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MEDIA LITERACY AND INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE Strategies, Debates and Good Practices politicians’ gender may reinforce the idea that “women are acting in an unnatural sphere or that men are more appropriate in these positions (…) and emphasizes that sex is important and relevant to politics” (: 94). Studies analyzing the representation of women candidates have shown that women’s leadership is often coupled with their supportive role beside men, and they are often defined by their relationship with a man. This relation to more powerful or influential men can trivialize women’s own accomplishments and implicitly raise doubts about whether their political accomplishments were earned by them alone (see Baider 2008). For example, Michelle Bachelet was referred to as the daughter of a man killed by the dictatorship; Ségolène Royal as a wife of a politician and daughter of a soldier, or Angela Merkel was referred to as the ‘spiritual daughter’ of Helmut Kohl (Baider 2008: 152). Earlier studies define traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine: traits associated with leadership would be stereotypically masculine and traits associated with expressive personality traits would be stereotypically feminine (see Carroll y Fox 2006; Kahn 1994, 1996; Kittison and Fridkin 2008) 1 . It is suggested that male traits dominate coverage of male candidates; whereas, these traits are discussed less often for female politicians. As ‘male’ traits are associated with ‘leadership’ traits, linked to stereotypically ‘female’ traits, “women politicians miss the opportunity to demonstrate their leadership, strength, and knowledge” (Kittilson and Fridkin 2008: 386; see also Kahn and Goldenberg 1991). Alternatively, later studies quantify and compare personal traits references with regard to their content, context and tone, classifying traits as ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ (see Miller, Peake and Boulton 2009) 2 . Findings of studies using this methodology suggest that men are more likely to be associated with positive traits and women are more likely to be associated with negative traits (Fernandez 2010; Miller, Peake and Boulton 2009). In relation to the number of statements made by male and female politicians represented in the news, according to Falk (2008), quotations are one vehicle by which the press can give voters direct information about politicians and politicians are eager to get direct access to citizens. Yet, there is some evidence that women politicians are less likely to be quoted by the media (Comas d’Argemir 2009). Finally, studies on gender stereotypes and female politicians have shown that, when a woman oversteps traditional boundaries the media react by covering her more negatively (Fernandez 2010; Kahn 1994; Kahn and Goldenberg 1991; Scharrer 2002). 1 In this dichotomy, “male traits ” include hardworking, strong leader, competitive, effective, tough, intelligent, aggressive, independent, ambitious; and “female traits” include gentle, weak, attractive, passive, dependent, emotional, unintelligent, compassionate, noncompetitive (see Atkeson and Krebs 2007; Dolan 2004; Kahn 1996; Kittilson and Fridkin 2008). 2 According to Miller, Peake and Boulton (2009), traits are coded ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ based on their context in each article (i.e., a trait could be coded as positive in the context of one article and negative in the context of another). 37
MEDIA LITERACY AND INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE Strategies, Debates and Good Practices 3. Guidelines for a non sexist representation of women politicians in the media According to the Spanish law, media should “ensure the transmission of an egalitarian, diverse and not stereotyped image of men and women in society, and promote the knowledge and dissemination of the equality principle between women and men” (Art. 36; Law 3/2007), “shall respect eaqulity between women and men, avoiding any type of discrimination” (Art. 39.1, Law 3/2007), “make an active promotion of equality between women and men, including equal treatment and opportunity, respect for the diversity and the difference, the inclusion of a gender perspective, the promotion of positive actions and the use of a non sexist language” (Art. 26.3h, Law 22/2005), “do not use sexist and androcentric language and promote a plural image of both sexes” (Art. 23a, Law 5/2008), provide “information that respects human dignity and constitutional values, with special attention to the eradication of behaviors that favor inequality situations of women” (Art. 4.2, Law 7/2010), and “ensure that women are represented with all the authority and respect, making visible the contribution women have made in all areas of society” (Art. 23b, Law 5/2008) 1 . In line with the above considerations and in accordance with current legislation, the following guidelines are addressed especially to the media: 1. With respect to the visibility of women politicians, media shall a. Ensure a balanced and equal women and men visibility in the political information content. b. Ensure a balanced representation of men and women when selecting guests and partners in talk shows and political debates. c. Adequately reflect women presence in the different areas of political life. d. Include women in the headlines of news in the context of decision making policies that are part. 2. In terms of personal life, media shall a. Avoid any stereotyped reference or comment about women appearance. b. Do not describe the appearance of a woman politician unless this is the type of story which also would describe man’s appearance. 1 Catalan Law 22/2005, dated December 29th, on Audiovisual Communications in Catalonia; Catalan Law 5/2008, dated April 24th, on the right of women to eradicate sexist violence; Spanish Organic Law 3/2007, dated March 22nd, concerning the effective equality between women and men; Spanish Law 7/2010, dated March 31st, on General Audiovisual Communications; World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993); Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employement, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions; Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2006 on the implementation of the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment of menn and women in matters of employement and occpation (recast); Resolution of the European Parliament of 2 February 2006 on equality between women and men in the European Union (2004/2159(INI); Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Strategy for equlity between women and men 2010-2015; UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979); Beijing Declaration (1995). 38
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