"Little Ice Age" glaciers in Ka:mchatka, northeastern Russia

Annals of Glaciology 2 1 1995
© International Glaciological Society
"Little Ice Age" glaciers in Ka:mchatka, northeastern
Russia
O . N. SOLOMI;\A,
Institute of Geogwphy, Russian Academ} oJ Sciences, Staronwnetny 29, Moscow 109017, Russia
Y A. D . M G RAVY E\ ',
Instilule oJ r 'olcanolog:),. PelrojJavlovsk-Kamchalskiy, R ussia
L. 1. BAZANOVA
Institute oJ Volcanic Geology and Geochemisll), Petropavlovsk-Kamchalskiy, Russia
ABSTRACT . Li chenometry was used to d ate " Little Ice Age" morain es in the
K amcha tka peninsul a, northeastern Russia. The Rhi;:,ocmjJon geograjJ/zicwn growth-ra te
cur\'(" was based on seven da ta points from la \'a Omvs and morain es, d ated using
hisro ri cal records or tephrochronology ( 15- 300 BP) . No reduction in growth rate due to
d ec reasin g lichen age was obselyed , so a lin ear a pproxima ti on was used. Accuracy tes t
res ults yield diffe rences between real a nd calcula ted da tes up to, bu t not exceeding, fi ve
years. From eight " Littlc Ice Age" (LIA) morain es it was es ta blished th a t K a mcha tk a
glaciers ad\'anced in the 16905, 1850- 70 and 1910- 20. Only one morain e cl earl y
corresponded to th e 1690s ad va nce. The maximum stage of the LIA was during the
mid- to late 19th century when glacier fronts were genera ll y 100- 200 m lower tha n a t
p rese nt. G lacier te rmini with as h and mora ine layers, cO\'ered by li chens a nd vasc ul a r
plants, have been prese rved [or 150 300 years, judgin g by the li chen sizes.
INTRODUCTION
The rece nt glacier hi story o[ K amchatka, northeastern
Russia, is poorl y il1\·es ti gated. The first da ta concerning
glacier- fro nt positions d a te from the 1920s. ~vl o r a in e da tes
from radiocarbon a nd tree-rings, etc., a re still lacking.
U ntil recentl y, the " Little Ice Age" (LIA) in K a mcha tk a
\\'as consid ered onl y as th e fin a l stage of Holocene
g laciation. Then Bra itse\'a a nd o the rs (1968) a nd
~l e l e k es t se \ ' a nd others (1970) identifi ed severa l units of
\'ari ous ages associa ted wi th glacial acti\'ity: traces of la te­
Pl eistocene glacia ti on (",20 ka), mora in es near the exit o f'
trough \·a ll eys (pres uma bl y of la te-glacial age, ", ]4-
10 ka ) a nd t\l'O stages of the H olocene. The H olocene
maximum was roughl y 2000 BP. A second complex o[
H olocene moraines includes ones with unsta ble surfaces
and ice-fill ed cores, fr equently bord ering th e fronts of'
recent glaciers.
Sredinny a nd Eastern ridges, a nd ex tend sub-meridiona
ll y throughout nearl y the entire peninsul a . Studies were
carried out on volca noes of the Klyuche\'skaya groups.
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REGION
The K amcha tk a peninsul a ( Fi g. I) contains 29 active and
more tha n 300 extinct \'olcanoes (pa rt of the Pacifi c
" Ring of Fire") and is th e la rgest glacia ted region in
northeast Asia, with 446 glaciers occupying a n a rea of
more th a n 906 km 2 The main nod es are th e highes t
Fig. 1. T he area oJ investigation .
240

Solomilla alld others: .. Liute i re Age" glaciers in Kamc/wtka
METHODS
Lichenotnetry
Fi eld studies in 1992/93 showed tha t th e crustose li chen
Rhi:::ocarpoll geograjJ/zicu11l (se nsu lato) could be used as a n
age indicator, It occurs widely on young d ep osits of
differing genesis, including g lacia l a nd volca nic r ocks,
i\Iaximum dia m eters of a ll the larges t li chens \\'e re
m easured o n m o r a in e and la \'a -fl ow surfaces, F o r
elliptical li c hens, th e m aj o r a nd mino r axes \\'er e
measured , a nd the a rithme ti cal means calcula ted , If the
\'ari a nce for a su b-set of th e fi ve m aximum dimensions did
not exceed a fe\\' millimetres, the g reates t dia meter \\'as
ta ken as the surface-age index, If the maximum dia meter
was significantly greater th a n th e other four measurements
of th e sub-set, it was elimina ted a nd the sixth
largest li chen was added to the sub-se t. T o ma ke roug h
es tima tes of li chen-gro\\'th ra te, la\'a OO\o" s of knovv n age
(Fig, 2 ) were ex plo red: Plos ky T o lbachik ( 194 1).
Yubileiny ( 1945), A pa kho nchi c h (1946), V erna d sky
(Kly uc hevskaya volca no ) ( 1956) a nd th e K ozelsky
g lacier m ora ine ( 19 76) , Since n o li che ns h a \'e ye t
appeared on the young K ozelsky glacier moraine, th e
li chen measurements on the la\'a Oo\\'s a lone liTre used .
Beca use dia me ters of 8- 13 mm were a tta ined b y li chens
o n the la va Oows of the 1940s to I 950s, the a pproxima te
ra te of RhizocarjJon geograjJhicu/7l g rowth a t its fi rst stage o f
d e\'elopment is es tima ted as 0,25 mm a I .
sho\\" tha t it retreated ri'om the la te 19+0s to th e eaI'll'
19605. th en se ttled in to a stead\" sta te, ach'a nced ['rom
197 1 to 1976, a nd then rcturned to a stead \' sta te
(\ ' inograd O\' a nd :\ f ura\')'C\'. 1992).
The first m oraine (Fig, 3; .\Jo , I ). bord ering the glacier
te rm.inus. fo rmed as a res ult of glacier displacement in th e
19 70s , :-Vforphologicall y it is a se ri es of ice clifTs and ridges
co\'ered \\' ith a thin cinder layer a lso conta ining la rge
boulders, It g rad es into th e stagna n t icc surface fo rmed
since the g lacier's retreat ri'om 19+0 to 1960 (Fig , 3: .\Jo,
2, H ere. th e fi rst patte rns of li che ns (Rhi::.oca1"jJoII
geograjJ/ZiwlI/ ) liT re fo und, the maximul11 dia meter or
indi\'idua l li chens being 8111 m . A new "rung" begins
50 m lo\\'er a long the chute, where 111 0re coarse. fragmented
materia l is seen a nd so me \'ascul a r plants a ppear.
This m o ra in e ra mpa rt is better-defin cd . ha \'ing more
distinct outlines a nd a stcep o uter slope, a nd IS clea rll'
expressed in aeria l photogra phs (Fig , 3: No. 3) ,
D, mm
111==.,.1
o so 100 1 SO 200 250 300 350 400
Years,
Fig , 2, The growlh curve oj Rhizocarpon geogra phicum
(sensll lato )jor the Kamchalka moulllaills (see tell ).
BP
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A
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T ephrochronology
As a res ult of tephrochronological studies by the Insti tu te
o f' \ ' olca ni c G eology a nd G eoch emistry, Petropa"'osk­
K a mcha tski y, a genera li zed so il- pvroclasti c sec ti on was
constructed (o r the A vachinsky volca no, Pyroclastic layers
associa ted with its eruptions in 1945, 1855. 1779 a nd 1737
were d etected in the upper pa rt ( ~l e l e k cs t se\' a nd others.
1993). Indi\'idua l mora ines from the stra tig ra phic sequence
we re correla ted wi th th ese teph ra ho ri zons.
Sec ti ons of the o\'erl a pping soil- pyroclastic seq uence a t
the surface of moraines ,,'ere studied an d then com pa red
to the gen era li zed secti ons.
RESULTS
Kozelsky glacier, Avachins k y group
Direc t obse n 'ati ons of th e d yn a mics of K ozclsky glacier
Fig. 3, .IJ omille com/!Ie\ of k o::.elsk), glacier, A . T OllgUI'
cif gLacier; B , 'opogmj)/~)' COlltOU/'J ill Ill: C. moraines of
diJlerenl ages ( 1111lllbm njJlail1ed ill t/ie tnl) : D . limil5
of moraille romjJ!n : E. sile oj meleorological obsermliol/J,
Below, at a bo u t 820 m , li es a ne\\' belt of mora ines
containing t\\'O distinct ram pa rts Fig , 3: ;\os. + and 5 ).
chi eOy composed of la rge fragm ents or grey a ndesites
produced b y th e K ozelsky \'olc a no. The size of th e li chens
a nd ro ug h assess men ts of the g ro\\'th ra te (0.25 mm a I )
suggest th a t these m o ra ines formed in th e 19 th century,
This is corrobora ted by the so il- p\Toclasti c sequence on
the old er o u ter mor ainc ram pan (Fig , 3; :"Jo, 6 ) , A 50 cm
thick seque nce t ha t con ta in s t\\'O te phra laye rs is
2+ 1

S%mina al/d a/hers: ., LilLle Ice Age" glaciers i11 Kamc/w/ka
associa ted wi th the 1945 Avachinsky eru ption and the
1907 K sudach eruption (Fig. 4a). The lower ash layer is
underla in by a thin layer of ta lus deposits whi ch o\"e rli es
th e mora in e. T ephra from th e 1855 Avachinsky erupti on
was not obse rved here, so the mora ine must have fo rmed
between 1855 and 1907.
a b a till
D
fin e-grain ash
~ dark ash with gray sinler
~ sandy loam
1-:-:-:1 acolian sand
la sod
Fig. -+. Soil /ijroclaslic sequence on moraines of Ko.celsky
glacier. ( a) moraine of the second half Ilf /he 19th centwy:
( b) moraine of the end of the 17th Cell/ ZlI]I. A V, ash from
Avachinsk)l eruptio11s (1945. 1855, 1779 and 1737); KS,
aslzJrom KSlldach eruption ( /907).
On the o utside, a complex of young, unsodded
moraines (Fi g. 3; Nos. 1- 6) li es adjacent to the older,
sodded moraine which is covered with elfin-wood cedar
(Fig. 3; :\0. 7). This morain e has smooth outlines and th e
ridge itse lf a pparentl y lacks an ice core; the base of th e
morain e li es a t 715 m . The morphological dilference
between these two generations of moraines is so great tha t
despite their close proximity the corresponding stages of
glacier ad vance would normally be ex pected to be
separa ted by a significant time interval. Yet, li ch enometric
a nd tephrochronological studies of th e old er,
sodded moraine (Fig . 3; No. 7) imply quite a different
interpreta ti on . From the observed ma ximum li chen
diameter of only 76 mm, a nd usin g a li chen growth ra te
of 0.25 mm a I, the age of the moraine is ro ughly
300 yea rs, i. e. within the LIA. A soil- p yroclasti c
sequence on it is a bout 60 cm thick and contains fi ve
pyrocl as ti c layers (Fig. 4b) from to p to bottom as foll ows:
cinder la pilli from th e 1945 Avachinsky eruption; a layer
of transition ash from th e 1907 K sudach eruption; and
tephra from the Avachinsky eruptions of 1855, 1779 and
1737. The other, old er ash layers a re mi ssing. Thus, th e
mora in e pred a tes 1737 a nd is a t least 255 years old . The
lower pyroclas ti c layer is underl ain by a 12 cm layer of
sandy loam which grades into the moraine deposits,
indicating th a t the moraine was formed a few d ecad es
earli er than the upper age limi t ( 1737 ). The lower age
limit is 320- 340 BP, as determined by radiocarbon d ating
(G eological Institute, M oscow, sample 6983) . This value
was obtained on the upper p art of the buried so il layer
(16cm thick) underl ying the tephra of 17 37 . Thus, two
additional points used as time markers were obtain ed for
constructing the li chen-growth curve (Fig. 2). The
rela ti onship betwee n substra tum age a nd maximum
li chen di a meter is nearly linear, a nd may be d esc ribed
by the equa ti on, y = 5.5 + 3.8x, where y is the age of the
surface (years BP), and x is the maximum li chen dia meter
(mm). This curve was the basis for d a ting the morall1es
formed by other glaciers in th e region.
Novograblenov glacier, Avachinsky group
Novogra blenov is a surging glacier with a northwes tern
orienta ti on, and termina tes a t 850 m . Much of the snout,
broken up by crevasses into individua l blocks, is covered
with a cinder layer. No te rminal moraines occur below
the to ng ue. The la teral moraines a ppear as a long
ra mpa rt a pproximately 15 m high a ncl 20 m wide
extending along the left fl a nk, a nd as two ramparts of
so mewha t poorer preservati on along the ri ght fl a nk. The
left latera l mora ine (Fig. Sa; No. 1) formed simulta-
a
p-r A (j) B ~ ~ c 3V D
~ E WF I:ft; G
Fig. 5. Scheme showing the dated moraines of some glaciers at Avachinsky volcano: (a) No vograblenov, (b)
Lavinshchikov, (e) Elizovsky a11d (d) Kambaln)1 glaciers. A, moraine ramparts; B, points oJ lichenometric studies; C,
cliffs ( i) and cres/s ( ii) ; D, glaciers; E, nunataks; F, rocks; G, "dead ice" .
242

Solomil/a and others: (. Lillle Ice Age" glaciers in Kal7lchalka
neously with the englacia l moraine on the ri g ht (Fig . 5a;
No. 2), after a n ach-a nce a t the beginning of the 20th
century. The older mora in e ra mpart pro ba bl y da tes from
the second half of th e 19 th century. N m 'ogra bl eno\'
glacier is la rger now th a n a t th e beginning of the 20th
century, since th e left la tera l morain e is o\'erl apped by th e
mod ern terminus of th e glacier. N o li chens were found on
this mo ra ine.
Lavinshchikov glacier, Avachinsky group
Lavinshchikov is a small foot glacier in th e Elizovs kaya
river \·a ll ey. I t is segregated in to two near-slope glaciers,
which were united in August 1993 by a drifting snowpack
tha t descended to th e terminal moraine, outlining the
contours of th e glacier during the LI A. The upper
mora ine has no li chens, but li chens up to 23 mm in
dia meter occ ur on th e lower mo raine. The m ora ines on
the left fl a nk a re presen 'ed as se\'e ra l ra mparts a few tens
of me tres long, with pointed ridges a nd steep slo pes. The
ages of three of them were es tima ted a t roug hl y 50, 70 a nd
120 years (Fig. 5b; N os. I , 2 a nd 3, res pec ti vely). T wo
fr agm ents of mo ra in es (Fig. 5b; Nos. 4 a nd 5) have been
identifi ed on the ri ght na nk near the glacier front. Their
ages corres pond to those of moraines 2 a nd 3 (Fig. 5b),
a nd th ey a re better prese n 'ed , but li chens found here
show their stages o[ad\'ance to be somewha t old er, a bout
75 a nd 140 years, res pecti vely.
Elizovsk y glacier, Avachinsk y group
Elizovsky is a cirq ue glacier of so uthwes t orienta ti on,
termina ting a t abo ut 1300 m. It descends in th e fo rm of
three " rungs" in to a na rrow \·all ey. The onl y d a ta bl e
feature is the la tera l mora in es, which gi\'e a n approxim a te
upper age limit (Fi g. 5c). Three o r four " rungs" oClatera l
mora ines were id entified , but th ey are interrupted by
eroded a reas, a nd cannot be traced a long th e entire
to n O"ue. The lower mo raine rampa rt, neares t the ice front,
has no li chen growth and proba bl y fo rm ed recentl y. The
second genera ti on (Fig. 5c; N os. 2 a nd 4 ), whi ch left
traces on both sides of the \'all ey, formed a t least 50 years
ago, but is proba bly old er, give n the sizes of the two
la rgest lichens (19 a nd 17 mm ). The higher level of
m arginal mora ines (Fig. 5c; Nos. I a nd 3), deduced from
th e size of li chens, is a ttributed to acti vity in the mid- to
la te 19th century.
KaInbalny glacier, Avachinsk y group
K a mbaln y glacier termina tes a t 1180 m, near an ex posure of
rock on th e ri ght nank of th e chute. Compari so n with 1974
aeri a l photographs shows tha t ove r th e las t 20 years it has
ad\'anced a bout 250 m, corresponding to a drop of 100 m.
Its front, a steep lobe of pure, till-free ice, suggests th a t the
glacier was ad vancing in 1993 . A sma ll , roughl y 10 m long,
fresh morain e rampart was seen under the ice near the !eft
sid e. No other morain es were found near its fron t.
A cliff promon to ry (Fig. 5d ; No. I) near th e terminus
has a fresh surface with traces of glacier polishing a nd
scouring . No li chens were fo und on th e lower pa rt of th e
cliff, but 15- 20 m a bove th e chute 0001' RhizocarjJoll
geograjJ/Zicllm of 25- 27 mm dia meter was o bserved. A low
terrace (up to 3- 5 m ), erod ed in some places by slope
wash. bo rders th e cliff (Fig . 5d ; N o. 2). It li es direc tly
adjacent to ta lus deposits, which probabl y supply part of
th e terrace's surface m a teri al. The size of li chens indicates
th a t the terrace fo rmed in th e mid-20th century, but the
landform is pa rti a ll y rejuvena ted by fragments from th e
slope, complicating th e age determina tion. This terrace
fo rma ti on is linked to glacier retreat from a previ ous
10\\'er pos ition, a supported by the ha lf-erod ed moraine
lin e (Fig. 5d ; No. 3) surrounding it. The age of these
mora in es is a bo ut 140 years. No consistent moraine line
was fo und on the left sid e of th e vall ey, but subtle traces of
sediment-accumula ti on features exist a t a bout th e sa me
b 'e!'
The o ther three glaciers studied lack a ny such mo ra ine
complexes fr o m which a g lacia l hi story co uld be
reconstructed.
ChereInonshny glacier, Klyuchevskaya group
:-lora in e-like feature, mos t of them a ppa rentl y created
by volcanic acti\'ity, were discovered near C heremonshny
glacier. Only one mo ra ine ('"'-'5 0 years old ) co uld be da ted
by li chenom etry, but this da te is unreli a bl e because of th e
lack of li chens.
Popkov glacier, Klyuchevskaya group
The Popko\' glacier a rea (Bolshaya Zimina volca no) is
co\'erecl by la \'a no Vls of different ages, so traces of glacial
aCli\'ity a re pa rti all y obsc ured. H owever, li chens a re
a bunda nt on th e la rge bo ulders tha t comprise part of the
mixed moraine debris, volca ni c ash a nd rece ntly formed
soil cO\'ering the surface of the snout. Also, th e maximum
li chen size on the front is nearly consistent with th a t on
th e old es t mo ra ine of K ozelsky glacier. This suggests th a t
th e maximum ad\'ance of Popkov glacier a lso occurred in
th e 17th century, but th a t its ma rgins have not changed
since. Proba bl y, th e surface gradua ll y lowered during the
last three centuries, a nd th e englacia l till melted out,
building thicker mora ine cover a t th e terminus.
ErInan glacier, Klyuchevskaya group
A simila r picture is evid ent from Erma n glacier, the
la rgest in K a mcha tka . In spite orits unusua l acti\'ity, viz.
ach"ance during th e pas t 50 years, la rge mas es of " dead
ice" exist a long its ma rgins a nd a re presently statio na ry.
Prelimina ry d a ta show tha t the m aximum dia meter of
li chens on the " dead ice", is 35 mm. A tephra layer from
the 1854 Shiveluch volcanic eruption (Belo usov, 1985)
\vas detected in a 60 cm thick layer of supraglacia l
moraine o\'erl ying the "dead ice" so the age of th e
" passive-i ce" surface is near th e mid-1 9 th century.
Kronotsky glacier, Kronotsky volcano
An a na logo us prese n 'ation of superfi cia l cover on
Krono tsky glacier mora ines was reported by T siurupa
( 1988). The glacier lobe, 100 111 from th e fron t, is covered
by \'olca ni c cinder suppo rting abundant vegetation:
Oritropis sp., T'accillum lILiginosum L. . Oxiris digina (L. )
Hill., Saxifraga pllrpllrasoe/ls Kom . a nd two species of dwa rf
243

S%mina and others: " Lillle lee Age" glaciers in Kamelza/ka
willow, Salir ovaLiJolia T raulv. and S. bnberiJolia (I) Pall.
ss/J . Kameha/ica A. Skvor/. The age of one of th e species of
Salix ovaliJolia Trau/v. was es tima ted a t 151 BP.
DISCUSSION
The principal question from this study is th e reli a bility o[
th e li chen-growth CLII'\'e and limita ti ons on its spa ti a l and
tempora l a pplication. T ephrochronology can verify the
li chen growth-ra te a sessments . I n two cases, th e res ults
are in good agreement. First, on Erma n glacier, as
reported a bove, the age o[ the " passive-ice" surface is
139 years (1853) accord i ng to li chenometry a nd 138 years
( 1854) according to the tephrochronological d a ta . In th e
second case, on thc surracc or a lava now in the
Khalaktryka dry ri ve r \'alley, Zavarilsky ( 1977 ) showed
tha t this fl ow formed in 1827. Li chenometry corrobora ted
hi s spec ula ti on, the age from li chen sizes being determined
as a bout 169years ( 1823 ). The error in both cases
is no more than a few yea rs.
Pla usible res ults have been obtained for the da ting of
moraines. M oraines of th e glaciers studied are grouped
according to age: yo ung, low and indistinct moraines (36-
59 BP); a distinct and well-sha ped /d efin ed genera ti on of
mora ines (70- 79 BP); a nd one or two old er, non-drained
outer morain es (120 146BP). Based on th e reconstru cted
mass-balance hi story of K ozelsky glacier (Vinogradov
a nd Mura \'yev, 1992), the glacier must have undergone
consid era bl e mass accretion ( + 1060 mm w. e.) during
1955/56, a d a te which coincid es with the age o[ its newest
moraine ( 1956, from a li chen size of 8 mm). The second
(earlier) genera tion of moraines could be associa ted with
th e period of posi ti ve glacier mass balance in j 9 1 0- 20
( + 1680 mm w.e. a I). This ma s-bala nce peak probably
coincid es with th e 19 12 K a tmai eruption in Alaska, which
was foll owed by a lowering of th e a tmosphere transp arency
coe ffi cient by a factor of 1.4 over Petropa\'lovsk­
K a mcha tski y. A fa ll in tempera ture and glacier ad va nce
in the Northern H emisphere in tha t year may be
connec ted with tha t eruption. The glaciers of K a mchatka
appa rently ad vanced from 19 18 to 1920 as well , as
corrobora ted by th e reconstruction of mass ba lance by
Vi nogradov and ?vI u ra \'yev ( 1992). The thi I'd previous
genera ti on of moraines, form ed in the mid-19th century
(according to lichenometric d a ting), coin cid es with the
widely recognized Lt glacier advance.
CONCLUSIONS
I . Lichenometry can be used to d a te recent mora in es in
K a mcha tk a .
2. K a mcha tka glaciers repeatedl y ad vanced during the
LIA. The pea k was a t the end o[ the 17th century
(approximately 1690), but mora ines of this peri od
have not been preserved on ma n y K a mcha tka
volca noes. The first genera ti on of mora ines with
relia ble ages usua ll y formed in th e mid- 19th cen tury.
The yo unger, sma ll-scale ad vance of glaciers in
K amcha tka is da ted a t 1910- 20. Small -sized moraines
of th e mid-20th century a re preserved near mos t
presenr-day glaciers. All the identiued glacier advances
occurred a t or near the time of well-known
stages of high glacia l acti\'ity in other mountain
regions of the Northern H emisphere (GrO\'e, 1988).
3. V erti cal magnitudes of glacier retreat ( 100- 200m)
indicated by moraines deposited during th e peak
phase or the LIA a re similar to those in other
mountain regions with a maritime clima te (e.g. the
Alps a nd the Caucasus). Howe\'er, some glaciers in
K a mcha tk a have ad vanced since th en. oft en to the
limits of or e\'en beyond LIA mora ines.
4. Other importa nt features of glacia ti on in K a mchatka
incl ude termini of glaciers cO\'ered wi th morain es and
volca ni c ma teri a l, a nd " dead -ice" masses . These a re
the same age as certain mora in es from the 17th and
18th centuries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support [or this work was provided by the
Russia n Funda mental Science Foundation (projec t 93-
05-8356). We wish to express our apprecia tion to V. Vu.
Kirianov a nd O . S. Savoskul for their practical assistance
in our fi eld studies a nd to K. H enderso n, W . H aeberli and
a n anonymous reviewer [or their critical comments.
REFERENCES
Belousov. \ '. 1. , ed. 1985. Guide-book q/scieulijic excllrsions. Pelropavlo\'s k­
K a mchalski y.
Bra)'lsc\'a , O. A .. I. \ ' .~d cl c k cs l s c\ ·, I. S. Yen cyc\'a a nd Ye. G.
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