Table of Contents (169.0K) - McGraw-Hill
Table of Contents (169.0K) - McGraw-Hill
Table of Contents (169.0K) - McGraw-Hill
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<strong>Contents</strong><br />
Preface xvii<br />
A Personal Note to My Readers xxiii<br />
``````````````````````````````````````<br />
PART ONE Anthropology: The Biocultural Study<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Human Species 1<br />
Chapter 1 DOING ANTHROPOLOGY: Defining the Discipline 3<br />
In the Field 4<br />
The Hutterites 8<br />
Anthropology 12<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: What Responsibilities Does the Anthropologist Have<br />
When Studying Other Cultures? 16<br />
Plan <strong>of</strong> the Book 19<br />
Summary 20<br />
Questions for Further Thought 20<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 20<br />
Chapter 2 HOW ANTHROPOLOGY WORKS: Methods <strong>of</strong> Inquiry 21<br />
The Scientific Method 22<br />
The “Rules” <strong>of</strong> the Scientific Method 22<br />
Some Common Misconceptions about Science 23<br />
“Science Proves Ideas for All Time” 23<br />
“Once We Have a Theory about a Particular Topic, We Don’t Need to Do<br />
More Science” 24<br />
“Science Studies Only Visible, Tangible, Present-Day Things” 24<br />
Science Is Conducted in a Cultural Context 25<br />
vii
viii<br />
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
Belief Systems 27<br />
Anthropology as a Science 28<br />
Studying the Past 28<br />
Studying Culture 29<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are Science and Belief Inherently in Confl ict with<br />
One Another? 30<br />
Anthropological Methodology: Fieldwork 33<br />
Data Collection 33<br />
Material Observation 33<br />
Biological Observation 33<br />
Behavioral Observation 33<br />
Direct Communication 34<br />
Participant-Observation 34<br />
Some Other Considerations 34<br />
Summary 35<br />
Questions for Further Thought 35<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 35<br />
Chapter 3 THEMES OF ANTHROPOLOGY: Evolution 37<br />
The Evolution <strong>of</strong> Evolution 38<br />
Before Darwin 38<br />
The Biblical Context 38<br />
The Evidence for Change Accumulates 39<br />
Catastrophism Offers an Explanation for Change 39<br />
Uniformitarianism Answers Catastrophism 41<br />
Lamarck Explains Biological Change 41<br />
Charles Darwin 43<br />
Species 47<br />
To What Is the Organism Adapted? 48<br />
How Is the Organism Adapted to Its Environment? 48<br />
Modern Evolutionary Theory 49<br />
Evidence 50<br />
Processes 52<br />
Natural Selection 52<br />
The Other Processes <strong>of</strong> Evolution 54<br />
The Origin <strong>of</strong> New Species 57
<strong>Contents</strong> ix<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Is Evolution a Fact, a Theory,<br />
or Just a Hypothesis? 59<br />
Summary 60<br />
Questions for Further Thought 60<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 61<br />
Chapter 4 THEMES OF ANTHROPOLOGY: Culture 63<br />
The Concept <strong>of</strong> Culture 65<br />
The Characteristics <strong>of</strong> Cultural Behaviors 65<br />
Culture Is Learned 65<br />
Culture Involves Concepts, Generalizations, Abstractions,<br />
Assumptions, and Ideas 66<br />
Culture Involves Active Learning and Symbolic<br />
Transmission 66<br />
Culture Requires Artifacts 67<br />
Culture in Nonhuman Primates 67<br />
Chimpanzees Make Tools 68<br />
Monkeys Use Tools 69<br />
Apes Can Be Taught the Rudiments <strong>of</strong> Human Language 70<br />
Humans Are Cultural 71<br />
Brains and Culture: The Basic Biocultural Level 71<br />
A Model for the Study <strong>of</strong> Cultural Systems 73<br />
The Cultural “Filter” 74<br />
Worldview 74<br />
Some Examples 76<br />
The Role <strong>of</strong> Religion 76<br />
The Arctic 77<br />
Southwest Asia 78<br />
The American Worldview 80<br />
An Anthropological Analysis <strong>of</strong> the Necktie 80<br />
Material Culture and the Study <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Cultural Past 82<br />
Material Culture and Cultural Systems 83<br />
Archaeological Analysis 85<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Can Anthropologists Study Their<br />
Own Cultures? 88<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Who Owns Archaeological Sites<br />
and Their <strong>Contents</strong>? 90<br />
Summary 90<br />
Questions for Further Thought 92<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 92
x<br />
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
``````````````````````````````````````<br />
PART TWO The Identity and Nature <strong>of</strong> the Human Species 95<br />
Chapter 5 OUR PLACE IN NATURE: Humans as Primates 97<br />
Naming the Animals 99<br />
Linnaean Taxonomy 99<br />
A Primate Taxonomy 101<br />
Into the Trees 103<br />
The Primate Traits 104<br />
The Human Primate 112<br />
Summary 113<br />
Questions for Further Thought 114<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Should Nonhuman Primates Have Rights? 115<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 116<br />
Chapter 6 EVOLUTION: The Bipedal, Large-Brained Primate 117<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> the Trees 118<br />
Primate Evolution 118<br />
The Evolution <strong>of</strong> Bipedalism 121<br />
The Benefits <strong>of</strong> Bipedalism 122<br />
Two Problems 123<br />
The Early Hominids 123<br />
The Earliest Possible Hominids 123<br />
More Definite Hominids 124<br />
The First Members <strong>of</strong> Genus Homo 128<br />
The First Stone Tools 128<br />
Making Stone Tools 129<br />
The Lives <strong>of</strong> Early Homo 131<br />
Around the World 132<br />
The Homo erectus Stage 133<br />
Tools and Migrations 136<br />
The Ice Ages 137<br />
Behavioral Traits 138<br />
The Archaic Homo sapiens Stage 138<br />
The Neandertals 139<br />
The Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens Stage 143<br />
Tools 145<br />
Art 147<br />
Summary 151
<strong>Contents</strong> xi<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: How Many “Kinds” <strong>of</strong> Humans Have<br />
There Been? 152<br />
Questions for Further Thought 153<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 154<br />
Chapter 7 REPRODUCTION: The Sexual Primate 155<br />
Sex and Human Evolution 157<br />
Primate Sex 157<br />
Human Sex 158<br />
Loss <strong>of</strong> Estrus, and Sexual Consciousness 158<br />
Antecedents and Evolution <strong>of</strong> Human Sexuality 159<br />
The Importance <strong>of</strong> Development and Child Care 161<br />
Vive la Différence 161<br />
Sex and Gender 167<br />
The Definitions 167<br />
Gender as Folk Taxonomy 168<br />
Sex and Cultural Institutions 170<br />
Marriage 170<br />
The Incest Taboo 172<br />
Summary 175<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: What Causes Differences in<br />
Sexual Orientation? 176<br />
Questions for Further Thought 176<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 178<br />
Chapter 8<br />
HUMAN VARIATION: Biological Diversity<br />
and Race 179<br />
Why Are There No Biological Races within the<br />
Human Species? 182<br />
The Concept <strong>of</strong> Race within General Biology 182<br />
The Distribution <strong>of</strong> Human Biological Variation 184<br />
Skin Color 185<br />
Blood Type 187<br />
Human Genetics 189<br />
Evolutionary Theory and the Nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Human Species 191<br />
Mobility and Gene Flow 191<br />
Culture 192<br />
What, Then, Are Human Races? 192<br />
Anthropology and the Study <strong>of</strong> Race 195
xii<br />
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
Race, Racism, and Social Issues 196<br />
Cultural Level 196<br />
Race and Intelligence 199<br />
Summary 201<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are There Racial Differences in<br />
Athletic Ability? 202<br />
Questions for Further Thought 204<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 204<br />
``````````````````````````````````````<br />
PART THREE Adapting to Our Worlds 207<br />
Chapter 9<br />
FOOD: Getting It, Growing It, Eating It, and Passing<br />
It Around 209<br />
Food and Human Evolution 210<br />
Food in Prehistory 210<br />
Food in Historical Times 212<br />
Food-Collecting Societies 215<br />
The Characteristics <strong>of</strong> Food Collectors 215<br />
An Example Food-Collecting Society 218<br />
The Food-Producing Revolution 223<br />
The Transition to Food Production 223<br />
Evidence for the Food-Producing<br />
Revolution 225<br />
Animal Domestication 225<br />
Plant Domestication 229<br />
Food-Producing Societies 231<br />
Horticulture 231<br />
Pastoralism 234<br />
Agriculture 235<br />
Which Subsistence Pattern Works Best? 239<br />
Some Basic Economics 240<br />
Patterns <strong>of</strong> Exchange 241<br />
Reciprocity 241<br />
Market System 242<br />
Redistribution 242<br />
Social Stratification 244<br />
Summary 245<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Is There a World Population Crisis That Is Putting<br />
Pressure on Food and Other Resources? 246
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
xiii<br />
Questions for Further Thought 246<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 247<br />
Chapter 10<br />
THE NATURE OF THE GROUP: Arranging Our Families<br />
and Organizing Our People 249<br />
Primate Societies 251<br />
Marriage and Family 252<br />
From Family to Kinship 252<br />
Variations <strong>of</strong> Marriage 253<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> Spouses 253<br />
Frequency <strong>of</strong> Marriage Patterns 254<br />
Kinship 255<br />
Types <strong>of</strong> Families 256<br />
Bilateral Families 256<br />
Unilineal Families 257<br />
Frequency <strong>of</strong> Unilineal Societies 257<br />
Family Type and Cultural Systems 258<br />
Kinship Terminology 259<br />
The Eskimo System 259<br />
The Hawaiian System 260<br />
The Omaha System 261<br />
Organization above the Family Level 263<br />
Political Organization 263<br />
Bands 265<br />
Tribes 265<br />
Chiefdoms 265<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Why Don’t Bilateral Societies Have Equality<br />
between the Sexes? 266<br />
States 266<br />
Summary 267<br />
Questions for Further Thought 268<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 268<br />
Chapter 11 COMMUNICATION: Sharing What We Need to Know 269<br />
Language 271<br />
The Features <strong>of</strong> Language 272<br />
Language Acquisition 273<br />
Descriptive Linguistics 274<br />
Language and Evolution 276<br />
How Did Language Evolve? 276
xiv<br />
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
When Did Language Evolve? 277<br />
Brain Anatomy 278<br />
Vocal Apparatus 279<br />
Need 280<br />
Apes and Language 280<br />
Washoe: The Pioneer 280<br />
Why Can These Apes Learn Language? 283<br />
Language and Culture 284<br />
The World’s Languages 284<br />
Languages and Cultural Systems 287<br />
Cultural Meanings 287<br />
Language History 288<br />
Summary 289<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are Written Languages More Advanced<br />
than Unwritten Ones? 290<br />
Questions for Further Thought 290<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 291<br />
Chapter 12 MAINTENANCE OF ORDER: Making the Worldview Real 293<br />
Religion 295<br />
A Definition 295<br />
The Basis <strong>of</strong> Religious Belief 296<br />
Antecedents to Religion 297<br />
Variation in Religious Systems 299<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> Supernatural Beings 299<br />
Categories <strong>of</strong> the Supernatural 300<br />
Personalities <strong>of</strong> the Supernatural 301<br />
Intervention by the Supernatural 301<br />
Religious Specialists 301<br />
Contacting the Supernatural 303<br />
Religion and Culture 304<br />
The Origins <strong>of</strong> Christianity 304<br />
Some Examples 307<br />
The Hutterites 307<br />
The Holiness Churches 308<br />
Law 312<br />
Summary 314<br />
Questions For Further Thought 314<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: How Do We Deal with Faith-Based Acts <strong>of</strong> Terror<br />
in Contemporary Global Society? 315<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 316
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
xv<br />
Chapter 13 CULTURE CHANGE: Theories and Processes 317<br />
The Processes <strong>of</strong> Culture Change 318<br />
Discovery and Invention 318<br />
Discoveries May Be Abstract 319<br />
Discoveries Do Not Result in All Possible<br />
Applications 319<br />
Discoveries Must Coincide with Cultural Norms 319<br />
Discoveries May Change the Culture 320<br />
Diffusion 320<br />
Acculturation and Revolution 322<br />
Acculturation 322<br />
Revolution 324<br />
Understanding Cultural Evolution 325<br />
Classical or Unilinear Evolutionism 326<br />
Diffusionism 326<br />
Historical Particularism 327<br />
Summary 329<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Can Anthropology Be Both a Scientifi c and a Humanistic<br />
Discipline in Today’s World? 330<br />
Questions for Further Thought 330<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 332<br />
Chapter 14<br />
THE EVOLUTION OF OUR BEHAVIOR: Putting It<br />
All Together 333<br />
“Of Their Flesh Shall Ye Not Eat” 335<br />
The Kosher Laws 335<br />
Ideas Guide Behavior 337<br />
Behavior Guides Ideas 338<br />
A Synthesis? 341<br />
Peaceful Warriors and Cannibal Farmers 343<br />
The Dani 343<br />
The Fore 349<br />
Biology and Culture in Interaction 353<br />
The Question <strong>of</strong> Altruism 353<br />
Nature and Nurture 354<br />
Cultural Determinism Is Untenable 354<br />
Biological Determinism Is Untenable 354<br />
Kin Selection as an Example 355<br />
Biology and Human Behavior 356<br />
Altruism Revisited 357<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are Humans Naturally Violent? 358
xvi<br />
<strong>Contents</strong><br />
Summary 360<br />
Questions for Further Thought 360<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 361<br />
Chapter 15<br />
ANTHROPOLOGY IN TODAY’S WORLD: Problems<br />
and Contributions 363<br />
Change in the Modern World 364<br />
The Hutterites 364<br />
The Dani 366<br />
The San 367<br />
Applying Anthropology 369<br />
The Human Species Today 371<br />
The Human Species in the Future 373<br />
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: What Kinds <strong>of</strong> Careers Are There<br />
in Anthropology? 376<br />
Questions for Further Thought 377<br />
Notes, References, and Readings 377<br />
Glossary G-1<br />
Bibliography B-1<br />
Credits C-1<br />
Index I-1