African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights Specialized agencieS
African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights Specialized agencieS
African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights Specialized agencieS
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong>5<br />
History of the Committee 5<br />
Topic Area A: Gender Equality 6<br />
Statement of the Problem 6<br />
History atd Discussi<strong>on</strong> of the Problem 7<br />
Current Situati<strong>on</strong> 10<br />
Relevant Acti<strong>on</strong>s 13<br />
Proposed Soluti<strong>on</strong>s 14<br />
Topic Area B: Educati<strong>on</strong> in Armed Combat Z<strong>on</strong>es 16<br />
Statement of the Problem 16<br />
History <strong>and</strong> Discussi<strong>on</strong> of the Problem 18<br />
Current Situati<strong>on</strong> 20<br />
Proposed Soluti<strong>on</strong>s 22<br />
Suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for Further Research 23<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>23<br />
Bibliography27<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
1
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012<br />
A Letter from the Secretary-General<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Stephanie N. Oviedo<br />
Director-General<br />
Ana Choi<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
Ainsley Faux<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ra M. Harsacky<br />
Comptroller<br />
Sofia Hou<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Innovati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Technology<br />
Juliana Cherst<strong>on</strong><br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
S. Ethan Lyle<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> Social Council<br />
Charlene S. W<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
I could not be more h<strong>on</strong>ored to welcome you to the fifty-ninth sessi<strong>on</strong> of Harvard Model<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s. Our entire staff of 205 Harvard undergraduates is eager to join with you<br />
this January at the Sherat<strong>on</strong> Bost<strong>on</strong> for an exciting weekend of debate, diplomacy, <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural exchange. You <strong>and</strong> your 3,000 fellow delegates join a l<strong>on</strong>g legacy of individuals<br />
passi<strong>on</strong>ate about internati<strong>on</strong>al affairs <strong>and</strong> about the pressing issues c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ting our World.<br />
Founded in 1927 as Harvard Model League of Nati<strong>on</strong>s, our organizati<strong>on</strong> has evolved<br />
into <strong>on</strong>e of America’s oldest, largest, <strong>and</strong> most internati<strong>on</strong>al United Nati<strong>on</strong>s simulati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Drawing from this rich history, Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s has strived to emphasize<br />
<strong>and</strong> promote the unique impact of the UN <strong>and</strong> its m<strong>and</strong>ates in the eradicati<strong>on</strong> of humanity’s<br />
greatest problems. Despite its difficulties <strong>and</strong> often-unfortunate image in the press, the<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s is truly a global body with representati<strong>on</strong> of 193-member states <strong>and</strong> is the<br />
closest the World has ever achieved to a “Parliament of Man.”<br />
At HMUN, we strive to recreate this body <strong>and</strong> the internati<strong>on</strong>al envir<strong>on</strong>ment it fosters<br />
through our emphasis <strong>on</strong> welcoming more <strong>and</strong> more internati<strong>on</strong>al delegati<strong>on</strong>s to our<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ference each year. For the fifty-ninth sessi<strong>on</strong>, HMUN is proud to welcome delegati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from over 35 countries to share their experiences with others from across the World. Not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly can you debate global issues in committee, but also discuss the China-US relati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
a delegate hailing from Shanghai or EU ec<strong>on</strong>omic policy with a delegate from Germany. I<br />
encourage you to go above <strong>and</strong> bey<strong>on</strong>d research <strong>and</strong> discussi<strong>on</strong>s within your committee to<br />
learn from your fellow delegates.<br />
In this guide, you are about to embark <strong>on</strong> a valuable intellectual endeavor. Your committee<br />
director has worked tirelessly to research <strong>and</strong> compile this extensive background guide.<br />
Please use it as a foundati<strong>on</strong> in your own research for committee <strong>and</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>tribute to<br />
your debates <strong>and</strong> final resoluti<strong>on</strong>s. I wish you the best of luck in your preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> in<br />
committee this January.<br />
Sincerely,<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 588-0285<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012<br />
secgen@harvardmun.org<br />
22 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Stephanie N. Oviedo<br />
Director-General<br />
Ana Choi<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
Ainsley Faux<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ra M. Harsacky<br />
Comptroller<br />
Sofia Hou<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Innovati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Technology<br />
Juliana Cherst<strong>on</strong><br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
S. Ethan Lyle<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> Social Council<br />
Charlene S. W<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
Welcome to the <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies! It is my deepest pleasure to welcome you to this elite<br />
organ. The SA is uniquely structured to maximize delegate experience. The average SA<br />
committee size is 16 delegates; as such, there are abundant opportunities for every attendee<br />
to participate. With the largest staff of any organ, <strong>and</strong> yet the fewest number of delegates,<br />
extraordinary attenti<strong>on</strong> from the dais is guaranteed. By the numbers, you should expect the<br />
highest quality, most innovative, <strong>and</strong> most exciting committees that Harvard Model United<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>s can offer.<br />
But numbers aren’t everything, <strong>and</strong> the SA is far more than a collecti<strong>on</strong> of statistics. The<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong> to staff the SA is intense; as a result, your committee’s directors <strong>and</strong> junior staff<br />
are at the top of their game. Since April 2011, your dais has spent untold hours preparing<br />
every facet of committee so that your simulati<strong>on</strong> is as realistic as possible. Having already<br />
seen their epic <strong>and</strong> incredible background guides, I can tell you that each of them has<br />
poured his or her soul into making your committee experience unmatched anywhere.<br />
Needless to say, HMUN would not be complete without you, the delegates. The HMUN<br />
SA has l<strong>on</strong>g been the ultimate test of mettle <strong>on</strong> the high school circuit, <strong>and</strong> the mere chance<br />
to compete <strong>on</strong> your committees is the dream of many a delegate. Success <strong>on</strong> the SA will<br />
not come easily; equal measures of preparati<strong>on</strong>, enthusiasm, <strong>and</strong> creativity will be critical.<br />
Victory will not come without sacrifice. Of course, I have no doubt that each of you will<br />
rise to the challenge.<br />
As a Model UN delegate in high school, I have been in your positi<strong>on</strong> as an SA delegate<br />
many times. Never before have I seen such a slate of original committees, with endless<br />
potential for creativity. I hope you are as excited as I am to change the world forever – or at<br />
least for four days. Best wishes, <strong>and</strong> I look forward to meeting you this January!<br />
Sincerely,<br />
Charlene S. W<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Under-Secretary-General for the <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012<br />
sa@harvardmun.org<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 588-0285<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
3
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Stephanie N. Oviedo<br />
Director-General<br />
Ana Choi<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
Ainsley Faux<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ra M. Harsacky<br />
Comptroller<br />
Sofia Hou<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Innovati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Technology<br />
Juliana Cherst<strong>on</strong><br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
S. Ethan Lyle<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> Social Council<br />
Charlene S. W<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
Welcome to Harvard Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012! It is my pleasure to be chairing the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>. I hope you find this committee to be an<br />
intellectually <strong>and</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>ally rewarding experience in which you will get to know the issues<br />
<strong>and</strong> the fourteen other justices well.<br />
Before I tell you about this committee in particular, I would like to introduce myself. I’m a<br />
sophomore at Harvard living in Eliot House <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>centrating in Social Studies, possibly<br />
as a joint c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> with the Studies of Women, Gender, <strong>and</strong> Sexuality. I am serving as<br />
the director of this committee <strong>and</strong> the assistant director of another committee for Harvard<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Model United Nati<strong>on</strong>s 2012, our college c<strong>on</strong>ference. I also travel as a delegate<br />
<strong>on</strong> Harvard’s team. Outside of Model UN, I am very involved with social justice issues<br />
<strong>and</strong> direct service work. I spend much of my week directing a tutoring program for recent<br />
immigrants in Bost<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> mentoring for a gender empowerment program.<br />
This <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <strong>and</strong> the topics it addresses, deals with some of the biggest social problems<br />
facing Africa today. Governments have the obligati<strong>on</strong> to protect rights <strong>and</strong> to st<strong>and</strong> by<br />
covenants they have signed that promise protecti<strong>on</strong> to vulnerable members of society. Those<br />
promises are currently not being kept, leading to social discord throughout the c<strong>on</strong>tinent<br />
<strong>and</strong> specifically in Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, the two nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that this <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> will focus <strong>on</strong>. Until these violati<strong>on</strong>s of rights are fixed, cycles of violence,<br />
ignorance, poverty, <strong>and</strong> underdevelopment will c<strong>on</strong>tinue.<br />
I cannot wait to meet you all <strong>and</strong> discuss these pressing issues. Until we get that chance, feel<br />
free to c<strong>on</strong>tact me with any questi<strong>on</strong>s or c<strong>on</strong>cerns!<br />
Sincerely,<br />
Danielle Goatley<br />
Director, <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
africancourt@harvardmun.org<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 588-0285<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
44 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
INTRODUCTION<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> is<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>tinent-wide court charged with enforcing human<br />
rights law <strong>and</strong> doctrine. Although this court has had<br />
trouble getting its feet <strong>on</strong> the ground in the real world,<br />
we will think of this court as fully functi<strong>on</strong>ing during the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ference in order to focus <strong>on</strong> the issues.<br />
The first topic we will be discussing is Gender Equality<br />
<strong>and</strong> LGBT <strong>Rights</strong>, specifically in Ug<strong>and</strong>a. While this<br />
is a c<strong>on</strong>troversial topic throughout most of Africa, the<br />
Anti-Homosexuality Bill of 2009 pushed Ug<strong>and</strong>a to<br />
the forefr<strong>on</strong>t with harsh punishments for law violators,<br />
including death. The rest of the world, including parts<br />
of Africa, is taking c<strong>on</strong>crete steps forward, but Ug<strong>and</strong>a is<br />
simply signing documents promising rights without any<br />
intent to protect marginalized members of society.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d topic focuses <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> in armed<br />
combat z<strong>on</strong>es, what UNESCO recently declared a<br />
“hidden crisis.” Every child is entitled to an educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
but when militant troops cause fear <strong>and</strong> discord, this<br />
promise is often broken. Without an educati<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
cycles of violence c<strong>on</strong>tinue; children are left without job<br />
skills or opportunities for success. We will focus <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, a nati<strong>on</strong> torn by<br />
violence <strong>and</strong> plagued by a failed educati<strong>on</strong> system.<br />
HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE<br />
Before the twentieth century, there was little interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
between individual states towards collaborative efforts to<br />
protect security or well-being. Collective internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
law would be, for the most part, a thing of the future.<br />
Where internati<strong>on</strong>al law existed, it did nothing to protect<br />
the rights of individuals -- internati<strong>on</strong>al law was focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> the interests of nati<strong>on</strong>s. 1<br />
After the massive human rights violati<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
occurred after World War II, regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world created<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al treaty systems to prevent defeated powers<br />
from committing similar atrocities. Clearly, leaving the<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> of human rights to authoritarian dictators<br />
would be ineffective. To remedy this failure, great thinkers<br />
of the time came together to establish a set of inherent<br />
human rights that all nati<strong>on</strong>s could agree <strong>on</strong>. After a<br />
very l<strong>on</strong>g drafting process, the Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> was given legal force in 1948, providing a<br />
variety of protecti<strong>on</strong>s to people all around the world. 2 This<br />
document was the first document of internati<strong>on</strong>al law<br />
that granted individuals st<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>on</strong> the world stage <strong>and</strong><br />
in the eyes of regi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> internati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s. 34<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
While it is not a treaty <strong>and</strong> therefore not legally binding,<br />
the Declarati<strong>on</strong> forms part of customary internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
law <strong>and</strong> is useful when applying diplomatic pressure to<br />
governments that violate its principles. It has also been<br />
used as the basis for several other binding covenants.<br />
In 1950, the European C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong><br />
was created, <strong>and</strong> by 1969, the Americas had a similar<br />
document as well, both providing for a Commissi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> a <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 5 Within these systems, the Commissi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
have <strong>on</strong>ly had quasi-judicial roles, primarily serving to<br />
educate <strong>and</strong> to publicize the law so that people are aware<br />
of the protecti<strong>on</strong>s they are entitled to. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <strong>on</strong><br />
the other h<strong>and</strong>, serve true judicial roles <strong>and</strong> likewise have<br />
str<strong>on</strong>ger enforcement powers.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> People’s <strong>Rights</strong> is<br />
the regi<strong>on</strong>al system for the c<strong>on</strong>tinent that was instituted<br />
a number of years later. It follows the individual<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> mechanism <strong>and</strong> the state reporting<br />
procedure of the European <strong>and</strong> American system, which<br />
allows either an individual or a state to bring a claim to<br />
the body, but is otherwise a rather original document.<br />
According to Rachel Murray, Professor of Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Law at the University of Bristol, “The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter is seen as a ‘unique’ document am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the instruments that exist <strong>on</strong> human rights because it<br />
represent[s] the “<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>” c<strong>on</strong>cept of rights. The aim of<br />
the drafters was to create an instrument that was based<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> philosophy <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sive to <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs.” 6<br />
For example, instead of seeing civil <strong>and</strong> political rights<br />
separate from ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social <strong>and</strong> cultural rights, in<br />
the manner of the two Internati<strong>on</strong>al Covenants of 1976,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter includes all civil <strong>and</strong> political rights,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social <strong>and</strong> cultural rights, <strong>and</strong> peoples’ rights<br />
in <strong>on</strong>e, indivisible document.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> People’s <strong>Rights</strong><br />
was adopted under the auspices of the Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unity (OAU) in 1981. Despite its uniquely<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus, it did not come into force until 1986.<br />
Originally prompted by NGOs <strong>and</strong> encouraged by the<br />
UN <strong>and</strong> the OAU, many c<strong>on</strong>ferences <strong>and</strong> meetings<br />
pushed the various <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> states to approve the Charter.<br />
All states have now ratified the Charter; Egypt <strong>and</strong><br />
Zambia have made reservati<strong>on</strong>s. 7<br />
Attempts to set up the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> have been deemed essential in order to<br />
judicially enforce the rules set out in the Charter. This<br />
was initiated by an OAU resoluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> was followed<br />
by three draft protocols. The first took place in Cape<br />
Town in 1995 at a meeting between governments <strong>and</strong><br />
5
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
NGOs. 8 These proposals were amended in Mauritania<br />
at the sec<strong>on</strong>d meeting of legal experts in April of that<br />
year. The progress made at the first two meetings<br />
received attenti<strong>on</strong> at the 22nd sessi<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong>. 9 In December 1997, <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal experts<br />
produced the final draft protocol. At an OAU summit<br />
in June 1998 in Burkina Faso, thirty states adopted the<br />
Addis Protocol to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>, which established the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>. On 25 January 2004, the<br />
Protocol entered into force. 10<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> held the first electi<strong>on</strong> for its eleven<br />
judges in January 2006. Judges are elected based <strong>on</strong> their<br />
experience, gender, <strong>and</strong> geographical distributi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong>’s five major regi<strong>on</strong>s. 11 Each potential<br />
c<strong>and</strong>idate is nominated by a member state in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Uni<strong>on</strong>. The President of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
full-time judge; the other ten members are part-time.<br />
Subsequent electi<strong>on</strong>s have been held in 2008 <strong>and</strong> 2010<br />
to replace judges.<br />
The judges of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> with President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete<br />
before the 18th sessi<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> has currently held twenty-<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Ordinary sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> two Extra-Ordinary sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Largely, these sessi<strong>on</strong>s have focused <strong>on</strong> logistical issues<br />
such as the budget, the Registry, which is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for<br />
supervising the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> taking minutes,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rules. The Rules were adopted in c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong><br />
with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> in June 2008. The Protocol establishing the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
required the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>and</strong> the Commissi<strong>on</strong> to merge their<br />
respective Rules in order to ensure that the instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
work in harm<strong>on</strong>y <strong>and</strong> do not c<strong>on</strong>tradict each other. This<br />
process occurred through three meetings held in July<br />
<strong>and</strong> October 2009 <strong>and</strong> April 2010. Presently, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> has final Rules of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>and</strong> is ready to take<br />
cases. 12<br />
Africa also has another c<strong>on</strong>tinent-wide court: The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Justice. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Justice is<br />
in charge of civil matters <strong>and</strong> acts as the Criminal <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
for the c<strong>on</strong>tinent (similar to the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Criminal<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>, but with jurisdicti<strong>on</strong> over fewer nati<strong>on</strong>s). 13<br />
At the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> Summit of Heads of State <strong>and</strong><br />
Government <strong>on</strong> 1 July 2008, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> of<br />
Justice <strong>and</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> merged to form the court now known as “The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Justice <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>.” 14 Despite<br />
the apparent merger, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> has c<strong>on</strong>tinued ruling <strong>on</strong> court decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> electing new judges. Thus this committee will run as<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> or the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
TOPIC AREA A: GENDER EQUALITY<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
Both globally <strong>and</strong> in Africa<br />
specifically, gender equality has<br />
been placed in the spotlight.<br />
At the Millennium Summit<br />
in 2000, nati<strong>on</strong>s signing the<br />
Millennium Declarati<strong>on</strong> made<br />
it their goal to improve gender<br />
equality. Goal 3 is to promote<br />
gender equality <strong>and</strong> empower<br />
women. 15 Major gender<br />
disparities noted by the United<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>s include access to<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, paid versus informal<br />
employment, <strong>and</strong> political power. 16 Women are restricted<br />
to areas of informal employment with low pay, no job<br />
security, <strong>and</strong> poor c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s when they are allowed<br />
to work at all. These same problems exist for lesbian,<br />
gay, bisexual, <strong>and</strong> transgender (LGBT) individuals. In<br />
March 2011, the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s adopted a statement<br />
<strong>on</strong> gay rights called “Ending Violence Based <strong>on</strong> Sexual<br />
Orientati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Gender Identity” in an attempt to gain<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong> of this issue. 17<br />
In order to meet these goals, many United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
organs are working towards gender equality <strong>and</strong><br />
acceptance. The UN Populati<strong>on</strong> Fund <strong>and</strong> the UN<br />
Children’s Fund are also working together to promote<br />
the role of women in society as more than just objects<br />
66 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
of sexual pleasure through campaigns to reduce female<br />
genital mutilati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> cutting. 18 Female genital<br />
mutilati<strong>on</strong> includes procedures that intenti<strong>on</strong>ally alter<br />
or injure female genital organs for n<strong>on</strong>-medical reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> has no health benefits for girls <strong>and</strong> women. 19 It<br />
can cause severe bleeding <strong>and</strong> problems in urinating,<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with childbirth complicati<strong>on</strong>s. The World Health<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> estimates 100 to 140 milli<strong>on</strong> girls <strong>and</strong><br />
women worldwide are living with the c<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
of FGM, an internati<strong>on</strong>ally recognized human rights<br />
violati<strong>on</strong>. 20<br />
The UN Development Fund for Women is providing<br />
training in political campaigning <strong>and</strong> supports acti<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
address violence against women <strong>and</strong> girls. 21 While these<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s have certainly helped achieve the Millennium<br />
Goals, gender inequality in Africa, particularly in Ug<strong>and</strong>a,<br />
is rampant.<br />
In 2002, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> (AU) replaced the<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong>, explicitly pledging to<br />
intervene in cases of human rights abuses. 22 In line with<br />
that promise, the AU has adopted protocols such as the<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> of Women in Africa. Despite the attempts made<br />
by the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong>, very little<br />
is being d<strong>on</strong>e to promote LGBT rights in Africa.<br />
Most nati<strong>on</strong>s in Africa outlaw homosexuality, with<br />
more liberal attitudes generally found in southern Africa.<br />
In fact, South Africa’s c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> guarantees gay <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbian rights <strong>and</strong> legal same-sex marriage. 23 In 38 other<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s, homosexuality is outlawed. 24 Those who violate<br />
the law can be punished by life in pris<strong>on</strong> or even death.<br />
Frequently, individuals who are not straight are<br />
forced to lead two different lives: a heter<strong>on</strong>ormative life<br />
in which a traditi<strong>on</strong>al man <strong>and</strong> woman couple raise a<br />
family in order to avoid suspici<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> a secret life<br />
that is devoted to fulfilling true sexual identity. 25 These<br />
individuals are prevented from expressing their true<br />
identity <strong>and</strong> fear that even <strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> might discover<br />
their “secret.” The lack of rights for LGBT individuals is<br />
a violati<strong>on</strong> of human rights for milli<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>s that<br />
must lead secret lives <strong>and</strong> face harsh repercussi<strong>on</strong>s if they<br />
are discovered.<br />
In particular, Ug<strong>and</strong>a has some of the harshest LGBT<br />
laws in Africa. Same-sex sexual activity, recogniti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
same-sex relati<strong>on</strong>ships, <strong>and</strong> same-sex adopti<strong>on</strong>s are all<br />
prohibited. 26 Likewise, there has been a c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
ban <strong>on</strong> same-sex marriage since 2005, <strong>and</strong> there are<br />
no laws currently in place protecting gender identity<br />
or expressi<strong>on</strong>. 27 Homosexual acts can be punished by a<br />
maximum of life impris<strong>on</strong>ment. These intolerant views<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
are widespread. According to a July 2009 poll, 95 percent<br />
of Ug<strong>and</strong>ans opposed legalizing homosexuality. 28 In the<br />
past decade, countless pieces of legislati<strong>on</strong> in all levels of<br />
government have reflected this view towards those that<br />
do not c<strong>on</strong>form, supported by Christian <strong>and</strong> Islamic<br />
religious leaders. Newspapers, tabloids, <strong>and</strong> other media<br />
have g<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> “outing campaigns” -- by either publishing<br />
tips that can supposedly help readers spot gays <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbians or by directly naming the individuals. 29<br />
Socio-cultural norms <strong>and</strong> religious beliefs in Ug<strong>and</strong>a<br />
are valuing <strong>on</strong>e group of people more than another.<br />
Article 19 of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> declares that “All peoples shall be equal; they shall<br />
enjoy the same respect <strong>and</strong> shall have the same rights.<br />
Nothing shall justify the dominati<strong>on</strong> of a people by<br />
another.” 30 Sexual preference cannot nullify the fact that<br />
all people are created equal. Articles 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 <strong>and</strong> 22<br />
have also been violated by the way in which the Ug<strong>and</strong>an<br />
government treats certain citizens because of their<br />
sexuality. 31 If any of the rights outlined in the Charter<br />
are violated, “the court shall make the appropriate orders<br />
to remedy the violati<strong>on</strong>s.” 32<br />
Laws <strong>and</strong> rights should not be made exclusively for<br />
the powerful male majority. However, because of certain<br />
norms <strong>and</strong> beliefs, such as virginity testing, female<br />
genital mutilati<strong>on</strong>, female chastity, rape as a weap<strong>on</strong>,<br />
occult sexuality or sex as a form of worship, <strong>and</strong> taboos<br />
around poly<strong>and</strong>ry, which is a form of polygamy in which<br />
a female has more than <strong>on</strong>e husb<strong>and</strong>, sexual repressi<strong>on</strong><br />
is kept in place by the patriarchal state. 33 Because of the<br />
gross violati<strong>on</strong>s of human rights seen by the Commissi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> has<br />
agreed to take this case in order to protect gender rights<br />
<strong>and</strong> gender equality in Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
History atd Discussi<strong>on</strong> of the Problem<br />
HOMOSEXUALITY’S ROOTS IN UGANDA<br />
The British officially col<strong>on</strong>ized Ug<strong>and</strong>a into the<br />
Protectorate of Ug<strong>and</strong>a in 1894. 34 Before 1894, the<br />
Imperial East Africa Company c<strong>on</strong>trolled a porti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a, the Bug<strong>and</strong>a Kingdom. In 1893, the Company<br />
transferred administrative rights over the Bug<strong>and</strong>a<br />
Kingdom to the British. The Bug<strong>and</strong>an chiefs were savvy<br />
negotiators, leaving the British with undesirable swamp<br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> preserving their right to self-govern. 35 The<br />
British needed m<strong>on</strong>ey, so throughout the early twentieth<br />
century, they negotiated treaties with smaller kingdoms<br />
7
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
to win l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>ey while the Bug<strong>and</strong>an people<br />
maintained c<strong>on</strong>trol over valuable resources.<br />
The Bug<strong>and</strong>a also offered to help the British by serving<br />
as “tax collectors” over their neighbors. The Bug<strong>and</strong>a had<br />
the most interacti<strong>on</strong> with the British <strong>and</strong> served not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
as financial administrators but also as unwanted cultural<br />
ambassadors because of their m<strong>and</strong>ate of power from<br />
the British. 36 Other kingdoms were required to use their<br />
language, Lug<strong>and</strong>a, dress in l<strong>on</strong>g cott<strong>on</strong> gowns called<br />
kanzus, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>vert to specific forms of Christianity or<br />
Islam. During this period of col<strong>on</strong>ialism, which lasted<br />
until 1962, many laws were passed outlawing <strong>and</strong><br />
discouraging homosexuality. 37<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g members of the public, many believe that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong>ly become homosexual due to Western<br />
influence. According to Sylvia Tamale, throughout most<br />
of Africa, specifically Ug<strong>and</strong>a, “implicit in supporting<br />
homosexual rights [is] that the campaign is supported<br />
by gay <strong>and</strong> lesbian organizati<strong>on</strong>s in Western Europe <strong>and</strong><br />
North America.” 38 Included in these assumpti<strong>on</strong>s is the<br />
prec<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> that there is a network of homosexual<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s with an explicit agenda to “recruit young<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> men <strong>and</strong> women into their decadent, perverted<br />
habits.” 39<br />
The error in this kind of thinking is that many<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>an gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians have never been in c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
with Americans or Europeans in their lives, which makes<br />
it highly unlikely that Western influence “turned them”<br />
homosexual, despite how easy it is to lay the blame <strong>on</strong><br />
col<strong>on</strong>ialism. While no official statistics exist regarding<br />
the literacy rates for Gay <strong>and</strong> Lesbian Alliance members<br />
in Ug<strong>and</strong>a, many of the members are shunned from<br />
society, cannot hold jobs, <strong>and</strong>, according to Tamale, are<br />
illiterate or semi-literate. 40<br />
Research into Ug<strong>and</strong>an tribal customs <strong>and</strong> rituals<br />
reveals that homosexuality predates col<strong>on</strong>ialism <strong>and</strong><br />
general exposure of Ug<strong>and</strong>ans to the Western way of<br />
thinking. In an attitude typical of the pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
period, homosexuality was neither fully c<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>ed nor<br />
suppressed. Individuals of different genders could marry<br />
those of any other gender without much c<strong>on</strong>troversy.<br />
Specifically, am<strong>on</strong>g the Langi of northern Ug<strong>and</strong>a, the<br />
<strong>and</strong>rogynous or transgender mudoko dako males were<br />
treated as women <strong>and</strong> could marry men if they so wished.<br />
A similar arrangement was acknowledged am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
Iteso, Bahima, Banyoro, <strong>and</strong> Bag<strong>and</strong>a peoples. 41 In fact,<br />
evidence points to homosexuality in the ruling families<br />
of certain kingdoms. The Bug<strong>and</strong>a m<strong>on</strong>archy has a l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Map of modern Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
history of gay kings -- it was an open secret that Kabaka<br />
(king) Mwanga was not heterosexual. 42<br />
Despite claims to the c<strong>on</strong>trary, homosexuality is<br />
not “un-<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>.” Many Ug<strong>and</strong>ans who are homosexual<br />
struggled with their identity l<strong>on</strong>g before they were<br />
exposed to any outside influence -- the Internet, a white<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>, or even a mzungu (pers<strong>on</strong> of foreign descent). 43<br />
Homosexuality is not a Western import resulting from<br />
the British col<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> of Ug<strong>and</strong>a. However, many<br />
of the arguments against homosexuality, <strong>and</strong>, in turn,<br />
many of the punishments <strong>and</strong> the stigma surrounding<br />
gender rights <strong>and</strong> equality come from the dominant<br />
Judeo-Christian <strong>and</strong> Islamic religious missi<strong>on</strong>aries that<br />
infiltrated the area.<br />
The differences between males <strong>and</strong> females relevant<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s about gender rights <strong>and</strong> equality are<br />
located in social practices, not biological facts. Nothing<br />
about a man’s anatomy makes him a better leader or<br />
power broker. Gender is not <strong>on</strong>ly socially c<strong>on</strong>structed<br />
but also historical. 44 In most Western discourses, gender<br />
is presented as trans-historical <strong>and</strong> therefore essentialist<br />
or having universal validity. However, gender is not<br />
something inherent in <strong>on</strong>e’s relati<strong>on</strong>ships with others.<br />
Rather, “gender” is more about “gendering” as a process<br />
that all individuals c<strong>on</strong>stantly renegotiate in relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
the norms present in <strong>on</strong>e’s culture. 45 Put roughly, sex<br />
88 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
is determined by the physical qualities that a pers<strong>on</strong><br />
possesses- organs, horm<strong>on</strong>es, etc. On the other h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
gender refers how people identify themselves inside their<br />
minds. Finally, gender expressi<strong>on</strong> is how they express<br />
themselves for the world to see through their presentati<strong>on</strong><br />
-- hair, clothing, makeup, speech, <strong>and</strong> a myriad of other<br />
things. All three of these categories operate <strong>on</strong> a spectrum<br />
from male to female, <strong>and</strong> an individual can fall anywhere<br />
in between. Gender <strong>and</strong> gender expressi<strong>on</strong> are fluid <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>stantly changing -- the individual is always in charge.<br />
(Sex is slightly different -- some individuals are “intersex,”<br />
meaning that for some medical reas<strong>on</strong>,<br />
their chromosomes are for instance XXY<br />
<strong>and</strong> they exhibit the physical qualities<br />
of a man <strong>and</strong> woman, but this must be<br />
determined through medical testing.)<br />
When Christian missi<strong>on</strong>aries came to<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> other parts of Africa, they used<br />
translati<strong>on</strong> as a way to impose alien values.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural <strong>and</strong> religious instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were replaced with Western <strong>and</strong> Christian<br />
counterparts. One particularly wellknown<br />
problem is the transformati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the Deity of Uncertainty, the messenger<br />
of the gods who sends clients to diviners<br />
<strong>and</strong> takes a porti<strong>on</strong> of every sacrifice, into<br />
the evil Satan of the Bible by Christian<br />
missi<strong>on</strong>aries in the nineteenth century. 46<br />
For many <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, the Bible <strong>and</strong> other<br />
Christian religious teachings might<br />
have been their first experience with an<br />
ideological framework that provides<br />
clear separati<strong>on</strong> between genders <strong>and</strong><br />
unambiguous preference given towards<br />
masculine males <strong>and</strong> feminine females. 47<br />
According to a 2002 census, around<br />
85 percent of Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s populati<strong>on</strong> is Christian <strong>and</strong><br />
12 percent is Islamic. 48 Both of these religi<strong>on</strong>s rely <strong>on</strong><br />
patriarchal traditi<strong>on</strong>s to survive. Religious leaders, both<br />
ancient <strong>and</strong> modern, are male. Decisi<strong>on</strong>s are made by<br />
groups of dominant males, leaving those without sexual<br />
power marginalized in more than <strong>on</strong>e way. Patriarchy<br />
uses sexuality to create <strong>and</strong> maintain the gender hierarchy<br />
in Africa by hiding “gender deviance” in secrecy <strong>and</strong><br />
taboos. 49 “Sex outlaws,” or those who do not c<strong>on</strong>form<br />
to the c<strong>on</strong>servative gender binary approved by the<br />
leading religious instituti<strong>on</strong>s, are cast out into the social<br />
ghettos <strong>and</strong> outskirts of society. 50 Such people include<br />
homosexuals, bisexuals <strong>and</strong> transgender individuals; all<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
who cannot live typical lives in society without threats<br />
against their lives. Ug<strong>and</strong>a also has a variety of punitive<br />
laws against prostituti<strong>on</strong>, aborti<strong>on</strong>, adultery, <strong>and</strong> erotica,<br />
all with a similar purpose -- to silence the voices of the<br />
minority in favor of the patriarchy. By outlawing these<br />
identities, behaviors, <strong>and</strong> lifestyles, the state makes it<br />
difficult for these oppressed groups to join together <strong>and</strong><br />
fight for their rights. Such instituti<strong>on</strong>alized rules <strong>and</strong><br />
laws are then backed by norms <strong>and</strong> religious beliefs that<br />
reinforce sexual taboos <strong>and</strong> keep repressi<strong>on</strong> in place.<br />
Political, cultural, <strong>and</strong> religious fundamentalism plays<br />
a key role in stifling sexual<br />
pluralism in Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
According to Tamale,<br />
“During the m<strong>on</strong>th of<br />
February, I appeared <strong>on</strong><br />
several radio talk shows<br />
[in Ug<strong>and</strong>a], <strong>and</strong> gave<br />
public lectures <strong>on</strong> the<br />
topic of homosexuality.<br />
The level of hypocrisy,<br />
the double st<strong>and</strong>ards,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the selective<br />
sexual morality that<br />
such fundamentalists<br />
exhibited always took me<br />
by surprise. Any variati<strong>on</strong><br />
in sexual activity <strong>and</strong><br />
sexual partners from<br />
heter<strong>on</strong>ormativity is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered ‘pathological,’<br />
‘deviant,’ <strong>and</strong> ‘unnatural’<br />
<strong>and</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>demned in<br />
the str<strong>on</strong>gest possible<br />
terms.” 51 The reas<strong>on</strong><br />
these views are so str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
is that sexuality -- specifically the oppressi<strong>on</strong> of women<br />
<strong>and</strong> homosexuals -- is key to maintaining a patriarchal<br />
society. Sexual activities that go against the mainstream<br />
have the potential to change the comm<strong>on</strong>ly accepted<br />
hierarchies <strong>and</strong> alter the power dynamics in a way that is<br />
disadvantageous for those currently holding power.<br />
The gendered comp<strong>on</strong>ents of sexuality in Ug<strong>and</strong>a<br />
are especially evident when looking at the lack of lesbian<br />
identity. The Penal Code implicitly erases lesbian identity<br />
from Ug<strong>and</strong>an society by acting as if it is not an opti<strong>on</strong><br />
or a possibility. 52 Meanwhile, the law criminalizes<br />
intercourse between two males as “against the order of<br />
nature.” Phallocentric culture, where men’s viewpoints<br />
On June 3, 1886, thirty-two young men, pages of the<br />
court of King Mwanga of Bug<strong>and</strong>a, were burned to death<br />
at Namug<strong>on</strong>go for their refusal to renounce Christianity.<br />
In the following m<strong>on</strong>ths many other Christians throughout<br />
the country died by fire or spear for their faith.<br />
9
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
dominate women’s, maintains that women must be the<br />
passive recipients of penetrative male pleasure -- the<br />
same stereotype that leads to medically harmful practices<br />
such as female genital mutilati<strong>on</strong>. Sexuality for Ug<strong>and</strong>an<br />
women is reduced to their capacity to be wives <strong>and</strong><br />
bearers of children for their husb<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>cept of patriarchy is inherently threatened<br />
by the idea of an intimate same-sex relati<strong>on</strong>ship where<br />
a dominant figure, who must be male, is absent. This<br />
means that a woman’s sexuality is not based <strong>on</strong> her<br />
capacity to produce children but <strong>on</strong> another factor<br />
entirely -- perhaps her own pleasure. The main element<br />
of the patriarchal equati<strong>on</strong> is missing: power al<strong>on</strong>g sex<br />
lines <strong>and</strong> thus the preservati<strong>on</strong> of the gender hierarchy.<br />
Homosexuality presents a challenge to the deep-seated<br />
masculine power within <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual relati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
disrupts the core of the heterosexist social order that was<br />
introduced decades ago by the first British col<strong>on</strong>izers.<br />
Current Situati<strong>on</strong><br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s Penal Code is harsh when it comes to<br />
punishing homosexual c<strong>on</strong>duct. Lesbian women,<br />
bisexual women, gay men, <strong>and</strong> men who have sex with<br />
men <strong>and</strong> women all receive the same persecuti<strong>on</strong>; the<br />
State punishes homosexual acts with life impris<strong>on</strong>ment. 53<br />
Such strict laws fuel homophobia against all individuals<br />
who defy gender norms, like intersex <strong>and</strong> transgender<br />
people who are accused of being homosexual. LGBT<br />
people, comm<strong>on</strong>ly referred to in Ug<strong>and</strong>a as “kuchu,” are<br />
insulted, harassed, <strong>and</strong> discriminated against because<br />
they do not c<strong>on</strong>form. Many cannot hold jobs or go to<br />
school because of who they are; some are denied medical<br />
treatment because of ignorance or discriminati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Homosexuality was thrust into the spotlight in<br />
February 2003 when part of the women’s movement<br />
advocated that the rights of homosexuals, as members of a<br />
marginalized social group in Ug<strong>and</strong>a, should be included<br />
in a proposed Equal Opportunities Commissi<strong>on</strong>. 54 The<br />
media <strong>and</strong> the public quickly took sides, creating tensi<strong>on</strong><br />
throughout the country. Tamale, who str<strong>on</strong>gly spoke in<br />
support of the homosexual cause in the nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong><br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al media, became, in her words, “a punching<br />
bag” for the homosexual cause. 55<br />
Because of the Equal Opportunities Commissi<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
failure to recognize homosexuals as a marginalized<br />
group, the Gay And Lesbian Associati<strong>on</strong> (GALA) of<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a sent a letter to President Museveni in October<br />
2003. They dem<strong>and</strong>ed rights <strong>and</strong> threatened to form a<br />
political party. 56 President Museveni, the letter claims,<br />
had created an intolerable situati<strong>on</strong> for gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians<br />
in Ug<strong>and</strong>a due to harsh homophobic rhetoric. The letter,<br />
copied to the Speaker of Parliament, The <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> of Ug<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>and</strong> all other political parties,<br />
forced those in political power to recognize the shadows<br />
that homosexuals must live in. The GALA writes, “We<br />
believe criminalizing us because of our nature is unfair<br />
[<strong>and</strong> we] will not support any political organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
which doesn’t endorse our rights.” 57 Furthermore, if no<br />
party is willing to support the rights of homosexuals,<br />
GALA will be forced to form their own political party<br />
to achieve c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al protecti<strong>on</strong>s for gays <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbians, decriminalize homosexuality, <strong>and</strong> overturn laws<br />
forbidding same-sex marriage. 58<br />
This letter came shortly after many Ug<strong>and</strong>an churches<br />
severed ties with their counterparts <strong>on</strong> other c<strong>on</strong>tinents.<br />
The nati<strong>on</strong> is a former British col<strong>on</strong>y with str<strong>on</strong>g Anglican<br />
ties both religious <strong>and</strong> political. However, when a gay<br />
bishop was elected in New Hampshire, its Ug<strong>and</strong>an<br />
branch cut ties with that Episcopal diocese. 59 Similarly,<br />
the church ended a relati<strong>on</strong>ship with a diocese in New<br />
Westminster, British Columbia, Canada over blessings of<br />
same-sex couples.<br />
Suddenly, homosexuality <strong>and</strong> gender rights became<br />
a hot topic in the media, with the vocal homophobic<br />
public drowning out those in favor of granting<br />
homosexuals rights. Many claimed that the bigotry <strong>and</strong><br />
injustice displayed towards homosexuals in Ug<strong>and</strong>a was<br />
analogous to that aimed at slaves during the American<br />
Civil War <strong>and</strong> at black <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>s during apartheid in<br />
South Africa. 60 The Ug<strong>and</strong>an public vilified c<strong>on</strong>sensual,<br />
private acts between two adults, which seemed to harm<br />
no <strong>on</strong>e.<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed previously, Sylvia Tamale actively<br />
worked for the homosexual cause before <strong>and</strong> after GALA<br />
wrote their letter to the Ug<strong>and</strong>an president. Both her<br />
friends <strong>and</strong> the media believed that she was involved in<br />
a campaign driven by organizati<strong>on</strong>s in Western Europe<br />
<strong>and</strong> North America with an agenda to “recruit young<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> men <strong>and</strong> women into their decadent, perverted<br />
habits.” 61<br />
Despite the media frenzy surrounding the issue, very<br />
little was actually d<strong>on</strong>e in 2003 to achieve more rights for<br />
homosexuals. If anything, the stigma created by the media,<br />
combined with surging HIV/AIDS rates in Ug<strong>and</strong>a, 62<br />
turned homosexuality into an even bigger issue six years<br />
later. From the time that Ug<strong>and</strong>a was col<strong>on</strong>ized by the<br />
10 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
British all the way to the 21 st century, gender rights have<br />
been surrounded by complex social issues.<br />
Throughout eastern Africa, there has been a surge<br />
of evangelical Christian churches fueled in part by<br />
televangelists. In 1970, 17 milli<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>s self-described<br />
themselves as born-again Christians. 63 In 2011, more<br />
than 400 milli<strong>on</strong> described themselves in those terms,<br />
which is over a third of Africa’s populati<strong>on</strong>. 64 In Ug<strong>and</strong>a,<br />
new churches have been created to accommodate this<br />
influx. Most of these churches are owner-operated,<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al, <strong>and</strong> yet inspirati<strong>on</strong>al. Many provide a place<br />
for the poor to get ahead by tapping into the traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
beliefs of ghosts <strong>and</strong> spirits, according to Professor Paul<br />
Gifford at the University of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>. 65<br />
One particular Pentecostal preacher, Martin Ssempa,<br />
has exploited the anti-homophobic beliefs in Ug<strong>and</strong>a to<br />
build up his pers<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> political st<strong>and</strong>ing. 66 He, al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
with other Pentecostals, str<strong>on</strong>gly pushed for the Anti-<br />
Homosexuality Bill. Ssempa had ties with prominent<br />
individuals such as Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s born-again first lady, Janet<br />
Museveni, <strong>and</strong> American evangelical Rick Warren, but<br />
many of his acti<strong>on</strong>s are questi<strong>on</strong>able at best. Ssempa’s<br />
support for the bill forced Warren, who str<strong>on</strong>gly opposes<br />
the bill 67 , to cut ties with him due to the extreme nature<br />
of the punishments <strong>and</strong> the stance against those with<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-heter<strong>on</strong>ormative gender identities. Warren believed<br />
that the bill was “unjust, extreme <strong>and</strong> un-Christian<br />
toward homosexuals.” 68 In additi<strong>on</strong>, it would hinder the<br />
church’s work <strong>and</strong> force those who are HIV-positive to<br />
hide underground. Ssempa lost most of his remaining<br />
credibility when he screened gay pornography to his<br />
c<strong>on</strong>gregants.<br />
In mid-2009, Ssempa <strong>and</strong> others accused another<br />
Pentecostal preacher, Robert Kayanja, of sodomy. At first,<br />
six young men claimed to have been sodomized; two<br />
retracted their claims under mysterious circumstances. 69<br />
The police cleared Kayanja of sodomy allegati<strong>on</strong>s, but<br />
many disagreed with how the police h<strong>and</strong>led the<br />
investigati<strong>on</strong>. Pastor Solom<strong>on</strong> Male, who counseled<br />
<strong>on</strong>e of the young men who had been sexually abused,<br />
said “our case was mish<strong>and</strong>led…the sodomy victims<br />
[have faced] harassment.” 70 Even President Museveni<br />
expressed reservati<strong>on</strong>s with how the police c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
the investigati<strong>on</strong>. 71<br />
In March 2009, three American evangelical Christians<br />
discredited for teaching how to “cure” homosexuals came<br />
to Kampala, Ug<strong>and</strong>a to give a talk. The theme of the<br />
event was “The Gay Agenda -- That Whole Hidden <strong>and</strong><br />
Dark Agenda” <strong>and</strong> the threat that homosexuals posed to<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Pastor Martin Ssempa (left) arrives at the Ug<strong>and</strong>an Parliament to<br />
discuss the Anti-Homosexuality Bill <strong>on</strong> April 6, 2011. Ssempa<br />
endorses legislati<strong>on</strong> to make sodomy punishable by life in pris<strong>on</strong>,<br />
or, in some cases, death.<br />
Bible-based values <strong>and</strong> the traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> family. 72<br />
The three Americans were introduced as experts <strong>on</strong><br />
homosexuality – in reality, n<strong>on</strong>e were. Scott Lively was a<br />
missi<strong>on</strong>ary with several books to his name, including “7<br />
Steps to Recruit-Proof Your Child”; Caleb Lee Brundidge<br />
was a self-described former gay man who lead “healing<br />
seminars”; <strong>and</strong> D<strong>on</strong> Schmierer was a board member of<br />
Exodus Internati<strong>on</strong>al, which is an interdenominati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
anti-gay Christian organizati<strong>on</strong>. 73 For three days<br />
they lectured the audience, including teachers, law<br />
enforcement officials, <strong>and</strong> politicians, <strong>on</strong> how to change<br />
an individual’s sexuality <strong>and</strong> gender expressi<strong>on</strong>, how gay<br />
men sodomize teenage boys, <strong>and</strong> how a marriage-based<br />
society will be replaced by promiscuity if homosexuality<br />
is allowed.<br />
ANTI-HOMOSEXUALITY BILL OF 2009<br />
On 14 October 2009, David Bahati, a Ug<strong>and</strong>an<br />
Member of Parliament, introduced the Anti-<br />
Homosexuality Bill of 2009. His goal was to protect<br />
families from the “creeping evil” of homosexuality. 74<br />
Nearly forty other <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>s also outlaw<br />
homosexuality, but this bill carries the death penalty for<br />
having sex while HIV-positive, which no other <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
nati<strong>on</strong> supports. <strong>Human</strong> rights advocates say that this<br />
bill is illegal <strong>and</strong> a moral outrage. Gay activists say it<br />
will force individuals to live in even more fear than they<br />
already do.<br />
Bahati, <strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>, did not think that this<br />
bill would cause much c<strong>on</strong>troversy. Ug<strong>and</strong>a is a very<br />
religious country: in a 2008 survey, more than 94 percent<br />
of the populati<strong>on</strong> said that religi<strong>on</strong> was important in<br />
their lives. 75 No mainstream Ug<strong>and</strong>an religi<strong>on</strong>, from<br />
the many Christian denominati<strong>on</strong>s to the various<br />
11
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Muslim communities, is tolerant of gay rights. Bahati<br />
claims: “This bill is really a summati<strong>on</strong> of an aspirati<strong>on</strong><br />
of Ug<strong>and</strong>ans who believe the traditi<strong>on</strong>al family needs to<br />
be protected from foreign <strong>and</strong> internal threats…We have<br />
our own values as much as we respect the values of others,<br />
<strong>and</strong> we think that homosexuality is not a right.” 76<br />
In a way, this bill would do little to change the laws<br />
of Ug<strong>and</strong>a. Heavily influenced by British law, the Penal<br />
Code bans “carnal knowledge of any pers<strong>on</strong> against the<br />
order of nature,” with a potential penalty<br />
of life in pris<strong>on</strong>. Despite the law, up until<br />
2009, individuals were rarely arrested for<br />
violati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s were almost<br />
n<strong>on</strong>existent because the individuals had<br />
to be caught in the act. 77<br />
The proposed 2009 bill would give<br />
the authorities more leeway in arresting<br />
<strong>and</strong> prosecuting potential violators by<br />
widening the scope of violati<strong>on</strong>s to include<br />
“the aiding <strong>and</strong> abetting of homosexuality,<br />
<strong>and</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> of homosexuality” -- each<br />
carrying a possible pris<strong>on</strong> sentence of<br />
seven years. 78 Failure to disclose an offense<br />
is also punishable by a fine <strong>and</strong> three<br />
years in pris<strong>on</strong>. Furthermore, any<strong>on</strong>e<br />
with knowledge of crimes committed is<br />
obligated to report them to the authorities<br />
within 24 hours. The legislati<strong>on</strong> also creates<br />
a new category of offense: “aggravated<br />
homosexuality,” 79 which is punishable by<br />
death. This crime would include having homosexual<br />
sex with a minor or some<strong>on</strong>e with a disability as well<br />
as having homosexual sex while HIV-positive (the bill<br />
makes no distincti<strong>on</strong> about whether offenders must be<br />
knowingly infected to qualify.)<br />
Creating these new categories around homosexuality<br />
<strong>and</strong> increasing the number of people that can be targeted<br />
for the crime will <strong>on</strong>ly make life worse for gays <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbians living in Ug<strong>and</strong>a. Before this proposed bill,<br />
individuals could be outed by tabloids, get beaten in the<br />
streets, or get fired from their jobs, all without any form<br />
of legal recourse. With this proposed bill, simply being<br />
aware of some<strong>on</strong>e else’s homosexual acti<strong>on</strong>s puts both<br />
individuals at risk. Journalists wanting to remain within<br />
the law would have to take the government’s positi<strong>on</strong> or<br />
simply not report <strong>on</strong> the issue at all, making it even more<br />
difficult for homosexuals to organize <strong>and</strong> fight for their<br />
rights.<br />
Supporters of the proposed bill argue that the<br />
disclosure clause was designed to protect children. 80<br />
However, a civil-society coaliti<strong>on</strong> with over twenty<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s, including c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al law organizati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
argued otherwise. Law professors at Makerere University<br />
claim that this bill goes far bey<strong>on</strong>d protecti<strong>on</strong> by<br />
establishing extra-territorial jurisdicti<strong>on</strong> for homosexual<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>an citizens living abroad, forcing them to come<br />
back to their native country <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong> trial if ever<br />
Members of the Gay <strong>and</strong> Lesbian Associati<strong>on</strong> protest Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s proposed Anti-Homosexuality<br />
Bill.<br />
discovered. 81 Others also worry that this bill would<br />
make treatment of HIV/AIDS for Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s homosexual<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> even more difficult. Even before the 2009 bill<br />
was proposed, few in the gay community received testing<br />
for HIV because admitting to the homosexual lifestyle<br />
leads to such severe stigma <strong>and</strong> social repercussi<strong>on</strong>s. 82<br />
Despite these worries, it appeared that this bill, often<br />
referred to as the “Kill The Gays Bill,” would pass. John<br />
Otekate Emile, an independent Member of Parliament,<br />
believed the bill had a 99 percent chance of passing. Emile<br />
stated, “Members of parliament are overwhelmingly<br />
supporting this bill because homosexuality is illegal in<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>and</strong> we have that clearly in the penal code.” 83<br />
President Museveni, the leading religious figures, <strong>and</strong><br />
most of the nati<strong>on</strong>’s 31 milli<strong>on</strong> citizens seemed to agree<br />
with the bill.<br />
However, approximately forty percent of Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s<br />
government budget comes from internati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>ors. 84<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a relies <strong>on</strong> internati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>ors <strong>and</strong> peacekeeping<br />
12 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
organizati<strong>on</strong>s to help take care of its many refugees <strong>and</strong><br />
displaced peoples. Many of these resources come from<br />
the United States <strong>and</strong> Europe. Once Bahati proposed<br />
this bill <strong>and</strong> it received serious debate, many Western<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s threatened to cut aid unless this bill was struck<br />
from the docket. Bahati, the sp<strong>on</strong>sor, was unfazed; he<br />
seemed to be willing to forego internati<strong>on</strong>al funding <strong>and</strong><br />
withdraw from all internati<strong>on</strong>al treaties if that meant that<br />
the bill could be passed. Later, he softened his stance <strong>and</strong><br />
denied those claims, possibly due to the ramificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> the Ug<strong>and</strong>an government. A provisi<strong>on</strong> in the draft<br />
text of the bill requires that Parliament review all<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al treaties it has previously signed <strong>and</strong> nullify<br />
those in c<strong>on</strong>flict with the proposed 2009 bill. 85 In this<br />
case, such documents would include the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> other UN<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Other heads of state c<strong>on</strong>tinued to speak with<br />
the Ug<strong>and</strong>an president, especially after Rw<strong>and</strong>a<br />
<strong>and</strong> Burundi, two of Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s neighbors, started<br />
discussing similar, though less extreme, pieces of antihomosexuality<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong>. During the Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth<br />
Heads of Government Meeting, the Prime Minister of<br />
the United Kingdom, Gord<strong>on</strong> Brown, <strong>and</strong> the Prime<br />
Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, both expressed<br />
their disagreement with the proposed bill to Museveni. 86<br />
Both the Canadian Minister <strong>and</strong> the Australian Minister<br />
made statements to the press about the offensive nature<br />
of the legislati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The Ug<strong>and</strong>an Parliament c<strong>on</strong>tinued debating<br />
<strong>and</strong> discussing the propose legislati<strong>on</strong> after the<br />
Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth Heads of Government Meetings, so<br />
the internati<strong>on</strong>al community c<strong>on</strong>tinued criticizing the<br />
proposed bill. On 3 December 2009, Sweden, who<br />
previously had an amicable, l<strong>on</strong>g-term relati<strong>on</strong>ship with<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a, declared that it would revoke US$50 milli<strong>on</strong> in<br />
developmental aid if the bill passed, citing a clear lack<br />
of comm<strong>on</strong> values <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing between the two<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s. 87 Germany’s Minister of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Development laid out a stepwise plan to cut Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s<br />
aid if the bill should pass. On 16 December 2006, the<br />
European Parliament passed a resoluti<strong>on</strong> against the bill,<br />
threatening to cut aid from the country; many individual<br />
European countries passed their own resoluti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
support of the European Parliament’s resoluti<strong>on</strong> or<br />
vowed to cut their individual aid to Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
The United States, from citizens in Kampala’s sister<br />
city Minneapolis, Minnesota to President Obama,<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gly opposed the proposed bill. President Obama<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
stated, “The draft law pending in Ug<strong>and</strong>a…would<br />
criminalize homosexuality <strong>and</strong> move against the tide<br />
of history.” Most United States Christian leaders also<br />
oppose the bill, including Thomas Melady, the former<br />
Ambassador to Ug<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>and</strong> the Anglican Reverend<br />
Can<strong>on</strong> Gide<strong>on</strong> Byamugisha, who claimed that the effects<br />
would be state-legislated genocide.<br />
In late 2010, attenti<strong>on</strong> surrounding the bill died down,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> 13 May 2011, the bill was shelved by Ug<strong>and</strong>an<br />
Parliament. 88 According to the BBC, some human rights<br />
groups <strong>and</strong> Western leaders celebrated victory, but Maria<br />
Burnett of the <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Watch said that it would<br />
still be a very l<strong>on</strong>g fight to stop the Ug<strong>and</strong>an legislati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
According to Burnett, “The internati<strong>on</strong>al pressure over<br />
the last year <strong>and</strong> a half has been very important to show<br />
that Ug<strong>and</strong>a cannot act in isolati<strong>on</strong> from the internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
community.” 89<br />
The upcoming round of electi<strong>on</strong>s, taking place<br />
in February 2012, provides another opportunity for<br />
Bahati or another minister to introduce the bill. Because<br />
Parliament did not take the bill off the floor in any<br />
permanent way, campaigns for <strong>and</strong> against the bill <strong>and</strong><br />
what it st<strong>and</strong>s for will likely c<strong>on</strong>tinue.<br />
Relevant Acti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
On 17 June 2011, the UN <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Council<br />
passed a resoluti<strong>on</strong> supporting equal rights for all sexual<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong>s. 90 Passing with 23 votes in favor, 19 in<br />
oppositi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> 3 abstenti<strong>on</strong>s, it received str<strong>on</strong>g criticism<br />
from some <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>s. The US Deputy Assistant<br />
Secretary of State for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Suzanne Nossel, said:<br />
It really is a key part in setting a new norm that gay<br />
rights are human rights <strong>and</strong> that that has to be accepted<br />
globally. It talks about the violence <strong>and</strong> discriminati<strong>on</strong><br />
that people of LGBT persuasi<strong>on</strong> experience around the<br />
world, <strong>and</strong> that those issues ... need to be taken seriously.<br />
It calls for reporting <strong>on</strong> what’s going <strong>on</strong>, where people are<br />
being discriminated against, the violence that is taking<br />
place, <strong>and</strong> it really puts the issue squarely <strong>on</strong> the U.N.’s<br />
agenda going forward. 91<br />
Included in the resoluti<strong>on</strong> is a commissi<strong>on</strong> for the<br />
first-ever report <strong>on</strong> the challenges LGBT people face,<br />
opening up internati<strong>on</strong>al discussi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> how to protect<br />
their rights. In March 2011, the UN <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Council adopted a resoluti<strong>on</strong> called “Ending Violence<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> Sexual Orientati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Gender Identity” which<br />
was supported by 85 countries. 92 Gay rights are a key<br />
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focus of US Secretary of State Hilary Clint<strong>on</strong>’s <strong>Human</strong><br />
<strong>Rights</strong> agenda. According to Secretary Clint<strong>on</strong>, “gay<br />
rights are human rights <strong>and</strong> human rights are gay rights.”<br />
While a UN resoluti<strong>on</strong> by itself will not fix any nati<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
intolerant <strong>and</strong> abusive treatment of LGBT individuals,<br />
it does help create a set of internati<strong>on</strong>al norms that<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s must follow. According to Nossel, “…this is<br />
really a critical beginning of a<br />
universal recogniti<strong>on</strong> of a new<br />
set of rights that forms part of<br />
the internati<strong>on</strong>al system.” 93<br />
Despite this resoluti<strong>on</strong>, it<br />
is unlikely that Ug<strong>and</strong>a will<br />
change its current policies,<br />
let al<strong>on</strong>e refuse to adopt the<br />
policies in the shelved bill. For<br />
the past few years, the Freedom<br />
<strong>and</strong> Roam Ug<strong>and</strong>a group<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Gay<br />
<strong>and</strong> Lesbian <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> have reported<br />
to the UN Committee <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Eliminati<strong>on</strong> of Discriminati<strong>on</strong><br />
against Women (CEDAW)<br />
about the situati<strong>on</strong> in Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
CEDAW has then reported<br />
the questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for improvements back to<br />
the internati<strong>on</strong>al community<br />
in the hope that Ug<strong>and</strong>a<br />
will attempt to fix the legal<br />
<strong>and</strong> social marginalizati<strong>on</strong> of many people within<br />
the nati<strong>on</strong>. Such suggesti<strong>on</strong>s presented in the 2010<br />
report included: repealing specific articles of the Penal<br />
Code <strong>and</strong> Equal Opportunities Commissi<strong>on</strong> Act that<br />
implicitly discriminate <strong>on</strong> the basis of sexual orientati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> gender identity; investigating hate crimes <strong>and</strong><br />
violence; protecting the sexual health of all people; <strong>and</strong><br />
preserving the human rights of all people through antidiscriminati<strong>on</strong><br />
legislati<strong>on</strong> with explicit protecti<strong>on</strong> from<br />
sexual violence, dismissal from employment, evicti<strong>on</strong><br />
from housing, <strong>and</strong> so forth. 94 Despite suggesti<strong>on</strong>s given<br />
over many years, Ug<strong>and</strong>a has refused to make many<br />
of these suggested changes <strong>and</strong> instead has c<strong>on</strong>tinued<br />
pushing legislati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trary to the report’s suggesti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a’s government is overall unsupportive of any<br />
efforts to help the LGBT community, including those<br />
who are HIV-positive. Even before the 2009 bill, three gay<br />
activists were arrested at a Kampala c<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> HIV<br />
The media in Ug<strong>and</strong>a publishes articles that c<strong>on</strong>tain<br />
the names <strong>and</strong> identifying features of homosexuals,<br />
urging other citizens to kill or harm them.<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> for trying to attend <strong>and</strong> distribute materials.<br />
A government official explained that the government did<br />
not have m<strong>on</strong>ey to treat HIV am<strong>on</strong>g homosexuals. 95 An<br />
increase of arrests c<strong>on</strong>tinued, encouraged when a small<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>an newspaper called Rolling St<strong>on</strong>e ran an article<br />
with the headline “100 PICTURES OF UGANDA’S<br />
TOP HOMOS LEAK” <strong>and</strong> the banner “Hang Them.” 96<br />
David Kato, an advocacy officer for<br />
Sexual Minorities Ug<strong>and</strong>a, 97 had his<br />
picture <strong>on</strong> the cover. He filed a lawsuit<br />
against the tabloid, suing them for<br />
outing hundreds of individuals from<br />
am<strong>on</strong>gst his family, friends, coworkers,<br />
<strong>and</strong> neighbors. 98 On 4 January 2011,<br />
the Ug<strong>and</strong>an high court decided to ban<br />
all lists identifying people as gay from<br />
media publicati<strong>on</strong>s. 99 N<strong>on</strong>etheless, since<br />
the original list of 100, Rolling St<strong>on</strong>e has<br />
published a list of ten more individuals,<br />
which human rights organizati<strong>on</strong>s say<br />
prompted four more attacks. Giles<br />
Muhame, the tabloid’s managing editor,<br />
has “vowed to c<strong>on</strong>tinue publishing lists<br />
of homosexuals in Ug<strong>and</strong>a” <strong>and</strong> has<br />
declared that “homosexuality is more<br />
dangerous than smoking.” Kato, who<br />
helped initiate the lawsuit process, was<br />
found with serious wound to his head<br />
at his home in Kampala <strong>on</strong> 26 January<br />
2011 <strong>and</strong> died shortly thereafter.<br />
After Kato’s murder, the situati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a for homosexuals escalated to the point that the<br />
United Kingdom granted a Ug<strong>and</strong>an lesbian immigrant a<br />
temporary injuncti<strong>on</strong> to prevent her deportati<strong>on</strong> back to<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a. 100 Brenda Namiggade came to the UK in 2002<br />
because she was being victimized because of her sexuality.<br />
In early 2011, she feared for her life if she had to return.<br />
The United Nati<strong>on</strong>s High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for Refugees,<br />
Ant<strong>on</strong>io Guterres, said people facing persecuti<strong>on</strong> for their<br />
sexual orientati<strong>on</strong> in Ug<strong>and</strong>a should be given refugee<br />
status in other countries. 101<br />
Proposed Soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>,<br />
ratified by all 86 members of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong>, does<br />
not make any reference to sexual orientati<strong>on</strong> nor does it<br />
explicitly guarantee the right to privacy. 102 Some attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
has been given to advancing LGBT rights through the<br />
14 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter. Looking<br />
to the Social <strong>and</strong> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>Rights</strong> Acti<strong>on</strong> Center <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Center for Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> Social <strong>Rights</strong> (SERAC) v. Nigeria<br />
as a guide, it is possible to argue that there is an implied<br />
right to privacy that comes from the “respect for his life<br />
<strong>and</strong> the integrity of his pers<strong>on</strong>,” “respect of the dignity<br />
inherent in a human being,” <strong>and</strong> “liberty <strong>and</strong> security of his<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>.” 103 In SERAC, the communicati<strong>on</strong> claimed that<br />
the military government of Nigeria was guilty of violating<br />
the right to health, a clean envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <strong>and</strong> family<br />
rights, am<strong>on</strong>g other things, because they were facilitating<br />
the operati<strong>on</strong>s of oil corporati<strong>on</strong>s. The Commissi<strong>on</strong><br />
used the doctrine<br />
of “respect, protect,<br />
promote, <strong>and</strong> fulfill”<br />
<strong>and</strong> recognized<br />
that the state<br />
must be involved<br />
if individuals are<br />
to enjoy certain<br />
rights. 104 The<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> ruled<br />
that many violati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of rights did occur,<br />
<strong>and</strong>, perhaps more<br />
importantly, the<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong><br />
also stated that<br />
governments have a<br />
duty to protect their<br />
citizens by protecting<br />
them from damaging<br />
acts that may be<br />
perpetrated by<br />
private parties <strong>and</strong><br />
that this duty calls<br />
for positive acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
the part of governments. 105 Because sexual attracti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
an essential part of an individual’s pers<strong>on</strong>ality, forcing an<br />
individual to suppress his/her nature or risk being beaten,<br />
jailed, or killed would violate that pers<strong>on</strong>’s “integrity”<br />
<strong>and</strong> “human dignity.”<br />
Furthermore, Article 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Charter provide that all individuals have rights without<br />
distincti<strong>on</strong> of any kind <strong>and</strong> that every<strong>on</strong>e “shall be equal<br />
before the law.” 106 One of the distincti<strong>on</strong>s menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
is sex, which includes sexual orientati<strong>on</strong>, according to<br />
precedence set in To<strong>on</strong>en v. Australia. 107 In this case,<br />
To<strong>on</strong>en, a homosexual man from Tasmania, argued to<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Estimated adult HIV prevalence in Ug<strong>and</strong>a from 1990 to 2007.<br />
Passage of the Anti-Homosexuality Bill would make receiving<br />
treatment for HIV/AIDS difficult by forcing individuals to draw<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> to themselves <strong>and</strong> their lifestyles.<br />
the <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Committee of the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that criminalizing homosexuality violated his right to<br />
privacy under Article 17 of the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Covenant<br />
<strong>on</strong> Civil <strong>and</strong> Political <strong>Rights</strong> (ICCPR) <strong>and</strong> violated<br />
Article 26 because it discriminated against homosexuals<br />
<strong>on</strong> the basis of their sexuality. 108 The committee held<br />
that To<strong>on</strong>en was a victim under Australian law <strong>and</strong> had<br />
no effective domestic remedy. This case was important<br />
because it identified sexual orientati<strong>on</strong> as a characteristic<br />
up<strong>on</strong> which individuals cannot be discriminated against<br />
according to the ICCPR. It also “c<strong>on</strong>firms that sexual<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct in private is within the meaning of privacy<br />
in the ICCPR,” 109 which, despite<br />
its self-evident nature, had been<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>firmed until 1994.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>etheless, procedural<br />
difficulties present obstacles to<br />
those seeking recourse, at least at<br />
the Commissi<strong>on</strong> level. First, the<br />
complainant must show a prima<br />
facie violati<strong>on</strong>, which means that the<br />
violati<strong>on</strong> is accepted as correct until<br />
proved otherwise. Then, the state can<br />
show that the violati<strong>on</strong> is acceptable<br />
based <strong>on</strong> grounds such as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
value system, majority morality, <strong>and</strong><br />
the preventi<strong>on</strong> of HIV/AIDS. 110 How<br />
the case turns out is largely dependent<br />
up<strong>on</strong> the individual Commissi<strong>on</strong>er.<br />
While NGOs have observer status<br />
<strong>and</strong> can raise discussi<strong>on</strong> or points,<br />
no NGO focuses exclusively <strong>on</strong> the<br />
rights of these individuals, <strong>and</strong> very<br />
little has been said when c<strong>on</strong>sidering<br />
the number of people affected by this<br />
marginalizati<strong>on</strong>. 111<br />
<strong>Human</strong> rights <strong>and</strong> human<br />
security are inseparable <strong>and</strong> mutually reinforcing. In 2005,<br />
Mary Robins<strong>on</strong>, the former UN High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er<br />
for <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>, argued that disempowerment<br />
<strong>and</strong> marginalizati<strong>on</strong> of individuals <strong>and</strong> communities<br />
from participating in decisi<strong>on</strong>s affecting them are the<br />
root causes of human insecurity. Marginalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
disempowerment are practical manifestati<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
denial of the right to participati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> empowerment<br />
means nothing more than creating <strong>and</strong> granting<br />
opportunities for participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
15
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TOPIC AREA B: EDUCATION IN ARMED<br />
COMBAT ZONES<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
Milli<strong>on</strong>s of children are not receiving an educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
primarily in underdeveloped regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world. Many<br />
of these children cannot go to school because violence<br />
plagues their communities. Nearly 42 percent of the 67<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> children denied a primary school educati<strong>on</strong> are<br />
living in armed c<strong>on</strong>flict z<strong>on</strong>es. 112 Innocent children are<br />
entering the adult world unprepared because of c<strong>on</strong>flicts<br />
they neither created nor fueled. They c<strong>on</strong>stitute the<br />
world’s most vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>, living in fear from<br />
attack, sexual violence, <strong>and</strong> malnutriti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The <strong>on</strong>ly way to create a more peaceful society is<br />
through educati<strong>on</strong>. The first line of the C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
UNESCO states, “since wars begin in the minds of men<br />
[<strong>and</strong> women], it is in the minds of men [<strong>and</strong> women] that<br />
the defenses of peace must be c<strong>on</strong>structed.” 113 C<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
must be prevented through an educati<strong>on</strong>al system that<br />
teaches <strong>and</strong> prioritizes peace, underst<strong>and</strong>ing, <strong>and</strong> mutual<br />
respect. Every child that does not go to school, or, even<br />
worse, every child that goes to a school that teaches<br />
hatred or reinforces ethnic or cultural divides, is <strong>on</strong>e less<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> who can later work for peace.<br />
Because of the many ramificati<strong>on</strong>s of a lack of<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s has prioritized bringing<br />
primary educati<strong>on</strong> to the world’s children. Goal Two<br />
of the Millennium Development Goals is to achieve<br />
universal primary educati<strong>on</strong>. 114 The target of this goal<br />
is that all children, both boys <strong>and</strong> girls, will receive a<br />
full course of primary schooling. “To achieve the goal<br />
by the target date, all children at official entry age for<br />
primary schooling would have had to be attending<br />
classes by 2009. Instead, in half of the Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
countries with available data, at least <strong>on</strong>e in four children<br />
of enrollment age was not attending school in 2008.” 115<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to problems with enrollment, more than 30<br />
percent of students in Central Africa drop out before<br />
they finish primary school because of costs, social<br />
pressure, <strong>and</strong> family pressure, am<strong>on</strong>g other factors. 116<br />
Finding safe schools, textbooks, <strong>and</strong> reliable teachers is<br />
often difficult as well. As a result, UNESCO has reached<br />
out to <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>s individually through the Basic<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> in Africa Program, encouraging countries to<br />
adopt legal frameworks guaranteeing eight to ten years<br />
of uninterrupted basic educati<strong>on</strong>. 117<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> also pledged to prioritize educati<strong>on</strong><br />
in 2002 during its transiti<strong>on</strong> from the Organizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unity. 118 With over eighteen <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries<br />
experiencing c<strong>on</strong>flict since 1999, improving educati<strong>on</strong><br />
has been difficult. 119 Violence, c<strong>on</strong>flict, <strong>and</strong> war make<br />
the educati<strong>on</strong>al situati<strong>on</strong> in Africa far worse. Civil war<br />
<strong>and</strong> unrest have caused Sudan, the Democratic Republic<br />
of the C<strong>on</strong>go, <strong>and</strong> Chad to absorb thous<strong>and</strong>s of refugees,<br />
without adequate infrastructure or financial resources to<br />
support the drastic populati<strong>on</strong> growth. 120 Most of these<br />
refugees live in camps, far from established schools.<br />
Nearly forty-two percent of the sixty-seven milli<strong>on</strong> children denied<br />
a primary school educati<strong>on</strong> are living in armed c<strong>on</strong>flict z<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
Africa is home to over 200,000 child soldiers, <strong>on</strong>ethird<br />
of the world’s “invisible children.” 121 These children<br />
receive no educati<strong>on</strong> aside from what is needed <strong>on</strong> the<br />
battlefield, to carry out orders, or to survive. Not <strong>on</strong>ly are<br />
they lacking skills such as reading <strong>and</strong> mathematics, but<br />
child soldiers also develop a set of values different from<br />
that of the rest of the populati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
They are [chosen because they are] easy to<br />
manipulate <strong>and</strong> will do the unspeakable without<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> or protest, partly because their morals<br />
<strong>and</strong> value systems are not yet fully formed…<br />
The journey from boy or girl to killing machine<br />
follows a horrifying route of indoctrinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
including being forced to execute friends <strong>and</strong><br />
family…A twelve-year-old girl, Angela, told<br />
the <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Watch that she was told to<br />
shoot a friend…”I closed my eyes <strong>and</strong> fired the<br />
gun, but I didn’t hit her. So I shot again,” she<br />
said. “I had to bury her <strong>and</strong> put dirt <strong>on</strong> top of<br />
her. The comm<strong>and</strong>er said, ‘You’ll have to do this<br />
many more times, <strong>and</strong> you’ll have to learn not to<br />
cry.’” 122<br />
16 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
Across the world, c<strong>on</strong>flict-afflicted low-income <strong>and</strong><br />
lower middle-income countries have the worst educati<strong>on</strong><br />
indicators—worse than countries at similar income<br />
levels with no history of c<strong>on</strong>flict. Only 79 percent of<br />
young people <strong>and</strong> 69 percent of adults are literate in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict-afflicted countries, compared with 93 percent<br />
<strong>and</strong> 85 percent in peaceful nati<strong>on</strong>s. 123 Gross enrollment<br />
in sec<strong>on</strong>dary school is thirty percent lower in c<strong>on</strong>flictafflicted<br />
countries <strong>and</strong> even lower for girls. 124 Where<br />
positive trends towards more school years existed before<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>flict, these trends reverse during war, <strong>and</strong> years<br />
Students learn in a Ug<strong>and</strong>an schoolhouse. Educati<strong>on</strong> is severely hampered by the cost of tuiti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> books, <strong>and</strong> the dangers of c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
of schooling are lost after the c<strong>on</strong>flict. In Burundi, for<br />
example, the growth rate for years of school before<br />
the 1994-2006 c<strong>on</strong>flict was 6.6%. During the c<strong>on</strong>flict,<br />
the growth rate was -0.3%, which means 3.4 years of<br />
schooling per child were lost. 125 Disparities also exist<br />
before children reach school age; the mortality rate for<br />
children under five is normally six out of <strong>on</strong>e hundred,<br />
but increases to twelve out of <strong>on</strong>e hundred in combat<br />
z<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
The Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, Africa’s<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d largest country by area, is suffering an educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
crisis. As of 2009, literacy rates are in the low sixties<br />
for both males <strong>and</strong> females. 126 The mortality rate for<br />
children under five is also high at 199 deaths out of 1000,<br />
compared to the average 61 out of 1000. 127 In additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to these problems, the structure of the C<strong>on</strong>golese<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> system fuels inequality. Primary educati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
not free, compulsory, or universal. Parents are expected<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
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to pay the teacher’s salary through enrollment fees, which<br />
means that many children cannot afford to attend class.<br />
Children also have to pay for their own school supplies,<br />
in additi<strong>on</strong> to tuiti<strong>on</strong> costs, adding to the financial<br />
burden of schooling for their families <strong>and</strong> decreasing the<br />
likelihood that they will attend. 128<br />
Many children forego school in order to help their<br />
families. An estimated 39.8 percent of children ten to<br />
fourteen years old were working in 2000. Most children<br />
work in the informal sector or in subsistence agriculture,<br />
the largest part of the ec<strong>on</strong>omy. 129 Those that cannot find<br />
“jobs” must hunt, fish, engage in<br />
prostituti<strong>on</strong>, or beg in the streets. In<br />
2003, the UN Special Rapporteur<br />
to the Democratic Republic of<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>go reported anywhere<br />
from 25,000 to 50,000 street<br />
children, mainly child refugees<br />
<strong>and</strong> war orphans, engaged in<br />
labor. 130 Armed groups frequently<br />
recruited these children into<br />
forced labor, sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> armed c<strong>on</strong>flict. As of 2004,<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>golese government has<br />
demobilized approximately 3,080<br />
children <strong>and</strong> no l<strong>on</strong>ger recruits<br />
child soldiers, but there are reports<br />
that the government still supports<br />
militia groups that do. 131 These<br />
children are being physically <strong>and</strong><br />
psychologically wounded because<br />
no <strong>on</strong>e is taking resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for<br />
their well-being.<br />
Article 17 of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> explicitly states that: “Every individual<br />
shall have the right to educati<strong>on</strong>.” 132 For thous<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
children in the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go,<br />
that right is n<strong>on</strong>-existent. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Charter, the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go also<br />
ratified the <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Welfare of the Child as part of the<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unity in 1999. This agreement<br />
aimed at protecting the rights <strong>and</strong> welfare of children<br />
because up until that point, child abuse had become the<br />
rule, rather than the excepti<strong>on</strong>, in Africa. Only when<br />
children are given access to basic educati<strong>on</strong>, healthcare,<br />
<strong>and</strong> parental protecti<strong>on</strong> are they able to lead safe, secure<br />
lives without becoming victims of child labor, trafficking,<br />
or prostituti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
17
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Three years later, when the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> replaced<br />
the Organizati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unity, not much had been<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e to enforce this charter. However, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong><br />
made an explicit pledge to be more interventi<strong>on</strong>ist in the<br />
case of human rights abuses, particularly prioritizing the<br />
rights of children. 133 In order to justify their acti<strong>on</strong>s, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> adopted protocols such as the <strong>Rights</strong> of<br />
Women in Africa in 2003 <strong>and</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong><br />
Youth <strong>and</strong> Development in 2006. 134 The latter obligates<br />
member states to develop comprehensive programs to<br />
promote the educati<strong>on</strong>, development, employment,<br />
health, <strong>and</strong> participati<strong>on</strong> of Africa’s youth in development<br />
<strong>and</strong> politics. Despite being signatories to these protocols<br />
<strong>and</strong> charters, the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go is<br />
not making headway in improving the educati<strong>on</strong> of its<br />
children.<br />
History <strong>and</strong> Discussi<strong>on</strong> of the Problem<br />
The Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go was granted<br />
independence from Belgium <strong>on</strong> June 30, 1960 after<br />
riots <strong>and</strong> general unrest. Its first year of statehood was<br />
eventful <strong>and</strong> destabilizing: the army mutinied, the<br />
governor of Katanga Province attempted secessi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
a UN peacekeeping force had to restore order, Prime<br />
Minister Lumumba mysteriously died, <strong>and</strong> Col<strong>on</strong>el<br />
Joseph Mobutu took over the government. 135<br />
Mobutu’s desire for strict, <strong>on</strong>e-party rule received<br />
much internati<strong>on</strong>al criticism, <strong>and</strong> as the Cold War ended,<br />
internal <strong>and</strong> external pressures weakened his regime. 136<br />
The Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy was<br />
faltering, its human rights practices were the target of<br />
much internati<strong>on</strong>al criticism, <strong>and</strong> major cities were filled<br />
with domestic protests. Mobutu finally agreed to a multiparty<br />
system with electi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> in April<br />
1990.<br />
In 1992, after many failed attempts, the l<strong>on</strong>gpromised<br />
Sovereign Nati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference was held,<br />
attended by more than 2,000 representatives from various<br />
political parties meeting to draft a new c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
to ensure a smooth political transiti<strong>on</strong>. 137 The c<strong>on</strong>ference<br />
gave itself a legislative m<strong>and</strong>ate, <strong>and</strong> by the end of the<br />
year, elected Etienne Tshisekedi, leader of the Uni<strong>on</strong> pour<br />
la Democratie et le Progres Social, as its prime minister.<br />
Joseph Mobutu had also created a rival, multi-party<br />
government with himself as head of state <strong>and</strong> Le<strong>on</strong> Kengo<br />
Wa D<strong>on</strong>do as prime minister,. The two governments<br />
enacted a compromise merger that produced the High<br />
Council of the Republic-Parliament of Transiti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
1994, with Mobutu as head of state <strong>and</strong> Le<strong>on</strong> Kengo Wa<br />
D<strong>on</strong>do as prime minister. 138 Although presidential <strong>and</strong><br />
legislative electi<strong>on</strong>s were scheduled repeatedly over the<br />
next two years, they never took place.<br />
In late 1994, the war <strong>and</strong> genocide in Rw<strong>and</strong>a<br />
began to directly affect the Democratic Republic of the<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go. Fighting between the Hutus <strong>and</strong> Tutsis had been<br />
occurring for hundreds of years, causing the massacre<br />
of at least half a milli<strong>on</strong> Tutsis, the minority group, <strong>and</strong><br />
causing nearly <strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> Hutus to flee to refugee camps<br />
throughout the regi<strong>on</strong>. “Rw<strong>and</strong>an Hutu militia forces<br />
who fled Rw<strong>and</strong>a following the ascensi<strong>on</strong> of a Tutsiled<br />
government were using Hutu refugee camps [<strong>on</strong><br />
the eastern side] of the country as bases for fighting.” 139<br />
Rw<strong>and</strong>an <strong>and</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an troops supported the Alliance<br />
des Forces Democratiques pour la Liberati<strong>on</strong> du C<strong>on</strong>go-<br />
Zaire (AFDL), which entered the Democratic Republic<br />
of the C<strong>on</strong>go in October 1996. In May 1997, after peace<br />
talks between Laurent Kabila, leader of the AFDL, <strong>and</strong><br />
Mobutu failed, the latter left the country.<br />
On 17 May 1997, Kabila declared himself president.<br />
Many of his top staff members, such as the Army Chief<br />
<strong>and</strong> Secretary General, were Rw<strong>and</strong>an, which many<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese people resented. 140 Kabila ordered all foreign<br />
troops to leave the country in July 1998, but most<br />
refused. On 2 August 1998, nati<strong>on</strong>wide fighting began<br />
as Rw<strong>and</strong>an troops mutinied <strong>and</strong> new troops from<br />
Rw<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a entered. Angolan, Zimbabwean,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Namibian troops intervened <strong>on</strong> behalf of the<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese government. 141 Rw<strong>and</strong>an forces withdrew to<br />
the eastern side of the country, where they established<br />
de facto c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>and</strong> fought off threats to their unofficial<br />
sovereignty. Ug<strong>and</strong>a backed the formati<strong>on</strong> of the rebel<br />
President Joseph Kabila, who has led the Democratic Republic of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go since January 2001, shortly after his father was assassinated.<br />
18 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
group Mouvement pour la Liberati<strong>on</strong> du C<strong>on</strong>go, which<br />
established c<strong>on</strong>trol over the northern third of the country.<br />
This left the country split into three segments: <strong>on</strong>e<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by Kabila, <strong>on</strong>e by Rw<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e by Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
The nati<strong>on</strong>s were in a military deadlock, so in July 1999,<br />
a ceasefire was proposed in Lusaka, Zambia. “The Lusaka<br />
Accord called for a cease-fire, the deployment of a UN<br />
peacekeeping operati<strong>on</strong>, the withdrawal of foreign troops,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the launching of an “Inter-C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue” to<br />
form a transiti<strong>on</strong>al government leading to electi<strong>on</strong>s.” 142<br />
Kabila, however, blocked UN peacekeeping forces <strong>and</strong><br />
refused to engage in political dialogue.<br />
The United Nati<strong>on</strong>s Organizati<strong>on</strong> Missi<strong>on</strong> in the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go has<br />
been assigned the task of seeing out the ceasefire in the C<strong>on</strong>go since 1999, al<strong>on</strong>g with other<br />
related tasks.<br />
Kabila was assassinated <strong>on</strong> 16 January 2001 <strong>and</strong> was<br />
succeeded by his s<strong>on</strong> Joseph, “who reversed many of<br />
his father’s negative policies.” 143 As of 2002, all <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
troops had officially withdrawn from the nati<strong>on</strong>, but<br />
there were still unofficial reports that Rw<strong>and</strong>an soldiers<br />
remained <strong>and</strong> had even formed splinter groups.<br />
Attempts at Inter-C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue c<strong>on</strong>tinued,<br />
always ending inc<strong>on</strong>clusively, until an agreement was<br />
reached in Pretoria <strong>on</strong> 17 December 2002. 144 These talks<br />
included representatives from the government, rebel<br />
groups, political oppositi<strong>on</strong>, civil society, <strong>and</strong> Mai-Mai<br />
(C<strong>on</strong>golese local defense militias). Dialogue between<br />
these groups finally led to an all-inclusive agreement. It<br />
was formally ratified <strong>on</strong> 2 April 2003, the same day a<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> was adopted. The transiti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
government liberalized domestic political activity <strong>and</strong><br />
started working in unis<strong>on</strong> with the World Bank <strong>and</strong><br />
the Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund. 145 Very little effort<br />
was put into fixing the serious human rights problems<br />
that persisted in the security services or the justice<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
system, nor was much energy put into rebuilding human<br />
infrastructure after the war. 146<br />
In late 2005, two-thirds of C<strong>on</strong>golese voters approved<br />
a new c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> that vested most of its power in the<br />
president; the legislature cannot overturn the government<br />
through a vote of no c<strong>on</strong>fidence, <strong>and</strong> the judiciary is <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
nominally independent. Over 25 milli<strong>on</strong> people voted<br />
for president <strong>on</strong> 30 July 2006, when the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go had its first, free, democratic,<br />
multi-party electi<strong>on</strong> in over forty years. 147 Thirty-three<br />
c<strong>and</strong>idates ran for president, <strong>and</strong> over 9,500 c<strong>and</strong>idates<br />
ran for Nati<strong>on</strong>al Assembly, fighting for five hundred<br />
seats. Voter turnout was over seventy<br />
percent. 148 Overall, the electi<strong>on</strong>s went<br />
smoothly <strong>and</strong> were judged to be<br />
credible by internati<strong>on</strong>al st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
President Kabila w<strong>on</strong> with just under<br />
45% of the vote, beating his former<br />
vice-president Jean-Pierre Bemba.<br />
The scope of the July 2006 electi<strong>on</strong><br />
presented administrative challenges<br />
that strengthened the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go’s relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
with the UN. The presidential <strong>and</strong><br />
legislative ballots were printed in<br />
South Africa <strong>and</strong> altogether weighed<br />
nearly 1,800 t<strong>on</strong>s, requiring 75 roundtrip<br />
flights. The Independent Electoral<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong>, greatly supported by the<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s Organizati<strong>on</strong> Missi<strong>on</strong> in the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go (MONUC) peacekeeping missi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
ran more than 50,000 polling stati<strong>on</strong>s nati<strong>on</strong>wide<br />
<strong>and</strong> employed some 300,000 poll workers <strong>on</strong> electi<strong>on</strong><br />
day <strong>and</strong> during the ballot-counting process. 149 Kabila<br />
established a permanent Nati<strong>on</strong>al Independent Electoral<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> to replace the transiti<strong>on</strong>al Commissi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
July 2010.<br />
After operating as MONUC for 10 years, the UN<br />
was forced to alter its missi<strong>on</strong> to reflect a new phase in<br />
the country as of 1 July 2010, renaming itself as the<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s Organizati<strong>on</strong> Stabilizati<strong>on</strong> Missi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go (MONUSCO).<br />
“Established under UN Security Council Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1925,<br />
MONUSCO differed from MONUC in its enhanced<br />
cooperative relati<strong>on</strong>ship with the D.R.C. Government,<br />
its coordinated, regi<strong>on</strong>al approach to counter threats<br />
posed by armed groups in the country, <strong>and</strong> its stated<br />
logistical role in assisting the D.R.C. in its electoral<br />
19
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activities, all designed to stabilize what MONUC’s<br />
peacekeeping operati<strong>on</strong>s had accomplished.” 150<br />
Current Situati<strong>on</strong><br />
After years of fighting, deadlock, <strong>and</strong> invasi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go is best classified<br />
as a failed state. By definiti<strong>on</strong>, failed states are unable<br />
to provide basic public services <strong>and</strong> lack authority.<br />
“The Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go is seen as a<br />
prime example of a failed state: a forsaken black hole<br />
characterized by calamity, chaos, c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> a bizarre<br />
form of social cannibalism where society is its own<br />
prey.” 151<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>e of the main social services that has<br />
been damaged by years of war <strong>and</strong> ignored even after the<br />
war. By 2000, public funding for educati<strong>on</strong> was virtually<br />
zero. 152 Despite this statistic, schools c<strong>on</strong>tinue to run,<br />
even though less than fifty percent of children attend.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>-state actors have been involved in the educati<strong>on</strong><br />
system since its creati<strong>on</strong> in col<strong>on</strong>ial times, when it was<br />
run by the Protestant <strong>and</strong> Catholic churches. Currently,<br />
three-quarters of all primary school students attend<br />
public religious schools.<br />
The amount of m<strong>on</strong>ey spent per student has likewise<br />
decreased. Real expenditure per pupil dropped from<br />
US$159 in 1982 to $23 in 1987 <strong>and</strong> finally to around<br />
$4 in 2002. 153 This has forced parents to purchase school<br />
supplies, books, uniforms, <strong>and</strong> food for their children<br />
to go to school. Since the majority of the C<strong>on</strong>golese do<br />
not have significant disposable income, disparities have<br />
emerged between children who can <strong>and</strong> cannot attend<br />
class. Teachers’ salaries dropped from US$68 to $27 per<br />
m<strong>on</strong>th between 1982 <strong>and</strong> 1987, reaching an all-time<br />
minimum of US$12.90 in 2002. 154 In additi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
number of paid teachers decreased from 285,900 in<br />
1982 to less than half of that number in 2002. 155 These<br />
numbers provide little incentive for teachers to arrive<br />
at school each day, to prepare less<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> to treat their<br />
job with the importance it deserves. In armed combat<br />
z<strong>on</strong>es in particular, most teachers find the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s too<br />
dangerous to come to work for the meager amount of<br />
pay they receive.<br />
Following teacher strikes, the Catholic Church<br />
<strong>and</strong> the associati<strong>on</strong> of students’ parents created a<br />
“salary top-up system” in order to compensate for the<br />
salary decreases. The m<strong>on</strong>ey in the system filters up;<br />
the fees are collected from the parents by the district,<br />
which passes the m<strong>on</strong>ey to the three state instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for running public educati<strong>on</strong>- the Ministère<br />
de l’Enseignement Primaire, Sec<strong>on</strong>daire et Professi<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
(MEPSP), the Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur<br />
et Universitaire (MESU) <strong>and</strong> the Ministère des Affaires<br />
Sociales (MAS). 156 In certain ways, this method of<br />
privatized funding could be compared to how the United<br />
States of America funds its public schools through taxes<br />
based <strong>on</strong> property values, <strong>and</strong>, indirectly, affluence. This<br />
privatized system works for those with the m<strong>on</strong>ey to pay<br />
the fees, but for those hardest hit by combat, war, <strong>and</strong><br />
violence, it is likely unrealistic.<br />
Violent c<strong>on</strong>flict widens disparities in wealth <strong>and</strong><br />
gender. Most of the 5.4 milli<strong>on</strong> deaths that occurred<br />
during the many years of c<strong>on</strong>flict in the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go are from disease <strong>and</strong> malnutriti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
not gun wounds. Nearly half the victims were children<br />
under age of five suffering from sickness <strong>and</strong> hunger,<br />
which has terrible c<strong>on</strong>sequences for educati<strong>on</strong>. 157<br />
Furthermore, the c<strong>on</strong>flict has ruined the infrastructure<br />
necessary for a successful educati<strong>on</strong> system. Combatants<br />
use force indiscriminately, often targeting safe havens,<br />
such as schools, creating fear <strong>and</strong> distrust. In most<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flicts, it is far more dangerous to be a civilian than a<br />
combatant. 158 As the number of wars between countries<br />
has declined <strong>and</strong> intra-state c<strong>on</strong>flict has increased,<br />
patterns of violence have changed. C<strong>on</strong>flicts have<br />
become immeasurably more dangerous for vulnerable<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-combatants <strong>and</strong> have damaged social cohesi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
government services.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>flict in the Democratic Republic of the<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go has g<strong>on</strong>e through many phases. It has involved<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese armed forces, a Tutsi rebel group (Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
C<strong>on</strong>gress for the Defense of the People) said to have been<br />
backed for a time by Rw<strong>and</strong>a, a predominantly Hutu<br />
group (Democratic Forces for the Liberati<strong>on</strong> of Rw<strong>and</strong>a),<br />
<strong>and</strong> a local militia known as Mai Mai. 159 The Lord’s<br />
Resistance Army is also active in the east, where it has<br />
perpetrated several massacres <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ducted campaigns<br />
of systematic rape. It is estimated that from 1998 to<br />
2007, more than five milli<strong>on</strong> lives were lost because of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict-related disease <strong>and</strong> malnutriti<strong>on</strong>. “In 2010, there<br />
were 1.3 milli<strong>on</strong> internally displaced people in the North<br />
<strong>and</strong> South Kivu provinces. Military operati<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
January <strong>and</strong> September 2009 resulted in reports of more<br />
than <strong>on</strong>e thous<strong>and</strong> civilian deaths <strong>and</strong> 7,500 rapes.” 160<br />
The United Nati<strong>on</strong>s has accused state <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-state<br />
parties of widespread, systematic violati<strong>on</strong> of human<br />
rights. There is “a growing fear am<strong>on</strong>g children to attend<br />
school, am<strong>on</strong>g teachers to give classes, <strong>and</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g parents<br />
20 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
to send their children to school.” 161 To achieve the UN<br />
goal of educati<strong>on</strong> for all by 2015, Africa needs nearly two<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> teachers. However, violent <strong>and</strong> sexual attacks <strong>on</strong><br />
schools discourage teachers <strong>and</strong> students from coming<br />
to class, impeding educati<strong>on</strong>al progress. Children are<br />
often abducted from<br />
classrooms, causing<br />
security fears for parents,<br />
teachers, <strong>and</strong> students.<br />
In 2007, the United<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>s Missi<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
Democratic Republic of<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>go reported that<br />
hundreds of children<br />
were serving in the<br />
North Kivu province. 162<br />
Estimates put the total<br />
number of child soldiers<br />
in the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
at 30,000, despite the<br />
fact that the use of child<br />
soldiers violates many<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
One of the thous<strong>and</strong>s of child soldiers in the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, frequently recruited <strong>and</strong> taken from<br />
schools.<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al laws, including the Geneva<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>. 163<br />
Despite this situati<strong>on</strong>, aid to the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go for educati<strong>on</strong> is limited.<br />
Countries identified as nati<strong>on</strong>al security priorities receive<br />
much more developmental assistance, despite having<br />
more m<strong>on</strong>ey. This leads to the neglect of the world’s<br />
poorest nati<strong>on</strong>s. Development assistance to 27 c<strong>on</strong>flictaffected<br />
developing countries has increased over the past<br />
decade, reaching US$36 billi<strong>on</strong> a year in 2007–2008. 164<br />
However, Iraq received over <strong>on</strong>e-quarter of the total, <strong>and</strong><br />
Afghanistan <strong>and</strong> Iraq together accounted for 38% of the<br />
total. Afghanistan received more aid than the combined<br />
total disbursed to the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go,<br />
Liberia, <strong>and</strong> Sudan. 165<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
guarantees the right to educati<strong>on</strong> for all those living in<br />
Africa. The goal of humanitarian aid is to ensure that<br />
basic needs are met in times of instability <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
Three-quarters of humanitarian aid goes to countries<br />
affected by c<strong>on</strong>flict, yet little of that aid is directed<br />
towards educati<strong>on</strong>, partly because many humanitarian<br />
workers do not view educati<strong>on</strong> as “life-saving.” 166 “In<br />
2009, <strong>on</strong>ly about US$149 milli<strong>on</strong> of humanitarian aid<br />
was used for educati<strong>on</strong>—representing just two percent<br />
of the total aid. Only about <strong>on</strong>e-third of requests for<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> aid receive funding. The amount of aid<br />
requested for educati<strong>on</strong> in the Democratic Republic of<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>go totaled just US$25 milli<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> by mid-2010,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly fifteen percent had been delivered.” 167 Meanwhile,<br />
over two milli<strong>on</strong> people are displaced, <strong>and</strong> around twothirds<br />
of children in c<strong>on</strong>flict-afflicted<br />
areas are out of school.<br />
For those children whose parents<br />
have been killed, injured, or taken by<br />
war, educati<strong>on</strong> might be the <strong>on</strong>ly thing<br />
they have left. A story featured in A<br />
Hidden Crisis shows why educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
particularly in the Democratic Republic<br />
of the C<strong>on</strong>go, is so important:<br />
“Claudine Bunyere, from the<br />
Democratic Republic of the<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go, aged 12, is living proof that<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> can help rebuild lives even<br />
during the most violent c<strong>on</strong>flicts.<br />
Her resolve in the face of adversity<br />
<strong>and</strong> an innovative programme<br />
operated by Save the Children have<br />
kept open the doors to educati<strong>on</strong> opportunity.<br />
The danger is that Claudine’s efforts will be<br />
thwarted by the vagaries of the humanitarian aid<br />
system. Two years ago, local militia groups, the<br />
Mai Mai <strong>and</strong> the Democratic Liberati<strong>on</strong> Forces<br />
of Rw<strong>and</strong>a, attacked Claudine’s village in North<br />
Kivu province. Many were killed, including<br />
Claudine’s parents. But Claudine escaped with<br />
her sister to the town of Masisi, 30 kilometers<br />
away, where she lives in a camp for displaced<br />
people. Her experience is not unusual. While<br />
the government <strong>and</strong> many d<strong>on</strong>ors maintain that<br />
the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go is in a<br />
phase of ‘post-c<strong>on</strong>flict rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>’, militias<br />
<strong>and</strong> government forces c<strong>on</strong>tinue to terrorize<br />
local populati<strong>on</strong>s in the east. Claudine is <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
almost 600,000 displaced people in North Kivu<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e. Unlike most displaced children in the<br />
province, though, she is in school — <strong>and</strong> she is<br />
seizing the opportunity for educati<strong>on</strong> with both<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s. ‘I love my school. It’s not just because<br />
I want to learn <strong>and</strong> enjoy the less<strong>on</strong>s. Here I<br />
can be with friends.’ Claudine is in school for<br />
just <strong>on</strong>e reas<strong>on</strong>. Operating in North Kivu’s war<br />
z<strong>on</strong>e, Save the Children has financed classroom<br />
rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> programs, <strong>and</strong><br />
21
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
trained 124 teachers for 12 schools that together<br />
have enrolled over 8,300 students. Claudine<br />
had completed <strong>on</strong>ly a year of educati<strong>on</strong> when<br />
she arrived in Masisi. Now she is <strong>on</strong>e of 1,155<br />
children aged 10 to 14 enrolled in an accelerated<br />
learning program. She has just spent <strong>on</strong>e school<br />
year catching up, <strong>and</strong> will start the next year in<br />
grade 4.” 168<br />
Without educati<strong>on</strong>, there is no way to end the cycles<br />
of violence terrorizing the Democratic Republic of the<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go. Children will grow up without families, without<br />
learning about the world, <strong>and</strong> without learning to interact<br />
with those who have different worldviews. Essentially,<br />
they cannot become fully functi<strong>on</strong>ing members of a<br />
globalized society. This inability will lead to more war,<br />
terror, <strong>and</strong> destructi<strong>on</strong>, further perpetuating the cycles<br />
of war.<br />
Proposed Soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
CASE STUDIES<br />
In order to increase primary educati<strong>on</strong> around the<br />
world as part of their Millennium Development Goals,<br />
the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s has c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>and</strong> enacted many<br />
different approaches. Many of these methods, <strong>and</strong> others<br />
not covered here, deal with the disparities between<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> rates of boys <strong>and</strong> girls. These approaches often<br />
face obstacles because of the cultural <strong>and</strong> social norms<br />
<strong>and</strong> values that put women in a place where educati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
not c<strong>on</strong>sidered important or necessary.<br />
In Ethiopia, the UN Populati<strong>on</strong> Fund supports<br />
a program called “Berhane Hewan” which advocates<br />
putting an end to child marriages <strong>and</strong> keeping girls<br />
in school l<strong>on</strong>ger. 169 To encourage families to let their<br />
children complete primary school, the families receive a<br />
sheep as a reward if their daughter finishes the program.<br />
In Malawi, the UN Populati<strong>on</strong> Fund is working with<br />
Youth Councils to repeal a law allowing girls as young as<br />
sixteen to be married. 170 As an alternative to married life,<br />
the UN Populati<strong>on</strong> Fund is providing support so girls<br />
can stay in the classroom.<br />
The World Food Program provides school meals,<br />
which act as a str<strong>on</strong>g incentive for parents to send their<br />
children to school, particularly in areas where social<br />
service is rare—such as rural areas, where educati<strong>on</strong> rates<br />
are typically lower than in surrounding urban areas. 171<br />
Free meals help to build the nutriti<strong>on</strong>al foundati<strong>on</strong> that<br />
is essential for a child’s future intellectual development<br />
Graph depicting the indirect casualties of c<strong>on</strong>flicts. With armed<br />
groups increasingly targeting civilians, many of the casualties of war<br />
occur not <strong>on</strong> the battlefield, but in impoverished communities.<br />
<strong>and</strong> physical well-being, staving off malnutriti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the host of accompanying diseases. 172 The program also<br />
reaches out to parents in order to encourage them to<br />
send their daughters to school.<br />
Although it is not an <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> program, the UN<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>and</strong> Social Commissi<strong>on</strong> for Western Asia<br />
has collaborated with UNESCO to address problems<br />
affecting educati<strong>on</strong> in politically unstable envir<strong>on</strong>ments,<br />
which is relevant to the Democratic Republic of<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>go due to its status as a failed state. 173 The<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> was resp<strong>on</strong>sible for infrastructure, while<br />
UNESCO took care of training <strong>and</strong> e-learning. The<br />
initiative facilitated capacity building sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
educati<strong>on</strong> strategy, instructor training, <strong>and</strong> the creati<strong>on</strong><br />
of courses teaching Arabic to n<strong>on</strong>-Arabic speaking Iraqi<br />
schoolchildren, encouraging dialogue <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
across cultures. 174<br />
Potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interpretati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
has both adjudicatory <strong>and</strong> advisory jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>. “The<br />
adjudicatory m<strong>and</strong>ate extends to all cases <strong>and</strong> disputes<br />
submitted to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cerning the interpretati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
22 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
the Charter, the Protocol <strong>and</strong> other relevant human rights<br />
instruments ratified by the states c<strong>on</strong>cerned.” 175 This<br />
means that all other human rights treaties that countries<br />
ratify fall within the purview of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Examples of<br />
such treaties include the UN Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the <strong>Rights</strong><br />
of Minorities by state parties, the Protocol <strong>on</strong> the <strong>Rights</strong><br />
of Women in Africa, <strong>and</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> the<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Welfare of the Child. 176<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s interpretati<strong>on</strong> of these documents is<br />
important because the Commissi<strong>on</strong> has not taken cases<br />
relating to the rights of women or children. “According<br />
to the outgoing Special Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> the <strong>Rights</strong> of<br />
Women in Africa, Commissi<strong>on</strong>er Angela Melo: ‘so far<br />
there have been no cases alleging violati<strong>on</strong> of children’s<br />
<strong>and</strong> women’s rights that have been taken…to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>’.” 177 Despite<br />
the numerous violati<strong>on</strong>s, lack of awareness, poverty,<br />
societal patriarchal attitudes, <strong>and</strong> lack of legal capacity<br />
make it difficult for these cases to be taken to regi<strong>on</strong>al or<br />
domestic courts. Melo advocates for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> to take a<br />
proactive stance when dealing with allegati<strong>on</strong>s in order<br />
to set precedence for lower courts.<br />
Cases c<strong>on</strong>cerning the right to an educati<strong>on</strong> in armed<br />
combat z<strong>on</strong>es are likely to call up<strong>on</strong> the legally binding<br />
force of the Commissi<strong>on</strong> in order for an enforcement<br />
mechanism to be activated. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charter <strong>on</strong> the<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Welfare of the Child is particularly useful for<br />
minority <strong>and</strong> indigenous children because it protects<br />
against the double discriminati<strong>on</strong> they face as children<br />
<strong>and</strong> minorities. 178 It obligates state parties to attempt<br />
to eliminate destructive social practices, such as child<br />
marriages <strong>and</strong> female genital mutilati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said,<br />
“<strong>Human</strong> security… encompasses human rights, good<br />
governance, access to educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> healthcare by<br />
ensuring that each individual has opportunities <strong>and</strong><br />
choices to fulfill his or her potential. Every step in this<br />
directi<strong>on</strong> is also a step towards reducing poverty, achieving<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth, <strong>and</strong> preventing c<strong>on</strong>flicts. Freedom<br />
from want, freedom from fear, <strong>and</strong> the freedom of future<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s to inherit a healthy natural envir<strong>on</strong>mentthese<br />
are the interrelated building blocks of human-<strong>and</strong><br />
therefore nati<strong>on</strong>al-security.” 179<br />
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER<br />
RESEARCH<br />
For those interested in learning about gender theory<br />
in a much more detailed <strong>and</strong> developed way, I would<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
suggest Judith Butler’s Gender Trouble: Feminism <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Subversi<strong>on</strong> of Identity or Feminism Is for Everybody by bell<br />
hooks. Also, Joan Spade <strong>and</strong> Catherine Valentine’s The<br />
Kaleidoscope of Gender has great multi-cultural articles<br />
about gender.<br />
To learn more about gender <strong>and</strong> LGBT rights in Africa,<br />
I would look at reports released by the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development Forum, Millennium<br />
Development Goals Report, <strong>and</strong> the Committee <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Eliminati<strong>on</strong> of Discriminati<strong>on</strong> Against Women. Two<br />
books I found particularly helpful are <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gender<br />
Studies, A Reader <strong>and</strong> Heterosexual Africa? by Marc<br />
Epprecht.<br />
For the Educati<strong>on</strong> in Armed Combat Z<strong>on</strong>es topic,<br />
I would str<strong>on</strong>gly suggest that you look at the report<br />
that was my inspirati<strong>on</strong>-the UNESCO report entitled<br />
A Hidden Crisis: Armed C<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>and</strong> Educati<strong>on</strong>. For a<br />
more in-depth look at the educati<strong>on</strong>al system of the<br />
Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, I would also suggest<br />
reading the World Bank’s country study for regenerati<strong>on</strong><br />
of educati<strong>on</strong> in the nati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
C<strong>on</strong>gratulati<strong>on</strong>s! If you got to this point, you have<br />
finished reading the study guide! (As l<strong>on</strong>g as you didn’t<br />
skip to here…if you did, go back to the beginning <strong>and</strong><br />
try the whole “reading the study guide” again.) I hope<br />
you have enjoyed learning about the two topics as much<br />
as I did <strong>and</strong> are excited to debate them in January.<br />
Until then, spend time researching your individual<br />
character <strong>and</strong> his or her viewpoints. Remember-your<br />
judge was selected as an individual, not as a representative<br />
of a country or a regi<strong>on</strong>, so it is very important that you<br />
know <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> what he or she would think about<br />
each situati<strong>on</strong> that is presented.<br />
Happy researching! As always, if you have any<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s, feel free to get in touch. I can’t wait to meet<br />
you!<br />
<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
23
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Notes<br />
1 Ovey, Clare, <strong>and</strong> Robin White. The European C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>. 5th. Oxford University Press,<br />
2010. 1-11. Print.<br />
2 Morsink, Johannes. The Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Origins, Drafting, <strong>and</strong> Intent. University<br />
of Pennsylvania Press, 200. 4-26. Print.<br />
3 United Nati<strong>on</strong>s. <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Divisi<strong>on</strong>. Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>. 1998. 2 Nov. 2004<br />
.<br />
4 Morsink, Johannes. The Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Origins, Drafting, <strong>and</strong> Intent. University<br />
of Pennsylvania Press, 200. 4-26. Print.<br />
5 Murray, Rachel. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Law. Portl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
OR: Oxford University Press, 2000. 9-10. Print.<br />
6 Murray, Rachel. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Law. Portl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
OR: Oxford University Press, 2000. 9-10. Print.<br />
7 Murray, Rachel. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Law. Portl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
OR: Oxford University Press, 2000. 27-30. Print.<br />
8 Murray, Rachel. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Law. Portl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
OR: Oxford University Press, 2000. 27-30. Print.<br />
9 Murray, Rachel. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Law. Portl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
OR: Oxford University Press, 2000. 27-30. Print.<br />
10 <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>.Instituti<strong>on</strong>al Background . , 2011. Web. 30 Aug 2011.<br />
.<br />
11 <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>.Instituti<strong>on</strong>al Background . , 2011. Web. 30 Aug 2011.<br />
.<br />
12 <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong>.Instituti<strong>on</strong>al Background . , 2011. Web. 30 Aug 2011.<br />
.<br />
13 <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> . Functi<strong>on</strong>s of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Justice. , 2008. Web. 29 Aug 2011. .<br />
14 <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uni<strong>on</strong> . Functi<strong>on</strong>s of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Justice. , 2008. Web. 29 Aug 2011. .<br />
15 United Nati<strong>on</strong>s. Millennium Goals. Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality <strong>and</strong> Empower Women. .<br />
16 Millennium Development Goals Report 2010. New York: United Nati<strong>on</strong>s, 2010. Web. 29 Aug 2011.<br />
.<br />
17 Dougherty, Jill. “U.N. council passes gay rights resoluti<strong>on</strong>.” CNN World 17 June 2011: n. pag. Web. 29 Aug<br />
2011. .<br />
18 United Nati<strong>on</strong>s. Millennium Goals. Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality <strong>and</strong> Empower Women. .<br />
19 World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong>. Female Genital Mutilati<strong>on</strong>. Geneva: , 2011. Web. .<br />
20 World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong>. Female Genital Mutilati<strong>on</strong>. Geneva: , 2011. Web. .<br />
21 Millennium Development Goals Report 2010. New York: United Nati<strong>on</strong>s, 2010. Web. 29 Aug 2011.<br />
.<br />
22 Akokpari, John, <strong>and</strong> Daniel Zimbler. Africa’s <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Architecture. Fanele Center for C<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
Resoluti<strong>on</strong>, 2008. Print.<br />
23 Kirchick, James. “South Africa’s gay betrayal.” Guardian21 August 2007: n. pag. Web. 30 Aug 2011. .<br />
24 Jolly, Joanna. “<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Lesbians Dem<strong>and</strong> Change.” BBC News Africa. 27 Feb 2008: n. page. Web. 8 Oct.<br />
2011. .<br />
25 Cole, Catherine, Takyiwaa Manuh , <strong>and</strong> Stephan Miescher.Africa After Gender?. Bloomingt<strong>on</strong>: Indiana<br />
University Press, 2007. Print.<br />
26 United States of America. Ug<strong>and</strong>a-Bureau of Democracy, <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Labor. , 2007. Web. 30 Aug<br />
2011. .<br />
27 United States of America. Ug<strong>and</strong>a-Bureau of Democracy, <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Labor. , 2007. Web. 30 Aug<br />
2011. .<br />
28 Ahmed, Saeed. “Why is Ug<strong>and</strong>a attacking homosexuality?.” CNN 8 December 2009: n. pag. Web. 30<br />
Aug 2011. .<br />
29 Wadhams, Nick. “Ug<strong>and</strong>a: Mourning Murder of Gay-<strong>Rights</strong> Activist.” Time Magazine 28 Jan. 2011: n. pag.<br />
Web. 29 Aug 2011. .<br />
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24 <strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies
<str<strong>on</strong>g>African</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Court</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>and</strong> Peoples’ <strong>Rights</strong><br />
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154 Titeca, Kristof, <strong>and</strong> Tom de Herdt. “Real Governance Bey<strong>on</strong>d the ‘Failed State: Negotiating Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
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155 Titeca, Kristof, <strong>and</strong> Tom de Herdt. “Real Governance Bey<strong>on</strong>d the ‘Failed State: Negotiating Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
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156 Titeca, Kristof, <strong>and</strong> Tom de Herdt. “Real Governance Bey<strong>on</strong>d the ‘Failed State: Negotiating Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
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<strong>Specialized</strong> Agencies<br />
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