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superstructure (ibid. 117). A few ambiguous fragments of possible clay superstructures have been noted by Comber (ibid.) at Garryduff, Letterkeen and Rathgurreen. A growing number of smelting furnace sites also contained tuyères for example at Carrigoran and Dunlo and this may suggest they were used in primary smelting or that bloom smithing occurred alongside (Young 2010, 3). Site No. F. Iron waste Smelting furnace Context Other activity Site date Ref. Johnstown 11 558 2000kg 0.6 x 0.63 x 0.11 Cemetery settlement Bloomsmithing/ blacksmithing C5th- C17th Photos -Jones 2008a Killickaweeney 6 561 86kg 0.4m x 0.19m Univallate enclosure Bloomsmithing/ blacksmithing C7th- C10th Photos -Jones 2008b Derrinsallagh 3 4 819 60kg 0.45 x 0.40 x 0.22m Univallate enclosure Bloom refining C7th- C10th Young 2008a Gortnahown 2 3 548 158kg 0.48m x 0.46 x 0.26 Univallate enclosure - Smithing, bell manufacture C5th- C7th Young 2009b Carrigoran 2 767 30.4kg 0.5m x 0.11 stone enclosures Blacksmithing C9th- C11th Young 2006c Dunlo 2 5 12.3kg 0.56 x 0.53 Lisanisk 2 537 827.8kg 0.94 x 0.79 x 0.39m Isolated Bloomsmithing C10th- C11th Bivallate enclosure Bloomsmithing C7th- C10th Young 2010 Photos -Jones 2010 Table 2.1: Recently excavated sites with smelting furnaces, number of furnaces, example of furnace dimensions and context. There is also significant evidence of smelting from analysis of metallurgical debris on sites which do not have excavated furnaces. A good example of an isolated smelting site including a very large dump of slag was found at Cloonafinneala, County Kerry (up to 520kg of metallurgical remains of which approximately 5% was sampled). It had no evidence for bloom refining and appears to be related to primary smelting which appears to be fifth/sixth century A.D. in date (Young 2012, 4). This site was close to woodland and sources of ore and included a charcoal production pit. At a range of other sites which did not have excavated furnaces the smelting slag was a small component of the overall metallurgical remains which otherwise related to smithing for example at the univallate settlement at Sallymount (Clark & Long 2009). Frequently sites without excavated furnaces or specialist metallurgical reports indicate the presence of furnace bottoms for example the cemetery and settlement at Knoxpark which records eight (Mount 2010, 208). Without indications of size and further analysis it is difficult to say if these resulted from smelting. Carlin (2008, 93, 107) has suggested that there may have been a progressive shift from slagpit furnaces (low-shaft furnaces) to slag-tapping furnaces in places where smelting was reliant on solid rock ores. Slag-tapping furnaces were much more efficient as they allowed the slag to flow outside the structure and were the dominant form in Roman Britain and for much of the early medieval period in both Britain and Europe. However, they never appear to have been built in early medieval Ireland where bog ore was the dominant source of iron and this might suggest a link between the smelting of bog ores and the non-slag tapping furnace types (ibid. 93). The earliest definitive Irish evidence for tapping slag furnaces seemed to be a number of sites dating to between the eleventh and thirteenth century (Dowd and Fairburn 2005, 115-21). Photos-Jones (2008a, 233) has noted that despite the intensity of iron-ore processing (2,000kg of early bloomer slag) at Johnstown 1, there was no attempt to progress from bowl furnace to tapped shaft-furnace technology. Indeed, up until 2006 there was no published unequivocal evidence for the use of shaft furnaces in early medieval Ireland (Photos-Jones 2011, cxxi). Some recent excavations do suggest more complex structures 30
existed although the exact furnace technology used appears to be unclear. The excavators at Knockbrack, County Kerry conclude that a tapping slag furnace was present at an early date. This structure had a stone base and a clay lining and while Late Iron Age dates were obtained from oak within a second sample of hazel was dated to A.D. 570-670. This would allow for removal of furnace waste without dismantling. Young concludes that this structure must at least have had a furnace arch for the clearance of waste and bloom (Young 2009a, 234). At Woodstown 6, the Viking settlement in County Waterford, the remains of a shaft furnace over a broader hollow was uncovered with what was possibly a frontal furnace arch (Young 2006b, 1). It was within a ditch and possibly contained within a stake-built area and made from burnt clay 0.55m in diameter. It may have subsequently been used as a smithing hearth. At Milltown, County Kilkenny a complex and large scorched feature associated with smelting was found within a circular structure dated to the seventh to ninth century. This feature was interpreted as either a truncated furnace which was rebuilt several times in the same place or a furnace built on the ground surface through which hot material was removed through a frontal arch (Young 2009e, 4). 2.4: Secondary working of Iron - Bloom Processing Once the smelting was completed, the iron ‘bloom’ produced in the furnace was refined in a bloom-smithing (primary-smithing) process which involved reheating it in a hearth and hammering it in a molten state on an anvil to remove excess slag and other impurities and to consolidate the iron prior to shaping. This was an important necessary step as the furnace did not achieve high enough temperatures to completely remove the slag and other impurities. A block of wrought iron referred to as the stock or billet was produced in this process. Site No. F Iron waste Smithing Hearth Context Other activity Site Date Ref Lowpark 11 C580 1360.00kg 0.9 x 0.55; 0.8 x 0.62 x 0.14 Lowpark 11 C320 1360.00kg 1.1 x 0.63 x 0.15 m Borris 6 C879 142.74kg 0.4 x 0.38 x 0.12 m Borris 6 C882 142.74kg 1.32 x 0.4 x 0.2 m Johnstown 5 C695 2000.00kg 1.2 x 2.2 x 0.33 m K’weeny 5 C426 86.0kg 1.17 x 0.56 x 0.39 m Castlefarm 3 C943 75.6kg 0.99 x 0.96 x 0.13 m L’bown 1 3 C89 130.00kg 0.6 x 0.39 x 0.2 m Gortnahown 2 C545 158.0kg 1.40 x 0.60 x 0.30 m Sallymount 2 C435 265.0kg 0.57 x 0.43 x 0.15 m Univallate enclosure Univallate enclosure univallate enclosures univallate enclosures Cemetery settlement Univallate enclosure Cemetery settlement Univallate enclosure Univallate enclosure Univallate enclosure Smithing 560- 640 Smithing 650- 770 Smithing 673- 856 Smithing 717- 887 Smelting Smelting C11th/ C12th C9th- 10th Smithing 565– 666 Smithing 1047 – 1257 Smelting Smithing C5th- C6th C7th- C8th Wallace & Anguilano 2010c Wallace & Anguilano 2010c Wallace & Anguilano 2010a Wallace & Anguilano 2010a Photo- Jones 2008a Photo- Jones 2008b O' Connell & Clark 2009 Kearns in Bower 2009 Young 2009b Clark & Long 2009 Table 2.2: Examples of sites with smithing hearths, number of smithing hearths, specific example and dimensions and its context. 2 sigma radiocarbon dates are noted for the feature or associated contexts if available. 31
Page 2 and 3: The Early Medieval Archaeology Proj
Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents Section 1: An Ove
Page 6 and 7: value to excavation reports far bey
Page 8 and 9: Fig. 1.2: Percentages of site types
Page 10 and 11: Map 1.1: Map of site that produced
Page 12 and 13: Map 1.3a: Map of site that produced
Page 24 and 25: Map 1.11: Geological evidence for s
Page 26 and 27: data from over 300 sites, and has p
Page 28 and 29: 2.2: Iron artefacts on Irish early
Page 30 and 31: 2012 gazetteer as well as at Randal
Page 32 and 33: also been found within or close to
Page 36 and 37: 2.4.1: Smithing Secondary smithing
Page 38 and 39: working furnace at Rathgurreen and
Page 40 and 41: smithing and bloom smithing (827 kg
Page 42 and 43: number of hearths as indicative of
Page 44 and 45: univallate enclosures at Lisleagh 1
Page 46 and 47: Chapter 3: Early Medieval Non-Ferro
Page 48 and 49: Map 3.1: Map showing distribution o
Page 50 and 51: little Irish work has been undertak
Page 52 and 53: 3.2.4: Motif-pieces Stone, antler,
Page 54 and 55: supported by the evidence on most l
Page 56 and 57: needle (ibid. 144-49). However, McE
Page 58 and 59: ferrous metal-working relative to s
Page 60 and 61: glass-working which might suggest t
Page 62 and 63: 93). One decorated millefiori rod a
Page 64 and 65: Map 5.1: Map of Ireland showing evi
Page 66 and 67: handles, some smoothed and undecora
Page 68 and 69: comb of Scottish origin at Castlefa
Page 70 and 71: Chapter 6: Early medieval stone-wor
Page 72 and 73: Grindstones are circular stones wit
Page 74 and 75: North and appear to have been disca
Page 76 and 77: APPENDIX 1 Site Site type Metalwork
Page 78 and 79: Site Site type Metalworking Residue
Page 84 and 85:
Site Site type Metal-working Artefa
Page 86 and 87:
Site Site type Metal-working featur
Page 88 and 89:
Site Site type Evidence Reference A
Page 90 and 91:
Site name Evidence Reference Athlum
Page 92 and 93:
Armagh: Cathedral Hill, Co. Armagh
Page 94 and 95:
Site name Evidence Reference Ballin
Page 96 and 97:
Site name Evidence Reference Aghade
Page 98 and 99:
Site name Evidence Reference Legget
Page 100 and 101:
Co. Antrim Ballyhenry II, Co. Antri
Page 102 and 103:
Co. Louth Donegore, Co. Antrim Doon
Page 104 and 105:
Co. Monaghan Lisleitrim, Co. Armagh
Page 106 and 107:
Townland/Site Name Site Type Commen
Page 108 and 109:
young lords of territories; six in
Page 110 and 111:
The only ornaments which appear in
Page 112 and 113:
perhaps adopted only by a minority
Page 114 and 115:
Clogher, Co. Tyrone Multivallate pl
Page 116 and 117:
Fig 3.2: brooches by site types (40
Page 118 and 119:
Cloghermore, Dalkey Island, Dooey,
Page 120 and 121:
Of the 216 sites with personal orna
Page 122 and 123:
Glass is the most common material f
Page 124 and 125:
Chapter 8: Manufacturing on Rural S
Page 126 and 127:
weft-beaters or other weaving-relat
Page 128 and 129:
the preparatory stage occurred in t
Page 130 and 131:
Carraig Aille II 33 18 stone, 15 bo
Page 132 and 133:
possible Roestown, Co Meath Non-cir
Page 134 and 135:
Fig. 8.3: Location of sites with ev
Page 136 and 137:
matting. Rush seeds were found in t
Page 138 and 139:
(Lennon 1994, 59), Rathgurreen (Com
Page 140 and 141:
Cherrywood Other Pin slag Collierst
Page 142 and 143:
Significant evidence for metal-work
Page 144 and 145:
Kilkenny 1 1 Longford 1 1 Ulster 13
Page 146 and 147:
Dooey Other Pins bone working evide
Page 148 and 149:
APPENDIX 2 Site Site type Preparati
Page 150 and 151:
Marshes Upper Non-circular Y Y Y Mi
Page 152 and 153:
Bayley, D. 2003:1286. Newtownbalreg
Page 154 and 155:
Brady, N. & Gibson, P. 2005. The Ea
Page 156 and 157:
Chart, D.A. 1940. A Preliminary Sur
Page 158 and 159:
- 1994. Atlantic fortifications: Th
Page 160 and 161:
Delaney, S. 2003:1272. Carn More, F
Page 162 and 163:
Doyle, T. 2008. Hair of the dog. Se
Page 164 and 165:
- 2006b. Archaeological discoveries
Page 166 and 167:
social transformation c. A.D. 500-1
Page 168 and 169:
Papers from the Proceedings of the
Page 170 and 171:
- 2010. Viking elements in Irish to
Page 172 and 173:
- 1999. The Vikings in the Kingdom
Page 174 and 175:
Lennon, A. M. & Henry, M. 2000. Pre
Page 176 and 177:
McCarthy, A. 1986:29. Ballybunion,
Page 178 and 179:
Since the Roman Period. London & Sy
Page 180 and 181:
- 1988. Excavations at Lisleagh Rin
Page 182 and 183:
NAC leaflet. 2011. Steeple Road, An
Page 184 and 185:
Meath. Unpublished report prepared
Page 186 and 187:
- 1951-2a. St. Gobnet’s House, Ba
Page 188 and 189:
- 2005b. Medieval fish traps on the
Page 190 and 191:
- 1953. Preliminary report on Excav
Page 192 and 193:
- 1958. Two souterrains at Bawntaaf
Page 194 and 195:
- 2007. Clonfad 3: A unique glimpse
Page 196 and 197:
Historical Journal, 3, 165-86. Wadd
Page 198 and 199:
- 1971. A Marshland Habitation Site
Page 200 and 201:
Zajac, S. 2002:1382. Carrowkeel, Co
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