Baber Johansen

47
by all rules of the pilgrimage including the legal consequences of their nonperformance
or of their violations), see also pp. 147, 149, 152, 173-74.
41
The MÁlikÐs, ÍanbalÐs and ShÁfiÝÐs hold that the zakÁt has to be paid out of the
property of the minor. As the minor himself cannot perform a task that brings him
financial disadvantages and as he does not understand the legal discourse that
obliges him to do that, his legal guardian has to take care of the alms-tax payment .
See KhurashÐ, op.cit., vol. II, pp. 222-223;
ShirbÐnÐ, op. cit., vol. I, pp. 409, 414 ; Ibn QudÁma, op. cit., vol. II, p.493-94 (this
author also quotes a dissenting minority opinion). The ÍanafÐs (see SarakhsÐ,
MabsÙÔ, vol. II, pp. 162-163) hold that the zakÁt, being an act of worship,
presupposes the capacity of the tax-payer to form a valid intent (niyya). As the
minors are not able to accept legal and ritual obligations, they cannot be obliged to
pay the alms-tax.
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
KÁsÁnÐ, BadÁÞiÝ , vol. II, pp. 88-89; see also Baber Johansen, "L’ordre divin, le temps
et la prière : une discussion sur la causalité concernant les actes de culte," Melanges
de l’Université Saint-Joseph, LXI-2008 (Université Saint-Joseph – Dar El-Machrek,
Beyrouth-Liban), pp. 545-557.
SarakhsÐ, MabsÙÔ, vol. I, pp. 72-73, 117; KÁsÁnÐ, BadÁÞiÝ, vol. I, pp. 17-18; Ibn
ÝÀbidÐn, Radd al-MuÎtÁr Ýala al-durr al-mukhtÁr (Cairo : n.p., 1307h.), vol. I, pp.
78-79.
A. J. Wensinck, The Muslim Creed. Its genesis and Historical Development
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931-32), pp. 17-35.
Klaus Lech, Geschichte des islamischen Kultus: rechtshistorische und haditkritische
Untersuchungen zur Entwicklung und Systematik der ‘ibÁdÁt (Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz, 1979).
Zeev Maghen sums up his many path-breaking articles from the 1990s in his book
Virtues of the Flesh. Passion and Purity in Early Islamic Jurisprudence (Leiden:
Brill, 2005).
Marion Holmes Katz, Body of Text. The Emergence of the Sunni Law of Ritual
Purity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002).
H.-G. Bousquet, s.v. "ÝibÁdÁt," in Encyclopedia of Islam New Edition (Leiden and
London: Brill and Luzac, 1971), vol. III, pp. 647-48.
John Deigh, s.v. "Ethics," in Robert Audi (ed.), The Cambridge Dictionary of
Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 244-249; for divine
command theory, see p. 246. Compare the summary of Christian natural law given
by Brian Tierney, "Natural law and natural rights," in John Witte Jr. and Frank S.
Alexander (eds.), Christianity and Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2008), p. 90: "Christians believed that the universe was created ex nihilo by an
omnipotent God whose will was revealed to man in the teachings of sacred
scripture." See ibid., p. 96 the reference to the voluntarist theologians of the
fourteenth century who confronted God’s will and power to reason; and p. 101 on
Samuel Pufendorf’s "Voluntarist theory of a natural law grounded on divine
command."