae. CLB-larvae collected 

later in the season were heavier parasitised than those collected earlier in the season. Dysart et 

al. (1973) reported that D. carinifer can parasitise all larval instars of CLB, but prefers 

smaller larvae as hosts. 

Feeding experiment 

The effects of predatory insects and spiders on the population dynamics of several arthropod 

pests have been reported in the literature. Carabids, staphylinids and coccinellids, for instance, 

were able to reduce cereal aphid populations significantly (Chambers et al., 1983; Scheller, 

1984; Andersen, 1992). Their contribution on mortality of CLB, however, has been largely 

neglected. Mamedov (1995) tested the ability of certain predators to feed on eggs and larvae 

of O. melanopus in the laboratory. Schärer (1993) observed coccinellids (mainly 

C. septempunctata) feeding on CLB eggs, Nabis spp. sucking on CLB eggs and smaller 

larvae, and Chrysopa carnea larvae feeding on CLB larvae. 

In our study, we tried to gather preliminary data on arthropods that might accept different 

developmental stages of CLB as prey. Table 2 lists all arthropod species used in our 

laboratory feeding experiment along with their feeding rates, i.e. the quotient of consumed 

and presented prey. 

With a few exceptions (spiders, cantharid beetles), CLB eggs were accepted by all tested 

arthropods. Miridae, Nabidae, the staphylinid Ph. Cognatus, as well as the carabid P. cupreus 

showed the highest feeding rates. Since some carabid species such as Harpalus rufipes and P. 

cupreus have been reported to climb grain stems at night when searching for prey (Loughride 

& Luff, 1983; Lövei & Szentkiralyi, 1984; Chiverton 1988), we also included some frequent 

epigaeic carabids (e.g. Bembidion lampros) that had not yet been observed preying in the 

vegetation layer. Spiders did not feed on CLB eggs, probably because - with the exception of 

the thomisid Xysticus kochi - the tested species were web-weavers following a „sit and wait“ 

(i.e. stationary) predation strategy whose prime requirement is the mobility of the potential 

prey (Nyffeler, 1999).

83 

Tab. 2: Average feeding rate of arthropod antagonists on eggs and larvae of the cereal leaf 

beetle in the laboratory. 

Order Family Species Feeding 

rate eggs 

Feeding 

rate larvae 

Araneae Thomisidae Xysticus kochi 0 0.8 

Theridiidae Neottinura bimaculata 0 0 

Tetragnathidae Tetragnatha pinicola 0 0.35 

Araneidae Mangora acalypha 0.03 0.33 

Philodromidae Tibellus oblongus 0 0.75 

Heteroptera Miridae Adelphocoris 4-punctata – 0.55 

Calocoris sp. 0.6 – 

Leptoderna dolobrata – 0.33 

Lygus spp. 0 – 

Miris striatus 0.8 – 

Nabidae Nabis spp. 0.8 0.32 

Nabis pseudoferus 0.5 0.87 

Nabis rugosus – 0.91 

Aptus mirmicoides 0.92 0.96 

Coleoptera Carabidae Amara plebeja 0.4 0.75 

Asaphidion flavipes 0.45 0.79 

Agonum dorsale 0.6 0.96 

Bembidion lampros 0.39 0.91 

Harpalus tardus 0.18 0.8 

H. distinguendus 0.71 0.98 

H. rufipes 0.62 1 

Poecilus cupreus 0.98 1 

Staphylinidae Tachyporus hypnorum 0.45 0.5 

Philonthus cognatus 1 1 

Cantharidae Cantharis rustica 0 0.55 

Coccinellidae Coccinella 7-punctata 0.44 0.56 

Propylea 14-punctata 0.5 0.25 

Malachiidae Malachius bipustulatus 0 0 

Surprisingly, CLB larvae were accepted by almost every predator tested, although the 

larvae are covered by their own faeces, probably to protect them from being attacked. As in 

the case of CLB eggs, Nabidae, Carabidae and Ph. cognatus showed high feeding rates on 

CLB larvae. Amara plebeja, feeding also on CLB larvae, was found in sweep net samples 

from wheat; it has previously not been known to occur in the vegetation layer. Coccinelids,

84 

usually known as aphid antagonists, also readily accepted eggs and larvae of CLB as prey, 

corroborating earlier reports by Mamedov (1995) and Schärer (1993). 

Since most of the 28 tested predators accepted different developmental stages of CLB in 

the laboratory as prey, their actual impact on Oulema spp. mortality in the field was tested in 

a preliminary field trial. 

Cage experiments 

Cage experiments are helpful tools to generate quantitative data on the efficacy of predators in 

the field (Chambers et al., 1983; Hance, 1987; Andersen, 1992). However, little data on field 

mortality of O. melanopus due to arthropod predators is available. Schärer (1993) reported 

that in early May 50% of marked eggs in a winter wheat field were destroyed or had 

disappeared. In cage experiments by Mamedov (1995), 35% of Oulema spp. eggs were 

consumed by predatory arthropods, mainly by the staphylinid Tachyporus hypnorum. 

To evaluate the impact of the three beetle predators, i.e. P. cupreus, Ph. cognatus and C. 

septempunctata (selected after initial laboratory feeding experiments), we conducted an 

outdoor cage experiment in an organic winter wheat field in 1997. Figure 2 shows mortality 

data of Oulema spp. eggs in the cages. Average egg mortality was 92.7, 95.3, and 96.2% after 

introduction of Ph. cognatus, C. septempunctata and P. cupreus, respectively. In the predatorfree 

control on average 71.7% egg mortality was recorded. No significant differences in egg 

mortality was recorded between the three predator treatments; however, in all predator 

treatments significant higher mortality values compared to the untreated control were 

observed (P < 0.0001 for C. septempunctata and P. cupreus; P < 0.001 for Ph. cognatus). 

The high egg mortality values in the predator-free control were due to unsuccessful egg 

development and by parasitism by A. flavipes, which due tom its small size could not fully be 

excluded from the cages. In a laboratory trial Heyer (1992) also recorded high egg mortality 

in CLB (42 - 52.9%) because of unsuccessful egg development. 

100 

80 

egg mortality % 

60 

40 

20 

0 

P. cupreus C. septempunctata P. cognatus Control 

Fig. 2: Average egg mortality by three predators (control without predators) in a cage 

experiment in a winter wheat field, Vienna 1997.

85 

Conclusions 

Research on non-chemical control strategies for the cereal leaf beetle in organic grain 

indicates some potential of both choice of cultivar and reduced seeding rates for preventing 

the establishment of high CLB population densities in the early phase of population build-up 

(Meindl & Kromp, 1999). In addition, CLB populations might be effectively controlled by 

arthropod antagonists provided that they occur in sufficiently high numbers in the field. Our 

study showed high parasitism by the egg parasitoid A. flavipes. As the egg parasitoid is an 

important factor of CLB, in future research the habitat requirements of the mymarid should 

elucidated with aiming at suitable habitat management strategies (for a review see Pickett & 

Bugg, 1998). The same is true for larval parasitoids of CLB. Moreover, the potential of 

polyphagous predatory arthropods as CLB control agents needs to be evaluated for their 

efficacy in controlling CLB larvae both in the vegetation and on the surface of the soil. 


These investigations were part of a research project funded by the Austrian Ministry of 

Agriculture and Forestry and the Research Fund of the Austrian National Bank. We thank M. 

Stachowitsch for the linguistic revision. 

References 

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Rhopalosiphum padi in laboratory and semifield experiments. Norwegian Journal of 

Agricultural Sciences 6: 265-273. 

Anderson, R.C. & Paschke, J.D., 1968: The biology and ecology of Anaphes flavipes 

(Hymenoptera, Mymaridae), an exotic egg parasite of the cereal leaf beetle. Ann. 

Entomol. Soc. Amer. 61: 1-5. 

Bartl, B., 1997: Zum Antagonistenkomplex (Parasitoide und Prädatoren) der Eier und Larven 

der Getreidehähnchen Oulema sp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) auf biologisch bewirtschafteten 

Feldern in der Oberen Lobau, Wien. Diploma thesis, University of Vienna. 

Chambers, R.J., Sunderland, K.D., Wyatt, K.D., Vickermann, G.P., 1983: The effect of 

predator exclusion and caging on cereal aphids in winter wheat. Journal of Applied 

Ecology 20: 209-224. 

Chiverton, P.A., 1988: Searching behaviour and cereal aphid consumption by Bembidion 

lampros and Pterostichus cupreus, in relation to temperature and prey density. Ent. Exp. 

Appl. 47: 173-182. 

Dysart, R.J., Maltby, H.L., Brunson, M.H., 1973: Larval parasites of Oulema melanopus in 

Europe and their colonization in the United States. Entomophaga 18: 133-167. 

Ellis, C.R. & Kormos, B., 1988: Absence of parasitism in an outbreak of the cereal leaf 

beetle, Oulema melanopus (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae), in the central tobacco growing 

area of Ontario. Proceedings of the Entomol. Soc. of Ontario 119: 43-46. 

Haeselbarth, E., 1989: Über einige Schlupfwespen (Hymenoptera) als Parasiten des Weizenhähnchens 

Oulema lichenis (Voet) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Südbayern. J. Appl. 

Ent. 107: 493-507. 

Hance, T., 1987: Predation impact of carabids at different population densities of Aphis fabae 

development in sugar beet. Pedobiologia 30: 251-262. 

Haynes, D.L. & Gage, S.H., 1981: The cereal leaf beetle in North America. Ann. Rev. Ent. 

26: 259-287.

86 

Heyer, W. & Wetzel, T., 1990: Zum Auftreten des Getreidehähnchen (Oulema melanopus L. 

und O. lichenis Voet) und zur Aktualisierung des Bekämpfungsrichtwertes. Nachr.-Bl. 

Pflanzenschutzdienst DDR. 44: 226-230. 

Heyer, W., 1992: Zur Parasitierung der Getreidehähnchen Oulema spp. im Gebiet von Halle. 

Mitt. Dtsch. Ges. allg. angew. Ent. 8: 87-89. 

Huber, J.T., 1992: The subgenera, species groups and synonyms of Anaphes (Hymenoptera, 

Mymaridae) with a review of the described nearctic species of the fuscipennis group of 

Anaphes s.s. and the described species of Anaphes (Yungaburra). Proc. Ent. Soc. Ont. 

123: 23-110. 

Jossi, W. & Bigler, F., 1996: Getreidehähnchen: Befall und Resistenz bei Winterweizen 

(Schweiz). Agrarforschung (Switzerland) 3(3): 117-119. 

Kaniucziak, Z., 1994: Injuriousness of Oulema in winter wheat. Ochrana-Roslin.38(7): 3-4. 

Kromp, B., Meindl, P. & Harris, P.J.C. (eds.), 1999: Entomological research in organic 

agriculture. A B Academic Publishers, England. 

Loughridge, A.H. & Luff, M.L., 1983: Aphid predation by Harpalus rufipes (Degeer) (Col., 

Carab.) in the laboratory and field. J. Appl. Ecol. 20: 451-462. 

Lövei, G. & Szentkiralyi, F., 1984: Carabids climbing maize plants. Z. Angew. Ent. 97: 107- 

110. 

Maltby, H.L., Stehr, F.W., Anderson, R.C., Moorehead, G.E., Barton, L.C., Paschke, J.D., 

1971: Establishment in the United States of Anaphes flavipes, an egg parasite of the 

cereal leaf beetle. J. Econom. Entomol. 64: 693-697. 

Mamedov, A.A., 1995: On quantitative estimation of the effectiveness of natural enemies of 

Oulema melanopus L. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) on winter wheat. Entomological 

Review 74 (2): 1-9. 

Meindl, P. & Kromp, B., 1999: Vorbeugende Maßnahmen zur Kontrolle des 

Getreidehähnchens Oulema melanopus L. im ökologischen Anbau. In: Beiträge zur 5. 

Wissenschaftstagung zum Ökologischen Landbau „Vom Rand zur Mitte“. Hoffmann, H. 

& Müller, S. (eds.), Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin: 521-524. 

Montgomery, V.E. & Dewitt, P.R., 1975: Morphological differences among immature stages 

of three genera of exotic larval parasitoids attacking the cereal leaf beetle in United 

States. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 68 (3): 574-578. 

Nyffeler, M., 1999: Prey selection of spiders in the field. The Journal of Arachnology 27: 

317-324. 

Pickett, C.h.H. & Bugg, R.L. (eds.), 1998: Enhancing Biological Control. Habitat 

Management to Promote Natural Enemies of Agricultural Pests. University of California 

Press, 422 pp. 

Schärer, P., 1993: Analyse dichtebeeinflussender Faktoren beim Getreidehähnchen (Oulema 

sp., Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). PhD thesis, University Bern, Switzerland. 

Scheller, H.V., 1984: The role of groundbeetles (Carabidae) as predators on early populations 

of cereal aphids in spring barley. Z. Angew. Ent. 97: 451-463. 

Stangelberger, J., 1995: Bericht über Witterungsverlauf und bemerkenswertes Schadauftreten 

an Kulturpflanzen in Österreich im Jahr 1994. Pflanzenschutzberichte 55(2): 108-128.



pp. 87 - 90 

Habitat preference of carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in Central 

Hungary in winter wheat field and in adjacent habitats 

A. Hatvani 1 , F. Kádár 2 , J. Kiss 3 and G. Péter 3 

1 

Horticult. High School, 6000 Kecskemét, Erdei F. tér 1-3, Hungary 

2 

Plant Protect. Inst., Hung. Acad. Sci., 1525 Budapest, P.O. Box 102, Hungary 

3 

Dept. of Plant Protect, Szent István University Gödöllő, 2100 Gödöllő, Hungary 

Summary 

A pitfall trap study was carried out in three habitats (winter wheat field, its margin and in nearby tree 

rows), in 1995, in Central Hungary. A total of 1,586 individuals of 61 carabid species were collected 

in the three habitats. The most frequent species was Amara tricuspidata. Amara tricuspidata, 

Bembidion properans, Calathus ambiguus preferred the wheat field, whereas Amara anthobia, 

Calathus fuscipes and Harpalus tardus preferred the tree rows, and Harpalus serripes the field 

margin. The field margin was favourable also for C. fuscipes and H. tardus, while Amara aenea, 

Harpalus distinguendus, Microlestes minutulus, Poecilus cupreus, P. punctulatus, P. sericeus 

favoured fields. Harpalus rufipes was found in the wheat field and in the margin but showed a 

preference for the margin. 

Key words: carabid beetles, habitat preference, Hungary 

Introduction 

Carabids are potentially important natural pest control agents (Kromp, 1999), thus are focal 

points of many research related to IPM in Hungary. Investigations on species composition, 

abundance, habitats and swarming phenology of carabid beetles have been a part of the IPM 

activities in winter wheat in Hungary (see Kiss et al., 1993). In the present study we present 

data of the surveys conducted on the Great Plain of Central Hungary, an area which was not 

investigated in our previous studies (Kiss et al., 1994, 1998). Our objectives were to collect 

large numbers of adult ground beetles and study their biology, and especially their habitat 

preferences. 


Surveys were carried out on the Great Plain in Central Hungary (near the town Nagykőrös) in 

a large scale winter wheat field (133 ha), in its field margins (4 m wide), and in tree rows (25 

m wide), next to the field margins. The soil was a sandy one. The plant cover of the study 

sites could be described as follows: 

Field margin 

Agropyron repens, Cynodon dactylon, Artemisia vulgaris, Melandrium album, Polygonum 

aviculare, Arctium lappa, Taraxacum officinale, Medicago sativa, Cannabis sativa, 

Amaranthus retroflexus, Apera spica-venti, Echinochloa crus-galli, Tragopogon sp., 

Amorpha fruticosa. 

87

88 

Tree rows 

Robinia pseudoacacia, Alnus sp., Artemisia vulgaris, Chenopodium album, Agropyron 

repens, Sambucus ebulus, Cannabis sativa, Lamium purpureum, Galium aparine, Arctium 

lappa, Rubus sp. 

Winter wheat field 

Triticum aestivum cv. Mv-19, Portulaca oleracea and Stellaria media. 

The winter wheat was sown in early October 1994, and harvested in July 1995. The 

previous crop was also winter wheat. Fifteen plastic pitfall traps were used for sampling of 

carabids from end of April until end of December 1995. Traps contained 2 % of a formalin 

solution, were emptied weekly and were operated in three rows as follows: five traps were 

placed in the field margin, five were situated in the tree rows, and five were placed in the 

wheat field (30 m from the margin). The distance between the traps in one row was 5 m. 

In order to estimate the effect of the winter wheat harvest on the carabid assemblage we 

illustrate the % of weekly catches of the 3 rd week, 2 nd week and 1 st week prior to and after the 

harvest as % of the total 6-weeks catch. For the evaluation of habitat preferences α indices 

were used (Manly et al., 1972; Chesson, 1978, 1983). 

N 

∑ 

α = n i / n i 

i= 

1 

, where n i is the value for the given species on i place. 

If preference was shown for more habitats, Yates corrected χ 2 -values were calculated on 

the basis of contingence tables for deciding the primary habitat. 

Tab. 1. List of carabids abundant in the sampling area 

Species 

Number of 

α values* 

individuals 

Field Margin Tree rows 

Amara aenea (De Geer) 65 4 2 0.92 

A. anthobia (Villa) 0 3 57 0.95 

A. tricuspidata Dejean 348 49 2 0.87 

Bembidion properans (Stephens) 96 6 0 0.94 

Calathus ambiguus (Paykull) 204 21 17 0.84 

C. fuscipes (Goeze) 36 86 127 0.51 

Harpalus distinguendus 

49 7 2 0.84 

(Duftschmid) 

H. rufipes (De Geer) 23 38 2 0.60 

H. serripes (Quensel) 0 104 26 0.80 

H. tardus (Panzer) 1 81 101 0.55 

Zabrus tenebrioides (Goeze) 68 14 9 0.75 

* for explanation refer to chapter Material and Methods and the text. 

Results 

A total of 1,586 adult individuals of 61 carabid species were caught during the survey. 

Species and individual numbers in the wheat field were 39 and 811, in the field margin 45 and

89 

411, while in the tree rows 28 and 294. Eighteen species were found in each of the three 

habitats. Most abundant species are listed in Table 1. Amara tricuspidata was the dominant 

carabid species regarding its total individual number for the three habitats. 

Ground surface activity of carabids showed a strong seasonal activity with a smaller peak 

in May-June and with a higher one in August-September. Lowest numbers of beetles were 

caught during July. Though total catch in the wheat field decreased in July, density in the 

field increased after the harvest (Tab. 1). 

Habitat preferences of carabid adults (α-values, Table 1) were assumed as follows: 

- Preference for wheat field: A. tricuspidata, B. proberans, C. ambiguus 

- Preference for grassy field margin: H. serripes 

- Preference for tree rows: A. anthobia 

Calathus fuscipes and H. tardus have affinity to each sampled habitat according to their 

lower α-value, but they preferred tree rows (χ 2 values = 39.28, and = 53.51, respectively, P < 

0.05). Accordingly, A. aenea, H. distinguendus, M. minutulus (Goeze), P. cupreus (Linnaeus), 

P. puntulatus (Schaller) and P. sericeus Fischer proved to prefer wheat field (α > 0.8 in each 

case). Harpalus rufipes showed a preference for the margin (χ 2 value=25.95, P < 0.05). 

Discussion 

In our survey, A. tricuspidata was the most dominant carabid species in the winter wheat 

field. However, no data on its biology, and habitat preference is available. Its is in the carabid 

occurrence list of Lövei & Sárospataki (1990) though with low score. Frequently observed 

field species in our earlier investigations like M. minutulus, P. cupreus, P. punctulatus or 

P. sericeus (Kiss et al., 1998) occurred in the present study only in low numbers. Thus, 

influence of the local conditions on carabid assemblages is of great importance. 

Higher species and lower individual number of carabids in the margin compared to wheat 

field were found in the present study, corroborating earlier results from surveys in northern 

Hungary (Kiss et al. 1998). 

50 

40 

FIELD 

MARGIN 

TREE ROWS 

30 

% 

20 

10 

0 

-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 

Fig. 1. Change of catches of carabid beetles prior to and after the harvest of winter wheat

90 

Decreasing individual number of carabids at harvest time is a consequence of their 

reproduction cycle and not caused by the harvest itself. The explanation for this is that 

individual number was higher during the first week after the harvest than before harvest (Tab. 

1). On the other hand two peaks of dominant species (like A. tricuspidata) prior and after the 

harvest consist of adults of two different generations with low catches at harvest time. 

Though carabid species in our study clearly belonged to one of the preference groups 

(field or margin species), the α values indicate their shift to habitats other than the preferred 

one. Many of the carabid species in agricultural landscape are moving between cultivated 

fields and their margins (Desender et al., 1981; Sotherton, 1985; Wallin, 1985). From the 

species in Table 1 data of C. fuscipes, H. tardus, H. rufipes and Zabrus tenebriodes indicate 

such dispersion pattern. Strong affinity of the three Poecilus species for winter wheat has 

been demonstrated in our study, confirming results of earlier studies (Szél et al., 1997; Kiss et 

al., 1998). Thus habitat preferences of carabid species in various regions in Hungary are very 

similar, though the influence of crop type to the activity and distribution of carabid species 

were demonstrated in other studies Cárcamo & Spence (1994). 

References 

Cárcamao, H.A. & Spence, J.R. 1994: Crop type effects on the activity and distribution of 

ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae). Environ. Entomol. 23: 684-692. 

Chesson, J. 1978: Measuring preference in selective predation. Ecology 59: 211-215. 

Chesson, J. 1983: The estimation and analysis of preference and its relationship to foraging 

models. Ecology 64: 1297-1304. 

Desender, K., Maelfait, P.-P., D’Hulster, M. & VanHercke, L. 1981: Ecological and faunal 

studies on Coleoptera in agricultural land. I. Seasonal occurrence of Carabidae in the 

grassy edge of a pasture. Pedobiologia 22: 379-384. 

Kiss, J., Kádár, F., Kozma, E. & Tóth, I. 1993: Importance of various habitats in agricultural 

landscape related to integrated pest management: a preliminary study. Landscape and 

Urban Planning 27: 191-198. 

Kiss, J., Kádár, F., Tóth, I., Kozma, E. & Tóth, F. 1994: Occurrence of predatory arthropods 

in winter wheat field and in the field edge. Écologie 25: 127-132. 

Kiss, J., Kádár, F., Tóth, F., Barth, R. & Hatvani, A. 1998: Predatory arthropods sampled in 

pitfall traps in winter wheat in northern Hungary. IOBC Bull. 21: 81-90. 

Kromp, B. 1999: Carabid beetles in sustainable agriculture: a review on pest control efficacy, 

cultivation impacts and enhancement. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 74: 187- 

228. 

Lövei, G.L. & Sárospataki, M. 1990: Carabid beetles in agricultural fields in eastern Europe. 

In: The Role of Ground Beetles in Ecological and Environmental Studies, Intercept Ltd. 

Andover, ed. Stork: 87-93. 

Manly, B.F.J., Miller, P. & Cook, L.M. 1972: Analysis of selective predation experiments. 

Amer. Nat. 106: 719-736. 

Sotherton, N.W. 1985: The distribution and abundance of predatory Coleoptera overwintering 

in field boundaries. Ann. Appl. Biol. 106: 17-21. 

Szél, Gy., Kádár, F. & Faragó, S. 1997: Abundance and habitat preference of some adultoverwintering 

ground beetle species in crops in western Hungary (Coleoptera: 

Carabidae). Acta Phytopath. Entom. Hung. 32: 369-376. 

Wallin, H. 1985: Spatial and temporal distribution of some abundant carabid beetles (Coleoptera: 

Carabidae) in cereal fields and adjacent habitats. Pedobiologia 28: 19-34.



pp. 91 - 94 

Role of field margin in the winter phenophase of Carabid beetles 

(Coleoptera: Carabidae) in winter wheat field 

G. Péter 1 , F. Kádár 2 , J. Kiss 1 and F. Tóth 1 

1 

Department of Plant Protection, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary 

2 

Plant Protection Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, 

Hungary 

Summary 

Earlier studies on the ecological background of integrated pest management of winter wheat 

performed by the Department of Plant Protection at Szent István University, have identified the most 

important Carabid and spider species and revealed the potential importance of field margins as their 

habitat in Hungary. However, no evidence was available for the overwintering of Carabids in the 

wheat field and in the field margins. Soil samples were taken on József-major farm, near Kartal 

village, northern Hungary in December 1997 and 1998. Ten soil samples were taken from the field 

margin, 5-5 samples were dig in the wheat field at 1 m and 20 m distance from the margin. Soil was 

gathered from an area of 31,5 x 31,5 cm per sample. In 1997 soil was removed to a depth of 25 cm. In 

1998, excavation depth was decreased to 15 cm. Arthropods and organic matter was removed from the 

soil by floating the soil samples in water. Majority of Carabid beetles in our samples occurred in the 

field margin both winters. In the wheat field, 1 m from the margin substantially lower numbers of 

individuals and species were observed than in the field margin. No Carabids were found in samples 

taken 20 m from the margin. Thus, field margins serve as overwintering habitats for Carabids, which 

colonise the fields from there. 

Key words: Carabid beetles, winter wheat, winter phenophase, field margin 

Introduction 

Winter wheat is one of Hungary’s major crop plants, covering about 25% of the country’s 

arable land (app. 1,1 million ha). This cereal growing area represents a wide spread artificial 

habitat that has its own characteristics on the basis of the arthropod community (Kiss et al., 

1994). Integrated farming (as phrased by IOBC guidelines) and integrated pest control relies 

substantially on natural enemies, of which Carabid beetles represent a major group. 

Therefore, protection of predators by means of creating and maintaining appropriate habitats 

plays a key role in integrated pest management (IPM). Establishment of regional IPM 

guidelines needs regional data that will support the adaptation of WPRS guidelines in 

Hungary. 

Earlier studies on the ecological background of IPM of winter wheat carried out by the 

Department of Plant Protection of Szent István University, have identified the most important 

Carabid and spider species and revealed the important role of field margins in Hungary (Kiss 

et al., 1994). However, to date, no evidence is available for the role of field margins in the 

winter phenophase of predator populations. In our two-year survey we were focusing on the 

winter phenophase of Carabid beetles in winter wheat fields and the adjacent field margins. 

91

92 


The sampling area was located near Kartal village, about 40 km east of Budapest, Hungary, 

on the experimental farm of the Szent István University. The winter wheat fields sampled in 

December 1997 and January 1999 both occupied an area of 60 ha. The field margins were 3-5 

m wide, with dense herbaceous undergrowth coverage and sporadic Robinia trees, showing a 

typical view of field margins in the region. Dominant weed species of the margins were 

Galium aperine, Hordeum vulgare and Calamagrostis epigeios. Both fields were treated with 

Logran 75 WG herbicide (9 g triasulfuron ai/ha) in early spring and Bion 50 WG fungicide 

(30 g bendicar ai/ha) in late spring. No insecticides were applied to the winter wheat fields. 

Each winter 10 soil samples were taken from the field margins, 5-5 samples were dig in 

the wheat field at 1 m and 20 m distance from the margin. Soil was gathered from an area of 

31,5 x 31,5 cm per sample. Thus, total sampled area was 1 square meter both in the margin 

and in the field. In 1997 soil was removed to a depth of 25 cm. In 1998, building on 

experiences of the previous year, excavation depth was decreased to 15 cm. Arthropods and 

organic matter was removed from the soil by floating the soil samples in water. Later 

arthropods were separated manually from the debris. 

Tab. 1. Carabid species and their individual number in soil samples in winter, 1997/1998 

List of species and their Margin 1 m infield 20 m infield 

individual number 

Pterostichus sericeus 

38 2 0 

(Fischer von Waldheim) 

Pterostichus cupreus L. 21 1 0 

Agonum dorsale 

21 0 0 

Pontoppidan 

Microlestes minutulus 

8 0 0 

(Goeze) 

Calosoma auropunctatum 2 0 0 

(Herbst) 

Harpalus distinguendus 8 0 0 

Duftschmidt 

Harpalus tardus (Panzer) 3 0 0 

Harpalus azureus (Fab.) 2 0 0 

Brachinus explodens 

6 0 0 

Duftschmidt 

Amara similata (Gyllenhal) 4 1 0 

Total 113 4 0 


Winter of 1997/1998 

A total number of 117 specimens of Carabid beetles were found in the soil samples in the 

winter of 1997/1998, which were distributed among 10 species (Tab. 1). Pterostichus sericeus 

(Fischer von Waldheim) proved to be superdominant (33.6 % in total number of specimens),

93 

Pterostichus cupreus L. and Agonum dorsale Pontoppidan appeared to be dominant (both 

18.6 % in total number of specimens). 

The number of sampled species and specimens was substantially lower in the infield 

samples than those of the field margin. No Carabid beetles were found in any of the 20 m 

samples. No species was present exclusively in the winter wheat field. 

In 1997 one soil sample from all three sets were taken in a way that the upper 15 cm and 

the lower 10 cm layers could be investigated separately. Since no Carabid beetles were found 

in the lower 10 cm of the soil samples, they are not presented in Tab. 1. During the next 

winter sampled soil was removed from sampling areas to a depth of 15 cm only. 

Tab. 2. Carabid species and their individual number in soil samples in winter, 1998/1999 

List of species and their Margin 1 m infield 20 m infield 

individual number 

Pterostichus sericeus 

25 1 0 

(Fischer von Waldheim) 

Pterostichus cupreus L. 14 0 0 

Agonum dorsale 

12 0 0 

Pontoppidan 

Microlestes minutulus 

6 0 0 

(Goeze) 

Calosoma auropunctatum 1 0 0 

(Herbst) 

Brachynus explodens 

1 0 0 

Duftschmidt 

Harpalus rufipalpis Sturm 10 2 0 

Microlestes maurus (Sturm) 3 0 0 

Harpalus rufipes (De Geer) 2 0 0 

Total 74 3 0 

Winter of 1998/1999 

A total number of 77 specimens of Carabid beetles were sampled in the winter of 1998/1999, 

which were distributed among nine species (Tab. 2). 

Pterostichus sericeus proved to be superdominant again (33.8 % in total number of 

specimens), P. cupreus and A. dorsale appeared to be dominant (18.9 and 16.2 % 

respectively, in total number of specimens). No species was present exclusively in the winter 

wheat field. The number of collected species and specimens was substantially lower in the 

infield samples than those of the field margin. No Carabid beetles were found in any of the 20 

m samples. 

The majority of Carabid species and specimens were found in the field margin in both 

winter periods (Tab. 1 and Tab. 2). In the winter of 1997/1998 96.6 %, in 1998/1999 96.1 % 

of total specimens were sampled in the field margin. Given this overwhelming rate of 

Carabids’ presence it can be concluded that field margins play a key role in the overwintering 

period of ground beetles. This finding, which correlate with that of Welling’s (1994), can be 

best explained by that larvae and adults developing after the winter wheat harvest at early 

summer find suitable food in the field margins. Weed coverage of the field margins and

94 

grassy lanes also provide shelter and rest-places for Carabids (Kiss et al., 1993). Later in the 

year, as temperatures decrease considerably, ground beetles tend to move to field margins for 

overwintering. According to the investigations of Sotherton (1984), Carabids can stay in the 

field in the winter phenophase. This phenomenon was not observed during our investigations. 

Winter wheat, planted in early October, is not tall enough to provide sufficient shelter for 

Carabids. 

According to our results in the winter of 1997/1998 3.4 %, and in the winter of 

1998/1999 3.9 % of total specimens were found 1 m infield from the margin. Possibly some 

Carabid species are still active in late autumn and early winter, and some - for example P. 

cupreus, a dominant species in the samples - show activity even in December (Kiss, pers. 

com.). Therefore, some individuals can be found overwintering in the field, close to the 

margin. No Carabids were collected 20 m infield during both winters, probably because soil 

and plant structure are not suitable for late autumn feeding and overwintering. The substantial 

difference between the number of collected individuals of the two sampling period is an 

outcome of 1998 being a year with higher than average precipitation, which caused severe 

frost in the upper layer of the soil both infield and in the margin. 

Other investigations showed that a number of Carabid species overwinter in the field 

margins and invade cultivated lands in spring, corroborating earlier reports of Desender 

(1982) and Sotherton (1984). Agonum dorsale, a dominant species in our samples is listed 

among these Carabids. 

References 

Desender, K. 1982: Ecological and faunal studies on Coleoptera in agricultural land, II. 

Hibernation of Carabidae in agroecosystems. Pedobiologia 23: 295-303. 

Desender, K. et al. 1989: Field edges and their importance for polyphagous predatory 

arthropods. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent 54(3a): 823-833. 

Horvatovich, S. & Szarukán, I. 1986: Faunal investigations of ground beetles (Carabidae) in 

the arable soils of Hungary. Acta Agronomica Hung. 35: 107-123. 

Kiss, J. et al. 1993: Importance of various habitats in agricultural landscape related to 

integrated pest management: a preliminary study. Landscape and urban planning 27: 191- 

198. 

Kiss, J. et al. 1994: Occurrence of predatory arthropods in winter wheat and in the field edge. 

Ecologie 25(2): 127-132. 

Sotherton, N.W. 1984: The distribution and abundance of predatory arthropods overwintering 

on farmland. Ann. Appl. Biol. 105: 423-429. 

Wallin, H. 1985: Spatial and temporal distribution of some abundant carabid beetles 

(Coleoptera: Carabidae) in cereal fields and adjacent habitats. Pedobiologia 28: 19-34. 

Welling, M. 1990: Dispersal of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in arable land. Med. 

Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent 55(2b): 483-491.



pp. 95 - 99 

Insect pests of cereals in Croatia 

Jasminka Igrc-Barčić and Tanja Gotlin Culjak 

Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Zoology, Svetosimunska 25 10000 Zagreb, Croatia 

Short communication 

Wheat is sown in Croatia on an average of 220,000 ha each year. Barley, rye, oats and triticale 

are sown on additional 50,000 ha. 

The average yields on big farms are between 5.5 and 6 t/ha, with a maximum of 8 t/ha. 

Small farms harvest between 4 and 4.5t/ha. In the year 1999 the yields were 20% lower than 

on average. 

According to Maceljski (1995) in Croatia damage of cereals caused by insect pests are on 

average 7 %, by diseases 9 % and by weeds 11 %. In addition, approximately 5 % of the 

stored cereals are destroyed by post-harvest pests. 

Among many insect species feeding on cereals we will mention the most important ones. 

At least three species of Thysanoptera are damaging cereals in Croatia. Among them 

Haplothrips tritici Kurdyumov is the most important species. High densities of H. tritici are 

recorded once in ten years. According to previous studies by Beš (1967) an economical 

damage is caused when more than 18 specimens are present on one ear. Such population 

densities are very rare, and hence there is no need for control of this insect pest. 

In 1964 and 1965 the first strong appearance of bugs of the genus Eurygaster (Het.: 

Scutelleridae) was recorded. This period followed the large introduction of combines for 

harvesting the cereals. As known, the combines are used in average ten days later than the 

former harvest techniques. Therefore the bugs were now able to feed ten days longer on the 

ears and finish their metamorphosis. 

Thereafter Eurygaster spp. were present each year on cereals in Croatia, but never 

reached the high densities of 1964 and 1965. Only in some years on some fields in east 

Slavonia control measures were needed. We believe that Hymenopteran egg parasitioids are 

largely controlling the populations of cereal bugs, mainly because of the very restricted use of 

insecticides on the main field crops, i.e. wheat and maize. 

Aphids 

In Croatia first real investigations on the aphid fauna in cereals started in the eighties. The 

results showed that contrary to previous reports, in which Schizaphis graminum Rondani was 

always mentioned as the most important aphid species on cereals, the following cereal aphids 

were collected and identified: 

Sitobion avenae F., Metopolophium dirhodum Walk., Rhopalosiphum padi R., R. maidis 

Fitch, R. insertum Walk., M. festucae Theob., S. graminum Rond., Macrosiphum euphorbiae 

Th., Tetraneura spp., Anoecia spp. (Igrc, 1985; 1989). 

The most important species among them are S. avenae, M. dirhodum and R. padi. Very 

often these three species appear together infesting leaves, stalks and ears. Only in some years 

the attack of aphids is causing economic damages. Aphid infestations can be harmful when 

their attack occur early as their multiplication factor during one month can reach 200. In 

Croatia Igrc (in Maceljski, 1999) recommends the following decision threshold for the use of 

insecticides: 

95

96 

- the expected yield should be more than 6 t/ha, 

- more than 60 % infested ears at the begin of flowering, 

- more than 70% during flowering, and 

- more than 80% of infested ears during the milky seed stage. 

The infestation of ears include aphids on stalks and leaves when the predator/aphid ratio is 

greater than 1:40 (sometimes predators can prevent the increase of aphid population at a ratio 

until 1:1000). 

For the control of cereal aphids many organophosphourous insecticides, some pyrethroids 

and the carbamate pirimicarb are registered. Among them the more selective ones are 

recommended, i.e. pirimicarb, demetonmethyl and thiometon. The newly developed aphicides 

like imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, fipronil etc. have not yet been registered for control of 

cereal aphids in Croatia. 

Since 1988 we are monitoring aphids, using the standard stationary Agraphid suction trap 

at the Agricultural Faculty in Zagreb. Additionally, we are using a yellow water trap, placed 

25 m apart from the suction trap. 

Here we present results of the monitoring activities during 1996 and 1998 for all aphids 

species in general and for R. padi in particular, by the Agraphid and the yellow traps. 

Figure 1 shows data on trap catches (both Agraphid suction and yellow traps) of all aphid 

species between 1996 and 1998. The year 1997 was a real aphid outbreak year, with 

approximately tenfold higher trap catches than in the two other years. 

In Figure 2 trap catches of R. padi are shown. Interestingly no R. padi were caught in the 

yellow traps in the spring, but only in autumn. Moreover, certain discrepancies were recorded 

in the total number of R. padi caught with the two trapping devices. 

In Croatia R. padi has it's maximum flight activity in September, and in October still 

many aphids fly when temperatures are above 11 °C. These findings underline the potential 

danger of R. padi as a vector for BYDV. 

The main cereal insect pests in Croatia are the cereal leaf beetles Oulema melanopus L. 

and O. gallaeciana (Heyden) (formerly O. lichenis [Voet]) (both Col.: Chrysomelidae), with 

O. melanopus being the more important species. During June and July of each study year, a 

strong migration of young beetles to maize was observed, leading to locally high damages 

levels. The degree of this damage depends mainly upon the proportion of fields on which 

cereals other than maize and maize is grown. 

We estimate that cereal leaf beetles are controlled on 5 to 40 % of fields in each year. 

Many organophosphourous and pyrethroid insecticides are registered for this use. Moreover 

bensultap is registered for the control of cereal leaf beetle larvae. In our trial some chitin 

synthesis inhibitors showed a satisfactory efficacy, but Bt insecticides failed to be efficient. 

As a first control measure we propose to control overwintering adults by treating narrow 

border stripes of fields where more than 25 adult beetles per square meter were encountered. 

This measure should be conducted before the adults disperse into the whole field. 

For the control of the cereal leaf beetles larvae we propose the following decision 

threshold: 

- if a yield of less than 5 t/ ha is expected, the insecticides should be applied when more 

than two larvae on the flag leaf are present, 

- if a yield between 5 and 6 t/ ha is expected, the insecticides should be applied when more 

than 1-1.5 larvae on the flag leaf are present, 

- if the yield is expected to be higher than 6 t/ ha, the insecticides should be applied if more 

than 0.5-1 larvae on one flag leaf are present.

97 

1996 

700 

600 

500 

400 

N° 

300 

200 

100 

0 

III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI 

YELLOW WATER TRAP 

AGRAPHID 

1997 

6000 

5000 

4000 

N° 

3000 

2000 

1000 

0 



AGRAPHID 

1998 

400 

350 

300 

250 

N° 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 



AGRAPHID 

Fig. 1. The flight activity of aphids in Zagreb 1996-1998, recorded in suction and yellow 

traps.

98 

R. padi 1996 

160 

140 

24.10. 

120 

100 

N° 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

26.09. 

07.05. 

20.11. 

V VI VII VIII IX X XI 

AGRAPHID 


R. padi 1997 

480 

17.09. 

400 

320 

N° 

240 

160 

80 

0 

07.05. 

11.11. 

12.11. 

V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 

AGRAPHID 


35 

R. padi 1998 

30 

25 

N° 

20 

15 

03.09. 

10 

5 

03.05. 

04.11 

0 

12.11. 

V VI VII VIII IX X XI 

AGRAPHID 


Fig. 2. The flight activity of Rhopalosiphum padi in Zagreb 1996-1998, recorded in suction 

and yellow traps.

99 

In Croatia 10-20 % of cereals are sown on fields where cereals had been grown the preceding 

year. However, damage due to Zabrus tenebrioides Goeze (Col. Carabidae) is very rare. In 

our conditions, a three year monoculture of cereals is needed for developing economically 

harmful densities of Z. tenebrioides. In such cases the greatest problem is to persuade farmers 

to treat in autumn and not to wait until spring when the use of insecticides can not prevent 

high damages. In the third year of a cereal monoculture an autumn application of soil or foliar 

insecticides should be regularly carried out. There are many species of dipterous larvae 

damaging cereals in Croatia. This pest complex was only partly investigated. According to 

Kovačević (1952) Mayetiola destructor Say, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin), Contarinia 

tritici (Kirby) (all Dipt.: Cecidomyiidae), Oscinella frit L. and Chlorops pumilionis 

(Bjerkander) (both Dipt: Chloropidae) are present in Croatia, but we have never registered 

any economic damages of these species except for frit fly on maize. We have recorded strong 

attack and damages by Haplodiplosis marginata Roser (Dipt.: Cecidomyiidae) in wheat fields 

in the mountain region of Poakakotlina. Some authors recently mentioned the presence of 

Delia coarctata (Fallén) (Dipt.: Anthomyiidae) and Phorbia fumigata (Meigen) (both Dipt.: 

Anthomyiidae), though no data on economic impact is available. We have recorded a very 

wide distribution of D. platura (Meigen) on many host plants, with some damage on wheat. 

We suspect that this poorly studied insect pests is much more important not only on cereals, 

but also on other commonly planted crops in Croatia. Each year some species of leaf miners 

of the family Agromyzidae were found damaging the tops of wheat leaves, though not 

causing any economic damage. 

Concluding we can state that at the moment insect pest do not cause important damage to 

cereal crops in Croatia. The greatest potential danger are aphids especially if the importance 

of BYDV and other viruses will increase. Due to relatively large areas on which in Croatia 

cereals are grown we consider that any insecticide applications should be restricted as much 

as possible to prevent harm to natural enemies of insect pests and to the environment. 

References 

Beš, A. 1967: Prilog poznavanju biologije i ekonomskog značaja pšeničnog tripsa – 

Haplothrips tritici Kurd. na području Bosne i Hercegovine, doktorska disertacija. 

Igrc, J. 1985: Važnost i potreba suzbijanja lisnih uši (Aphididae) strnih žita, Agronomski 

glasnik, 3-4: 109-118. 

Igrc, J. 1989: Lisne uši strnih žitarica, Glasnik zaštite bilja, 338-342. 

Igrc, J in Maceljski, M. 1999: Poljoprivredna entomologija, 65-111. 

Kovačević, Ž. 1952: Primijenjena entomologija, Poljoprivredni štetnici. 

Maceljski, M. 1995: Štete od štetoèinja u Hrvatskoj, Glasnik zaštite bilja, 6: 261-265.

100



pp. 101 - 107 

The Hessian fly in Morocco: 

Surveys, loss assessment, and genetic resistance in bread wheat 

Lhaloui, S. 1 , M. El Bouhssini 2 and A. Amri 2 

1 

Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre Aridoculture, P.O. Box 589, Settat, 

Morocco 

2 

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

Summary 

Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) is the most destructive insect pest of wheat (Triticum spp) in 

the major cereal growing regions of the world. It is believed to have originated in West Asia which is 

the centre of diversity of wheat, and has spread out to Europe, North Africa, and North America. 

Heavy populations are detected regularly in North America and western Mediterranean countries. In 

North Africa, especially in Morocco, grain yield losses have been estimated to 42 and 36 % in bread 

wheat using an insecticide control method, and near isogenic resistant and susceptible lines 

respectively (Lhaloui et al., 1992; Amri et al., 1992). As a comparison, losses have been estimated to 

32 % in durum wheat (Lhaloui et al., 1992). 

The most efficient and economic method of control of this pest is the genetic resistance via the use 

of resistant cultivars. In the USA, 29 genes of resistance have been named and characterised. Ten of 

these genes (H5, H7H8, H11, H13, H14H15, H21, H22, H23, H25, and H26) were selected as 

conferring resistance to Hessian fly in the field in Morocco (El Bouhssini et al., 1996). Most of them 

are located on the A or the D genomes. The H5 gene was located in a South Dakota bread wheat 

germplasm, and was released as the first variety resistant to Hessian fly in Morocco, under the name of 

‘Saada’ in 1988. The H22 gene has successfully been introgressed into an adapted Moroccan bread 

wheat cultivar, and has recently been released under the name of ‘Aguilal’. Also, the CIMMYT bread 

wheat resistant line L222 has been registered in the official catalogue, under the name ‘Arrihane’. 

In addition to these known genes of resistance, we have identified a large number of sources in the 

wild wheat relatives. These sources are very useful because they increase the gene bank available to 

breeders to choose the resistance from, and they also widen the genetic base. 

Key words: Hessian fly, infestations, losses, plant resistance, bread wheat. 

Introduction 

Bread wheat is one of the major cereal crops in Morocco. It is grown over 1.5 Million ha 

annually. However, the production potential of this crop is limited by several biotic and 

abiotic stress factors. Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) is the most destructive insect 

pest of wheat (Triticum spp) in the major cereal growing regions of the world. It is believed to 

have originated in West Asia which is the centre of diversity of wheat, and has spread out to 

Europe, North Africa, and North America. Heavy populations are detected regularly in North 

America and western Mediterranean countries. In North Africa, especially in Morocco, this 

insect is the focal research subject in the program of protecting cereals against damaging 

pests. 

The objective of this paper is to give an overview of what has been accomplished in the 

field of host plant resistance to this pest in Morocco, and the plans for future research. 

101

102 

Surveys and diagnosis 

1: In the cereal growing plains 

A five year survey was conducted over the seven biggest cereal production provinces of 

Morocco, to determine the intensity and distribution of the pest infestations, compare the 

infestations on bread wheat to those on durum wheat, observe annual variations in the 

infestations levels, and estimate yield losses due to these infestations. 

This study showed that Hessian fly was very common throughout the major cereal 

growing areas of Morocco. It was also fairly persistent over all the five year surveys. Eightyeight 

and 85 % of bread wheat and durum wheat fields respectively were infested. 

Tab. 1. Mayetiola spp infestations in fields of bread wheat (BW), as compared to durum 

wheat (DW) surveyed over five years in Morocco (cf. Lhaloui et al., 1992). 

Years 


fields 

sampled 

Infested 

Percent fields 

>20% tillers 

infested 

>50% tillers 

infested 

BW DW BW DW BW DW BW DW 

1986 61 57 87 88 72 61 36 30 

1987 56 36 79 67 25 22 9 3 

1988 59 36 86 79 66 41 27 7 

1989 63 62 94 90 92 89 30 39 

1990 73 69 93 94 67 49 32 26 

Mean/Total 312 285 88 85 65 55 27 22 

Tab. 2. Mayetiola spp infestations in fields of bread and durum wheat surveyed in seven 

provinces over five years in Morocco. 

Provinces 


fields 

sampled 

Infested 

Percent fields 

>20% tillers 

infested 

>50% tillers 

infested 

BW DW BW DW BW DW BW DW 

Settat 44 44 100 98 91 75 48 36 

El Jadida 41 40 98 98 90 83 46 35 

Safi 47 47 100 96 74 70 45 45 

Marrakesh 33 25 64 68 33 24 6 4 

El Kalaa 58 58 90 83 60 43 16 9 

Beni Mellal 54 40 80 78 59 48 17 10 

Khouribga 35 31 80 65 40 26 11 6 

Mean/Total 312 285 88 85 65 55 27 22

103 

Economic levels of infestations (20% of tillers infested, cf. Lafever et al. 1980) were 

observed in 65% as compared to 55% of bread wheat and durum wheat fields, respectively 

(Tab. 1). 

The percent fields with economic infestations remained stable across the study years. 

Severe infestations (over 50% tillers infested) were observed in 27 and 22 % of bread wheat 

and durum wheat fields, respectively (Tab. 2) (cf. Lhaloui et al., 1992a). 

These results clearly indicate that Hessian fly is very wide spread in Morocco, with high 

infestation levels in all the regions, and that bread wheat is the most infested cereal. 

2: In the regions of high altitude 

A smaller scale survey, over two years only, was conducted in the Highland regions of the 

Atlas mountains; this study showed that 72% of the bread wheat fields were infested with 

Hessian fly, and that the fields presented up to 27% of tillers infested. For durum wheat, the 

percent of fields infested was equivalent to that of bread wheat, but tiller infestation was 

lower (Tab. 3). 

Tab. 3. Levels of Infestations of cecidomyiids on bread wheat (BW) as compared to durum 

wheat (DW) in the regions of High elevation in Morocco (cf. Lhaloui et al., 1998). 

Regions 

number 

fields 

sampled 

% fields 

infested 

% plants 

infested 

DW BW DW BW DW BW 

Annoceur 2 7 100 100 37 54 

Guigou 3 7 67 71 8 12 

Midelt 8 4 56 50 6 15 

El Ksibah 7 4 48 74 14 30 

Azilal 7 3 74 67 14 25 

Mean/Total 27 25 69 72 16 27 

Tab. 4. Mean percent grain yield loss due to Hessian fly infestations on mid season plantings 

estimated over three years in three different regions. 

Crop 

Percent grain yield loss 

Bread Wheat 42 

Durum Wheat 32 

Barley 45 

Estimates of yield losses 

Grain yield losses have been estimated to be 42 and 36 % in bread wheat using an insecticide 

control method, and near isogenic resistant and susceptible lines respectively (Lhaloui et al., 

1992; Amri et al., 1992). In durum wheat, losses have been estimated to be 32 % (Lhaloui et 

al., 1992), which is equivalent to losses estimated on bread wheat.

104 

The estimate of yield loss test showed that yield increases between chemically protected 

and non-protected varieties, averaged over a four year period of the test, 42, 32, and 45% for 

bread wheat, durum wheat and barley, respectively (Tab. 4). In an average rainfall season, the 

percentage of loss was estimated to be 35% of the yield. This indicates that losses caused by 

this pest on durum wheat are equivalent to those caused on bread wheat (Lhaloui et al., 

1992b). 

Genetic control: 

identification of sources of resistance and development of resistant cultivars 

Host plant resistance has been widely utilised to limit the damage caused by insect pests over 

the world. Sources of resistance have been continuously sought and introgressed into adapted 

cultivars. This method presents many advantages: 

1. It is economical for the farmer, as compared to the repeated use of chemicals, it does 

not cost him anything; everything is incorporated into the seed of the resistant cultivar. 

2. It is safe for man and animals and does not present any toxicity. 

3. It is environmentally sound and safe, and thus does not pollute the environment. 

1: Methodology of screening 

In the greenhouse and the growth chambers, the screening procedure we followed is similar to 

that described by Cartwright and LaHue (1944). The genetic material consists of collections 

of wild wheat relatives, and nurseries generated by breeders from crosses between identified 

sources of resistance and adapted Moroccan varieties. The number of entries can vary from 

5,000 to 1,000 per year. Lines are seeded in standard greenhouse flats, containing a mixture of 

2/3 soil and 1/3 peat, at a rate of one row per line, and 25 seeds per row. Each flat contains a 

susceptible (cv. Nesma) and a resistant (cv. Saada ) check. When plants are in the two-leaf 

stage, flats are covered with a cheesecloth tent, and about one hundred females of newly 

emerged and mated Hessian flies are released in each flat. Females are allowed to lay eggs for 

two days. Three weeks later, plants are removed from the flats and checked for their 

resistance reaction. Plants that are stunted and had a dark green colour were considered as 

susceptible, those that have normal growth, with a light green colour are considered as 

resistant. Resistance is further confirmed by the presence of dead first instar larvae at the 

bases of stems. 

Advanced breeding material is screened in the field, usually at the Jemaa shaim 

experimental station, which is considered as the hot spot of Hessian fly occurrence in 

Morocco. They are seeded in 3 m lines, 50 cm spaced. The seeding date is chosen in late 

December to allow plants to get the maximum infestation by the second generation of adult 

Hessian flies. The screening is done visually in February after the infestations have occurred 

and plants had shown resistance or susceptibility reaction. The selection is made in April, at 

crop maturity, in collaboration with the breeding program. 

2: Major results and accomplishments 

In the beginning of the program, we screened al the existing Moroccan germplasm. 

Unfortunately it turned out to be all susceptible. 

Then we screened the North American uniform Hessian fly nursery in 1984, and the 

results showed that three genes of this nursery provided a high level of resistance to the 

Moroccan populations of this pest. These were H5, H11, and H13. 

The H5 gene existed in a south Dakota spring bread wheat germplasm SD8036. This line 

was tested in Morocco for yield performance, and released in 1989 as the first cultivar

105 

resistant to Hessian fly in Morocco, under the name of Saada. Later, in 1994, the first 

Moroccan bread wheat cultivar, Massira, tolerant to the fly, was released. 

The most efficient and economic method of control of this pest is the genetic resistance 

via the use of resistant cultivars. In the USA, 27 genes of resistance have been characterised 

and named. Ten of these genes (H5, H7H8, H11, H13, H14H15, H21, H22, H23, H25, and 

H26) were selected as conferring resistance to Hessian fly in the field in Morocco (El 

Bouhssini et al., 1996). Most of them are located on the A or the D genomes. The H22 gene 

has been successfully introgressed into an adapted Moroccan bread wheat cultivar. Also, the 

CIMMYT bread wheat resistant line L222 has been registered in the official catalogue. Both 

cultivars are now in the seed increase phase. 

The search for new sources of resistance continued, and we now have identified a total of 

12 genes(H5, H7H8, H11, H13, H14H15, H21, H22, H23, H25, and H26). 

Three other bread wheat lines were selected as presenting very high levels of resistance 

to the fly; these were L222, L254, and ADC14. Last year, the L222 was registered as a 

cultivar under the name of Arrihane, and a bread wheat line carrying the H22 was released 

under the name of Aguilal. Both lines are now in the seed increase phase, and will reach the 

farmer in the year 2000. 

Tab. 5. Major wheat genes for resistance to Hessian fly in Morocco (cf. El Bouhssini et al., 

1996). 

Gene Designation Source Genome / 

Chromosome location 

H5 T. aestivum 1A 

H11 T. turgidium 1A 

H13 A. squarrosa 6DL 

H14 H15 T. turgidium 5A 

H21 S. cereale 2BS.2RL 

H22 A. squarrosa 1D 


H25 S. cereale 4AS.4AL-6RL.4AL 


Tab. 6. Cultivars and lines with resistance to Hessian fly in Morocco. 

Line/cultivar Source Mechanism 

of resistance 

Saada T. aestivum Antibiosis 

Massira T. aestivum Tolerance 

L222/L254 T. aestivum Antibiosis 

ADC 14 T. aestivum Antibiosis 

Aguilal T. aestivum Antibiosis 

Arrihane T. aestivum Antibiosis

106 

In addition, we have identified a large number of sources of resistance in wild relatives; 

among this germplasm, There are many accessions of Triticum, Aegilops, and Hordeum. 

These constitute a very rich gene bank that we can turn to when the characterised genes are 

no longer effective, and widen the genetic base of resistance used in the breeding program. 

Conclusion 

Overall, we have identified a large number of sources of resistance, both in adapted wheat 

lines, and in several wild sources. The resistance that was identified is mostly of the antibiosis 

type; plants were not stunted, had normal growth with light green colour, and contained dead 

first instars of Hessian fly at the bases of their stems, which indicates that these larvae died 

when they started feeding on the plants (antibiosis reaction). Antibiosis is the most desirable 

form of resistance in the case of host plant resistance to Hessian fly as it is controlled by a 

gene for gene relationship. 

The selected breeding lines were homogeneous for resistance and presented good 

agronomic characters. This indicates, that lots of progress has been achieved as far as 

resistance to Hessian fly in both bread and durum wheat is concerned in Morocco. 

However, because of the nature of Hessian fly genetics, and its ability to develop new 

virulent biotypes, we need to stay continuously alerted, and ahead of biotype development. In 

fact, the speed of rise of new more virulent biotypes depend on the size of the pest population, 

the number of generations, and acreage on which the resistant gene has been deployed. 

Hessian fly has large populations, with two to three generations per year. Thus a large genetic 

variability among individuals of the population which is the material needed for the selection 

pressure to act on. The development of these biotypes is even faster if the cultivar carrying 

the resistance is grown over a large acreage. This will be expected, as improved more 

productive varieties have always been adopted by farmers, and replaced older varieties. The 

durum and bread wheat improvement program of Morocco have to stay ahead of new 

biotypes by conducting surveys of deployed cultivars, estimating the % susceptibility in the 

varieties; in other terms, the percent of virulence in the population. 

Also, the search for new sources of resistance to the developing biotype has to start very 

early and not wait until the biotype erupt. Cultures of the new virulent individuals have to be 

kept in the laboratory, and used in the search for new sources of resistance. 

References 

Amri, A., El Bouhssini, M., Lhaloui, S., Cox, T.S. & Hatchett, J.H. 1992: Estimates of yield 

loss due to Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on bread wheat using near isogenic 

lines. Al Awamia 77: 75-87. 

Cartwright, W.B. & LaHue, D.W. 1944: Testing wheats in the greenhouse for Hessian fly 

resistance. J. Econ. Entomol. 37: 385-387. 

El Bouhssini, M., Lhaloui, S., Amri, A., Jlibene, M., Hatchett, J.H., Nssarellah, N. & Nachit, 

M.M. 1996: Wheat genetic control of Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Morocco. 

Field Crops Research 45: 111-114. 

Lafever, H.N., Sosa, O., Gallun, R.L., Foster, J.E. & Kuhn, R.C. 1980: Survey monitors of 

Hessian fly population in Ohio wheat. Ohio Report on Research and Development; 

Agriculture, Home Economics, Natural Resources 64(4): 51-53.

Lhaloui, S., Buschman, L., El Bouhssini, M., Amri, A., Hatchett, J.H., Keith, D., Starks, K. & 

El. Houssaini, K. 1992 a: Infestations of Mayetiola spp. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in 

bread wheat, durum wheat, and barley: Results of five annual surveys in the major cereal 

growing regions of Morocco. Al Awamia 77: 21-53. 

Lhaloui, S., Buschman, L., El Bouhssini, M., Starks, K., Keith, D.L. & El. Houssaini, K. 

1992 b: Control of Mayetiola species (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) with carbofuran in bread 

wheat, durum wheat, and barley, with yield loss assessment and its economic analysis. Al 

Awamia 77: 55-73. 

Lhaloui, S., El Bouhssini, M. & Amri, A. 1998: Survey of insect pests of cereals in the 

Highlands of Morocco in 1996 and 1997. 1986 Annual Research Report. Centre 

Aridoculture. Settat, Morocco. 

107

108



pp. 109 - 112 

Ecological Pest Management (EPM): General Problems 

Wladimir B. Tshernyshev 

Department of Entomology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow 119899, 

Russia 

Summary 

Strategies of EPM and IPM are principally different. EPM uses only such methods which do not upset 

the natural balance of the agro-ecosystem and rejects both chemical pesticides and mass inundation by 

artificially reared natural enemies. EPM cannot use Economic Injury Level directly. Certain 

combinations of two parameters, density of pest and density of its natural enemies (the probability of 

pest outbreak), should be a token for short-termed measures in EPM. The advantages, shortcomings 

and basic tasks of EPM are discussed. 

Key words: pests, integrated control, ecological control, natural enemies 

What is Ecological Pest Management? 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) incorporates all methods of plant protecting, including 

both ecological and anti-ecological ones. Ecological Pest Management is often considered as 

only a part of IPM (Kogan, 1998). 

Proposed by us (Tshernyshev, 1994, 1995, 1996) Ecological Pest Management (EPM) is 

a direct result of IPM development and includes the same methods of plant protection except 

those which can upset the natural balance of the agro-ecosystem. One would think that we 

could better name it Ecological Integrated Pest Management (EIPM - Kozar, 1992; Sokolov 

et al., 1994; Sugonyaev & Monastyrsky, 1997) or Ecologically Based Integrated Pest 

Management (EBIPM - National Research Council, 1996). Strictly speaking EPM is really an 

integration of many methods of plant protection. However, the general strategies of EPM and 

the various types of IPM are quite different. 

Firstly, EPM bases on keeping the natural stability of agro-ecosystem, and rejects any 

chemical pesticides and other methods of plant protection which can upset natural balance. 

One should keep in mind that IPM considers all methods of plant protection which are able to 

increase the yield (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1975; Kogan, 1998). It is well known 

that every hard chemical pesticide is harmful to a certain extent to the environment. 

Secondly, EPM is not able to use directly the backbone of IPM, i.e. the concept of 

Economic Injury Threshold, because when pest densities have already reached such high 

levels, only hard measures are able to save the yield. The decision to take measures should be 

based on two separate parameters: the abundance of the pest and that of its natural enemies. 

Every combination of these parameters corresponds to definite level of probabilities that the 

economic injury level will soon be reached (i.e. possible outbreak development). The 

necessary table of combinations may be derived from long-term monitoring data of 

arthropods. The admissible risk will depend on the kind of crop and geographical region. 

109

110 

EPM and IPM from the point of view of population dynamics 

Accordingly to the general theory of population dynamics (Victorov, 1976; Isayev et al., 

1984), the level of any population density usually varies in definite limits, being regulated by 

predators and non-specialised parasites. Sometimes these predators and parasites can not hold 

the reproduction of pest population and so-called "slipping out" takes place (pest outbreak). 

Specialised parasites are usually effective only at the highest levels of the pest populations. 

The level of an economic injury threshold is usually higher than the level of slipping out. 

The general task of EPM is to prevent the pest population from slipping out of the control of 

their natural enemies. If the natural enemies are always abundant we can forget about 

pesticides. In IPM we also use so-called « levels of natural enemies efficacy». It means that if 

there are no more than «n» specimens of a given pest species per one predator (parasite) in the 

field, you should not use pesticides even when the abundance of the pest exceeds the 

economic injury threshold. However, the backbone of every IPM concept is the economic 

injury level. It means that in practice, we may wait until the pest density is very high and then 

use pesticides. 

The management of natural enemies and their alternative prey species 

The main measure in EPM is a management of natural enemies. Grassy margins around the 

field, meadows, meliorate ditches, hedges, forest belts, forest edges and fields of perennial 

herbs may be good refuges for predators and parasites. We should note that only species 

inhabiting relatively open spaces (usually ecotones) are able to colonise the field, forest 

species cannot do it. The stability of an agro-ecosystem can also be increased by the 

introduction of plant polycultures, i.e. by sowing different plants (especially flowering 

cultural plants) on separate strips and by placing "cassettes" with any artificially reared «food 

insects» in the field to attract natural enemies (Kovalenkov & Tjurina, 1993). If the slipping 

out of any pest is outlined, a partial mowing of the nearest grassy field margins, meadows or 

perennial herbs can increase the natural enemies density in the field (Nyazov, 1992; 

Khamrayev, 1992). 

All natural enemies should be provided with food during periods when there are no pests 

in the field. However, the alternative prey species also need their host plants. Therefore we 

have to regulate complexes of wild plants near the crop fields. 

Short-term measures in EPM 

In EPM we have at least four barriers for pests in the field. 1) Natural predators (insects, 

spiders, mites, may be harvested). They are universal and can effectively work at every level 

of pest abundance. Many non-specialised parasites also belong to this category of natural 

enemies. This barrier is especially important. 2) If the monitoring shows that the abundance 

of natural enemies is not sufficient, we can increase their number by mowing the nearest 

perennial herbs, meadows or grassy margins. 3) Next step is a release of some artificially 

reared enemies. However, too many mass releases may be dangerous for the stability of an 

agro-ecosystem due to competition with natural enemies and eradication of alternative preys 

(hosts). 4) In many cases the soft (microbiological and any similar) pesticides may be used. 

The limitations are the same as in the previous case. 

Therefore, in contrast to IPM, an EPM strategy demands the interruption of the outbreak 

development in its very beginning when the pest abundance level is lower than the economic 

injury threshold.

111 

Advantages and shortcomings of EPM 

Advantages of EPM are the following: 1) no pollution of environment and food products; 2) 

no problems of resistance to chemical pesticides, 3) supporting of maximal biodiversity and 

conservation of rare species; 4) favourable conditions for natural pollinators; 4) long-term 

effect of agro-landscape management; 6) low expenses. 

The shortcomings of EPM are: 1) The main hindrance is a psychological barrier. All 

persons engaged in production are sure that it is impossible to grow the yield without 

chemical pesticides; 2) relatively lower reliability, especially in the beginning of landscape 

management procedure, therefore the replacement of the IPM by the EPM should be made 

gradually; 3) much more complex monitoring schemes for both the pests and the beneficial 

arthropods, including also their alternative preys (hosts), both in the field and around it (field 

margins and surrounding biotopes). Such monitoring should be made by well-educated 

specialists. Indeed, in many cases estimation of population density only of well distinguished 

species (indicator species - Sugonyaev & Monastyrsky, 1997) is sufficient; 4) elaboration of 

the EPM-system for such pests which can also decrease the quality of production for instance 

for bugs Eurygaster integriceps Put., and for many orchard pests. In this case the economic 

injury level may be very close to level of slipping out; 5) elaboration of EPM-system for long 

distance migratory pests like some locust species; 6) elaboration such system for new alien 

species like the Colorado beetle, because the complex of their natural enemies has not been 

formed finally so far. 

The main directions of scientific research in EPM elaboration 

The main topics and stages of research are the following: 1) to determine the dominating 

species of predators and parasites in the field and the spectrum of their preys (pests and 

inhabitants of weeds and wild plants); 2) to elaborate the management of alternative preys 

(hosts) outside the field; 3) to provide additional food sources for entomophagous arthropods, 

e.g. nectar, pollen and honeydew, and to determine their preferred flowering plants; 3) to 

study interactions between natural enemies; 4) to investigate seasonal colonisation of the field 

by natural enemies, optimal places for their hibernation, aestivation and reproduction; 5) 

supporting of field margins on the stage of succession optimal for natural enemies; 6) to study 

interactions between natural enemies and artificially reared and released predators and 

parasites, microbiological and chemical pesticides; and 7) construction of optimal types of 

agro-landscapes. 

Conclusion 

Ecological Pest Management is supposed to replace the concept of Integrated Pest 

Management (IPM) in the near future. We think that namely cereal crops will provide the best 

opportunity to elaborate the first EPM system. We suppose also that such a system of natural 

balance in agro-ecosystem may be also feasible for disease and weed control. 

References 

Food and Agriculture Organisation 1975: Report FAO Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest 

Control, 5 th October 15-25, 1974, Rome, Italy: FAO- UN. Meeting report 1975/m/2, 

41 pp. (cit. by M. Kogan, 1998) 

Isajev, A.S., Khlebopros, R.G., Nedorjezov, L.V., Kondakov, Ju, P. & Kiseljev, V.V. 1984: 

Population dynamics in forest insects. Novosibirsk, Nauka, 224 pp. (in Russian).

112 

Khamrajev, A.S., 1992: [Anthropogenous influence on the dominating complex of pests and 

entomophaguos insects in ecosystem of cotton crop in south-west of Uzbekistan.] 

Doklady of Acad. Sci. Uzbekistan 10-11: 85-87 (in Russian). 

Kogan, M. 1998: Integrated Pest Management: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary 

Developments. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 43: 243-270. 

Kovalenkov, V.G. & Tjurina, N.M. 1993: [Is it possible to rule the activity of entomophagous 

insects ?] Plant Protect. 8: 7-8 (in Russian). 

Kozar, F., 1992: Ecological plant protection in Hungary. In: Proc. of the Congress Agriculture 

and Environment in Eastern Europe and the Netherlands. Agric. University, Wageningen: 

283-291. 

National Research Council 1996: Ecologically Based Pest Management. New Solution for a 

New Century. Washington, DC. Natl. Acad. 160 pp. 

Nyazov, O.D. 1992: [Ecological principles of cotton crop protection.] Izvestia Acad. Sci., 

Turkmenistan: 3-13 (in Russian). 

Sokolov, M.S., Monastyrsky, O.A. & Pikushova, E.A. 1994: [Application of ecological 

principles to plant protection.] Pushchino, RA Agric., 477 pp. (in Russian). 

Sugonyaev, E.S. & Monastyrsky, A.L. 1997: [Introduction to the management of insect 

populations - rice pests in Vietnam.] Khanoy, 291 pp. (in Russian). 

Tshernyshev, W.B. 1994: [Ecological plant protection.] Plant Protect. 8: 46-47 (in Russian). 

Tshernyshev, W.B. 1995: Ecological pest management: general approaches. J. Appl. Ent. 119: 

379-381. 

Tshernyshev, W.B. 1996: [Insect Ecology.] Moscow, Publ. House of Moscow University: 297 

pp. (in Russian). 

Victorov, G.A. 1976: [Ecology of entomophagous parasitic insects.] Moscow, Nauka, 127 pp. 

(in Russian).



pp. 113 - 118 

Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor Say) damage in relay intercropping of 

cereals in Finland 

Erja Huusela-Veistola, Arja Vasarainen and Jaana Grahn 

Agricultural Research Centre of Finland, Plant Production Research, FIN-31600 Jokioinen, 

Finland 

Summary 

Relay intercropping is a double-cropping system where a ‘cover crop’ (spring cereal or oil-seed rape) 

and a winter cereal are usually sown simultaneously in the spring. The ‘cover crop’ is harvested in the 

first year and the winter cereal in the second year. Relay intercropping saves time and energy, 

improves the soil properties and keeps the fields green throughout the year. Severe damage of winter 

cereals has occurred in relay intercropping fields in SW Finland. Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor 

Say (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), has damaged several intercropped winter cereals so heavily that many 

farmers have given up the new promising cropping system. To date, damage caused by the Hessian fly 

in Finland has been overlooked although damage in rye and barley has been reported as early as in the 

early 1900s. Since 1995, Hessian fly infestations have occurred especially in spring-sown winter 

wheat, but also in rye and barley in relay intercropped fields. In 1999, Hessian fly infestations were 

found also in ordinary spring cereal (barley, wheat) and winter wheat fields. In the USA, resistant 

wheat varieties are being used to decrease the damage caused by the Hessian fly. Delayed sowing 

time, crop rotation and tillage may also decrease crop losses. However, in relay intercropping, springsown 

winter cereals are more and longer susceptible to the Hessian fly attack because their growth is 

retarded. In addition, it is difficult or impossible to target pesticides to larvae inhabiting the base of 

undersown winter cereals. The importance of Hessian fly as a pest in relay intercropping in Finland is 

discussed. 

Key words: double-cropping, Cecidomyiidae, Hessian fly, integrated control, intercropping 

Introduction 

The bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) is the main pest of spring cereals in 

Finland. Generally, aphid outbreaks occur 2-3 times per decade. Thus, insecticides are not 

used every year in large scale in cereal production in Finland. The orange wheat blossom 

midge (Sitodiplosis mosellana [Géhin]) and the frit fly (Oscinella frit L.) occasionally cause 

local problems to winter cereals. 

Changes in farming systems, e.g. trends in conservation tillage and non-tillage, may make 

the conditions more suitable for new or previously minor pest species. Integrated or 

sustainable cereal production may have different pest problems than conventional production 

methods. Usually, large monoculture fields favour pests than more diversified intercropped 

fields (Andow, 1991). 

Relay intercropping 

Today, winter-green fields have become popular because of the environmental support 

provided by the EU. Relay intercropping is a double-cropping system where a ‘cover crop’ 

(spring cereal or oil-seed rape) and a winter cereal are usually sown simultaneously in the 

spring. The ‘cover crop’ is harvested in the first year and the winter cereal in the second year. 

113

114 

Relay intercropping saves time and energy, improves the soil properties and keeps the fields 

green throughout the year. Moreover, the sowing conditions are better and more certain in the 

spring than in the autumn in Finland. Severe damage of winter cereals has occurred in relay 

intercropping fields in SW Finland. Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), has damaged 

several intercropped winter cereals so heavily that many farmers have given up the promising 

new cropping system. 

Hessian fly 

Distribution 

The Hessian fly is a member of the dipteran family Cecidomyiidae which includes several 

pests of crop plants. It is an important pest of wheat in the USA, Canada, New Zealand and 

Morocco (Gagne et al., 1991; Harris et al., 1996). Although the Hessian fly is native to 

Europe it causes only minor crop losses there (Skuhrava et al., 1984). 

To date, damage caused by the Hessian fly in Finland has been overlooked although 

damage in rye and barley has been reported as early as in the early 1900s (Vappula, 1965). 

Since 1995, Hessian fly infestations have occurred especially in spring-sown winter wheat, 

but also in rye and barley in relay intercropped fields (Fig. 1). In 1999, Hessian fly 

infestations were found also in ordinary spring cereal (barley, wheat) and winter wheat fields. 

Fig. 1. Damage caused by Hessian fly in intercropped fields on practical (circle) and 

experimental (square) farms in Finland.

115 

Life cycle 

Adult Hessian flies resemble small mosquitoes. They are weak fliers and only live for about 

three days. Soon after mating the female deposits reddish 0.4-0.5-mm-long eggs on the upper 

surface of leaves of host plants. The eggs hatch in 3-10 days, depending on the temperature. 

The first-stage larvae, which are first reddish but soon become white, move down to the base 

of the leaf. The two later larval stages are immobile and they feed on plant juice, burrowing 

between the leaf sheath and the stem. A puparium or ‘flaxseed’ develops after two to four 

weeks. The Hessian fly overwinters as larvae or pupae inside the puparium. 

The Hessian fly may have from one to six (basically two) generations per year (Barnes, 

1956). The number of generations depends on the temperature, moisture and food plants 

available (Barnes, 1956). Especially the length of the pupal stage varies and, therefore, brood 

may be a better term than generation (Buntin & Chapin, 1990). In practice, there are several 

overlapping broods per year; all life stages can be found simultaneously in the summertime in 

Finland. 

Damage 

Wheat and barley are favourite hosts of the Hessian fly, but it can feed on rye, triticale and 

many other grasses, e.g. Agropyron spp., Elymus spp. and Phleum spp., as well (Jones, 1939; 

Barnes 1956; Johnson et al., 1987). Oats seems to be resistant to Hessian fly (Morrill, 1982). 

The injury is caused by the larvae which feed near the base of the plant. Because Hessian fly 

is a sapfeeder, larvae cause little apparent physical damage to the plant tissue. Hessian fly 

infestation causes crop losses in several ways: 1) by killing or severely stunting seedlings and 

tillers, 2) by breaking the stems of mature plants and 3) by reducing the grain size and number 

(Barnes, 1956). Damage is related to the degree of infestation and the growth stage of the host 

plant. In some cases, plant tillering may partly compensate for the damage caused by the 

Hessian fly even if the main stem was destroyed. Tillering response varies between wheat 

cultivars (Wellso & Hoxie, 1994). 

Crop protection 

Crop protection recommendations are based on those applied in the USA where Hessian fly is 

one of the most destructive pests of wheat. 

Resistant varieties 

In the USA, several resistant wheat varieties are being used to decrease the damage caused by 

the Hessian fly. A total 27 resistant genes have been found (Ratcliffe & Hatchett, 1997). 

Resistance is based on larval antibiosis, which means that larvae cannot live and develop in 

resistant plants and die in a few days. However, due to selective pressure, more virulent 

biotypes of Hessian fly, which are able to overcome plant resistance, are becoming common. 

Fly-free sowing dates 

With late sowing of winter wheat, damage caused by the Hessian fly may be avoided (Buntin 

et al., 1990). The recommended fly-free sowing dates applied in the USA are based on 

rainfall and temperature conditions that are connected to the occurrence of Hessian fly adults. 

Cultural practices 

The most important cultural controlling method of Hessian fly is crop rotation: continuous 

growing of wheat in the same field should be avoided. Moreover, deep ploughing and 

destruction of volunteer wheat and old crop residues are recommended.

116 

Chemical control 

Use of insecticides is not recommended because it is not usually economically feasible. 

Sprays should be applied before peak egg deposition (Buntin & Hudson, 1991). If Hessian fly 

has infested a field, chemical control is not effective anymore. Larvae are not susceptible to 

systemic insecticides once they have moved to the leaf base. A single application of 

insecticide is usually not enough, and repeated applications are economically not feasible 

(Buntin & Hudson, 1991). If fly problems are perennial, prophylactic systemic granular 

insecticides (phorate, disulfoton, carbofuran) may be applied at planting (Morrill & Nelson, 

1975; Buntin, 1992; Buntin et al., 1992). 

Natural enemies 

Although over 40 parasitoid species have been found in the Hessian fly (MacFarlane, 1989), 

the control effect of natural enemies is questionable. Homoporus destructor (Say) (Hym.: 

Pteromalidae), Eupelmus allynii (French) (Hym.: Eupelmidae) and Platygaster hiemalis 

(Forbes) (Hym.: Platigasteridae) are the most common parasitic wasps of Hessian fly in the 

USA (Hill, 1953; Lidell et al., 1987). Usually, the natural enemies are not effective enough to 

prevent crop losses but they may reduce fly populations. 

Crop protection problems in relay intercropping 

Relay intercropping of cereals favour the Hessian fly. Spring-sown winter cereals are more 

and longer susceptible to the Hessian fly attack because their growth is retarded. Hessian fly 

overwinter well in intercropped fields because no crop rotation or tillage is used every year. 

Eggs and pupa are not susceptible to insecticides. There are no distinct flying periods because 

of overlapping generations, which makes the control of flying or ovipositing adults difficult. 

In addition, it is nearly impossible to target pesticides to larvae inhabiting the base of undersown 

winter cereals. Chemical control of Hessian fly was tried out on a farm in Kuusjokí in 

1997. An intercropped (barley+winter wheat) field was sprayed with dimethoate and labdacyhalothrin 

three times (13 June, 28 June and 18 July), but the number of Hessian fly pupae 

did not differ between the sprayed and the control field. The granular insecticides used in the 

USA are not available in Finland. The wheat varieties used in Finland are not known to be 

resistant to Hessian fly. 

Hessian fly as a pest in relay intercropping – preliminary results 

Preliminary studies to optimise the relay intercropping system have been conducted at 

Agricultural Research Centre of Finland (MTT) since 1998. Different cover crops and winter 

cereals have been tested. Moreover, different seed rates have been compared to find out an 

optimal seed mixture. 

Different ‘cover crops’ (barley, oats and oil-seed rape) and seed rates were tested in 

Ypäjä in 1998-1999 (Fig. 1). Although oil-seed rape and oats are resistant to Hessian fly, their 

use as ‘cover crops’ did not prevent infestation of spring sown winter cereals by the Hessian 

fly. 

Different winter cereals (wheat, rye, triticale) were compared in three locations 

(Mietoinen, Pälkäne and Ylistaro; see Fig. 1) in 1998-1999. The number of Hessian fly pupae 

was higher in spring-sown wheat and rye than in triticale in the autumn samples of Mietoinen. 

However, spring-sown triticale did not overwinter in any location. In the next spring, Hessian 

fly pupae were found in spring-sown winter wheat and rye but not in autumn-sown winter 

cereals. Unfortunately, yield results from the experiments are not yet available. 

Important practical knowledge was acquired during the experiments. Perennial weeds 

should be avoided in relay intercropped field. Crop residues should be managed carefully

117 

before they smother winter cereals. Finding combinations of crops and varieties suitable for 

certain conditions increases the chances of successful relay intercropping. 

Sometimes, under favourable conditions, yields of winter cereals in relay intercropping 

have been fairly good in spite of the moderate numbers of Hessian flies. Nevertheless, relay 

intercropping cannot be recommended before damage caused by the Hessian fly to winter 

cereals can be prevented or decreased. An ecologically and economically feasible solution to 

the problem is not yet available. In future work, the susceptibility of different wheat and rye 

varieties practicable in Finland should be tested. Moreover, the importance of adjacent fields 

and uncultivated areas for the success and phenology of the Hessian fly in Finland should be 

studied. 

References 

Andow, D.A. 1991: Vegetational diversity and arthropod population response. Annu. Rev. 

Entomol. 36: 561-586. 

Barnes, H.F. 1956: Gall midges of economic importance: gall midges of cereal crops. Vol 

VII. London; Grosby Lockwood and Son. 261 pp. 

Buntin, G.D. 1992: Assessment of a microtube injection system for applying systemic 

insecticides at planting for Hessian fly control in winter wheat. Crop. Prot. 11: 366-370. 

Buntin, G.D & Chapin, J.W. 1990: Biology of Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in the 

Southeastern United States: geographic variation and temperature-dependent phenology. 

J. Econ. Entomol. 83: 1015-1024. 

Buntin, G.D. & Hudson, R.D. 1991: Spring control of the Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) 

in winter wheat using insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol. 84: 1913-1919. 

Buntin, G.D., Bruckner, P.L. & Johnson, J.W. 1990: Management of Hessian fly (Diptera: 

Cecidomyiidae) in Georgia by delayed planting of winter wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 83: 

1025-1033. 

Buntin, G.D., Ott, S.L. & Johnson, J.W. 1992: Integration of plant resistance, insecticides, 

and planting date for management of the Hessian fly(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in winter 

wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 85: 530-538. 

Gagne, R.J., Hatchett, J.H., Lhaloui, S & EL Bouhssini, M. 1991: Hessian fly and Barley 

stem gall midge, two different species of Mayetiola (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in 

Morocco. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America 84: 436-443. 

Harris, M.O., Dando, J.L., Griffin, W. & Madie, C. 1996: Susceptibility of cereal and noncereal 

grasses to attack by Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor). New Zealand J. Crop & 

Hortic. Sci. 24: 29-238. 

Hill, C.C. 1953: Parasites of the Hessian fly in the North Central States. United States 

Department of Agriculture, Circular 923, 15 pp. 

Johnson, J.W., Buntin, G.D., Foster, J.E., Roberts, J.J. & Raymer, P.L. 1987: Response of 

triticale to the Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 22: 51-54. 

Jones, E.T. 1939: Grasses of the tribe Hordeae as hosts of Hessian fly. J. Econ. Entomol. 32: 

505-510. 

Lidell, M.C., Schuster, M.F. & Turney, H.A. 1987: Biology and distribution of the Hessian 

fly and its parasitoids in Texas. Progress Report - Texas Agric. Exp. Station 4530, 7 pp. 

MacFarlane, R.P. 1989: Mayetiola destructor (Say), Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). 

Techn. Commun. Commonw. Inst. Biol. Control 10: 101-104. 

Morrill, W.L. 1982: Hessian fly: host selection and behaviour during oviposition, winter 

biology, and parasitoids. J. Georgia Entomol. Soc. 17: 150-156.

118 

Morrill, W.L. & Nelson, L.R. 1975: Hessian fly control with carbofuran. J. Econ. Entomol. 

69: 123-124. 

Ratcliffe, R.H. & Hatchett, J.H. 1997: Biology and genetics of the Hessian fly and resistance 

in wheat. In: New Development in Entomology. Bondari, K. (ed.). Research Signpost, 

Scientific Information Guild, Trivandrum, India: 47-56. 

Skuhrava, M., Skuhravy, V. & Brewer, J.W. 1984: The distribution and long-term changes in 

population dynamics of gall midges on cereals in Europe. Cecidollogia Intern. 5: 1-7. 

Vappula, N.A. 1965: Pests of cultivated plants in Finland. Acta Entomologia Fennica 19. 

Wellso, S.G. & Hoxie, R.P. 1994: Tillering response of ‘Monon’ and ‘Newton’ winter wheats 

infested biotype L Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) larvae. The Great Lakes 

Entomologist 24: 235-239.



pp. 119 - 127 

Results of a nation-wide survey of spider assemblages in Hungarian cereal 

fields 

Ferenc Samu 1 , Ferenc Tóth 2 , Csaba Szinetár 3 , Géza Vörös 4 and Erika Botos 1 

1 Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, PO Box 102, Budapest, 

H-1525 Hungary 

2 Department of Plant Protection, Gödöllõ University of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Páter K. u., 

Gödöllõ, H-2103 Hungary 

3 Department of Zoology, Berzsenyi College, PO Box 170 Szombathely, H-9701 Hungary 

4 Plant Protection and Soil Conservation Station, Tolna County, Szekszárd, H-7100 Hungary 

Summery 

Within the framework of a national survey on spider assemblages of agricultural areas, and cooperating 

with the research project "IPM of cereals", since 1992 the arachnofauna of cereals has been 

systematically investigated in Hungary. Samples by pitfall trapping and/or suction sampling took place 

at 16 different locations, representing five smaller regions of Hungary. As a result over 10,000 

specimens, representing more than 150 species were caught. The present paper analyses the 

similarities and differences between the spider assemblages found in the various fields, regarding 

dominant species, diversity and community structure. Data analyses indicate, that cereal spider 

communities in Hungary are dominated by a well defined and limited set of species, which are more or 

less ubiquitous in every field. These most dominant and widespread agrobiont species are: Pardosa 

agrestis, Meioneta rurestris, Oedothorax apicatus, Pachygnatha degeeri, Tibellus oblongus. Apart 

from the agrobionts, cereal fields had a diverse spider community, reaching an estimated species 

richness of 110 species at several locations. Indicator species analysis showed, that for the cereal 

fields, as such, there were no strictly specific indicator spider species. Considering arable fields in 

general (i.e. cereals plus alfalfa) these habitats had few indicator species when compared to natural 

grassy habitats. These species are mostly native to wetland habitats. We propose that they could 

became widespread in agricultural habitats, because through dispersal and life history characteristics 

they became pre-adapted to the ephemeral conditions of agricultural fields. 

Key words: spider, natural enemy, biological control, cereal, alfalfa, fauna origin, wetlands 

Introduction 

Spiders are one of the most important predatory group of arthropods in cereal ecosystems 

(Nyffeler & Benz, 1987). There are a number of studies of the cereal arachnofauna in Western 

Europe and North America which revealed that this special and strongly human influenced 

vegetation type can accommodate a great diversity and density of spiders. Despite the 

potential of cereal fields to harbour a rich spider fauna, individual fields show great variation. 

In some fields the spiders were as diverse and abundant as in natural habitats (Toft, 1989), 

while from other fields impoverished and sparse spider communities were reported (Nyffeler 

et al., 1994). 

In Hungary prior to the studies reported here, the cereal spider community had not been 

studied. To obtain basic information about the spider communities in Hungarian cereal fields, 

and other agricultural areas, several studies were conducted in parallel from the early 1990's 

119

120 

onwards. The present paper provides a meta-analysis of these studies, aiming at answering the 

questions: 

1. Which are the dominant species of spiders in cereals? 

2. Are dominant species the same across cereal spider communities; are there regional 

differences present? 

3. What are the structural characteristics of cereal spider communities; how similar are 

cereal spider communities to other arable and comparable natural communities? 

4. Which are the indicator species, that could signify the similarities or dissimilarities 

between the cereal and other habitats examined? 


The present paper gathers data from several studies, which were part of two broad projects: 

"The survey of Hungarian agricultural spider fauna" (project leader: Plant Protection Institute, 

HAS), and "IPM of cereals" (project leader: Plant Protection Department of the Gödöllõ 

University). Within the framework of these projects cereal fields were sampled at 16 different 

locations, representing five smaller regions of Hungary. Investigations reported here took 

place between 1992 and 1998, each lasting between one to three years. We have included 

only those sites into the analysis, where in total more than 300 spider individuals were caught 

(Tab. 2). 

Two standard collecting methods were applied in the studies. In four studies spiders were 

sampled by a hand-held suction sampler (Samu & Sárospataki, 1995), which proved to be 

very efficient in collecting spiders, although it is biased towards the juvenile stages and 

towards the foliage dwelling and/or web building species (Samu et al., 1997). At six study 

sites pitfall trapping was used to collect spiders; and there were only two sites where both 

methods were applied. Pitfalls tend more to collect adult specimens, and is biased towards to 

cursorial spider fauna (Topping & Sunderland, 1992). Details of the sampling protocols are 

given in Samu et al. (1996) and Tóth et al. (1999). Considering the above mentioned 

characteristics of the methods applied, they are more complemental than comparable. 

Therefore in the present meta-analysis of data from different studies all comparisons were 

made between data sets obtained by the same method. 


Dominant species 

Spider assemblages in Hungarian cereal fields are characterised by a well defined and limited 

set of species. The most dominant, so called agrobiont species were ubiquitous in every field, 

corroborating results obtained in other European cereal fields (Luczak, 1975). The first five 

species which had the largest joint dominance considering all studies comprised over 3/4 of 

the total spider fauna in each of the fields (d-vac: 76.07%±5.500, pitfall: 77.97%±10.717, 

values are mean±S.D.). Species composition of agrobiont species are very similar across 

different sites as compared among data sets collected by similar methods (Tab. 1). In the 

present studies the average similarity was 70% for both methods. Combining both methods, it 

can be said that the most widely and abundantly occurring species in the Hungarian cereal 

fields are: P. agrestis, M. rurestris, O. apicatus, P. degeeri, and T. oblongus. 

Considering the 10 most abundant species, regionality had no significant influence on 

spider species composition, i.e. more similar communities were not necessarily closer 

together in physical distance. (The association between species composition distances and

121 

physical distances were tested by Mantel test separately for D-vac and pitfall trap data; pitfall: 

test stat.= 0.22, t=0.757, NS; D-vac: test stat.= 0.11, t=0.268, NS.) 

Community structure 

The above results showed that few species dominate Hungarian cereal fields, and similar 

dominance structures in cereals were reported in other countries (e.g. Sunderland, 1987; 

Nyffeler & Breene, 1992). In spite of the prevalence of few agrobionts, the remaining one 

quarter of the spider individuals, which do not belong to any of these species, show 

surprisingly high diversity. Species numbers obtained in the various studies depended on 

sampling effort. Observed species numbers ranged up to 91, species richness estimations 

reached values of c. 110 species for a number of fields (Tab. 2). 

As a result of the above mentioned dominance patterns, spider communities of cereal 

fields have a typical community structure (Fig. 1). They are dominated by few super-abundant 

species, thus the initial part of the rank abundance curves are steep. The tail of the rank 

abundance curves can be variable. Rank abundance curves in other habitats were less steep. In 

meadow communities, medium abundant species were more frequent, and as well a greater 

number of rare species were present. Alfalfa seemed to represent an intermediate type 

community, where usually a rather high density of the dominant species were observable, and 

the declination of the curve was between the grass and the cereal communities. 

Tab. 1a. Ten most dominant species of cereal fields in Hungary (lower part) and Jaccard 

similarity between fields. Data from sites where pitfall trapping was applied. 

Felsõnána – 

Julianna-major 0.89 – 

Kartal 1 0.88 0.58 – 

Kartal 2 0.79 0.60 0.64 – 

József-major 0.94 0.50 0.63 0.76 – 

Szombathely 0.95 0.58 0.59 0.83 0.57 – 

Site 

Felsõnána Juliannamajor 

Kartal 1 Kartal 2 Józsefmajor 

Szombat 

hely 

Total 

Species 

Pardosa agrestis 96 1176 660 468 1321 1764 5485 

Oedothorax apicatus 16 81 516 20 354 988 1975 

Meioneta rurestris 45 27 59 616 19 766 

Pachygnatha degeeri 34 10 71 12 21 117 265 

Trichoncoides piscator 5 2 9 175 191 

Xysticus kochi 17 25 80 17 41 1 181 

Zelotes mundus 3 106 59 168 

Drassyllus pusillus 17 13 5 12 76 29 152 

Robertus arundineti 5 20 1 20 73 119 

Robertus lividus 110 110

122 

Tab. 1b. Ten most dominant species of cereal fields in Hungary (lower part) and Jaccard 

similarity between fields. Data from sites where suction sampling was applied. 

b) 

Bánk – 

Diósjenõ 0.58 – 

Felsõnána 0.72 0.67 – 

Julianna-major 0.69 0.85 0.81 – 

Site Bánk Diósjenõ Felsõnána Juliannamajor 

Total 

Species 

Meioneta rurestris 72 12 17 158 259 

Tibellus oblongus 18 26 39 156 239 

Pisaura mirabilis 33 36 1 27 97 

Pardosa agrestis 13 1 9 45 68 

Mangora acalypha 4 5 14 13 36 

Erigone dentipalpis 1 24 25 

Pachygnatha degeeri 7 4 12 23 

Oedothorax apicatus 15 4 19 

Aulonia albimana 13 13 

Neottiura bimaculata 4 2 6 12 

Indicator species 

Compared to other agricultural and non-agricultural spider communities, cereal assemblages 

have a very limited specificity. Indicator species analysis tries to find species which are 

indicators of a given habitat type in comparison with a defined set of alternative habitats. A 

species is a good indicator of a certain habitat if a large portion of its individuals are caught in 

the given habitat, and if at the same time the species occurs at most of the study sites 

representing that habitat (Dufrene & Legendre, 1997). Indicator species analysis (Tab. 3) 

showed that there is virtually no indicator species of cereal spider communities. If the 

compared habitats were limited only to certain types (e.g. cereal-meadow, cereal-margin), the 

species given as indicators were in fact equally representative for other agricultural habitat 

types such as alfalfa. On the other hand, agricultural areas taken as one habitat type had good 

indicator species, especially for the ground fauna (P. agrestis, O. apicatus, Zelotes gracilis), 

the first two being a dominant species of these areas, as well. No indicator species of cereal 

fields existed in the cereal-alfalfa comparison, while Pardosa hortensis, for instance, was a 

good indicator of alfalfa. 

The origin of cereal spider fauna 

The analysis of data from several cereal fields in Hungary revealed that these spider 

communities are dominated by a limited number of species, which are the same species from 

field to field, with no significant regional differences within the country. It was also 

demonstrated that these species are not unique to cereal fields, and they cannot be regarded as 

indicator species for that specific habitat type. However, considering cereal fields with other

123 

123 

Tab. 2. Observed and extrapolated species richness and diversity statistics. 

Study Method Samples Spec. 

No. 

Individual 

s 

Singletons 

ACE* Chao1* Jack1* MM* Alpha Shannon Simpson 

Bánk D-vac 12 18 533 5 21.5 24.3 23.5 29.8 5.1 2.0 4.4 

Diósjenõ D-vac 7 22 333 16 106.6 150.0 36.6 83.3 8.6 2.1 5.0 

Felsõnána D-vac 11 17 402 7 28.8 29.3 24.3 47.9 5.5 2.1 6.0 

Felsõnána both 26 30 645 14 59.0 62.7 44.4 41.4 8.1 2.4 6.6 

Felsõnána pitfall 15 18 243 9 40.6 58.5 26.4 33.0 4.8 1.8 3.8 

Julianna-major D-vac 48 49 2254 27 100.2 109.8 80.3 63.7 13.3 2.3 5.1 

Julianna-major both 93 76 3988 29 110.7 102.3 112.6 88.6 15.6 1.8 2.6 

Julianna-major pitfall 45 45 1734 13 58.8 52.0 60.6 52.9 8.7 1.2 1.6 

Kartal 1 pitfall 21 53 1661 23 86.9 82.4 76.8 69.2 10.7 1.7 3.2 

Kartal 2 pitfall 58 56 1039 20 77.9 81.0 76.6 63.7 13.2 2.1 3.5 

Józsefmajor pitfall 83 91 3713 23 111.5 120.4 113.7 98.1 17.2 2.4 4.9 

Szombathely pitfall 9 36 4179 12 50.5 50.4 51.1 67.0 5.7 1.4 2.6 

*Estimated species richness. Estimation was performed by EstimateS, based on species accumulation over the sampling occasions. For details of the 

method and description of estimators refer to Colwell and Coddington (1994) and Colwell (1999).

124 

124 

3 

Cereal field Alfalfa 

Meadow / grass edge 

2 

1 

log(abundance) 

Bánk 

0 

3 

2 

1 

0 

3 

2 

1 

0 

3 

2 

1 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 

Julianna-major Felsõnána Diósjenõ 

Species rank 

Fig. 1. Rank-abundance curves of spider communities at four different sampling sites, in three habitat types, sampled by hand-held suction 

sampler.

125 

Tab. 3. Indicator species in the comparison of various habitat types. Indicator values 

calculated with method of Dufrene and Legendre (1997). Indicator species listed had 

significant indicator values (P < 0.05), as tested by Monte Carlo simulation. Species names 

are abbreviated. 

Method 

D-vac 

D-vac 

D-vac 

D-vac 

D-vac 

pitfall 

pitfall 

pitfall 

pitfall 

Compared habitats 

(1) cereal 

(2) alfalfa 

(3) margin 

(4) meadow 

(1) cereal 

(2) meadow 

(1) cereal 

(2) alfalfa 

(1) cereal+alfalfa 

(2) margin+meadow 

(1) cereal+alfalfa+margin 

(2) meadow 

(1) cereal 

(2) alfalfa 

(3) margin 

(1) cereal 

(2) alfalfa 

(1) cereal 

(2) margin 

(1) cereal+alfalfa 

(2) margin+meadow 

araehumi 

pardagre 

pardagre 

oedoapic 

zelograc 

Indicator species of habitats 

1 2 3 4 

– pardagre – hahnnava 

auloalbi 

epistrun, 

etc. 

clubdive 

hahnnava 

meiosimp, 

etc. 

– pachdege 

pardagre 

– auloalbi 

clubdive 

minimarg, 

etc. 

– auloalbi 

epistrun 

hahnnava, 

etc. 

– pardhort 

zelograc 

erigdent 

– pardhort 

zeloapri 

tracpede 

zelolatr 

zeloapri 

agrocupr 

titaschi 

tracpede 

zeloapri 

types of arable fields jointly, there are a couple of indicator species, which distinguish these 

communities from other grassy habitats that were considered in the present study. Grassy 

habitats are much more characteristic than arable habitats, by having numerous species that 

regularly occur there, but not in the latter habitat type. 

It is interesting to look at in which type of natural areas arable indicator species occur. 

According to the Central European habitat database of spiders (Hanggi et al., 1995) and 

Hungarian data (Szita et al., 1998), P. agrestis, O. apicatus and Araeoncus humilis, apart

126 

from widely occurring in arable and similar human disturbed habitats, all native to wetland 

areas, such as saline grasslands, coastal sand dunes, beaches. These areas are characterised by 

frequent, regular perturbances of seasonal flooding, sand movement, tides, etc. 

Marshall and Rypstra (1999) argues that one factor that determines which species can 

dominate structurally simple ecosystems, such as agricultural land or wetland areas, is strong 

interspecific competition. We think that, although intense competition may infrequently occur 

in those ecosystems, agricultural spider species are the likely losers in such situation. There is 

evidence that directly or indirectly supports that it is not superior competitive ability that 

makes these species dominant in agro-ecosystems. For instance, the most dominant 

agricultural species, P. agrestis, does not occur in more permanent grasslands, where more 

resources, but also more competitor species can be found (Szita et al., 1998). A subspecies of 

the same species, Pardosa agrestis purbeckensis, was experimentally shown to be inferior in 

interference competition with other wolf spiders in a salt marsh area (Schaefer, 1974). Other 

littoral Pardosa species similarly were shown to be inferior in competitive situations (Döbel 

et al., 1990). 

Here we suggest that the similarity between wet land and agricultural ecosystems is more 

in structural similarity and perturbance pattern, which actually interrupts or resets competitive 

situations. Therefore the success of agricultural spider species should lie in their ability to 

cope with perturbance and find suitable niches under structurally simple conditions. 

Adaptations to these factors might lie in good dispersal ability (Bishop & Riechert, 1990) and 

life history characteristics (Toft, 1989; Samu et al., 1998). Attempts to augment spider 

densities in cereals should consider these characteristics, and devise agricultural practices 

with the structural needs, dispersal modes and life cycle patterns of spiders in mind. 


The study was supported by OTKA grants F 17691 and 23627. FS was funded by a research 

grant from the Ecological Centre of HAS. FS and CsSz were Bolyai Fellows of HAS. 

References 

Bishop, L. & Riechert, S.E. 1990: Spider colonization of agroecosystems mode and source. 

Env. Entomol. 19: 1738-1745. 

Döbel, H.G., Denno, R.F. & Coddington, J.A. 1990: Spider (Araneae) community structure in 

an intertidal salt marsh: effects of vegetation structure and tidal flooding. Env. Entomol. 

90: 1356-1370. 

Dufrene, M. & Legendre, P. 1997: Species assemblages and indicator species: the need for a 

flexible asymmetrical approach. Ecol. Monogr. 67: 345-366. 

Hänggi, A., Stöckli, E. & Nentwig, W. 1995: Habitats of Central European spiders. Misc. 

Faun. Helvet. 4: 1-460. 

Luczak, J. 1975: Spider communities of crop fields. Pol. Ecol. Stud. 1: 93-110. 

Marshall, S.D. & Rypstra, A.L. 1999. Spider competition in structurally simple ecosystems. J. 

Arachnol. 27: 343-350. 

Nyffeler, M. & Benz, G. 1987: Spiders in natural pest control: a review. J. Appl. Entomol. 

103: 321-339. 

Nyffeler, M. & Breene, R.G. 1992: Dominant insectivorous polyphagous predators in winter 

wheat: high colonisation power, spatial dispersion patterns, and probable importance of 

the soil surface spiders. Dtsch. Ent. Z., N. F. 39: 177-188.

Nyffeler, M., Sterling, W.L. & Dean, D.A. 1994: Insectivorous activities of spiders in United 

States field crops. J. Appl. Entomol. 118: 113-128. 

Samu, F., Németh, J. & Kiss, B. 1997: Assessment of the efficiency of a hand-held suction 

device for sampling spiders: improved density estimation or oversampling? Ann. Appl. 

Biol. 130: 371-378. 

Samu, F., Németh, J., Tóth, F., Szita, É., Kiss, B. & Szinetár, C. 1998: Are two cohorts 

responsible for bimodal life history pattern in the wolf spider Pardosa agrestis in 

Hungary? Proceedings 17th European Colloquium of Arachnology, Edinburgh: 215-221. 

Samu, F. & Sárospataki, M. 1995: Design and use of a hand-hold suction sampler and its 

comparison with sweep net and pitfall trap sampling. Fol. Entomol. Hung. 56: 195-203. 

Samu, F., Vörös, G. & Botos, E. 1996: Diversity and community structure of spiders of alfalfa 

fields and grassy field margins in South Hungary. Acta Phytopath. Entomol. Hung. 31: 

253-266. 

Schaefer, M. 1974: Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Bedeutung der interspezifischen 

Konkurrenz bei 3 Wolfspinnen-Arten (Araneida: Lycosidae) einer Salzwiese. Zool. Jb. 

Syst. 101: 213-235. 

Sunderland, K.D. 1987: Spiders and cereal aphids in Europe. Bull. SROP/WPRS 10: 82-102. 

Szita, É., Samu, F., Bleicher, K. & Botos, E. 1998. Data to the spider fauna (Araneae) of 

Körös-Maros National Park (Hungary). Acta Phytopath. Entomol. Hung. 33: 341-388. 

Toft, S. 1989: Aspects of the ground-living spider fauna of two barley fields in Denmark: 

species richness and phenological synchronization. Entomol. Meddl. 57: 157-168. 

Topping, C.J. & Sunderland, K.D. 1992: Limitations to the use of pitfall traps in ecological 

studies, exemplified by a study of spiders in a field of winter wheat. J. Appl. Ecol. 29: 

485-491. 

Tóth, F. 1999: Comparative analyses of epigeic spider assemblages in Northern Hungarian 

Winter wheat fields and their adjacent margins. J. Arachnol. 27: 241-248. 

127

128



pp. 129 - 137 

Agrobiological and biocenological study of winter oats (Avena sativa L.) 

T. Gueorguieva and A. Mateeva 

Agricultural University, 12, Mendeleev str., 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria 

Summary 

During the last years, winter oat (Avena sativa L.) cultivation has substantially increased in Bulgaria. 

To assure sustainable yields of the crop, the development of a new plant protection system, focusing 

on the bio-cenological conditions of the agro-ecosystem, is of major importance. Between 1995- and 

1997, the Department of Plant Growing at the Agricultural University of Plovdiv conducted several 

agro-biological and bio-cenological studies on winter oats as bi-factorial field experiments in a block 

design. The three tested varieties showed different productive tillering and expressed strong 

compensatory reaction during the vegetation periods. In the course of the bio-cenological studies the 

following pests were found to be of significant economic importance: Oulema melanopus L., Oulema 

gallaeciana (Heyden), Cephus pygmeus L., Mayetiola destructor Say, Oscinella frit L., Sitobion 

avenae Fab., Agriotes obscurus (Linnaeus), and Heterodera avenae Wollenweber. The population 

dynamics of S. avenae were influenced by the following natural enemies: Coccinella septempunctata 

L., Hippodamia variegata Goeze, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata L., Adalia decempunctata L., 

Chrysoperla carnea Stephens, Episyrphus balteatus De Geer, Scaeva pyrastri (L.), and Nabis 

pseudoferus Remane. 

Key words: Avena sativa L., oat, seeding rate, pest, pest control, predators, prey. 

Introduction 

The obvious tendency towards increase of the fields sown with winter oats (Avena sativa L.) 

in Bulgaria is due to the better utilisation of the winter moisture, the much earlier ripening, 

and the obtaining of more sustainable yields in comparison with the spring oats. Various 

studies on the basic aspects of the technology of cultivation and the productive capacity of the 

different genotypes of winter oats in the agro-climatic conditions in Bulgaria have being 

carried out (Gueorguieva et al., 1990, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997). 

Like any crop, winter oats is attacked by many diseases and pests. According to Grigorov 

(1964, 1965, 1980), Ljubenov (1963), and Lazarov (1969) oats is mostly attacked by the frit 

fly Oscinella frit L. (Dipt.: Chloropidae). In Bulgaria the damage caused by this pest every 

year varies from 12 to 28%. According to Grigorov (1993) the serious damage caused by this 

pest is due to the simultaneity of the period of mass flight of the 2nd generation and the oats 

panicle emergence. Moudry et al. (1996) also reports of serious damage to the oats caused by 

the frit fly. Damage to the oats is also caused by Oulema melanopus L., O. gallaeciana 

(Heyden), (both Col.: Chrysomelidae) Cephus pygmeus L. (Hym.: Cephidae), Sitobion avenae 

Fab., and Rhopalosiphum padi L. (both Hom.: Aphididae) (Grigorov, 1993; Valoska et al., 

1995; Hsia et al., 1997). 

The solution of these plant protection problems of winter oats requires profound studies. 

Therefore, the objective of the presented investigations was to study some agro-biological and 

bio-cenological peculiarities of winter oats in the regions around the town of Plovdiv in 

Bulgaria. 

129

130 


Between 1995 and 1997, the Department of Plant Growing at the Agricultural University of 

Plovdiv conducted several agro-biological and bio-cenological studies on winter oats as bifactorial 

field experiments in a block design. 

The agro-biological characteristics of three cultivars of winter oats were studied under 

the conditions of different seeding rates and sowing schemes: Cultivars - Dunav 1st for 

Bulgaria, Joker (Fr) and No 83106028 (USA); Seeding rates 400 seeds/m 2 (12/2 cm), 200 

seeds/m 2 (12/4 cm), 100 seeds/m 2 (12/8 cm), 100 seeds/m 2 (10/10 cm), 25 seeds/m 2 (20/20 

cm), 6 seeds/m 2 (40/40 cm). 

The following biological indices of the oats were traced: entry into different phases of 

development - germination, tiller production, stem elongation, panicle emergence, wax and 

complete ripeness; productive tillering (number of productive tillers per plant), and yield 

(kg/da). 

The bio-cenological information was collected by means of cutting with an 

entomological bag and leaf samples. All insect species were determined in the Department of 

Entomology at the Agrarian University of Plovdiv. 


I. Agrobiological studies on winter oats 

During the two years of study the phenological development of the different cultivars was 

similar. During the autumn vegetation no differences in this index, depending on the cultivars 

and the seeding rate, were observed. In spring, the panicle emergence in cultivar No 

83106028 occurred 6 to 10 days earlier than in the other two cultivars. The differences in the 

panicle emergence remained relatively the same until the time of gathering. With the decrease 

of the seeding rate, the plants’ development slowed down. 

The ripening was most simultaneous in cultivar N o 83106028, and slowest in the standard 

cultivar Dunav 1 (Tab. 1). 

Data in Table 2 indicate that the highest productive tillering per plant at all seeding rates 

was observed in cultivar Dunav 1, and the lowest in cultivar N o 83106028. Depending on the 

number of seeds and the sowing scheme, we recorded that with the change of the seeding rate 

from 400 to 25 seeds/m 2 , the productive tillering increased from 3.1 to 13.1, respectively. The 

decrease of the seeding rate to 6 seeds/m 2 did not lead to further increase of the productive 

tillering. Cultivars Joker and N o 83106028 form, however, largest amount of tillers at the 

lowest seeding rate.

131 

Tab. 1. Phenological development of winter oats, depending on cultivars and the seeding 

rates. 

Seeding 

rate 

seeds/m 2 

1995/1996 

Sowing 

Germination 

Tiller 

production 

Stem 

elongation 

Dunav 1 - st 

400, 200, 

100, 

50, 25 

9. X. 25. X. 14. XII. 29. IV. 

Joker 

400, 200, 

100, 50, 9. X. 25. X. 16. XII. 29. IV. 

25 

N o 83106028 

400, 200, 

100, 50, 11. X. 27. X. 16. XII. 27. IV. 

25 

1996/1997 

Panicle 

emergence 

17-23. V. 

18-26. V. 

20-28. V. 

17-21. V. 

18-25. V. 

20-28. V. 

10-15. V. 

12-17. V. 

14-19. V. 

Grain - filling 

Wax 

ripeness 

19. VI. 

2. VII. 

5. VII. 

19. VI. 

1. VII. 

4. VII. 

13. VI. 

17. VI. 

20. VI. 

Complete 

ripeness 

23. VI. 

7. VII. 

10. VII. 

23. VI. 

5. VII. 

9. VII. 

17. VI. 

21. VI. 

24. VI. 

Dunav 1 - st 

400, 200, 

100, 50, 

25 

15. X. 22. X. 10. XII 30. IV. 

Joker 

400, 200, 

100, 15. X. 22. X. 10. XII. 30. IV. 

50,25 

N o 83106028 

400, 200, 

100, 50, 11. X. 22. X. 10. XII. 25. IV. 

25 

14-16. V. 

15-18. V. 

18-20. V. 

14-15. V. 

15-17. V. 

18-20. V. 

8-10. V. 

10-12. V. 

13-16. V. 

15. VI. 

18. VI. 

22. VI. 

15. VI. 

18. VI. 

22. VI. 

9. VI. 

13. VI. 

16. VI. 

22. VI. 

29. VI. 

2. VII. 

22. VI. 

25. VI. 

29. VI. 

16. VI. 

20. VI. 

23. VI. 

The analysis of the results of grain yield (Tab. 2) of the three tested cultivars indicates 

that oats is a crop with very good compensatory capacity. At optimum seeding rates (400 

seeds/m 2 - 12/2 cm) the yield varies from 633 to 891 kg/da. Cultivar Joker had the highest 

productivity. In the case, even if the seeding rate is decreased fourfold, the yield slightly 

increases. The distance between the plants of 20/20 cm (25 seeds/m 2 ) or 40/40 (6 seeds/m 2 ) 

lead to a sharp decrease of the yield, regardless of the fact that, in this case the number of the 

tillers varied from 8 to 14.

132 

Tab. 2. Productive tillering and winter oats yield, depending on cultivars and seeding rates. 

Seeding rate end 

sowing scheme 

Productive tillers 

(number/plant) 

seeds/m 2 - cm/cm Dunav1 Joker N o 831 

06028 

Yield 

(kg/da) 

Means Dunav1 Joker N o 831 

06028 

Means 

1996 

400 - 12/2 cm 2.7 3.2 3.5 3.1 633 891 732 752 

200 - 12/4 cm 1.8 4.0 4.7 3.5 598 835 666 700 

100 - 12/8 cm 7.8 6.9 6.6 7.1 735 779 710 742 

100 - 10/10 cm 9.8 10.0 8.5 9.4 808 1059 601 822 

25 - 20/20 cm 14.7 12.7 12.0 13.1 147 259 100 169 

6 - 40/40 cm 10.8 7.9 7.8 8.8 32 20 14 22 

Means 7.9 7.5 7.2 492 639 470 

1997 

400 - 12/2 cm 3.3 2.3 3.4 3.0 856 967 996 940 

200 - 12/4 cm 5.0 4.5 5.5 5.0 784 929 889 867 

100 - 12/8 cm 8.2 7.1 7.8 7.7 862 926 830 872 

100 - 10/10 cm 7.8 6.1 9.0 7.6 625 873 823 774 

25 - 20/20 cm 13.7 12.1 12.1 12.6 525 673 672 623 

6 - 40/40 cm 8.1 13.2 17.6 13.0 86 166 216 156 

Means 7.7 7.5 9.2 623 756 738 

II. Biocenological Studies on Winter Oats 

Figure 1 represents the structure of the winter oats bio-cenosis as a percent correlation 

between classes of Insecta, Arachnoidea, and Nematoda for two successive years (i.e. 1996- 

1997). 

1996 

1997 

6% 

13% 

4% 

6% 

81% 

90% 

Insecta 

Arachnoidea 

Nematoda 

Fig. 1. Structure of the winter oats bio-cenosis in the experimental training field of the 

Department of Plant Growing –at the Agricultural University of Plovdiv. 

It is evident that in the bio-cenosis structure during both years of the study, the class 

Insecta was predominant over the classes Nematoda and Arachnoidea.

133 

Figure 2 shows the results of the percent correlation between the orders in the entomoand 

acarofauna of winter oats. 

28% 

1996 

3% 

6% 

2% 

27% 

1997 

4% 

7% 

1% 

1.Homoptera 

2.Orthoptera 

3.Hemiptera 

4.Thysanoptera 

2% 

1% 

25% 

3% 

2% 

27% 

5. Neuroptera 

6. Coleoptera 

7. Hymenoptera 

31% 

2% 

28% 1% 

8. Diptera 

9.Arachnoidea 

Fig. 2. Proportions of insect orders and Arachnoidea in the experimental winter oat field of 

the Department of Plant Growing at Plovdiv. – Clockwise arrangement of sectors starting at 

right with 25% Homoptera (1996) and 27% Homoptera (1997). 

The results indicate that species of the orders Homoptera (25-27%), Hemiptera (28-315), 

Coleoptera (27-28%), and Diptera (6-7%) predominantly occur the winter oats in comparison 

with species of the orders Orthoptera, Thysanoptera, Neuroptera, and Hymenoptera, which 

were present in considerably lower proportions. Lower proportions of mites and spiders than 

insects appeared in winter oats. In the Arachnoidea, 28 (2%) and 19 (1%) species were 

recorded in 1996 and 1997, respectively. 

Within the order of Coleoptera, chrysomeldids were the predominating beetle family with 

a proportion of about 50% in both study years (Fig. 3). 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

Chrysomelidae 

Curcuniolidae 

Tenebrionidae 

Nitidulidae 

20% 

0% 

1996 1997 

Scarabaeidae 

Elateridae 

Fig. 3. Proportion of beetle families in the experimental winter oat field of the Department of 

Plant Growing at Plovdiv. – Arrangement of the families from top to bottom. 

Oulema melanopus was the most abundant chrysomelid species, followed by O. 

gallaeciana, and Phyllotreta vitulla (Redt.).

134 

1996 

1997 

20% 9% 

25% 

8% 

Oulema melanopus L. 

Oulema gallaeciana (Heyden) 

Phyllotreta vitulla Redt. 

71% 

67% 

Fig. 4. Proportion of chrysomelid species in the experimental winter oat field of the 

Department of Plant Growing at Plovdiv. – Clockwise arrangement of sectors starting at right 

with 9% Phyllotreta vitulla (1996) and 8% Phyllotreta vitulla (1997). 

Within the group of phytophagous Diptera in both study years the following species were 

recorded (in the order of their predominance): frit fly (O. frit), Hessian fly (Mayetiola 

destructor Say [Dipt.: Cecidomyiidae]), and red wheat gnat (Haplodiplosis marginata Roser 

[Dipt.: Cecidomyiidae]) (Fig. 5). 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

20% 

Haplodiplosis marginata Roser 

Mayetiola destructor Say. 

Oscinella frit L. 

0% 

1996 1997 

Fig. 5. Proportion of phytophagous dipteran species in the experimental winter oat field of the 

Department of Plant Growing at Plovdiv. – Arrangement of the species from top to bottom. 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

20% 

Trachelus tabidus F. 

Cephus pygmeus L. 

Dolerus haematodes (Schrank) 

0% 

1996 1997 

Fig. 6. Proportion of phytophagous Hymenoptera in the experimental winter oat field of the 

Department of Plant Growing at Plovdiv. – Arrangement of the species from top to bottom. 

The most important phytophagous wasp species was the wheat stem wasp C. pygmeus, 

followed by the black wheat stem wasp Trachelus tabidus F. (Hym.: Cephidae) and Dolerus

135 

haematodes (Schrank) (Hym.: Tenthredinidae) (Fig. 6). The climatic conditions at the end of 

April and the beginning of May during both years were especially favourable for the 

appearance, flight, and reproduction of C. pygmeus. 

Tab. 3. Insect predators recorded in the experimental winter oat field of the Department of 

Plant Growing at Plovdiv. 

Order Family Registered species 

Coleoptera Coccinellidae Coccinella septempunctata L. 

Coccinula quatordecimpustulata L. 

Hippodamia variegata Goeze. 

Propylea quatuordecimpunctata L. 

Adalia decempunctata L. 

Hippodamia tredecimpunctata (L.) 

Neuroptera Chrysopidae Chrysoperla carnea Stephens 

Chrysopa harrisii (Fitch) 

Chrysopa pallens Rambur 

Diptera Syrphidae Episyrphus balteatus De Geer 

Syrphus vitripennis Meig. 

Eupeodes latifasciatus (Mac.) 

Scaeva pyrastri (L.) 

Sphaerophoria scripta (L.) 

Heteroptera Anthocoridae Anthocoris pilosus (Yakovlev) 

Nabidae 

Nabis pseudoferus Rm. 

Coleoptera Carabidae Calosoma sycophanta (L.) 

III. Presentation of beneficial insect species in the agro-cenosis of winter oats 

In modern systems for pest management one of the main approaches is to use and preserve 

beneficial species in certain agro-cenosis. It is thus necessary to know when these beneficials 

appear, what their optimum conditions for reproduction and development are, what are their 

regulatory capacities, and how beneficials are influenced by the use of pesticides and other 

agro-technical interventions. Within the framework of our study, the species structure of 

beneficials in the winter oat agro-cenosis was determined. Densities of most beneficials 

during the different phases of their development, were closely related to the occurrence of 

aphids in oats, particularly with that of S. avenae. The following families of beneficials were 

predominant: Coccinellidae, Chrysopidae, Syrphidae, Anthocoridae and Nabidae. Table 3 

represents the predators from these families that feed on aphids in oat. Coccinellids were 

found in both years most frequently after the beginning of the second half of May. Ladybird 

beetles were very important in regulating the number of oat aphids. We recorded 126 and 103 

specimen of coccinellids in 1996 and 1997, respectively. High number of coccinellids were 

related to aphid density in the crop and by ecological conditions. In the course of the study, 

larvae and adults of C. septempunctata were most frequently found in the colonies of the 

aphids in winter oats. The larvae of the seven-spot ladybird consume during their lifetime 

about 600-800 aphids, and the adult ladybirds at about 40-50 aphids a day. In addition to

136 

C. septempunctata, the fourteen-spot ladybird P. quatordecimpunctata and the mutable 

ladybird H. variegata were also frequently found. The mutable and the fourteen-spot 

ladybirds have a smaller prey capacity than the seven-spot ladybird, but are also important 

biological regulators of the wheat and oat aphids in the winter oat agro-cenosis. For example, 

single larvae of P. quatordecimpunctata and H. variegata consume during their development 

200-250 aphids on wheat, and the adult ladybirds during their lifetime 2100-2900 aphids, and 

from 15 to 73 aphids a day. 

The most frequently found chrysopid was Chrysoperla carnea Stephens. A single larva 

has a prey capacity of 720 aphids. Other chrysopids recorded in our studies were Chrysopa 

harrisii (Fitch)and Chrysopa pallens Rambur. 

The predominant syrphid encountered was Scaeva pyrastri (L.). At temperatures of 20- 

22 o C a single larva can consume between 15 and 45 aphids daily, depending on the type of 

aphid and the development stage of the syrphid larva. 

Predatory bugs of family Nabidae, in particular Nabis pseudoferus Rm., were also found 

in the agro-cenosis of winter oats. The larvae N. pseudoferus consume 14-20 aphids daily, and 

about 400 during their total lifetime. 

Curculionids and nitidulids were only rarely observed during our studies. 

The three tested cultivars have different vegetation periods in terms of duration, with N o 

83106028 being the earliest one. The seeding rate influences the length of the vegetation 

period, and crops with lower rate develop slower. With the decrease of the seeding rate from 

400 to 25 seeds/m 2 , the productive tillering increased from 3 to 13 tillers per plant. Cultivar 

Joker proved to be the most productive one. Decreasing the seeding rate from 400 to 100 

seeds/m 2 did not affect the yield of any of the three tested cultivars. 

In the course of our study in winter oat fields at the Department of Plant Growing at the 

Agricultural University of Plovdiv, the following important pests and beneficials were found: 

Pests: Oulema melanopus, O. gallaeciana, C. pygmeus, M. destructor, O. frit, S. avenae, 

Agriotes obscurus L., and Heterodera avenae Wollenweber. 

Beneficials: C. septempunctata, H. variegata, P. quatuordecimpunctata, C. carnea, E. 

balteatus, S. pyrastry, and N. pseudoferus . 

The predominant pests were found in the orders of Coleoptera and Diptera. 

References 

Grigorov, St. 1964: Contribution to Bulgaria’s entomofauna. Plant Protection Magazine. 

Grigorov, St. 1965: Entomocenosis of cereals in the region of Sofia. Scientific Works, Vol. 

XVI. 

Grigorov, St. 1980: Greenflies and their control. Zemizdat Magazine. 

Grigorov, P. 1993: The wheat trips – a serious pest. Zemizdat Magazine. 

Gueorguieva, T., Mileva, D. & Kostov, K. 1990: Influence of nitrogen fertilizer and seeding 

rate on nitratreductase activity of winter oats. Physiology 8 (1): 112-115. 

Gueorguieva, T., Kostov, K. & Mileva, D. 1991: Catalase and peroxidase activity, depending 

on fertiliser and seeding rates. Plant metabolism regulation. Varna: 46-49. 

Gueorguieva, T. & Yankov, B.,1993: Formation of winter oat yield, depending on seeding 

date and rate. Kostinbrod: 107-113. 

Gueorguieva, T. & Kostov, K. 1996: Biological characteristics of new winter oat cultivars 

grown under conditions of Central South Bulgaria. Scientific works of the Academy of 

Agriculture, Vol. VII: 313-317.

Gueorguieva, T. & Kostov, K. 1996: Economic characteristics of new winter oat cultivars 

grown under conditions of Central South Bulgaria. Scientific works of the Academy of 

Agriculture, Vol. VII: 318-321. 

Gueorguieva, T.& Dimitrova, M. 1997: Economic characteristics of winter oat panicle 

according to the crop structure and the degree of tillering. Soil Science, Agrochemistry, 

and Ecology Magazine 32 (6): 61-63. 

Gueorguieva, T., Mokreva, T. & Yanchev, I. 1997: Tillering as a factor of productivity 

formation in winter oats under conditions of reduced plant density. Scientific works of 

the Academy of Agriculture, Vol. 4 (1): 23-25. 

Hsiao, W.F. & Khachtourian, G.G. 1997: Impact of cereal hosts on the susceptibility of 

Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphididae) to the entomopathogenic fungus. 

Verticillium lecanii. Plant Protection Bulletin Taipei 39 (4): 313-327. 

Lazarov, A. 1969: The frit fly – Oscinosoma frit (Diptera) – as a pest on cereals in Bulgaria 

and the means for its control. 

Ljubenov, Y. 1961: The wild cereal plants as a reserve and source of the frit fly reproduction. 

Agricultural Thought Magazine, Vol. 5. 

Moudry, J., Vozenilkova, B. & Votavova, O., 1996: Damage to oats by frit fly (Oscinella frit 

L.): 71-80. 

Valoska, B., Sadova, M.. & Liskova, M., 1995: Response of selected cereal cultivars to 

Heterodera avenae Woll. pathotype H 12. Slovac Republic: 215-218. 

137

138



pp. 139 - 142 

Side effects of some pesticides on aphid specific predators 

in winter wheat 

A. Mateeva, M. Vassileva and T. Gueorguieva 

Agricultural University - Plovdiv, 12 Mendeleev St., 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria 

Summary 

From 1996/1999 field studies in the region of Jambol, Bulgaria, were performed to investigate side 

effects of chemical control of cereal aphids on different beneficial arthropods in winter wheat. Our 

results indicate that prophylactic spraying immediately before flowering was often to early to prevent 

a later built-up of aphid populations. In some years an accelerated increase of aphid density in 

combination with reduced immigration of aphid specific predatory such as Syrphidae, Coccinellidae 

and Chrysopidae could de observed in sprayed plots compared to non-treated control areas. When 

aphicides were applied according to the already existing economic threshold, aphid predators were 

eliminated by broad spectrum insecticides like Decis 2,5 EK 0,03% and Talstar 10 EK 0,03%. Side 

effects of an insecticide treatment on certain natural enemies of aphids could be reduced for by using 

more selective pesticides like Pirimicarb 0,1%. However, applying Pirimicarb occasionally lead to 

detrimental effects on aphid specific predators, mainly because the prey population was completely 

eliminated. Studies on the development of syrphid and coccinellid larvae in relation to aphid density 

showed that relative high numbers of these predators could survive and complete their development 

even with limited food supply. 

Key words: pests, predators, populations, cereal aphids, pest control 

Introduction 

Agro-climatic conditions in Bulgaria are favourable for growth of over 80 varieties of 

agricultural crops. Cereals are cultivated on about 21 million of decares, and are attacked 

various pests and diseases (Grigorov 1959 1964 1965 1990; Lyubenov 1961 1969; Lazarov et 

al. 1969). 

Aphids are among the economically most important pests in wheat, with Sitobion avenae 

Fab. and Rhopalosiphum padi L. as the predominant species (Vickerman 1977 1980; Lowe 

1982). Increasing use of fertilisers in Bulgaria resulted in more frequent aphid outbreaks. 

However, increased aphid density in cereals also resulted in a higher diversity of predators. 

Most often aphid predators belong to the families of Coccinellidae, Syrphidae and 

Chrysopidae have been reported as beneficials in integrated control systems, often associated 

with the use of selective pesticides (Beackman 1967; Sunderland et al. 1982; Hagen 1987). A 

number of studies have already been carried out to investigate the effect of pesticides on like 

Coccinella septempunctata L. (Col.: Coccinellidae), Episyrphus balteatus De Geer (Dipt.: 

Syrphidae) and Chrysoperla carnea Stephens (Neurop.: Chrysopidae) (e.g. De Clerco & 

Pietraszko 1983). 

The objective of the present study was to investigate side effects of pesticides used for 

aphid control on beneficial coccinellids, syrphids and chrysopids. 

139

140 


The experiments were carried out in 1996/1999 in three replicates of square plots of 100 m. 

Winter wheat was sown in October using the cultivar ‘Sadovo 1’ at a seed rate, and fertiliser 

and herbicides treatments typical for the Jambol region. All the plots were fenced in mid-May 

with 60 cm high plastic sheets. 

The following treatments were compared: (i) untreated control, (ii) Decis 2,5 EK 0,03 %, 

(iii) Talstar 10 EK 0,03 %, and (iv) Pirimicarb 0,1 %. Applications were carried out at the 

beginning of flowering of the winter wheat, i.e. on the 14th May 1996, the 10th May 1997, 

and on the 16th May 1998, respectively. Immediately after treatments, in each replicate 

aphids and natural enemies were monitored on plants in a square meter. The data was 

analysed by means of descriptive statistics, i.e. mean and standard deviation. 

Results and Discussion 

Table 1 shows the species composition of the most widely distributed predators in wheat 

crops. The greatest species variety was reported for Coccinellidae. The most abundant 

predator species were C. septempunctata and E. balteatus. According to Grigorov (1980), the 

latter species shows a preference to develop in wheat crops with a high aphid density. 

Tab. 1. Species composition of predators recorded in wheat crops in the region of Jambol. 

Order Family Species 

Coleoptera Coccinellidae Coccinella septempunctata L. 

Coccinula quatuordecimpustulata (L.) 

Hippodamia variegata Goeze 

Propylaea quatuordecimpunctata L. 

Adalia spp. 

Hippodamia tredecimpunctata (L.) 

Neuroptera Chrysopidae Chrysoperla carnea Stephens 

Chrysoperla harrisii (Fitch) 

Chrysopa pallens Rambur 

Diptera Syrphidae Episyrphus balteatus De Geer 

Syrphus vitripennis Meigen 

Eupeodes latifasciatus (Macquart) 

Scaeva pyrastri (L.) 

Figure 1 shows the results of the monitoring between 1996 and 1998. A Decis and Talstar 

treatment considerably decreased the total numbers of all predators, and in particular of 

syrphids. 

A similar trend was observed during the three years of studies. However, the low 

predator densities in 1997 we most likely also associated with unfavourable agro-climatic 

conditions in June 1997, that resulted in reduced aphid densities.

141 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

Decis 2,5 

EK 0,03% 

Coccinellidae 

Talstar 10 

EK 0,03% 

Pirimicarb 

0,1% 

1996 

1997 

1998 

Average 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

Decis 2,5 

EK 0,03% 

Chrysopidae 

Talstar 10 

EK 0,03% 

Pirimicarb 

0,1% 

1996 

1997 

1998 

Average 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

Decis 2,5 

EK 0,03% 

Syrphidae 

Talstar 10 

EK 0,03% 

Pirimicarb 

0,1% 

1996 

1997 

1998 

Average 

Fig. 1. Abundance (in % of untreated control) of coccinellids, chrysopids and syrphids in 

insecticide-treated field plots in the Jambol region of Bulgaria in 1996 1997 and 1998, and on 

average (the latter ± SD). 

The Pirimicarp application proved to have the fewest side effects on aphid predators. 

Compared to the untreated control predator abundance was only reduced by 4 - 12%. 

However, the insecticide treatments greatly reduced the aphid densities, and thus largely 

limited the amount of available prey. Yet predators were able to sustain in the treated plots 

even at predator:prey ratios as low as 1:7 or 1:9 (Tab. 2)

142 

Tab. 2. Predator : aphid ratios in wheat crops in the Jambol region of Bulgaria (data from 

1996 - 1998). 

Versions 1996 1997 1998 

Untreated control 1:31 1:24 1:38 

Decis 2,5 EK 0,03% 1:10 1:10 1:9 

Talstar 10 EK 0,03% 1:12 1:10 1:7 

Pirimicarb 0,1 % 1:20 1:19 1:21 

Based on our results the following conclusions can be drawn: 

Predators in the wheat biocenose were mainly representatives of the families Coccinellidae, 

Chrysopidae and Syrphidae. A Decis 2,5 EK 0,03% and a Talstar 10 EK 0,03% 

treatment considerably reduced the density of predators in wheat crops. The predators were 

able to survive and complete their development even at very close predator:prey ratios. 

References 

Grigorov, St. 1959: Prinos kam prouchvane na listnite vashki po zhitnite rastenija v Bulgaria, 

BAN. (Bulg.) 

Grigorov, S. 1964: Prinos kam entomofaunata na Bulgaria. sp. Rastitelna zashtita. 

Grigorov, S. 1965: Entomotsenozata na zhitnite sas sljata povarhnost v Sofijsko. Nauchni 

trudove v tom XVI. 

Grigorov, S. 1990: Listni vashki, sp. Zemedelie, br.2, br.5. 

Ljubenov, J.A. 1961 1969: Divata zhitna rastitelnost kato rezerv i iztochnik za namaljavane 

na shvedskata muha ; sp. Selska misal, br.5. 

Lazarov, A. 1969: Shvedskata muha (Oscinosoma frit Diptera) kato neprijatel po zhitnite. 

Rastitelna zashtita, br.6. 

Blackman, R.L. 1967: Selection of applied prey by Adalia bipunctata L. and Coccinella 

septempunctata L.. Annals of Applied Biology 59: 331-338. 

Hagen, K.S. 1987: Nutritional ecology of terrestrial insect predators. In: Slansky, Jr. F. & 

Rodrigues, J. (eds): Nutritional ecology of insects, mites, spiders and related 

invertebrates. New York, John Wiley & Sons: 553-577. 

De Clerko, R. & Piertraszko, R. 1983: The influence of pesticides on the epigeal arthropoda 

fauna in winter wheat. Integrated and complex plant protection of field crops. Budapest 

4th - 9th July 1983. Hungary. 

Lowe, H.J.B. 1982: Some observations on the susceptibility and resistance of winter wheat to 

the aphid Sitobion avenae (F.) in Britain. Crop Protection 1 (4): 431-440. 

Sunderland, K.D., Chambers, R.J. & Stacey, D.L. 1982: Polyphagous predators and cereal 

aphids. Annual Report Glasshouse Crops Research Institute. 

Vickerman, G.P. 1977: Monitoring and forecasting insect pests of cereals. Proceedings British 

Crop Protection Conference: 227-231. 

Vickerman, G.P. 1980: Important changes in the numbers of insects in cereal fields. Game 

Conservancy Annual Review: 67-72.



pp. 143- 145 

Influence of the stubble burning 

on some pests and earth-worms density 

A. Mateeva 1 , D. Svetleva 1 , D. Andonov 2 and St. Stratieva 2 

1 

Agricultural University, Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria 

2 

COS, Yambol 8600, Bulgaria 

Summary 

In recent years more attention has been paid to the impact of the stubble burning on soil pest 

population densities, as well as on some indicators of soil fertility such as earth-worms. An impartial 

assessment of this technique and an analysis of the consequences for the phytosanitary conditions of 

the soils is of paramount importance for cereal growers in Bulgaria. The main objective of this 

investigation was to study the influence of stubble burning on some pests and also on earth-worms 

densities. The study was conducted on a 12 ha cereal plot in the Yambol district of Bulgaria. Results 

show that the stubble burning leads to a reduction of total pest numbers and earth-worm biomass. 

Key words: cereals, stubble burning, plough in the stubble, earth-worms, harmful pests 

Introduction 

Grain cereals take up two thirds of the cultivated area in Bulgaria and constitute the base of 

the Bulgarian agricultural production. It is a common practice to burn the stubble after 

harvest. However, this process often gets out of control with all the inherent dangers for the 

environment. Moreover, this practice needs a re-thinking particularly because of the increased 

interest in different forms of agriculture such as conventional, organic or bio-ecological. With 

this respect an impartial analysis and assessment of the phytosanitary conditions of the soils 

are needed. In addition, a comprehensive understanding of the farmers’ reasoning is required. 

The stubble management and the consequences for the soil ecosystem has recently attracted a 

lot of scientific interest (Haines et al., 1990; Chan & Heenan, 1993; Double et al., 1994). The 

main objective of the present study was to investigate the influence of stubble burning on 

some pests and earth-worms densities in Bulgaria. 


The study was conducted on a 12 ha cereal plot in the Yambol district of Bulgaria. The field 

was separated into three experimental treatments with 10 m of protection strip. The stubble 

burning (the first treatment) was conducted directly after harvest and after 15 ml/m 2 

precipitation. In the second treatment the stubble was ploughed in. The third treatment was as 

a control without any agricultural practices. In every field 10 samples were taken from 1 m 2 

marked sectors in the plough layer with a thickness of 10 - 25 cm. Pests were analysed and 

determined at the Department of Entomology in the Agricultural University in Plovdiv. 


In Table 1 data on the density of different life stages of harmful coleopteran and lepidopteran 

species in the superficial ploughing layer is presented.

144 

Tab. 1. Average density of harmful species of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera. 

Average density per m 2 

Treatments Order Coleoptera Order Lepidoptera 

Larvae Pupae Adults Larvae Pupae 

Stubble burning 2 14 3 2 12 

Ploughing in the stubble 1 3 1 – 1 

Control 13 16 4 3 13 

Higher numbers of Coleoptera were recorded in the control treatment (i.e. without 

applying any agricultural practices). The greatest reduction in density of Coleoptera and 

Lepidoptera were observed in the second treatment (with ploughing of the stubble). Ploughing 

most likely killed a great proportion of the insects in the superficial ploughing layer. In 

contrast stubble burning did not greatly affect the density of coleopteran and lepidopteran pest 

in the soil surface, particularly that of the pupae. The latter is probably due to two important 

factors: first the pupal stages are situated in depth beyond the ploughing layer, and second 

they are relatively the most stable life stages of insects, particularly with regard to various 

adverse ecological and anthropogenic effects. The control treatment was characterised with 

the relatively highest densities and diversities of forms and stages of harmful species. In this 

undisturbed environment all development stages of the two insect orders (certainly except for 

adult butterflies) were found. Our results on the influence of different agricultural practices in 

cereal fields after harvest coincide with those of Pankhurst et al. (1995). 

Data on biomass of earth-worms are presented in Table 2. 

Tab. 2. Average density of earth-worms. 

Average density per m 2 

Treatments on 25.07.1999 on 15.08.1999 

Numbers g/m 2 Numbers g/m 2 

Stubble burning 7 105 8 118 

Ploughing in the stubble 21 360 43 650 

Control 27 430 19 380 

On the first sampling occasion in June 1999, the highest density was recorded in the 

control treatment, followed by the ploughing treatment. The differences in absolute values 

between the two treatments in June were not substantially high. However, on the second 

sampling occasion in August 1999 higher numbers of earth-worms were recorded in the 

ploughing compared to the control treatment. This probably reflects the favourable effect of 

ploughing on the density of earth-worms which are indicators for the intensive soil formation 

activity. Lowest numbers of earth were always recorded in the stubble burning treatment. 

Based on our data we thus conclude that stubble burning leads to reduction of density of 

coleopteran and lepidopteran pests and also to sharp decrease in the earth-worms biomass. An

145 

especially favourable practice for the purposes of a more ecologically oriented agriculture we 

thus recommend the ploughing in of the stubble. 

References 

Chan, K. & Heenan, I.D.P. 1993: Surface hydraulic properties of a red earth under continuos 

cropping with different management practices (wheat-lupine rotation). Australian Journal 

of Soil Research 31(1): 13-24. 

Double, B.M., Kirkegaard, I.A. & Buckerfield, I.C. 1994: Short term effects of tillage and 

stubble management on earth-worm populations in cropping systems in southern New 

South Waks. Australian Journal of Soil Research 45(7): 1587-1600. 

Haines, P.I. & Uren, N.C. 1990: Effects of conservation tillage farming on soil microbial 

biomass, organic matter and earth-worm populations in North-Eastern Victoria. 

Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 30(3): 365-371. 

Pankhurst, C.E., Hawke, B.G., McDonald, H.I., Kirkby, C.A., Buckerfield, I.C., Michelsen, 

P., Brien, K.A. & Gupta, V.V.Sr. 1995: Evaluation of soil biological properties as 

potential bioindicators of soil health. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 

35(7):1015-1028.

146



pp. 147- 151 

A study of aphid predation by Coccinella septempunctata L. 

(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) using gut dissection 

Holger Triltsch 

BBA, Institute for Integrated Plant Protection, Stahnsdorfer Damm 81, 

D-14532 Kleinmachnow, Germany 

Short communication 

Since 1994 a long-term investigation on the diet of Coccinella septempunctata L. under field 

conditions has been carried out. Because the essential aphid prey is present only during a 

restricted time period, aphidophagous ladybirds have to consume a lot of different alternative 

food types, e.g. pollen, nectar, or other arthropods (Putman, 1964; Hemptinne & Desprets, 

1986). Most of our knowledge on the diet of C. septempunctata is based on laboratory 

experiments or on a few observations of ladybird individuals. Therefore, little is known about 

the relative importance of the different food types under field conditions. Moreover, we are 

not able to quantify the amount of aphids eaten by a ladybird in the field. 

To get some more information about the diet composition of C. septempunctata during 

the course of the year and in different locations this long-term field survey was undertaken. 

Additionally, a method to quantify aphid consumption under field conditions was developed. 

To date, about 2,000 adults and 500 larvae of C. septempunctata have been dissected and 

their gut content analysed. Ladybirds were collected in three different agricultural areas. At 

the Berlin-Staaken (BS) site ladybird adults were collected throughout the whole year in 

different crop and non-crop habitats. At the two other sampling sites, Northern Flaeming (NF) 

and Magdeburger Boerde (MB), adults of C. septempunctata were collected in June and July 

in cereals. Since 1995 ladybird larvae were also investigated. 

While capturing the ladybirds for further investigation, other potential prey arthropods, as 

well as certain plant material were also sampled. In many cases this material was useful in 

identifying food items present in the alimentary canal. In addition, feeding experiments with 

prey types, previously never detected in the gut but mentioned as prey of predaceous 

coccinellids, namely ladybird eggs and larvae of Oulema spp. (Col.: Chrysomelidae) (Rogers 

et al., 1972; Agarwala & Dixon, 1992), were carried out under laboratory conditions. An 

illustrated small catalogue of common food remains found in the alimentary canal of 

C. septempunctata has already been published (Triltsch, 1999). 

All ladybird individuals were captured by sweepnetting or after visual searches. They 

were rendered inactive at low temperatures (below -10°C) and killed in 80% ethanol to 

prevent any excretion. The ladybirds were dissected under a binocular microscope and the 

alimentary canal of each individual was removed. The food remains were inspected in 

glycerol and classified as belonging to the following food types: (1) aphids, (2) non-aphid 

arthropods, (3) fungal spores, (4) pollen and other plant material, (5) inorganic material, and 

(6) unidentifiable items. Frequency of a certain food type was defined as the percentage (%) 

of individuals of each sample containing that type of food. The category “combined meal” 

was adapted from Sunderland et al. (1995) and includes cases where more than one food type 

was found in a single gut. Since 1995 a more detailed identification of prey species within the 

category “non-aphid arthropods” was performed. 

147

148 

Gut dissection of C. septempunctata collected in the field or fed under laboratory 

conditions indicates a very different degree of food recovery in the alimentary canal. If 

ladybird adults were fed with conspecific eggs, no remains were recovered which allowed for 

their identification. After feeding on Oulema spp. larvae it was quite difficult to find any 

characteristic food remains. On the other hand, smaller prey like aphids or Thysanoptera were 

easily detectable during gut dissection. These smaller arthropods are being devoured 

completely by C. septempunctata, which makes it easy to find typical chitin fragments or in 

some cases nearly intact bodies (especially in Acari, Collembola and Thysanoptera). Larger 

arthropods are eaten only in parts and the success of prey recovery during gut dissection 

depends on the amount of sclerotised body parts consumed. 

Tab. 1. Frequency of food types in the gut of adult Coccinella septempunctata L. collected at 

Berlin-Staaken in 1994-1997. 

Month Habitat/ crop 

Number 

of adults 

dissected 

(samples) 

meal* 

remains of 

aphids 

non-aphid 

arthropods 

fungal spores 

Proportion (%) with 

pollen 

inorganic 

material 

not identified 

emptz gut 

combined 

II hibernacula 42 (1) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.7 83.3 0.0 

III hibernacula 98 (4) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 97.0 0.0 

IV hibern ,fallow 65 (2) 10.8 10.8 15.4 9.2 9.2 16.9 43.1 9.2 

V fallow,oat,rye 110 (4) 50.0 27.3 45.5 22.7 49.1 10.9 9.1 70.0 

VI oat, wheat 261 (10) 88.5 12.6 56.3 7.3 39.5 3.1 1.5 68.9 

VII oat 138 (4) 82.6 34.8 86.2 14.5 24.6 5.8 2.9 84.4 

VIII fallow,oat,maize 67 (3) 44.8 23.9 68.7 13.4 41.8 6.0 7.5 75.8 

IX fallow,grassland 176 (6) 36.4 9.7 55.1 23.3 24.4 7.4 24.4 69.2 

X fallow,hibern. 125 (3) 4.8 0.8 12.0 1.6 12.0 8.0 75.2 51.6 

XI fallow,hibern. 32 (2) 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 0.0 0.0 96.9 0.0 

XII hibernacula 32 (2) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 

* Number of individuals with more than one food type in gut as percentage of the number of 

individuals with food in gut 

Table 1 shows the diet composition of C. septempunctata adults at location BS (Triltsch, 

1999). During the course of a year remarkable changes in the frequency of consumption of 

certain food types were observable. Aphid consumption was detectable from April until 

October. In May and June aphids were the most frequent food type. The highest proportion of 

C. septempunctata adults with aphid remains present in their guts was found in June (88.5%). 

At the same time the proportion of adults with empty guts was lowest. Fungal spores were 

found to be nearly as frequent as aphids. This was an unexpected result and difficult to 

explain. The phenomenon could indicate feeding on honeydew because Alternaria spp., the

149 

most frequently found fungi, usually grows on honeydew. Non-aphid arthropods were 

consumed generally not so frequently. Within that food type Thysanoptera, Collembola, 

Acari, Hymenoptera, Diptera (larvae), Coccinellidae (larvae), and Chrysomelidae (larvae) 

were identified. Two periods of frequent pollen feeding were found, i.e. a first peak in May 

and another in September. 

In June and July, no difference in adult diet was found between the three sampling sites. 

Also the composition of the larval diet was relatively similar to that of the adults. 

As already mentioned, the gut dissection method has its limits because prey without 

sclerotised parts, like ladybird eggs, are not detectable. On the other hand, smaller prey, like 

aphids, are relatively easy to identify. Moreover, aphid remains present in the gut could be 

quantified. In combination with experiments to study the rate of recovery of a certain aphid 

meal, gut dissection could be a suitable method for estimating aphid consumption rates under 

field conditions. 

Therefor, the number of certain aphid body fragments present in the alimentary canal was 

additionally obtained from gut dissection of C. septempunctata individuals collected in the 

field. Two aphid body parts, the tarsus and the ultimate rostral segment, were chosen for 

quantification. These two chitin fragments are easily detectable and were seldom crushed 

during food intake and digestion. Some preliminary results from these investigations are 

given in Table 2. The mean number of recovered aphid fragments per individual increased 

from April to June. Although C. septempunctata males were able to find some aphid prey 

earlier in the season, mean numbers of recovered aphid fragments were three times higher in 

females compared with males. The largest amount of aphid remains was observed in third and 

fourth instar larvae. 

Tab. 2. Quantity of two aphid’s body fragments present in the gut of Coccinella 

septempunctata L. collected at Berlin-Staaken in 1998. 

Date 

Mean number of 

ultimate rostral segment / tarsus (Individuals dissected) in 

Males Females Larvae 

April 14 0.3 / 1.3 (6) 0.0 / 0.0 (2) -- 

April 22 0.4 / 2.1 (23) 1.2 / 5.8 (12) -- 

April 30 0.1 / 0.7 (9) 1.7 / 6.9 (18) -- 

May 12 1.2 / 5.3 (37) 2.7 / 11.6 (56) -- 

May 20 1.5 / 5.5 (4) 4.4 / 16.4 (20) 2.2 / 5.0 (6) 2. instar 

June 02 1.3 / 6.5 (46) 3.5 / 14.6 (51) 4.7 / 20.4 (300) 3./4. instar 

June 13 2.5 / 8.7 (8) 4.5 / 17.3 (11) 5.5 / 23.8 (290) 3./4. instar 

In some preliminary experiments, C. septempunctata adults were fed a certain number of 

aphids before dissection. These experiments took place under laboratory conditions with 

20±3 °C, 65% r.h., and L:D=16:8 h. The ladybirds were kept individually in small plastic 

boxes (100 ml), starved for 48 h and then fed for 5 days with a certain amount of Sitobion 

avenae F. (Hom.: Aphididae) (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 25, or 30 aphids/day). Two significant linear 

relationships were calculated between the number of aphids consumed per day and the 

number of aphid chitin fragments present in the gut from dissection of these ladybird

150 

individuals (fig. 1). Although at this time relatively little is known about the digestion rate in 

ladybirds, the observed significant relations lead to the conclusion, that it may be possible to 

estimate aphid consumption rates for C. septempunctata derived from the number of aphid 

chitin fragments present in the gut. This would offer a new chance to intensively study aphid 

feeding of predaceous ladybirds under natural conditions and may answer the question: How 

many aphids are consumed by one ladybird in the field? A comparison of gut dissection 

results with the estimated aphid abundance at the location the ladybirds were collected would 

be very useful. From such a study important information about the feeding habits of ladybirds 

and how they utilise our agricultural landscape could be gathered. 

Aphid body fragments present in gut [number/adult] 

100 

Tarsus 

y=1.82x (R²=0.46) n=56 

 

80 

 

60 

 

 

 

40 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

20 

 

 

0 

 

 

40 

Ultimate rostral segment 

20 

y=0.43x (R²=0.48) n=56 

 

 

 

0 

 

5 10 15 20 25 30 

Aphid consumption [aphids/d] 

Fig. 1. Recovery of certain aphid body fragments during gut dissection after feeding 

C. septempunctata adults with S. avenae under laboratory conditions. 


The author acknowledges the „Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft“ (DFG) for funding the 

researcher and the Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry (BBA) for 

facilitating the research. I would like to thank Prof. J.-L. Hemptinne and Dr. K.D. Sunderland 

for their helpful comments and suggestions to that field of work. 

References 

Agarwala, B.K. & Dixon, A.F.G. 1992: Laboratory studies of cannibalism and interspecific 

predation in ladybirds. Ecol. Entomol. 17: 303-309. 

Hemptinne, J.-L. & Desprets, A. 1986: Pollen as a spring food for Adalia bipunctata. In: 

Ecology of Aphidophaga. Hodek, I. (ed.). Academia, Prague: 29-35. 

Putman, W.L. 1964: Occurrence and food of some coccinellids (Coleoptera) in Ontario peach 

orchards. Can. Entomologist 96: 1149-1155. 

Roger, C.E., Jackson, H.B., Angalet, G.W. & Eikenbary, R.D., 1972: Biology and life history 

of Propylea 14-punctata (Col.: Coccinellidae), an exotic predator of aphids. Ann. 

Entomol. Soc. America 65: 648-650.

Sunderland, K.D., Lövei, G.L. & Fenlon, J. 1995: Diets and reproductive phenologies of the 

introduced ground beetles Harpalus affinis and Clivinia australasiae (Coleoptera: 

Carabidae) in New Zealand. Aust. J. Zool 43: 39-50. 

Triltsch, H. 1999: Food remains in the guts of Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera: 

Coccinellidae) adults and larvae. Eur. J. Entomol. 96(4): 355-364. 

151

152



pp. 153- 163 

Arthropod complex of winter wheat crops and its seasonal dynamics 

Valentina M. Afonina, Wladimir B. Tshernyshev, Inna I. Soboleva-Dokuchaeva, 

Alexander V. Timokhov, Olga V. Timokhova and Rimma R. Seifulina 

Dept. of Entomology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, 119899, Moscow, Russia 

Summary 

The investigations were carried out in Moscow region for two years and in Krasnodar region (the 

South of Russia) for one year. The size of the fields were 12-14 ha and 64 ha, respectively. We used 

entomological sweep netting and pitfall traps simultaneously. Samples were taken in the field centre, 

on the field edges and in adjoining biotopes (forests, forest belts, perennial herbs crops). The site on 

the halfway to the centre was added in Krasnodar region. Spatial and temporal dynamics of mass 

species of arthropods was described. Some of species were field residents and able to overwinter there, 

however, the most of species migrated to the field from its grassy margins or from other biotopes of a 

landscape. 

Key words: agro-ecosystem, pests, natural enemies, migrations, arthropods, insects, mites 

Introduction 

Successful management of natural enemies would be impossible without knowledge of 

arthropod complex and its distribution both in the agro-landscape and within the field during 

the vegetation period. Such seasonal migrations to the field from field margins in spring and 

backwards in autumn were estimated for separate groups of arthropods, among others for 

ground beetles, some staphylinid beetles, and many spiders (Dennis & Fry, 1992; Kiss et al., 

1994; Kromp & Steinberger, 1992; Peter et al., 1999; Sotherton, 1985; Thomas et al., 1992; 

Toth & Kiss, 1999; Wallin, 1985). Seasonal migrations of many insects inhabiting the 

vegetation were described by Melnichenko (1949). 

Here we describe seasonal changes of distribution both on the ground surface and in the 

vegetation level, of mass species populations of pests and their natural enemies inhabiting the 

winter wheat crops in two regions of Russia. We consider not only migrations into or out of 

the field but also seasonal changes of populations distribution within the field. 

Investigation regions and methods 

Our investigations were carried out in winter wheat crops in Moscow region in 1996 and 1998 

and in Krasnodar region (the South of Russia) in 1999. The size of the fields were 12-14 ha in 

Moscow and 64 ha in Krasnodar, respectively. The observations lasted from snow melting in 

the spring until the harvest or snow fall in autumn. We used pitfall traps and sweep netting at 

the same sites. Samples were taken every eight or ten days in the centre of the field, on the 

field edges (7 - 10 m into the field), on the field grassy margins and in adjoined biotopes 

(forest, forest belts, crops of perennial herbs). In Krasnodar samples were taken on halfway 

from the edge to the centre as well. The distance between the nearest edge and the centre was 

about 180 m in Moscow and 400 m in Krasnodar. In Moscow region we used 71 pitfall traps 

in 1996 (15 traps in the centre of the field, 24 traps on the field edges and 32 traps on margins, 

153

154 

respectively) and 65 traps in 1998 (10 traps in centre, 20 on edges, 20 on margins and 15 in 

adjoining biotopes, respectively). 

In Krasnodar region we used 50 pitfall traps in 5 biotopes (centre, halfway from the 

centre to the edge, field edges, margins, adjoining forest belts): 10 in every biotop. Plastic 

glasses (0,5 l) containing some amount of wet soil (in 1996) or 4 % water solution of formalin 

(in 1998 and 1999) were used as traps. In 1996, pitfall traps were exposed for four days and 

the following four days they were closed. In 1998 and 1999, these periods were 

correspondingly five and five days respectively. 

We used standard entomological sweep netting techniques. Every sample contained the 

catches of 25 strokes by net. In 1996 we collected 15 samples in the centre, 24 on the field 

edges and 32 on the margins; in 1998 eight samples in the centre, 16 on the edges, 16 on the 

margins and 12 in the adjoining biotopes. In 1999 we had eight samples in every site. 

Results 

Here we will consider behaviour of herbivores and predators. The density of parasites was 

very low in all samples. Our results concerning mass species of arthropods are presented in 

fig. 1-20. Average catches per sample are shown in ordinate axes. 

Herbivores 

Chrysomelid beetles, Phyllotreta spp. (fig. 1-2), and Oscinella spp. (Dipt.: Chloropidae) 

(fig. 3) colonise the field at once and prefer its central parts. We can not exclude that some of 

these insects were able to overwinter in field plant debris. Aphids, Sitobion avenae F. (fig. 4), 

began to colonise the field from its edges. The same preference of field edges may be 

observed in overwintering bugs, Eurygaster integriceps Put. (Hem.: Scutelleridae) (fig. 5-6) 

and Lygus rugulipennis Popp. (Hem.: Miridae) (fig. 7). However, the following generations of 

these aphids and bugs (adults as well as older larvae) were more abundant in the central part 

of the field. On the contrary, the chrysomelid Oulema melanopus L. (fig. 8), was concentrated 

on field margins in the beginning of spring and later then colonised the field edges. During 

the whole season this beetle species was only very seldom found in the central part of the 

field. The second peak of abundance on field margins was most likely caused by an 

insecticide in the middle of June. 

120 N 

100 

80 

60 

40 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

20 

0 

3.5 

11.5 

19.5 

28.5 

5.6 

13.6 

22.6 

30.6 

9.7 

18.7 

26.7 

Dates 

Fig. 1. Phyllotreta vittula (Redt.) Moscow, 1996. Sweeping.

155 

60 

N 

50 

40 

30 

20 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

10 

0 

27.3 

5.4 

15.4 

25.4 

6.5 

15.5 

26.5 

4.6 

12.6 

23.6 

3.7 

Dates 

Fig. 2. Phyllotreta spp. Krasnodar, 1996. Sweeping. 

N 

200 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

3.5 

11.5 

19.5 

28.5 

5.6 

13.6 

22.6 

30.6 

9.7 

18.7 

26.7 

Dates 

Fig. 3. Oscinella frit L. & O. pusilla Mg. Moscow, 1996. Sweeping. 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

6.5 

15.5 

26.5 

4.6 

12.6 

23.6 

Dates 

Fig. 4. Sitobion avenae F. Krasnodar, 1999. Sweeping.

156 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

N 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

15.5 

26.5 

4.6 

12.6 

23.6 

3.7 

Dates 

Fig. 5. Eurygaster integriceps Put. (imago). Krasnodar. 1999. Sweeping. 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

N 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

4.6 

12.6 

23.6 

3.7 

Dates 

Fig. 6. Eurygaster integriceps Put. (larvae III-V). Krasnodar. 1999. Sweeping. 

350 

300 

N 

250 

200 

150 

100 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

50 

0 

3.5 

11.5 

19.5 

28.5 

5.6 

13.6 

22.6 

30.6 

9.7 

18.7 

26.7 

Dates 

Fig. 7. Lygus rugulipennis Popp. Moscow, 1996. Sweeping.

157 

12 N 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

27.3 

5.4 

15.4 

25.4 

6.5 

15.5 

26.5 

4.6 

Dates 

12.6 

23.6 

3.7 

Fig. 8. Oulema melanopus L. Krasnodar, 1999. Sweeping. 

Predators 

We observed many carnivorous red mites Trombidiiformes (fig. 9) in trap samples in spring 

in Krasnodar, especially in the centre of the field, indicating that they can hibernate in the 

field. Later their abundance decreased sharply. Some spiders living in vegetation such as 

Tetragnatha extensa (L.) (Araneae: Tetragnathidae) (fig. 10), Xysticus ulmi Hahn (Araneae: 

Thomisidae) (fig. 11) moved to the field from its margins. Later the former species distributed 

evenly all over the field and its margins, whereas the latter species preferred field edges and 

margins, although could be found even in the centre. Spiders living in the vegetation like 

Misumenops tricuspidatus Fab. (Araneae: Thomisidae) (fig. 12), remained on the margins and 

could hardly be caught in the field. On the contrary, Hypsosinga pygmaea (Sand.) (Araneae: 

Araneidae) (fig. 13) was found in the field mainly in the centre from the very beginning of 

vegetation season and avoided its margins and forest belts. Ground dwelling spiders of the 

family Lycosidae seem to overwinter in the field and prefer it’s the central part (for instance, 

Pardosa agrestis (Westr.) and Trochosa spp. in Krasnodar region). Ground spider 

Oedothorax apicatus (Blackw.) (Araneae: Linyphiidae) inhabited both the field and its 

margins only in spring, but were abundant within the field in summer. Good-flying carabid 

beetles, e.g. Agonum muelleri (Hbst.) (fig. 14), were able to colonise the whole field at once. 

These beetles always preferred the central part of the field. Ground beetles Brachinus spp. 

(fig. 15) emerged at first on margins and in forest belts. Later they occupied the edge of the 

field and then the whole surface of the field. On the contrary, Agonum dorsale Pont. (Col.: 

Carabidae) (fig. 16) appeared in forest belts in early spring and then on the field margins; 

however, this species was nearly absent in field catches during the whole season. The second 

gathering of beetles on margins in June (fig. 15-16) could be explained by their mass 

migrations out of the field after spraying of insecticides. The poor flying carabids 

Pterostichus cupreus L. (fig. 17) and Harpalus rufipes (De Geer) (fig. 19), gradually 

colonised the field in Moscow region from its margins; the latter species replaced the former 

in margins in spring and in the field in summer. Pterostichus cupreus was the most common 

beetle in traps catches in the field, especially in its central part. During the whole season in 

Krasnodar region P. cupreus (fig. 18) was more abundant on the field edges. It is possible that 

in the South of Russia these beetles can overwinter within the field or occupy the field edges 

very early in spring (February - beginning of March). Density of H. rufipes populations in 

Krasnodar was relatively low (fig. 20) and in all sites was highest only in the beginning of 

July.

158 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

31.3 

10.4 

20.4 

30.4 

11.5 

20.5 

30.5 

9.6 

19.6 

28.6 

8.7 

Dates 

Fig. 9. Trombidiformes. Krasnodar, 1999. Pitfall traps. 

N 

1,6 

1,4 

1,2 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

0 

3.5 

11.5 

19.5 

28.5 

5.6 

13.6 

22.6 

30.6 

9.7 

18.7 

26.7 

Dates 

Fig. 10. Tetragnatha extensa (L.). Moscow, 1996. Sweeping. 

1,2 

N 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

0,2 

0 

3.5 

11.5 

19.5 

28.5 

5.6 

13.6 

22.6 

30.6 

9.7 

18.7 

26.7 

Dates 

Fig. 11. Xysticus ulmi (Hahn). Moscow, 1996. Sweeping.

159 

N 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

0 

27.3 

5.4 

15.4 

25.4 

6.5 

15.5 

26.5 

4.6 

12.6 

23.6 

Dates 

Fig. 12. Misumenops tricuspidatus Fab. Krasnodar, 1999. Sweeping. 

N 

1,8 

1,6 

1,4 

1,2 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

0 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

27.3 

5.4 

15.4 

25.4 

6.5 

15.5 

26.5 

4.6 

12.6 

23.6 

Dates 

Fig. 13. Hypsosinga pygmaea (Sud.). Krasnodar, 1999. Sweeping. 

N 

3,5 

3 

2,5 

2 

1,5 

1 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

0,5 

0 

29.4 

7.5 

15.5 

23.5 

1.6 

9.6 

17.6 

25.6 

4.7 

13.7 

22.7 

30.7 

Dates 

Fig. 14. Agonum muelleri (Hbst.) Moscow, 1996. Pitfall traps.

160 

N 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

31.3 

10.4 

20.4 

30.4 

11.5 

20.5 

30.5 

9.6 

19.6 

28.6 

8.7 

Dates 

Fig. 15. Brachinus elegans Chd. and B. psophia Serv. Krasnodar, 1999. Pitfall traps. 

N 

30 

25 

20 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

15 

10 

5 

0 

31.3 

10.4 

20.4 

30.4 

11.5 

20.5 

30.5 

9.6 

19.6 

28.6 

8.7 

Dates 

Fig. 16. Agonum dorsale Pont. Krasnodar, 1999. Pitfall traps. 

N 

50 

40 

30 

20 

Adjoined 

biotopes 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

10 

0 

28.4 

3.5 

13.5 

28.5 

7.6 

17.6 

27.6 

7.7 

17.7 

27.7 

6.8 

1.9 

11.9 

Dates 

Fig. 17. Pterostichus cupreus L. Moscow, 1998. Pitfall traps.

161 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

N 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

31.3 

10.4 

20.4 

30.4 

11.5 

20.5 

30.5 

9.6 

19.6 

28.6 

8.7 

Dates 

Fig. 18. Pterostichus cupreus L. Krasnodar, 1999. Pitfall traps. 

28.4 

3.5 

13.5 

28.5 

7.6 

17.6 

27.6 

7.7 

17.7 

27.7 

6.8 

1.9 

11.9 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

N 

Adjoined biotopes 

Margin 

Edge 

Centre 

Dates 

Fig. 19. Harpalus rufipes (De Geer) Moscow, 1998. Pitfall traps. 

6 

N 

5 

4 

3 

2 

Shelter belt 

Margin 

Edge 

Halfway 

Centre 

1 

0 

31.3 

10.4 

20.4 

30.4 

11.5 

20.5 

30.5 

9.6 

19.6 

28.6 

8.7 

Dates 

Fig. 20. Harpalus rufipes (De Geer) Krasnodar, 1999. Pitfall traps.

162 

Only some species of Staphylinidae were able to inhabit the field central parts in Moscow 

region (i.e. Tachyporus hypnorum (Fab.), Philonthus cognatus Stephens, P. rotundicollis 

(Ménétries), some species of Aleocharinae). Many specimens of the staphylinid Arpedium 

quadrum Grav. was found in the field in autumn and spring. All rove beetles being good fliers 

colonised the field at once. 

Densities of populations of aphidophagous insects were relatively low. Adults of all 

species of ladybirds inhabited forest belts and field margins in early spring. The most 

abundant coccinellid, Propylaea 14-punctata L., remained there throughout the whole season. 

On the contrary, Coccinella septempunctata L., Coccinula quatuordecimpustulata (L.) and 

Hippodamia variegata Goeze occurred later in the central part of the field. Larvae were 

caught only in June; they obviously preferred the places of aphids aggregation (fig. 4). 

Adults of most abundant lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea Stephens, and less numerous 

C. septempunctata occupied only forest belts and field margins. We did not observed them in 

the field at day time but they might migrate into the field at night. On the contrary, C. carnea 

occurred in the field at day time beginning from May. In early spring this species could too be 

found on margins and forest belts. Larvae of Chrysoperla spp. were found only in June, being 

evenly distributed throughout the field. 

Adults of Syrphidae were practically absent in the samples. Their larvae occurred mainly 

in the field, especially in its central part, but their density was low. It is not excluded that we 

missed the most part of these larvae because they are active usually at night (Berest, 1981). 

Discussion 

The arthropod complex in the field is influenced during the vegetative season by the 

following factors: 1) arthropods which are able to overwinter in the field (red mites, some 

spiders and, possibly, ground beetles); 2) arthropods which overwinter in field margins and/or 

neighbouring biotopes and colonise the field "step by step", (the majority of ground beetles 

and spiders, the chrysomelid O. melanopus, ladybirds); 3) arthropods which overwinter also 

outside the field and migrate to the field either by active flight (bugs Eurygaster spp. and 

Lygus spp., staphylinids like Philonthus spp.) or as a result of "air plankton" sedimentation 

(especially small chrysomelids like Phyllotreta spp., small staphylinids and frit flies Oscinella 

spp.). Such arthropods are able to colonise all parts of the field at once. 

Every species has its own spatial and temporal pattern of distribution in agro-ecosystem. 

For a successful management of natural enemies we have to devote our attention only to such 

species that are capable to inhabit the field. 

Our results show that field margins are the main source of many beneficial species. We 

should study the biology of these species in details to elaborate optimal conditions for 

survival of these species. It is extremely important also to know the conditions which are 

favourable for beneficial arthropods overwintering in the field. 

The field itself is not uniform. The arthropod complexes in the centre of the field and its 

edges differ. Our results show also that the arthropods can distinguish also parts of field at a 

distance of 10, 200 and 400 m from its edge. 

References 

Berest, Z.A., 1981: Diurnal migrations of aphidophagous predators on cereal crops. In: 

Behaviour of insects as a base for elaboration of pest control. Minsk: 24-26.

Dennis, G. & Fray, G.L.A. 1992: Field margins: can they enhance natural enemy population 

densities and general arthropod diversity on farmland? Agric. Ecosystems and Environ. 

40: 95-115. 

Kiss, J., Kadar, F., Toth, J, Kozma, E. & Toth, F. 1994: Occurrence of predatory arthropods in 

winter wheat and in the field edge. Ecologie. 25: 127-132. 

Kromp, B. & Steinberger, K.H. 1992: Grassy field, margins and arthropod diversity: a case 

study on ground beetles and spiders in eastern Austria (Coleoptera: Carabidae; 

Arachnida: Aranei, Opiliones). Agric. Ecosystems and Environ. 40: 71-93. 

Melnichenko, A.N. 1949: Forest belts and beneficial and harmful animals reproduction. 

Moscow. MOIP: 1-358 (in Russian). 

Peter, G., Kiss, J., Toth, F., Sasvari, M. & Petz, A. 1999: Role of field margins in the winter 

phenophase of carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in winter wheat field. In: 

Integrated control in cereal crops. Abstracts. Gödöllő: 21. 

Sotherton, N.W. 1985: The distribution and abundance of predatory Coleoptera overwintering 

in field boundaries. Ann. Appl. Biol. 106: 17-21. 

Thomas, M.B., Sotherton, N.W., Coombes, D.S. & Wratten S.D. 1992: Habitat factors 

affecting the distribution of polyphagous predatory insects between field boundaries. 

Ann. Appl. Biol. 120: 197-202. 

Toth, F. & Kiss, J. 1999: Comparative analyses of epigeic spider assemblages in Northern 

Hungarian winter wheat fields and their adjacent margins. J. of Arachnology. 27: 241- 

248. 

Wallin, H. 1985: Spatial and temporal distribution of some abundant carabid beetles (Coleoptera: 

Carabidae) in cereal fields and adjacent habitats. Pedobiologia. 28: 19-34. 

163

164



pp. 165 - 173 

Studies of the pests of Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis L.) 

Kozma, E., Gólya. G. & Z. Záhorszki 

Szent István University, Faculty of Agricultural. and Environmental Sciences Department of 

Plant Protection, H-2100 Gödöllő, Páter K. u. 1. Hungary 

Summary 

The aim of the present study was to gain knowledge about insect pests of Canary-grass (Phalaris 

canariensis L.), because little information is available on its pests and diseases and their dynamics. We 

conclude, that Oulema melanopus L. could be one of the dangerous pests on Canary-grass. In Hungary 

under optimal ecological circumstances Rhopalosiphum padi L. and the newly occurring Diuraphis 

noxia (Mordwilko) increase rapidly on the leaves and ears of Canary-grass. 

Introduction 

Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis L.) is grown in a relatively small area in Hungary and it is 

mostly exported as feed for birds. Canary-grass belongs to the Gramineae family. It has a 

poor fibrous root system and its stalk is thin straw. Its inflorescence is panicle shape (Fazekas, 

1997; Antal, 1987). 

In Hungary four species of barley beetles occur on cereals: Oulema melanopus L., O. 

rufocyanea (Suffrian), O. gallaeciana (Heyden) and O. septentrionis (Weise) (Kaszab 1962). 

These barley beetles originally lived on wild Gramineae spp. Later they changed to cereals 

(Kadocsa, 1957). First they caused significant damage on spring barley and oat, then they 

became the most important pest of winter wheat (Szilágyi et al., 1986). Labeyrie (cit. 

Balachowsky, 1963) mentioned Canary-grass as a host plant. Barley beetles are not only 

dangerous because of their direct damage to foliage, but also for their role as a virus vector 

(Princinger, 1991). The great grain aphid Sitobion avenae Fabr. is considered to be the most 

frequent cereal aphid by Szalay-Marzsó (1970). Kozma et al. (1994) found, that the most 

common aphid species near Gödöllő were Schizaphis graminum Rondani, Rhopalosiphum 

padi L., Metopolophium dirhodum Walker, Sitobium avenae and Diuraphis noxia 

(Mordvilko). D. noxia first appeared in a yellow pan trap in 1989 in the main cereal growing 

area of central Hungary (Basky & Eastop, 1991). In 1993 it was found in the territory of the 

River Tisza, Transdanubia and on the Great Plain (Basky, 1993a, 1993b), and on maize 

(Kozma et al., 1995). D. noxia is indigenous in the Mediterranean area and in the Iranian 

Turkestanian mountain range (Mordvilko, 1929; Nevskii, 1929). It has been a pest on wheat 

and barley in southern Russia since before 1900 (Grossheim, 1914). The first published 

outbreak of D. noxia was in the Crimea (Mokrzhetsky 1901) and was associated with the 

increase in the wheat growing area in the Ukraine. It was recorded as a serious pest of cereals 

in Ukraine in 1972 (Dyadechko & Ruban, 1975), in the USA (Pike, 1991) and South-Africa 

(Aalbersberg et al. 1987). D. noxia overwinters in the egg stage on winter wheat in Hungary. 

After harvest it lives on volunteer wheat, on Sorghum halapense and other Gramineae weeds. 

The alatae developing on these plants fly to winter wheat where the males and females 

develop, and after fertilisation the oviparae lay eggs which overwinter. It has six to eight 

generations per year (Burton, 1989; Pike, 1991). D. noxia causes white or purple streaks and 

rolled leaves (Hewitt et al. 1984), perhaps by injecting a toxin and by disturbing tissue water 

165

166 

balance during feeding (Fouche et al., 1984; Basky, 1993). Injured ears are below the 

standard in growth and spikes may be empty. Their peaks are not able to emerge from the 

curled leaf sheath. Typical damage symptoms include spikes curving orbital and wavy spike 

axle. The wingless form of D. noxia is spindle shaped, light green coloured with a length of 

1,2-2,4 mm. The alate vivipara is 1,5-2 mm long; its ventral part is pale green. Antennae of 

alatae are shorter than half the body length; siphunculi are mammariform, shorter, than wide 

(Basky, 1993c). A typical morphological character is the supracaudal process below the 

tongue-shaped cauda (Blackman & Eastop, 1984; Basky, 1993b). 


A survey was carried out in 1997 on an experimental farm in József major (Szent István 

University, Gödöllő) in a canary-grass field of 5 ha. Samples were taken every ten days from 

mid May till harvest (July) 

The population fluctuation, biology and damage of Cereal leaf beetles. 

We made five replications of ten sweeps both at the margin of the field and 50 m from the 

field margin. The population fluctuation and biology of Cereal leaf beetles were recorded. 

Species during the observation were identified immediately. In order to assess the damage we 

measured the height of 100 seriously injured, and 100 healthy plants, and the length of ears. 

The method of Aphid population fluctuation and species identification 

At the field margin and 50 m from the margin of the field aphids were washed off from 100 

(each location) plants (both the panicles and the vegetative parts of the plants) with a brush 

and stored in Oudemans solution until identification. Species were identified with a stereo 

microscope. 

Results 

The population fluctuation, biology and damage of Cereal leaf beetles 

At the margin of the field we found two O. melanopus and one O. gallaeciana adults in 

50 sweeps during the first survey. In the next survey we found a huge number of larvae and 

also observed significant damage symptoms of larvae (32 individuals / 50 sweeps). Larva 

population did not change until 27 May. At the beginning of June the field was treated with an 

insecticide, so we could not continue examining the larva population. New imagoes appeared 

on the plants in late June (fig. 1). 

Inside the field Cereal leaf beetles appeared after 10 May especially considering the 

higher number of O. melanopus (7 individuals / 50 sweeps), and O. gallaeciana (1 individual 

/ 50 sweeps). By the second survey the larvae had increased intensively (four times the 

population at the margin of the field, 112, 138 individuals / 50 sweeps). Intensive larval 

hatching occurred during the second half of May. We did not continue the observation of the 

population due to the previously mentioned insecticide treatment. New imagoes appeared on 

plants inside the field at the end of June (fig. 2). 

The damage symptoms of Cereal leaf beetles: The average length of canarygrass 

which was seriously damaged by cereal leaf beetles was 70.8 cm. The average stalk 

length of 100 healthy canary grass stalk was 83.8 cm. The average panicle length of damaged 

plants was 2.9 cm, and of healthy ones 3.3 cm (measurements were done on 12 June).

167 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

Larvae 

Lema lichenis 

Lema melanopus 

10 

5 

0 

14.05 23.05 27.05 06.06 12.06 18.06 26.06 10.07 

Fig. 1. Population dynamics of Cereal leaf beetles at the edge of the field (1997, Gödöllö) 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

Larvae 

Lema lichenis V. 

Lema melanopus L. 

40 

20 

0 

14.05 23.05 27.05 06.06 12.06 18.06 26.06 10.07 

Fig. 2. Population dynamics of Cereal leaf beetles inside the field (1997, Gödöllö) 

Results of aphids population fluctuation on Canary-grass 

At the margin of the field aphids appeared on the vegetative parts of the plants on 23 

May. At that time M. dirhodum was the most abundant species (11 individuals / 100 plants), 

followed by R. padi (4 individuals / 100 plants) and D. noxia (3 individuals / 100 plants). 

Multiplication of R. padi and D. noxia became very intensive from the 2 nd week of June,

168 

while the number of M. dirhodum decreased during the same period. We also found some 

individuals of S. avenae during the 2 nd week of June. The aphid population reached its peak at 

the end of June (R. padi 813 individuals/100 pants; D. noxia 518 individuals/ 100 plants; 

M. dirhodum 29 individuals / 100 plants). By 10 July the aphid population collapsed (fig. 3). 

Species composition of aphids in the field margin during the vegetation period was: R. padi 

63 %, D. noxia 35 %, M. dirhodum and S. avenae 2 % (fig. 4). 

1600 

1400 

individual number/100 plants 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

Metopolophium dirhodum 

Sitobion avenae 

Diuraphis noxia 

Rhopalosiphum padi 

200 

0 

23.05. 27.05. 06.06. 12.06. 18.06. 26.06. 10.07. 

Fig. 3. Canges in proportions of Aphid species at the edge of the field (1997, Gödöllö) 


0,2% 

Metopolophium 

dirhodum 

2,2% 


34,9% 

Rhopalosiphum 

padi 

62,6% 

Fig. 4. Composition of Aphid species at the edge of the field (100 plants) (1997, Gödöllö)

169 

Inside the field aphids appeared two weeks later, than in the field margin (6 June). At the 

beginning R. padi was the most abundant aphid species (450 individuals / 100 plants). Its 

number increased slightly (555 individuals / 100 plants), while D. noxia appeared in low 

numbers (46 individuals / plants), but later it became more abundant (1003 individuals / 100 

plants). Metopolophium dirhodum and S. avenae were not present in significant numbers on 

plants. The aphid population collapsed at the beginning of July (fig. 5). Composition of aphid 

species on plants inside the field was as follows: D. noxia 53 %, R. padi 45 %, M. dirhodum 

and S. avenae 2 % (fig. 6). 

1800 

1600 

individual number/100 plant 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

Metopolophium dirhodum 




200 

0 

23.05. 27.05. 06.06. 12.06. 18.06. 26.06. 10.07. 

Fig. 5. Changes in proportions of Aphid species inside the field (1997, Gödöllö) 


0,06% 

Metopolophium 

dirhodum 

1,8% 

Rhopalosiphum 

padi 

45,4% 


52,6% 

Fig. 6. Composition of Aphid species inside the field (100 plants) (1997, Gödöllö)

170 

In the field margin aphids appeared on the panicle (ears) at the time of the 6 th survey (18 

June). Rhopalosiphum padi was more abundant (214 individuals/panicles), followed by 

D. noxia (851 individuals / panicles). By the time of the next survey the number of D. noxia 

increased (851 individuals / 100 panicles), while R. padi showed a lower abundance (502 

individuals/100 panicles) (fig. 7). During the vegetation period at the field margin there were 

56% D. noxia, 43 % R. padi, 1 % S. avenae on the panicles (fig. 8). 

1600 

1400 

individual number/100 ears 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 




200 

0 

23.05. 27.05. 06.06. 12.06. 18.06. 26.06. 10.07. 

Fig. 7. Changes in proportions of Aphid species on the ears at the edge of the field (1997, 

Gödöllö) 


1% 


56% 

Rhopalosiphum 

padi 

43% 

Fig. 8. Composition of Aphid species on the ears at the edge of the field (100 ears) (1997, 

Gödöllö)

171 

Inside the field aphids appeared at the same time as in the margin (18 June). 

Diuraphis noxia was more abundant than at the margin (99 individuals / 100 panicles; R. padi 

102 individuals / 100 panicles). By the time of the next assessment (26 June) these numbers 

changed as follows: R. padi 379 / 100 panicles, D. noxia 1428 / 100 panicles (fig. 9). Inside 

the field 84 % were D. noxia and 16% R. padi (fig. 10). 

2000 

1800 

1600 

individual number/100 ears 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 




200 

0 

23.05 27.05 06.06 12.06 18.06 26.06 10.07 

Fig. 9. Changes in proportions of Aphid species on the ears inside the field (1997, Gödöllö) 


0,2 % 

Rhopalosiphum 

padi 

16,4 % 


83,4% 

Fig. 10. Composition of Aphid species on the ears inside the field (100 ears) (1997, Gödöllö)

172 

The localisation of aphids on the plant 

At the end of May most M. dirhodum and R. padi were found on the abaxial surface of the 

leaves. Diuraphis noxia appeared later in higher numbers under the shelter of the rolled top 

leaves. After panicles developed it increased on the clusters. We also found some individuals 

of R. padi on the clusters. 

Discussion 

Oulema melanopus could be one of the most dangerous pests on Canary-grass, infesting 

initially in May and causing significant damage if weather conditions are suitable. 

Temperature about 25 °C and high humidity are favourable for oviposition and hatching of 

Cereal leaf beetles. Due to the higher plant density in the middle of the field, the humidity 

was higher resulting in more abundant cereal leaf beetle populations. If the weather is cold 

and rainy, population development is slower. In this study the length of stems and that of the 

ears of canary grass were 15,5 % and 11,2 % shorter, respectively, as a result of the damage 

caused by Oulema spp. 

In Hungary under optimal weather conditions (temperature around 20-25 °C) R. padi and 

the newly occurred D. noxia increase rapidly on the leaves and ears of Canary-grass. Inside 

the field temperature and humidity were more balanced, resulting in the greater number of 

aphids. Diuraphis noxia has a perfect sense for finding host plants (Aalbersberg, 1987). This 

is supported by Kozma et al. (1995) observation finding D. noxia colonies on maize. Even if 

Canary grass is grown in a small area in Hungary, under suitable ecological circumstances it 

can be colonised by high numbers of D. noxia as well as the sparsely emerged spring barley 

(Basky, 1997) causing high damage. 


We which to thank to Professor Alan C. York, Purdue University, for his help in reviewing 

the manuscript. 

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