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Conceptualizing holism in international interdisciplinary critical perspective with the individual and her/his mind, body and spirit, but rarely examine the health connections to the larger social world (Shroff, 2000). This is probably the most astute criticism of holistic health-care. Most systems of health-care, including holistic ones, do not include social health as a major component. This lack of attention to public health-care is a serious gap in holistic health-care practices. Furthermore, within many systems of holistic medicine, patriarchal and classist overtones are apparent. In ayurveda, for example, some interpretations of tridosha theory (which notes different body/mind types among people) have likened vata (the air/ether type) to the Brahmin caste and portrayed vata people as noble, whereas kapha (the earth/water type) is portrayed as docile and slow, as the ‘ideal’ Indian woman ought to be. In Chinese medicine, yin traditionally means the shady side of a mountain, but is also related with femaleness; under a patriarchal lens, yin and women are considered sinful. For Taoists, there is no such thing as absolute moral judgments, with neither Ying nor Yang representing good or bad (Brodd, 2009). Although this reasoned view (which states that neither yin nor yang is good or bad) is probably the original medical understanding, oppressive structures have affected modes of thinking. Most likely, the original writings were not corrupted by hierarchical social structures, but have over time, given that medicine and politics are intricately intertwined, been politicized. Upper class, patriarchal and heterosexist interpretations of holistic health concepts flourish in the literature (Lu, 2005; Lad, 2006; Liao, 2006; Lad and Durve, 2008; Gyatso and Hakim, 2010). Furthermore, holism has been embraced by several groups, including those who serve non-holistic ends. Among them are ‘new age’ entrepreneurs who are profiting from the commodification of holistic health, including shamanic healing, hypnosis, trance work and so forth. Practitioners, who claim to be holistic, may excuse sexist, heterosexist, classist and racist behavior in the social organization of their work, on the grounds that the culture from which it comes is based on oppressive notions. This kind of appropriation and misrepresentation of holism is dangerous, as are the claims made by practitioners masquerading as holistic healers, stating that they can miraculously cure diseases in order to lure vulnerable and ill people into paying large sums of money for unproved therapies. Some aspects of these therapies are problematic when they fail to take into account power differences and their grafted relationship with race, class, gender, sexual orientation, ability, age and so forth. Some, such as Louise Hay, go as far as to suggests that people are 100 per cent responsible for creating their experiences (Dua, 2006). This completely negates the existence of hierarchies such as imperialism, racism, patriarchy, heterosexual dominance and so forth. Although it is pleasant to entertain the thought that individuals who create peace and harmony in their lives will have no (health) problems, it defies the experiences of many of us. There is always the danger of simplifying health and AUTHOR COPY r 2011 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1477-8211 Social Theory & Health Vol. 9, 3, 244–255 251
Shroff healing to a point where power relations are not taken into account. Unfortunately, this simplistic type of analysis pervades the New Age Movement’s rhetoric, which results in various forms of ‘victim blaming’ (Crawford, 2006). Although it is true that the New Age Movement emphasizes fitness, wellness, prevention and risk reduction, whereas downplaying the vast and ambiguous external forces that influence health, we must be cautious not to confuse New Age entrepreneurs with holistic health practitioners. The critique that holistic health provides an individualistic solution to problems of health by changing the individual rather than the social causes of illness rings true. Plus, the victimblaming ideology promoted by some holistic health-care providers shifts the burden of blame to the individual rather than the social context (Crawford, 2006). Yet this critique applies to allopathic medicine as well. Allopathic medicine does not encompass a social and political view of the determinants of health either. In itself, it is not a solid enough argument to dismiss holism. It is, combined with the above arguments of appropriation and class privilege, a solid basis for dismissing the New Age Movement as opportunistic, however. In closing The concept of holism is international and ancient. Crossing countries and historical periods, holistic thought and health practices based on these thought forms flourished for centuries and declined over the past 400 years, in part because of the growth in reductionist thinking and its off-shoot, allopathic medicine. At present, there is a global re-emergence of holistic thinking and holistic practices. This article analyzed the historical, as well as contemporary basis of holism as interconnectedness, unity and oneness, and its application to holistic health-care. Neither the allopathic nor the holistic model of care attend to social inequities, yet holistic practices generally take into account the many facets of the individual – emotional, social, mental and spiritual. It is partly for this reason that holistic care is popular. However, holistic health-care can be improved, and serve the needs of more people if race, class and gender analyses were taken into account. The health of the individual is clearly linked to her or his income, employment, security and social status. Deepening our understanding of the impact of social inequities on an individual’s health will contribute to more efficient and just (holistic) health-care systems. Major institutions are currently studying alternative medicines, including herbal remedies, bodywork, meditation, dietary changes and more. Various studies, including some randomized clinical trials, are available on almost every type of alternative healing practice, and they typically show good results (Jonas et al, 2006; Carlson et al, 2007; Garner et al, 2007; John et al, 2007; Maa et al, 2007; Sareen et al, 2007; Wang et al, 2007). Working together, there is great potential for holistic health-care AUTHOR COPY 252 r 2011 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1477-8211 Social Theory & Health Vol. 9, 3, 244–255
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