Shark Depredation and Unwanted Bycatch in Pelagic Longline

Potential of Deterrents, Hotspot Avoidance and Incentive Instruments to Reduce Shark Interactions in Pelagic Longline Fisheries
The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources has made some preliminary progress towards establishing
a system of marine protected areas in the Southern Ocean.
Consequences of establishing a protected area need to be carefully
considered, as resource use restrictions of a marine protected area
may displace effort to adjacent and potentially more sensitive and
valuable areas, where weaker management frameworks may be in
place (Murray et al., 2000; Baum et al., 2003; Kotas et al., 2004). Also,
measures adopted by regional fishery management organizations
and other international bodies are only binding to parties to the
Convention that established the organization, and will not control
activities by non-party States. Thus, another consideration for
employing high seas marine protected areas to manage problematic
fisheries bycatch is that closing areas to fisheries only of party States
could result in increased effort in this area by fleets from non-party
States with fewer or no controls to manage bycatch, exacerbating the
problem for which the MPA was established to address.
International bodies have created marine protected areas on the high
seas: The International Whaling Commission declared the Indian
and Southern Oceans as no-take sanctuaries for whales, covering 30
percent of the world’s oceans mostly on the high seas. Conventions
governing international shipping have designated large areas of
the ocean that include high seas as Special Areas where stringent
restrictions apply regarding discharges from ships. Furthermore,
under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the
International Seabed Authority could protect areas from minerals
extraction beyond national jurisdiction where there is a risk of harm
to the marine environment (Kelleher, 1999). Recent developments
within the framework of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea and associated conventions may make it possible in the
future to restrict fisheries activities on the high seas that are shown
to undermine marine conservation (Kelleher, 1999).
7.3. Incentive Instruments
Several incentive instruments can be instituted by industry,
management authorities, and conservation groups to contribute to
industry employment of methods to reduce shark bycatch and injury
(Gilman et al., 2002).
7.3.1. National and local constraints
National-level legal, regulatory, and policy-derived formal constraints,
combined with an effective surveillance and enforcement program,
can promote fishing industry compliance with laws, rules, and policies
to minimize shark bycatch. For instance, restrictions on shark finning,
wire trace and per trip shark retention are examples of regulatory
constraints on pelagic longline fishery interactions with sharks.
Time/are closures and mandatory use of avoidance techniques (e.g.,
proscribing a minimum depth for the setting of baited hooks through
certain gear design specifications, using fish instead of squid for
bait, prohibiting use of light sticks) are other examples of potential
regulatory tools to manage shark bycatch and depredation (Hall et
al., 2000; Gilman et al., 2005). Fishery management authorities could
create a fee and exemption structure for shark bycatch, applicable
to individual vessels or to an entire fleet, similar to a “polluter pays”
system. Alternatively, the fee structure could provide a positive
reward-based incentive, where a higher subsidy, lower permit or
license fee, earlier start to the fishing season, or lower taxes apply, and
a positive image is portrayed when a vessel or fleet meets standards for
shark bycatch. The threat of a fishery closure if performance standards
related to shark interactions are not met provides a strong incentive for
industry compliance to minimize shark interactions.
7.3.2. Regional and international accords, regulations, and
policies
Multilateral treaties and accords that address shark interactions can
obligate national governments to adopt enabling legislation to manage
these interactions. Regional Fishery Management Organizations can
adopt regulations and policies to manage interactions between fisheries
and sensitive species for compliance by member nations. Multilateral
bodies can adopt advisory policies to encourage fishing nations to
sustainably manage shark-longline interactions. Recent international
initiatives addressing shark finning are summarized in the Introduction.
7.3.3. Eco-labeling
Consumer demand can alter industry behavior. In 2005 the Committee
on Fisheries of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations adopted Guidelines for the Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery
Products from Marine Capture Fisheries. The new guidelines provide
guidance to governments and organizations that already maintain, or are
considering establishing, labeling schemes for certifying and promoting
labels for fish and fishery products from well-managed marine capture
fisheries. A longline fishing industry can pursue certification or
accreditation from an eco-labeling certification program, in part, to
demonstrate the employment of best practices to reduce shark bycatch
and discards. The incentives to industry are market-based, to increase
demand for and value of their products, and social, to receive recognition
from the public for complying with accepted norms (Wessells et al.,
1999). Eco-labeling can serve as an effective marketing tool for a fishing
industry, when properly managed. For instance, certification under an
eco-labeling scheme can be used as a marketing tool to develop and
market an image and product differentiation, through advertising, sales
promotion, public relations, direct marketing, and media coverage.
A company can differentiate their products from other seafood as
originating from a fishery that follows internationally accepted practices
to ensure environmental sustainability. This is a form of cause-related
marketing, a proven means to promote recognition and develop a
positive company image and reputation.
7.3.4. Industry and market self-policing
A longline industry can create a program where information on
individual vessel shark bycatch levels and compliance with relevant
regulations is made available to the entire industry. This self-policing
program uses peer pressure within the fishing industry to criticize
‘bad actors’ and publicly acknowledge those fishers who are operating
in a responsible manner. For example, the North Pacific Longline
Association initiated a seabird bycatch report card system among
its members in 2000 (Fitzgerald et al. 2004). Also, there are market
pressures to avoid bringing in target species damaged by sharks.
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