Films minces à base de Si nanostructuré pour des cellules ...
Films minces à base de Si nanostructuré pour des cellules ... Films minces à base de Si nanostructuré pour des cellules ...
List of Figures tel-00916300, version 1 - 10 Dec 2013 1.1 World energy consumption-2007 Statistics [Internet 03] . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2 Consolidated representation of conversion eciencies and cost of the three generations of PV cells [Conibeer 07]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3 A typical solar cell architecture [Internet 05]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.4 Schematic representation of photocurrent mechanism in a p-n junction. 9 1.5 Energy vs. momentum (E-k diagram) of Direct and Indirect bandgap semiconductors [Coa 05]. ILLUSTRATION: JOHN MACNEILL. . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.6 Electronic levels of a-Si:H and an illustration of few possible recombination paths [Miroslav , Boehme 10]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.7 Sanyo's transition from traditional solar cell to HIT solar cell [Internet 06]. 13 1.8 Incident solar spectrum adapted from [Brown 09] and schematic representation of fundamental losses in a solar cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.9 (a) The consequence of Quantum Connement Eect, and (b) the density of states of structures conned in 1D, 2D and 3D. . . . . . . . 16 1.10 (a) Compilation of optical bandgaps of silicon crystals and porous Si obtained from absorption(unlled symbols) and luminescence (lled symbols) [Delerue 99], (b) Size dependent photoluminescent spectra observed from porous Si with dierent porosities before and after exposure to air, and (c) Electronic states as a function of cluster size and surface passivation [Wolkin 99]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.11 Schematic representation of third generation solar cell principles. . . . 19 1.12 Energy diagram of bulk Si, Si QDs and their potential insulating barrier materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.13 Comparison of luminescence peak positions between Si QDs embedded in SiO 2 and SiN x (SRSN) matrices[Yang 04]. . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.14 Formation of QDs with size dispersion in monolayers and with size control in multilayers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.15 Microstructural images of SRSO/SiO 2 superlattice showing the formation of Si-nanoparticles [Gourbilleau 09]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 v
tel-00916300, version 1 - 10 Dec 2013 2.1 Photo of the AJA Sputter chamber with glowing plasma and the diagrammatic representation of various processes during sputtering. . 32 2.2 Illustration of sample fabrication methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.3 Dierent types of molecular vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.4 (a) Schematic representation of FTIR set-up and (b) Interferogram to Fourier transformed spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.5 Typical FTIR spectra of SiO 2 which is decomposed into three and ve gaussians in the normal incidence and Brewster incidence spectra respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.6 Pictorial representation of Bragg's law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.7 XRD- Illustration of working principle and experimental set-up. . . . 39 2.8 A typical example of XRD spectrum taken from Si-based multilayer containing Si nanocrystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.9 Schematic diagram of XRR set-up and the two modes of measurement. 42 2.10 A typical XRR spectrum obtained from SRSO/SRSN ML with a zoom of the interferences leading to total thickness determination in the inset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.11 Illustration of scattering of light and Raman shift. . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.12 Raman spectrometer-Schematic representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.13 Typical Raman spectra of the substrates used in this thesis. . . . . . 45 2.14 Schematic representation of light microscope, transmission electron microscope (TEM) and energy ltered TEM (EFTEM). . . . . . . . . 46 2.15 (a). Extraction of a silicon post using the Lift-out method. The sample has been milled with the help of a FIB in order to extract a strip of material. (b). The strip is shaped in a post and welded onto a steel needle (platinum weld). (c-e). Successive annular milling steps permit to obtain a very sharp tip which curvature radius does not exceed 50nm. (Images from M. Roussel, GPM Rouen) . . . . . . 50 2.16 Schematic diagram of principle and experimental set-up of an ellipsometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.17 Step 1 and 2 of ellipsometry modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.18 Step 3 and Step 4 of ellipsometry modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.19 Illustration of excitation and de-excitation processes. . . . . . . . . . 56 2.20 Schematic diagram of the photoluminescence experimental set-up. . . 57 2.21 PL spectra before and after correcting to spectral response.λ excitation = 488 nm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 vi
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tel-00916300, version 1 - 10 Dec 2013<br />
2.1 Photo of the AJA Sputter chamber with glowing plasma and the<br />
diagrammatic representation of various processes during sputtering. . 32<br />
2.2 Illustration of sample fabrication methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
2.3 Dierent types of molecular vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35<br />
2.4 (a) Schematic representation of FTIR set-up and (b) Interferogram<br />
to Fourier transformed spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36<br />
2.5 Typical FTIR spectra of <strong>Si</strong>O 2 which is <strong>de</strong>composed into three and<br />
ve gaussians in the normal inci<strong>de</strong>nce and Brewster inci<strong>de</strong>nce spectra<br />
respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37<br />
2.6 Pictorial representation of Bragg's law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39<br />
2.7 XRD- Illustration of working principle and experimental set-up. . . . 39<br />
2.8 A typical example of XRD spectrum taken from <strong>Si</strong>-<strong>base</strong>d multilayer<br />
containing <strong>Si</strong> nanocrystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40<br />
2.9 Schematic diagram of XRR set-up and the two mo<strong>de</strong>s of measurement. 42<br />
2.10 A typical XRR spectrum obtained from SRSO/SRSN ML with a<br />
zoom of the interferences leading to total thickness <strong>de</strong>termination<br />
in the inset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43<br />
2.11 Illustration of scattering of light and Raman shift. . . . . . . . . . . 44<br />
2.12 Raman spectrometer-Schematic representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45<br />
2.13 Typical Raman spectra of the substrates used in this thesis. . . . . . 45<br />
2.14 Schematic representation of light microscope, transmission electron<br />
microscope (TEM) and energy ltered TEM (EFTEM). . . . . . . . . 46<br />
2.15 (a). Extraction of a silicon post using the Lift-out method. The<br />
sample has been milled with the help of a FIB in or<strong>de</strong>r to extract<br />
a strip of material. (b). The strip is shaped in a post and wel<strong>de</strong>d<br />
onto a steel needle (platinum weld). (c-e). Successive annular milling<br />
steps permit to obtain a very sharp tip which curvature radius does<br />
not exceed 50nm. (Images from M. Roussel, GPM Rouen) . . . . . . 50<br />
2.16 Schematic diagram of principle and experimental set-up of an ellipsometer.<br />
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52<br />
2.17 Step 1 and 2 of ellipsometry mo<strong>de</strong>lling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54<br />
2.18 Step 3 and Step 4 of ellipsometry mo<strong>de</strong>lling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55<br />
2.19 Illustration of excitation and <strong>de</strong>-excitation processes. . . . . . . . . . 56<br />
2.20 Schematic diagram of the photoluminescence experimental set-up. . . 57<br />
2.21 PL spectra before and after correcting to spectral response.λ excitation =<br />
488 nm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58<br />
vi