conclusions

CONCLUSIONS
Skimmia laureola grows gregariously in laomy or clay loamy soils at high
altitude ranging from 2400- 3400 meters toward nort facing slope. It was found
dominant in five out of six localities studied. S. laureola was found growing in
association with a total of 44 plants, out of which Seven species including
Adiantum venustum, Fragaria vesica, Indigofera heterantha, Isodon rugosus,
Podophyllum hexandrum, Pteridium aquilinum and Taxus baccata were found to
be the constant species in all stands. Density hectare -1 values for S. laureola were
ranging from 312 to 4437.5.
Locally S. laureola is known as “Nazarpanra” and is extinsively used through out
the area to ward off bad evils. It is also considerd a best hypoglycemic agent.
Market servey shows that the average purchase price of S. laureola ranges from
Rs. 47.00 to Rs. 160.00 and the average sale rate ranges from Rs. 80.00 to Rs
200.00 per kilogram, whereas the annual trade ranges from 35 to 550 kg.
Zanthoxylum armatum grows on the North and North West slopes in the foothills
at an elevation of 850 - 1600 meters. Phytosocialogical studies in six different
localities showed total of 51 species including 12 trees, 14 shrubs and 25 herbs and
grasses in association with Z. armatum, in which Ailanthus altissima, Ajuga
bracteosa, Cynodon dactylon, Dicanthium annulatum, Dodonaea viscosa, Olea
ferruginea and Rubus fruiticosus were the constant species while Artemisia
scoparia and Conyza canadensis were the mostly present species. Density hectare -1
values recorded in all stands for Z. armatum, ranged from 560 to 1020.
Locally Z. armatum is known as “Dambara” and ethnobotanically it is used as fuel,
as fencing plants and for Maswak (toothbrush) making. Its fruit is extensively used
as a spice in various dishes especially in chat and Choolay (boiled gram). The
average purchase price of Z. armatum ranges from Rs. 110.00 to Rs. 165.00 and
the average sale rate ranges from Rs. 160.00 to Rs. 240.00 per kilogram, whereas
the annual trade ranges from 75 to 360 kg in different markets of the area.
Pharmacognostic evaluation shows that S. laureola leaf is punctuate with glabrous
surfaces, the transverse section through the midrib region showed bifacial
arrangement. The midrib region showed prominent oil cavities.
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Leaf surface features of S. laureola showed that it has a palisade ratio of 7.8±0.21,
vein islets number 15.4±0.63 per mm 2 , vein termination number 19.1±0.43 per
mm 2 , stomatal number 196.1±3.07 per mm 2 and stomatal index 12.96±0.14.
Stomata showed variation in their arrangement showing eight different types, in
which actinostephanocytic was the most frequently occurring. Stomatal cluster
(very rarely occurring phenomena) was also observed.
Leaf of Z. armatum is compound, punctate with glabrous surfaces, anatomically
the leaf is bifacial. The midrib region showed prominent oil cavities. Leaf surface
values showed a palisade ratio of 8.2±0.32, vein islets number 16.8±0.64 per mm 2 ,
vein termination number 11.3±0.47 per mm 2 , stomatal number 122.1±4.32 per
mm 2 and stomatal index 12.32± 0.26 were calculated.
T.S of Z. armatum fruit shows two portion i.e. fruit wall and seed. Fruit wall is
clearly distinguished into three layers, epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The seed
was non endospermic and contains elongated embryo.
Leaf powder of Skimmia laureola appeared bright green in color with pleasant
odor and astringent taste while bark powder of this plant appeared golden yellow
in color with pleasant odor and astringent taste. Powder microscopy of the parts
studied of both plants showed characteristic fragments.
Z. armatum leaf powder was olive drab green with pleasant odor and somewhat
astringent taste. Bark powder was grey brown in color with light pleasant odor and
bitter taste, while fruit powder of Z. armatum was blackish brown with pungent
odor and taste. The most striking feature of the powder drug study is the absence
of any kind of trichomes in both the plants.
Total ash, Acid insoluble ash and water soluble ash were determind as 101.8 mg/g,
65.2mg/g and 296.8 mg/g respectively for SL, 86.6 mg/g, 42.6 mg/g and 311.1
mg/g for SB, 110.4 mg/g , 51.3 mg/g and 320.5 mg/g for ZL, 134.6 mg/g, 69.7
mg/g an d361.3 mg/g for SB, 118.0 mg/g, 94.2 mg/g and 237.5 mg/g for ZF.
These values were found much higher as compared to the respective samples
exhausted with ethanol and n- hexane.
Qualitative preliminary phytochemical screenings of S. laureola and Z. armatum,
using aqueous, ethanolic and n- hexane extracts, showed the the presence of
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carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids, phytosterols, Triterpenoids, phenols,
Flavonoids, tannins, anthocyanins, saponins, glycosides, fixed oil and volatile oil
in aqueous, Ethanolic and n- hexane extracts. Quantitatification of flavonoids,
phenol, alkaloids, tannins, saponin and sterol were also carried out in the studied
parts.
Zn, Mn and Cr were present in fairly good amounts and may contribute to
hypoglycemic effects of these plants. Most of the other important bio elements
were also detected in a both plants in the permissible limits. Correlations among
various elements were also determined showing interdependency of these
elements. Similarly proximate analysis of both plants showed carbohydrate,
proteins, fibers, fats and moisture contents found in fairly large amount.
SLE, ZLE and ZFE at doses of 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg body weight were
evaluated for toxicological effects. No mortality or morbidity was observed even
for the next 24 hours, showing that the plants are safe for human use.
SLE, ZLE and ZFE showed maximum antipyretic action of 72.31% 83.84%,
80.70 and 85.42 % respectively at the third hour and remained significant till the
fifth hour after administration of 300, 200 and 100 mg/kg body weight doses
respectively.
The hypoglycemic effect of SLE was found to be dose dependent. Like the
standard drug, SLE induced reduction of blood glucose level after 2 hour of dose
administration. All the doses showed significant reduction (p < 0.05) in glucose
level at 6 th hour post administration. 300 mg/Kg body weight dose of SLE showed
maximum reduction (80.54±0.04%) at 6 th hour.
Ethanolic and n-hexane extracts of leaf (SLE, SLH), bark (SBE, SBH) and leaf
essential oil (SVO) of S. laureola and ethanolic and n-hexane extracts of leaf
(ZLE, ZLH), bark (ZBE, ZBH), fruit (ZBE, ZBH) and leaf essential oil (ZVO) of
Z. armatum were evaluated for antispasmoidc potential on isolated rabbit jejunum
in quests to search for cheaper, safer and accessible sources of anti diarrheal drugs
with scientific proofs. EC50 values, for both spontaneous and KCl induced
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contractions for all samples showed that SVO and ZVO were the most efficient
ones, causing 100 % relaxation of the smooth muscles at a very low concentration.
The SLE, SLH and SVO of S. laurola and ZBE, ZBH and ZVO of Z. armatum
showed outstanding cytotoxic results with LD 50 values of 5.34, 7.44, 11.01, 16.79
17.06 and 15.90 µg/ml. respectively.
Lemna minor phytotoxicity asssay of SBE showed 100% inhibition at 1000 μg/ml
followed by SBH, SLE and SLH with FI50 of 25, 1.38, 4.54 and 8.67μg/ml
respectively. The ZBE, ZFE and ZLH also showed excellent inhibition of the
same test species with FI50 values of 7.98, 9.24 and 19.13 μg/ml respectively.
Antibacterial bioassays showed that all the samples were effective against the test
bacterial strains. SVO and ZVO were highly effective against all the strains
(Micrococcus leutus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pasteurella
multocida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus
viridines). Other extracts showed variant inhibitory effects against all or some of
the test bacterial strains.
A dose dependent antifungal potential against the test species (Trichophyton
longifusis, Candida albicans, Fusarium solani, Microsporum canis, Aspergillus
flavus and Candida glabrata) was found for all the samples. SVO inhabited the
entire test strains in which maximum inhibitory zone were observed for C.
albicans (67.32± 0.90%), followed by A. flauus (64.45± 1.98%) and T. longifusis
(62.66± 1.34%) at a dose of 125µg/ml. Best anti fungal effect was observed for
ZVO against C. albicans (66.67±0.57) followed by A. flauus (55.33±0.57) and F.
solani (46.33±0.33). Other fungal strains were also affected at 125µg/ml
concentration.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
In light of the valuable findings in the present research work, the following
recommendations are presented for perusal.
The ecological and folklore knowledge about Skimmia laureola and Zanthoxylum
armatum for conservation and commercial scale cultivation, which will greatly
improve the economic conditions of the inhabitants of the area.
The information about morphological and anatomical characteristics of these plants
should be exploited for standardization of various characteristics of the parts used as
crude drug.
The pharmacognostic parameters of the part used are to be utilized for positive
identification, quality and detection of adulteration in these drugs.
Physicochemical analyses will be helpful in characterization of powder drugs.
Determine the various nutritional components present in the drugs, which can be used
for other purposes also.
Phytochemical and trace, micro and macro elements composition of biological
importance will be helpful in exploring these plants for future research work.
Pharmacological potentials like antipyretic, hypoglycemic, antispasmodic, cytotoxic,
phytotoxic, antibacterial and antifungal of these plants show that these plants should
be exploited in future for extracting various active constituents for their
pharmacological preparations. These findings might be exploited as cheaper effective
remedies for various ailments.
Physicochemical characteristics of essential and fixed oils from these two plants
provide a guideline for their potential use in food, pharmaceutical and perfumery
industries.
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