Table of Contents (169.0K) - McGraw-Hill

Contents
Preface xvii
A Personal Note to My Readers xxiii
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PART ONE Anthropology: The Biocultural Study
of the Human Species 1
Chapter 1 DOING ANTHROPOLOGY: Defining the Discipline 3
In the Field 4
The Hutterites 8
Anthropology 12
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: What Responsibilities Does the Anthropologist Have
When Studying Other Cultures? 16
Plan of the Book 19
Summary 20
Questions for Further Thought 20
Notes, References, and Readings 20
Chapter 2 HOW ANTHROPOLOGY WORKS: Methods of Inquiry 21
The Scientific Method 22
The “Rules” of the Scientific Method 22
Some Common Misconceptions about Science 23
“Science Proves Ideas for All Time” 23
“Once We Have a Theory about a Particular Topic, We Don’t Need to Do
More Science” 24
“Science Studies Only Visible, Tangible, Present-Day Things” 24
Science Is Conducted in a Cultural Context 25
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Contents
Belief Systems 27
Anthropology as a Science 28
Studying the Past 28
Studying Culture 29
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are Science and Belief Inherently in Confl ict with
One Another? 30
Anthropological Methodology: Fieldwork 33
Data Collection 33
Material Observation 33
Biological Observation 33
Behavioral Observation 33
Direct Communication 34
Participant-Observation 34
Some Other Considerations 34
Summary 35
Questions for Further Thought 35
Notes, References, and Readings 35
Chapter 3 THEMES OF ANTHROPOLOGY: Evolution 37
The Evolution of Evolution 38
Before Darwin 38
The Biblical Context 38
The Evidence for Change Accumulates 39
Catastrophism Offers an Explanation for Change 39
Uniformitarianism Answers Catastrophism 41
Lamarck Explains Biological Change 41
Charles Darwin 43
Species 47
To What Is the Organism Adapted? 48
How Is the Organism Adapted to Its Environment? 48
Modern Evolutionary Theory 49
Evidence 50
Processes 52
Natural Selection 52
The Other Processes of Evolution 54
The Origin of New Species 57

Contents ix
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Is Evolution a Fact, a Theory,
or Just a Hypothesis? 59
Summary 60
Questions for Further Thought 60
Notes, References, and Readings 61
Chapter 4 THEMES OF ANTHROPOLOGY: Culture 63
The Concept of Culture 65
The Characteristics of Cultural Behaviors 65
Culture Is Learned 65
Culture Involves Concepts, Generalizations, Abstractions,
Assumptions, and Ideas 66
Culture Involves Active Learning and Symbolic
Transmission 66
Culture Requires Artifacts 67
Culture in Nonhuman Primates 67
Chimpanzees Make Tools 68
Monkeys Use Tools 69
Apes Can Be Taught the Rudiments of Human Language 70
Humans Are Cultural 71
Brains and Culture: The Basic Biocultural Level 71
A Model for the Study of Cultural Systems 73
The Cultural “Filter” 74
Worldview 74
Some Examples 76
The Role of Religion 76
The Arctic 77
Southwest Asia 78
The American Worldview 80
An Anthropological Analysis of the Necktie 80
Material Culture and the Study of the
Cultural Past 82
Material Culture and Cultural Systems 83
Archaeological Analysis 85
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Can Anthropologists Study Their
Own Cultures? 88
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Who Owns Archaeological Sites
and Their Contents? 90
Summary 90
Questions for Further Thought 92
Notes, References, and Readings 92

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PART TWO The Identity and Nature of the Human Species 95
Chapter 5 OUR PLACE IN NATURE: Humans as Primates 97
Naming the Animals 99
Linnaean Taxonomy 99
A Primate Taxonomy 101
Into the Trees 103
The Primate Traits 104
The Human Primate 112
Summary 113
Questions for Further Thought 114
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Should Nonhuman Primates Have Rights? 115
Notes, References, and Readings 116
Chapter 6 EVOLUTION: The Bipedal, Large-Brained Primate 117
Out of the Trees 118
Primate Evolution 118
The Evolution of Bipedalism 121
The Benefits of Bipedalism 122
Two Problems 123
The Early Hominids 123
The Earliest Possible Hominids 123
More Definite Hominids 124
The First Members of Genus Homo 128
The First Stone Tools 128
Making Stone Tools 129
The Lives of Early Homo 131
Around the World 132
The Homo erectus Stage 133
Tools and Migrations 136
The Ice Ages 137
Behavioral Traits 138
The Archaic Homo sapiens Stage 138
The Neandertals 139
The Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens Stage 143
Tools 145
Art 147
Summary 151

Contents xi
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: How Many “Kinds” of Humans Have
There Been? 152
Questions for Further Thought 153
Notes, References, and Readings 154
Chapter 7 REPRODUCTION: The Sexual Primate 155
Sex and Human Evolution 157
Primate Sex 157
Human Sex 158
Loss of Estrus, and Sexual Consciousness 158
Antecedents and Evolution of Human Sexuality 159
The Importance of Development and Child Care 161
Vive la Différence 161
Sex and Gender 167
The Definitions 167
Gender as Folk Taxonomy 168
Sex and Cultural Institutions 170
Marriage 170
The Incest Taboo 172
Summary 175
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: What Causes Differences in
Sexual Orientation? 176
Questions for Further Thought 176
Notes, References, and Readings 178
Chapter 8
HUMAN VARIATION: Biological Diversity
and Race 179
Why Are There No Biological Races within the
Human Species? 182
The Concept of Race within General Biology 182
The Distribution of Human Biological Variation 184
Skin Color 185
Blood Type 187
Human Genetics 189
Evolutionary Theory and the Nature of the
Human Species 191
Mobility and Gene Flow 191
Culture 192
What, Then, Are Human Races? 192
Anthropology and the Study of Race 195

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Race, Racism, and Social Issues 196
Cultural Level 196
Race and Intelligence 199
Summary 201
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are There Racial Differences in
Athletic Ability? 202
Questions for Further Thought 204
Notes, References, and Readings 204
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PART THREE Adapting to Our Worlds 207
Chapter 9
FOOD: Getting It, Growing It, Eating It, and Passing
It Around 209
Food and Human Evolution 210
Food in Prehistory 210
Food in Historical Times 212
Food-Collecting Societies 215
The Characteristics of Food Collectors 215
An Example Food-Collecting Society 218
The Food-Producing Revolution 223
The Transition to Food Production 223
Evidence for the Food-Producing
Revolution 225
Animal Domestication 225
Plant Domestication 229
Food-Producing Societies 231
Horticulture 231
Pastoralism 234
Agriculture 235
Which Subsistence Pattern Works Best? 239
Some Basic Economics 240
Patterns of Exchange 241
Reciprocity 241
Market System 242
Redistribution 242
Social Stratification 244
Summary 245
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Is There a World Population Crisis That Is Putting
Pressure on Food and Other Resources? 246

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xiii
Questions for Further Thought 246
Notes, References, and Readings 247
Chapter 10
THE NATURE OF THE GROUP: Arranging Our Families
and Organizing Our People 249
Primate Societies 251
Marriage and Family 252
From Family to Kinship 252
Variations of Marriage 253
Number of Spouses 253
Frequency of Marriage Patterns 254
Kinship 255
Types of Families 256
Bilateral Families 256
Unilineal Families 257
Frequency of Unilineal Societies 257
Family Type and Cultural Systems 258
Kinship Terminology 259
The Eskimo System 259
The Hawaiian System 260
The Omaha System 261
Organization above the Family Level 263
Political Organization 263
Bands 265
Tribes 265
Chiefdoms 265
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Why Don’t Bilateral Societies Have Equality
between the Sexes? 266
States 266
Summary 267
Questions for Further Thought 268
Notes, References, and Readings 268
Chapter 11 COMMUNICATION: Sharing What We Need to Know 269
Language 271
The Features of Language 272
Language Acquisition 273
Descriptive Linguistics 274
Language and Evolution 276
How Did Language Evolve? 276

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When Did Language Evolve? 277
Brain Anatomy 278
Vocal Apparatus 279
Need 280
Apes and Language 280
Washoe: The Pioneer 280
Why Can These Apes Learn Language? 283
Language and Culture 284
The World’s Languages 284
Languages and Cultural Systems 287
Cultural Meanings 287
Language History 288
Summary 289
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are Written Languages More Advanced
than Unwritten Ones? 290
Questions for Further Thought 290
Notes, References, and Readings 291
Chapter 12 MAINTENANCE OF ORDER: Making the Worldview Real 293
Religion 295
A Definition 295
The Basis of Religious Belief 296
Antecedents to Religion 297
Variation in Religious Systems 299
Number of Supernatural Beings 299
Categories of the Supernatural 300
Personalities of the Supernatural 301
Intervention by the Supernatural 301
Religious Specialists 301
Contacting the Supernatural 303
Religion and Culture 304
The Origins of Christianity 304
Some Examples 307
The Hutterites 307
The Holiness Churches 308
Law 312
Summary 314
Questions For Further Thought 314
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: How Do We Deal with Faith-Based Acts of Terror
in Contemporary Global Society? 315
Notes, References, and Readings 316

Contents
xv
Chapter 13 CULTURE CHANGE: Theories and Processes 317
The Processes of Culture Change 318
Discovery and Invention 318
Discoveries May Be Abstract 319
Discoveries Do Not Result in All Possible
Applications 319
Discoveries Must Coincide with Cultural Norms 319
Discoveries May Change the Culture 320
Diffusion 320
Acculturation and Revolution 322
Acculturation 322
Revolution 324
Understanding Cultural Evolution 325
Classical or Unilinear Evolutionism 326
Diffusionism 326
Historical Particularism 327
Summary 329
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Can Anthropology Be Both a Scientifi c and a Humanistic
Discipline in Today’s World? 330
Questions for Further Thought 330
Notes, References, and Readings 332
Chapter 14
THE EVOLUTION OF OUR BEHAVIOR: Putting It
All Together 333
“Of Their Flesh Shall Ye Not Eat” 335
The Kosher Laws 335
Ideas Guide Behavior 337
Behavior Guides Ideas 338
A Synthesis? 341
Peaceful Warriors and Cannibal Farmers 343
The Dani 343
The Fore 349
Biology and Culture in Interaction 353
The Question of Altruism 353
Nature and Nurture 354
Cultural Determinism Is Untenable 354
Biological Determinism Is Untenable 354
Kin Selection as an Example 355
Biology and Human Behavior 356
Altruism Revisited 357
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: Are Humans Naturally Violent? 358

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Contents
Summary 360
Questions for Further Thought 360
Notes, References, and Readings 361
Chapter 15
ANTHROPOLOGY IN TODAY’S WORLD: Problems
and Contributions 363
Change in the Modern World 364
The Hutterites 364
The Dani 366
The San 367
Applying Anthropology 369
The Human Species Today 371
The Human Species in the Future 373
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: What Kinds of Careers Are There
in Anthropology? 376
Questions for Further Thought 377
Notes, References, and Readings 377
Glossary G-1
Bibliography B-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1