AUTHOR COPY - Trent University

Original Article 

Conceptualizing holism in international 

interdisciplinary critical perspective: 

Toward a framework for understanding 

holistic health 

Farah M. Shroff 

Department of Family Practice, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC, Canada. 

E-mail: fmcshroff@gmail.com 

Abstract The concept of holism is defined in disparate ways. This article offers 

foundational understandings of this term from various parts of the world, illustrating the 

virtually universal, historical, as well as contemporary nature of ideas such as interconnectedness, 

unity and oneness. Throughout human history, holistic worldviews were 

dominant until the past 400 years or so. At present, a revival of holistic thought-forms is 

taking place in many parts of the world. The purpose of this article is to sketch the 

landscape of holistic philosophical foundations, discuss systems science in this context 

and apply these underpinnings to holistic health in the hope that it will increase our 

understanding of both the conceptual foundations of holism, as well as its applications 

to health promotion, disease prevention, treatment of ill health and palliation. The 

article will conclude with the recommendation that holistic health-care practitioners 

take social inequities into account, so that this integrative health-care can become a 

means for individuals to take action for wellness, as well as a means to create structural 

changes toward equitable resource distribution. 

Social Theory & Health (2011) 9, 244–255. doi:10.1057/sth.2011.6; 

published online 8 June 2011 

AUTHOR COPY 

Keywords: holism; mind-body; interconnection; systems science; interdisciplinary; 

international 

Introduction: Principles of Holism 

The words health and holistic are semantically related. They both stem from the 

same root word: the Anglo-Saxon words whole, hale and holy (Pretorius, 2009). 

Despite the linguistic connection, the word holistic is used in incongruent 

ways and has become an umbrella term that is used to encompass anything 

r 2011 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1477-8211 Social Theory & Health Vol. 9, 3, 244–255 

www.palgrave-journals.com/sth/

Conceptualizing holism in international interdisciplinary critical perspective 

that is non-reductionist or dualist. Holism is sometimes spelled as wholism, to 

accentuate the semantic connections of this word to the word ‘whole’. In this 

article, the concept holistic health-care will be used interchangeably with 

alternative or complimentary medicine and will be defined as approaches to 

well-being and treatment of illness that focus on mind and body. In addition to, 

the term holistic health-care is used in this article to encompass both self-care 

and practitioner-based care. Holistic self-care encompasses practices such as 

yoga, meditation, Tai Chi and Chi Gung. Holistic care provided by professionals 

encompasses traditional Chinese medicine, ayurveda, homeopathy, botanical 

medicine, therapeutic massage and others. 

Holistic schools of thought vary from region to region, and throughout time, but 

have more similarities than differences. A number of principles unite them. 

One principle they have in common is that entities and systems in the universe, 

including humans, are considered part of a unified whole, which cannot be 

understood by the isolated examination of its separate parts (Dusek, 2006). 

These parts are actively interrelated. Similarly, matter is interlinked, interconnected 

and dynamic; it is constantly changing and it is this transformation that 

denotes time. 

Holistic worldviews do not focus exclusively on the body or organism, but on 

the larger world – the universe – and are often associated with spiritual or 

religious thought-forms. At the heart of holism, there is an awareness of the 

unity and mutual interrelation of all things and events. All things are seen as 

interdependent and inseparable. This ultimate, indivisible reality is called 

Brahman in Hinduism, Dharmakaya in Buddhism and Tao in Taoism. As it 

transcends all concepts and categories, Buddhists also call it Tathata-Suchness 

(Deshmukh, 2006), That Which Is, or Is-ness, the sum of all forms. 

In Hinduism, we find a similar emphasis: ‘a fundamental Hindu principle 

is one of Unity of all created things. Behind diversity, there is unity. Behind 

individual souls, there is the Self, one with the Divine. Not only human life but 

all created life including animal life is a unity. We spring from one source. 

Differences and divisions are unreal. The belief that we originate from one 

common source has ethical implications: it leads to a kinder and a gentler 

world’ (Goel, 2006). One of the Hindu texts, the Isa-Upanisad states: ‘[b]ut 

he (sic) who beholds all beings in his (sic) own Self, and his (sic) own Self in all 

beings, does no longer hate (vijugupsate)’ (stanza 6). 

These views are also echoed in other traditions. According to African holistic 

views, for example, the cosmos is one, a spiritual totality. Spirit is not separate 

from matter, as everything is connected (Asante and Mazama, 2009). In African 

holistic thought, all things are considered to be related through one divine force 

(Asante and Mazama, 2009). They are alive, giving and receiving energy, with 

all life and matter created for a specific purpose. 



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First Nations philosophies are similar. First Nations peoples see themselves as 

part of a Sacred Hoop or Circle of Life, not having control over it; they are 

careful to maintain a balance with life (Hunter et al, 2006). Just as we impact 

the broad cultural climate in which we live, our physical, emotional and psychological 

health is influenced by that very climate. Social harmony thus influences 

individual well-being in many First Nations cosmo-visions. First Nations 

healers advise people to see everyone as a family member or friend thus 

encouraging social integration (Musqueum Elder Shane Pointe, 5 November 2006, 

personal communications). The Medicine Wheel, representing harmony and 

connectivity, takes this concept further. It represents all of creation: all planets, 

stars, peoples, animals and plants. It is the basis of community health with the 

circle symbolizing the cycles of the seasons and of life, and wholeness and perfection. 

First Nations peoples’ healing circles, sweat lodge ceremonies and other 

healing rituals are generally performed in a circle. The circle emphasizes togetherness 

and community unity, without which the individual cannot be well. 

Systems science 

These ancient principles are also present in some fields within contemporary 

science. Francisco Varela, for example, observes that Buddhist ideas are prevalent 

throughout our Western culture – in physics and biology, for example, 

the basic ideas are Buddhism in disguise (Lee, 2006). During the past few 

decades, scientists from various disciplines, such as Ilya Prigogine, Erich 

Jantsch, Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana and Manfred Eigen, have developed 

emerging systems views of the world and made the study of living systems, 

organisms, social systems and ecosystems their focus. 

The systems view focuses on integration and relationships and sees systems 

as integrated wholes whose properties cannot be reduced to its smaller units. 

Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to plants, animals and humans, is 

integrated and considered as living systems. Families and communities are also 

considered as systems. Gregory Bateson (1972), for example, was interested in 

studying patterns, which connect crabs to lobsters, orchids to humans and in 

seeing the interrelatedness of life forms. For hundreds of years, much of 

Western science concentrated on isolating the world’s basic building blocks. 

Now that this has been achieved to some extent, the systems approach emphasizes 

principles of organization (Kineman and Kumar, 2007) creating a more 

ample understanding of matter, from macro- and micro-perspectives. Systemic 

properties are lost when a system is dissected, either physically or theoretically, 

into isolated elements. Although it is possible to discern individual parts in 

any system, the nature of the whole is different from the mere sum of its 

parts (Kineman and Kumar, 2007). This understanding ties in very well with 

principles of holism and holistic health. 


246 r 2011 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1477-8211 Social Theory & Health Vol. 9, 3, 244–255


The New Physics 

Connected to systems science, some physicists also make connections between 

their work and holistic thought-forms. Notable physicists such as David Bohm 

and Fritjof Capra emphasize the similarities between their theories of the indistinguishability 

of field and force and mind and matter, with the spiritual traditions 

of Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism and Taoism. Over the past 2000 

years or more, Buddhists have developed sophisticated philosophical, phenomenological 

and epistemological ideas, and they have found a very practical 

way to apply them (Lopez, 2008). Some Western scientists, such as those who 

study the mind, have been profoundly influenced by Buddhist thought and 

have worked to establish empirical correlations between Buddhist practice and 

scientific work (Lopez, 2008; Weaver et al, 2008). Western tradition has avoided 

the idea of a selfless self, of a virtual self. This egolessness, or selflessness, is at 

the very core of Buddhism. 

Capra (2002) also extends the framework of systems and complexity theory to 

the social domain, akin to the foundational principles of holism. He uses this extended 

framework to discuss some of the critical issues of our time – the management 

of human organizations, the challenges and dangers of economic globalization, 

the scientific and ethical problems of biotechnology, and the establishment of ecologically 

sustainable communities and technologies (Capra, 2002). 

Bohm conceptualizes an implicate order to the universe composed of frequencies 

beyond time and space that has been hidden from people. His paradigm is 

a form of ontological holism. In this conception of order, primacy is given to the 

undivided whole, and the implicate order inherent within the whole, rather than 

to parts of the whole (Healey, 2009). 

These scientists emphasize in their work the same notions as holism; the 

whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The natural world interacts synergistically. 

It is thus not possible to fully understand systems by knowing the 

properties of their individual components – although it is useful to study individual 

components. Indeed, as stated by Capra,‘the basic oneness of the universe 

is not only the central characteristic of the mystical experience but it is also 

one of the most important revelations of modern physics. It becomes apparent 

at the atomic level and manifests itself more and more as one penetrates deeper 

into matter, down into the realm of subatomic particles’ (Gaan, 2005, p. 324). 

The observer of a scientific experiment, according to quantum theory, can 

change the outcome of an experiment, simply by observing, for the observer 

puts energy into the system and this energy has an impact on that, which is 

being observed. Just as Buddhist and Hindu philosophy stress, the observer 

and observed are seen as connected, as are mind and matter, field and force. 

As Gary Zukav explains, quantum theory sees everything in the universe as 



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related and interrelated at the most subatomic level, making it impossible to 

observe reality without altering it (Edmison, 2004). 

The new physics thus emphasizes the interrelational, indeterminate and 

probabilistic qualities of matter and energy, and challenges components of the 

scientific method related to Newtonian mechanics, such as determinism and 

linear causality. 

New science and holistic health 

Some physicians are moving beyond these ‘old’ scientific paradigms, however, 

in conceptualizing health issues (McQuaide, 2005). Although there are literally 

thousands of allopathic physicians whose work incorporates ideas of holistic 

health, Deepak Chopra, MD, and Andrew Weil, MD, have gained great popularity. 

Their work has successfully bridged a gap between reductionism and 

holism and, drawing from quantum mechanics theory, has conceptualized the 

differences between a reductionist and quantum or holistic paradigm for health. 

These allopathic physicians with holistic inclinations predict that sooner or 

later, allopathic medical science will catch up with the theoretical revolution in 

physics – as the interdependence of mind and matter is now firmly established 

in the model of reality used by contemporary physicists; these physicians assert 

that medical researchers ought to seriously take up the research challenge of 

analyzing how the mind and body interact. 

A relatively new branch of scientific inquiry, psychoneuroimmunology, has 

taken up this challenge. It integrates some of the ideas from quantum mechanics, 

psychology, neurology and endocrinology. Psychoneuroimmunologists primarily 

theorize the mind/body connection through studying the brain and hormones. 

Hormones, particularly those from the brain, are seen as the link between the 

mind and body. Candace Pert made headlines with her 1970’s research on 

neuropeptides as the ‘molecules of emotion’ and was also featured in the film 

What The Bleep Do We Know (2004) (Bruce, 2005). Pert’s research was posited 

on the presumption that neuropeptides are the molecular messengers that affect 

the metabolism of the cell and link the nervous, immune and endocrine systems 

(Pert and Marriott, 2007). Pert’s contributions have given birth to a large number 

of such studies within the reductionist scientific community. 


Holistic health 

The aforementioned concepts of systems science and holism find concrete application 

in systems of holistic health promotion, disease prevention, treatment 

of illness and/or palliative care such as yoga, ayurvedic medicine, Chi Gung, 

Tai Chi, Traditional Chinese Medicine and African and Indigenous systems of 

health-care. What connects the diversity of these holistic traditions is that 

without exception, they take into account mind, body, the environment and the 



interconnection between them. They recognize the interrelationship between 

human health and the social and physical environment. Holistic health theory is 

posited on the notion that life force (or prana (in Sanskrit), chi (in Chinese), 

mana (in Hawaiian) connects all life in the universe, and that this energy is 

responsible for the life of all beings. Prana is that which gives us life, or the 

vehicle of life, the cosmic breath, the rhythmic oscillation effective on all levels 

of conditioned existence. Restoring and keeping this life force flowing is one 

way of keeping people healthy. 

We may typify holistic health with various characteristics such as the notion 

that health is a positive state, not merely the absence of disease, and that health is 

tied closely to familial, social and cultural environments. Holistic health-care is 

also characterized by the belief that successful healing transforms the practitioner, 

as well as the client and that healing includes a spiritual component in the etiology 

and treatment of illness. Holistic health-care understands malfunctions (illness) in 

the context of the social, cultural and spiritual environment. Treatment of both 

body and mind are considered integral (Barnes et al, 2004). 

Tibetan medicine is similar. Religious rituals such as prayer are central for 

both the practitioner and patient. Because of the sacred nature of healing, 

Tibetan doctors of yore did not charge for their service (Dunkenberger, 2009). 

Such religious, spiritual and social aims of healing are combined in many 

systems of holistic health. 

The body is understood in a unified manner within holistic health perspectives. 

Injury to one part of the body may thus damage another, seemingly unrelated, 

part. Kidney malfunctioning, for example, may result from a damaged heart. 

If one part of the kidney is injured, another part may take over its functions. 

Holistic principles maintain that the body has an innate capacity to heal itself, 

and the role of the physician is to first do no harm and second to assist the body 

in its natural tendency toward balance. Andie Knutson (1961) declares: 


Many of the ills of modern society stem from attempts to deal with men 

(sic) segmentally rather than with men (sic) as a unit. Specialization, 

which seems to be an inevitable outgrowth of scientific advance, results in 

institutions competing with one another for various segments of a man 

(sic) who is seeking to maintain his integrity as a total being. How far 

removed we are from the medicine man (sic)! He has strengths that have 

not been duplicated in our modern society. (p. 1702) 

Despite the fact that Knutson was writing approximately 50 years ago, the 

segmentation, atomization and specialization of modern society continue to exist. 

More than 2300 years ago, the Greek philosopher Hippocrates emphasized 

that doctors should consider the whole human being in order to treat and 

diagnose. Included in the Hippocratic Oath is an allegiance to Hygeia, the 


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Goddess of Good Health, who is synonymous with hygiene, disease prevention 

and therapeutic medicine (Capra, 2002). The Hippocratic Doctrine, which ostensibly 

underlies the basis for current allopathic medicine, stresses that: ‘the wellbeing 

of men (sic) is influenced by all environmental factorsythe quality of air, 

water and food, the winds and topography of the land’ (Maurer and Smith, 

2005, p. 597). 1 Although allopathic medicine has not generally been shaped 

by this complex view of health and disease, holistic concepts exist within 

allopathic theoretical frameworks. But theory is often not put into practice. This 

is, of course, true of all systems of medicine. However, allopathic doctors are 

increasingly using alternative medicine in their practices, and some allopathic 

doctors hire alternative practitioners to work in their offices. Increasingly, 

nurses, midwives and other health-care practitioners also incorporate holistic 

practices into their clinics. 

Holistic health-care: A growing trend 

Although allopathic medicine is useful for the treatment of acute and emergency 

care needs, holistic health-care appears to be more promising for chronic conditions 

and mental health-care, which constitute a majority of health problems, 

since chronic diseases are a leading cause of death and disability around the 

world. The interest in holistic care in North America is growing among health 

professionals and the general public. In the United States, for example, spending 

on alternative medicine has increased from 14 billion in the early 1990s to 21 

billion in 1997 (McQuaide, 2005). Moreover, 36 per cent of adults are using 

some form of holistic and alternative medicine (Barnes et al, 2004). If megavitamin 

therapy and prayer specifically for health reasons are included as well, 

that number rises to 62 per cent (Barnes et al, 2004). In Canada, that number is 

similar with one study finding that 73 per cent of Canadians have used some 

form of holistic health-care in their lifetime (Esmail, 2007). While studies measure 

different definitions of holistic health and varying time periods, Canadians 

are increasingly using holistic health-care. 

The popularity of holistic health-care is in part because of the increasing 

dissent with the present system of medical care delivery. Some people, particularly 

women, prefer holistic practitioners partly because of practitioner 

friendliness and interpersonal sensitivity (Kelner and Wellman, 1997; Barnes 

et al, 2004). Fewer side effects, the perceived lack of harm from holistic healthcare 

and the possibility of improved health are other reasons why Canadians are 

turning to holistic health-care practices (Quan et al, 2008). 


Holistic health-care critically examined 

It is precisely because of their growth and interest that holistic models also need 

to be considered critically. Most systems of holistic health are overly concerned 



with the individual and her/his mind, body and spirit, but rarely examine the 

health connections to the larger social world (Shroff, 2000). This is probably 

the most astute criticism of holistic health-care. Most systems of health-care, 

including holistic ones, do not include social health as a major component. This 

lack of attention to public health-care is a serious gap in holistic health-care 

practices. Furthermore, within many systems of holistic medicine, patriarchal 

and classist overtones are apparent. In ayurveda, for example, some interpretations 

of tridosha theory (which notes different body/mind types among 

people) have likened vata (the air/ether type) to the Brahmin caste and portrayed 

vata people as noble, whereas kapha (the earth/water type) is portrayed as 

docile and slow, as the ‘ideal’ Indian woman ought to be. In Chinese medicine, 

yin traditionally means the shady side of a mountain, but is also related with 

femaleness; under a patriarchal lens, yin and women are considered sinful. For 

Taoists, there is no such thing as absolute moral judgments, with neither Ying 

nor Yang representing good or bad (Brodd, 2009). Although this reasoned view 

(which states that neither yin nor yang is good or bad) is probably the original 

medical understanding, oppressive structures have affected modes of thinking. 

Most likely, the original writings were not corrupted by hierarchical social 

structures, but have over time, given that medicine and politics are intricately 

intertwined, been politicized. Upper class, patriarchal and heterosexist interpretations 

of holistic health concepts flourish in the literature (Lu, 2005; Lad, 

2006; Liao, 2006; Lad and Durve, 2008; Gyatso and Hakim, 2010). 

Furthermore, holism has been embraced by several groups, including those 

who serve non-holistic ends. Among them are ‘new age’ entrepreneurs who are 

profiting from the commodification of holistic health, including shamanic healing, 

hypnosis, trance work and so forth. Practitioners, who claim to be holistic, may 

excuse sexist, heterosexist, classist and racist behavior in the social organization 

of their work, on the grounds that the culture from which it comes is based on 

oppressive notions. This kind of appropriation and misrepresentation of holism is 

dangerous, as are the claims made by practitioners masquerading as holistic 

healers, stating that they can miraculously cure diseases in order to lure vulnerable 

and ill people into paying large sums of money for unproved therapies. 

Some aspects of these therapies are problematic when they fail to take 

into account power differences and their grafted relationship with race, class, 

gender, sexual orientation, ability, age and so forth. Some, such as Louise Hay, 

go as far as to suggests that people are 100 per cent responsible for creating their 

experiences (Dua, 2006). This completely negates the existence of hierarchies 

such as imperialism, racism, patriarchy, heterosexual dominance and so forth. 

Although it is pleasant to entertain the thought that individuals who create 

peace and harmony in their lives will have no (health) problems, it defies the 

experiences of many of us. There is always the danger of simplifying health and 



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healing to a point where power relations are not taken into account. Unfortunately, 

this simplistic type of analysis pervades the New Age Movement’s rhetoric, which 

results in various forms of ‘victim blaming’ (Crawford, 2006). 

Although it is true that the New Age Movement emphasizes fitness, wellness, 

prevention and risk reduction, whereas downplaying the vast and ambiguous 

external forces that influence health, we must be cautious not to confuse New 

Age entrepreneurs with holistic health practitioners. The critique that holistic 

health provides an individualistic solution to problems of health by changing 

the individual rather than the social causes of illness rings true. Plus, the victimblaming 

ideology promoted by some holistic health-care providers shifts the 

burden of blame to the individual rather than the social context (Crawford, 

2006). Yet this critique applies to allopathic medicine as well. Allopathic 

medicine does not encompass a social and political view of the determinants 

of health either. In itself, it is not a solid enough argument to dismiss holism. 

It is, combined with the above arguments of appropriation and class privilege, 

a solid basis for dismissing the New Age Movement as opportunistic, however. 

In closing 

The concept of holism is international and ancient. Crossing countries and 

historical periods, holistic thought and health practices based on these thought 

forms flourished for centuries and declined over the past 400 years, in part 

because of the growth in reductionist thinking and its off-shoot, allopathic medicine. 

At present, there is a global re-emergence of holistic thinking and holistic 

practices. This article analyzed the historical, as well as contemporary basis of 

holism as interconnectedness, unity and oneness, and its application to holistic 

health-care. 

Neither the allopathic nor the holistic model of care attend to social inequities, 

yet holistic practices generally take into account the many facets of the 

individual – emotional, social, mental and spiritual. It is partly for this reason 

that holistic care is popular. However, holistic health-care can be improved, and 

serve the needs of more people if race, class and gender analyses were taken 

into account. The health of the individual is clearly linked to her or his income, 

employment, security and social status. Deepening our understanding of the 

impact of social inequities on an individual’s health will contribute to more 

efficient and just (holistic) health-care systems. Major institutions are currently 

studying alternative medicines, including herbal remedies, bodywork, meditation, 

dietary changes and more. Various studies, including some randomized 

clinical trials, are available on almost every type of alternative healing practice, 

and they typically show good results (Jonas et al, 2006; Carlson et al, 2007; 

Garner et al, 2007; John et al, 2007; Maa et al, 2007; Sareen et al, 2007; Wang 

et al, 2007). Working together, there is great potential for holistic health-care 




and allopathic medicine to improve population health. Given that the basis of 

holistic philosophy is unity and oneness, a health-care system that incorporates 

the most effective aspects of various systems of medicine would have powerful 

potential to improve population health on many levels. If practitioners were to 

also take social inequities into account, this integrative health-care could truly 

become a means for individuals to take action for wellness, as well as a means 

to create structural changes toward equitable resource distribution. I have 

written elsewhere (Shroff, 1996) about a health-care system that incorporates 

public health approaches and integrates best practices from multiparadigmatic 

medical systems. 

This article also reviewed the interdisciplinary nature of the concept of 

holism, illustrating the philosophical and scholarly unity in the notions of unity 

and oneness, interconnection, inseparability of mind and body. Modern physics, 

particularly quantum mechanics, is at the forefront of the scientific frontier 

that has arrived at the same conclusions as philosophical ideas from Hinduism, 

Buddhism, Indigenous, African and other cosmologies. Systems science, an 

interdisciplinary enterprise, is also part of this movement away from a reliance 

on reductionist thinking. 

Although holistic thought-forms are ancient, they have modern applications. 

One of the most significant applications are holistic health practices that are 

re-emerging the world over. This article has explored the underlying context of 

this resurgence. 

About the Author 

Farah M. Shroff, PhD, is a public health researcher, educator and activist. She 

teaches at the University of British Columbia’s Medical School. She has a 

keen interest in Health for All and divides her research program into: a) social 

justice issues related to health and b) holistic health: mind/body approaches 

to health. She has written about Ayurveda, yoga, naturopathy, midwifery, 

nursing, health advocacy, HIV/AIDS and more. 


Note 

1 Marti Kheel (1989) warns that Hippocrates’ contributions are often idealized as holistic. She 

argues that Hippocratic ideas marked the beginnings of a dualistic mentality that separated 

mind and body, human being and nature. She notes that in Hippocratic medicine, the patient’s 

symptoms were aggravated to the point of a healing crisis. Purgings, bleedings, induced 

vomitings and other ‘heroic’ feats were used in this task. ‘The notion of “aiding” nature had 

already led to the practice (by male physicians) of giving her a “helpful” shove. Meanwhile, 


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witches and faith healers were branded by Hippocrates as charlatans and quacks’ (p.101). 

Kheel thus links the demise of holistic healing to some of the principles espoused by 

Hippocrates. She also links patriarchal domination to the destruction of holistic healing, which 

was practised primarily by women. She asserts that the Greeks were the beginnings, in the 

‘Western’ world, of wararchy: cultures based on war-worship, which moved away from the 

Goddess-worshipping cultures of the pre-patriarchal world. This mentality is perpetuated by 

metaphors such as the ‘war’ against disease. 

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