Social, Humanitarian and Cultural - Harvard Model United Nations
Social, Humanitarian and Cultural - Harvard Model United Nations
Social, Humanitarian and Cultural - Harvard Model United Nations
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<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong><br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
Introduction 4<br />
History of the Committee 5<br />
Topic A 5<br />
Topic B 15<br />
Position Paper Requirements 26<br />
Closing Remarks 27<br />
Bibliography 30<br />
Topic A:<br />
Topic B:<br />
International Collaboration in<br />
Science<br />
Internet Censorship<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
History of the Problem<br />
Current Situation<br />
Past Actions<br />
Proposed Solutions<br />
Questions a Resolution Must Answer<br />
Bloc Positions<br />
Suggestions for Further Research<br />
5<br />
7<br />
9<br />
12<br />
13<br />
14<br />
15<br />
15<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
History of the Problem<br />
Current Situation<br />
Past Actions<br />
Proposed Solutions<br />
Questions a Resolution Must Answer<br />
Bloc Positions<br />
Suggestions for Further Research<br />
15<br />
17<br />
19<br />
21<br />
23<br />
24<br />
24<br />
26<br />
General Assembly<br />
General Assembly<br />
1
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2011<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er N. Barrett<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Anusha Tomar<br />
Director-General<br />
Kevin Lee<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administration<br />
Julia S. Howl<strong>and</strong><br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Stephanie Oviedo<br />
Comptroller<br />
Christopher D. Coey<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Substantive Support<br />
Erfan Soliman<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
Jonathan K. Yip<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Economic <strong>and</strong> <strong>Social</strong> Council<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
It is an honor <strong>and</strong> a privilege to welcome you to the fifty-seventh session of the <strong>Harvard</strong><br />
<strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> General Assembly! The General Assembly has occupied a unique<br />
place in history since its founding, as the only forum in which all nations in the world can<br />
come together <strong>and</strong> receive equal representation. It serves as an opportunity for nations<br />
to discuss questions <strong>and</strong> crises of the utmost international importance on equal footing.<br />
The topics that the General Assembly debates reflect the full breadth of issues of concern<br />
across the globe. Our organ is the most diverse of any <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> body, <strong>and</strong>, as such,<br />
has responsibility beyond what may initially be evident.<br />
HMUN’s simulation of the General Assembly will be an experience of a lifetime for you<br />
in many ways. As delegates, you will practice firsth<strong>and</strong> the foundation of international<br />
diplomacy <strong>and</strong> debate, <strong>and</strong> hone skills that will be vital for years to come, such as the<br />
ability to compromise, negotiate, <strong>and</strong> effectively present your ideas in a manner dedicated<br />
to achieving a solution. As students, you will explore the nuances of some of the most<br />
complex issues of our day, <strong>and</strong> look beyond them to devise possible solutions <strong>and</strong> produce<br />
resolutions that, in some instances, may contain ideas that are even more effective than<br />
those presented in the real <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>. Finally, as global citizens, you will broaden your<br />
horizons by adopting an international perspective, exchanging ideas, <strong>and</strong> forging friendships<br />
with students from across the country <strong>and</strong> across the world.<br />
As John F. Kennedy Jr. once said, “One person can change the world, <strong>and</strong> every person<br />
should try.” I commend you on embodying this attitude <strong>and</strong> taking a step toward being such<br />
a person by choosing to engage with your peers <strong>and</strong> to discuss problems that have immense<br />
ramifications. To be able to reap the full benefits of this experience, you should begin<br />
with this guide <strong>and</strong> then conduct your own individual research. A successful committee<br />
experience is dependent in large part on your willingness <strong>and</strong> readiness to participate. Our<br />
directors are some of the best that HMUN has ever seen, <strong>and</strong> I encourage all of you to take<br />
advantage of their expertise <strong>and</strong> get to know them both before <strong>and</strong> during conference. Best<br />
of luck in your preparations for HMUN, <strong>and</strong> please do not hesitate to contact me via email<br />
with any questions or concerns you may have before then. Enjoy the fall <strong>and</strong> I look forward<br />
to meeting you in January!<br />
Sincerely,<br />
Erfan Soliman<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 496-4472<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
Erfan Soliman<br />
Under-Secretary-General for the General Assembly<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2011<br />
274 Kirkl<strong>and</strong> Mail Center<br />
Cambridge MA, 02138<br />
soliman@harvardmun.org<br />
2<br />
Specialized General Assembly Agencies
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2011<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er N. Barrett<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Anusha Tomar<br />
Director-General<br />
Kevin Lee<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administration<br />
Julia S. Howl<strong>and</strong><br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Stephanie Oviedo<br />
Comptroller<br />
Christopher D. Coey<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Substantive Support<br />
Erfan Soliman<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
Jonathan K. Yip<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Economic <strong>and</strong> <strong>Social</strong> Council<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
Welcome to <strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>! My name is Juliana <strong>and</strong> I am very excited to be<br />
directing the <strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Cultural</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Humanitarian</strong> Committee in January, which I anticipate<br />
will be an interesting, dynamic, <strong>and</strong> fun committee. A bit about me: I am a sophomore at<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong>, originally from New York City. I intend on studying either Computer Science or<br />
Physics, but I am also interested in everything about French culture, from the language to<br />
the music to the Nutella strawberry crepes (Music-wise, if you’re interested you should check<br />
out the BB Brunes, Tryo, <strong>and</strong> Coeur De Pirate).<br />
This year, SOCHUM will bring together high school students from across the globe to<br />
discuss one of two topics of recent international significance. I very much hope that you will<br />
find these topics pertinent to the countries you will be representing as well as beneficial to<br />
learn more about as students. I chose these topics in the hopes that they will be relevant to<br />
a high school audience, as each explores the effect of technology on society <strong>and</strong> culture. The<br />
first concerns internet censorship, which has been at the forefront of international concern<br />
lately due to pressure Google has received from various countries to restrict data available<br />
on the web. The second concerns how countries, developing <strong>and</strong> developed, should best<br />
go about collaborating in scientific pursuits. The press that CERN has received lately after<br />
successfully colliding particles at 7 TEV in Geneva, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, is the stimulus for this<br />
topic.<br />
The very best thing that you can do as delegates in preparation for SOCHUM 2011 is to<br />
get excited for a fabulous, albeit rigorous experience, <strong>and</strong> to open up your minds to creative<br />
methods for shaping the future of our world. I hope that you have yet to debate either<br />
censorship (for example, as it relates to Google) or international scientific collaboration (for<br />
example, as it relates to CERN) in other conferences, <strong>and</strong> both topics are only of relatively<br />
recent concern. Thus, you as delegates have a lot of room to propose new <strong>and</strong> innovative<br />
ideas, as long as they are in line with your country’s policy. In other words, it may be<br />
tempting for those of you who have been to conferences before to propose similar solutions<br />
to divergent topics, but I encourage you to take on more of an entrepreneurial <strong>and</strong> innovative<br />
mind-set in crafting resolutions, which will make committee more engaging for everyone.<br />
As you research, keep in mind that science <strong>and</strong> technology are developing more quickly than<br />
ever, <strong>and</strong> thus there is no set framework on how to address either of these topics. I want<br />
to hear some offbeat <strong>and</strong> new ideas in committee to compliment proven UN reactionary<br />
mechanisms, but also keep in mind that, as SOCHUM, these topics should be discussed<br />
primarily in light of their social, cultural <strong>and</strong> humanitarian influences.<br />
While the background guide, as well as research you will do concerning policy, will provide<br />
a roadmap for framing debate, coming to committee with enthusiasm, knowledge of policy,<br />
as well as a desire to develop new <strong>and</strong> clever protocols, will make the experience much more<br />
enjoyable. Until then, I strongly encourage you to email me to introduce yourselves, or to<br />
inquire about questions or concerns you may have. I am very much looking forward to<br />
SOCHUM, <strong>and</strong> I hope you are too! See you in January!<br />
Sincerely,<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 496-4472<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
General Assembly<br />
Juliana Cherston<br />
Juliana Cherston<br />
Director, <strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2011<br />
sochum@harvardmun.org<br />
3
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
International Collaboration in Science<br />
On 30 March, 2010, CERN, the world famous<br />
physics research facility based in Geneva, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
successfully achieved high-energy particle collisions at 7<br />
TEV. These collisions occurred within the Large Hadron<br />
Collider (the LHC), a giant particle accelerator buried<br />
under Switzerl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> France in which particles are<br />
propelled around at speeds nearing that of light. This<br />
success represented a gr<strong>and</strong> step for physicists in their<br />
quest to seek scientific evidence for the great mysteries<br />
of the universe. As spokesperson<br />
Fabiola Gianotti stated in CERN’s<br />
press release: “With these recordshattering<br />
collision energies, the<br />
LHC experiments are propelled into<br />
a vast region to explore, <strong>and</strong> the hunt begins for dark<br />
matter, new forces, new dimensions <strong>and</strong> the Higgs boson.”<br />
CERN is the epicenter of great excitement in the<br />
frontier of physics, but with great excitement comes<br />
a number of concerns that have been vocalized by<br />
various countries. Namely, recent developments at<br />
CERN compel us to examine how scientific research is<br />
conducted on a global scale, <strong>and</strong> to examine the potential<br />
for future international collaboration in science. One<br />
concern that has been raised is how to justify spending<br />
so much money, <strong>and</strong> dedicating so much energy towards<br />
theoretical fields of science in the context of poverty,<br />
hunger, <strong>and</strong> issues that are perceived by some as more<br />
directly of our concern. Austria, for example, briefly<br />
considered pulling funding from CERN last year, <strong>and</strong><br />
Germany, France, <strong>and</strong> the UK currently top the list of<br />
financial contributors. Furthermore, the LHC alone has<br />
an annual power consumption of 800,000 megawatt<br />
hours.<br />
When CERN was first created in the early 1950’s (in<br />
collaboration with UNESCO), Isador Rabi, an American<br />
physicist, tabled a resolution that would have fought<br />
for the development of a number of regional scientific<br />
laboratories in order to motivate collaboration. Instead,<br />
in 1951 UNESCO passed the resolution that formally<br />
established CERN, <strong>and</strong> by 1953 12 founding states<br />
signed the CERN convention.<br />
Over fifty years later, we ask: what now? The primary<br />
goal of this committee is to analyze CERN’s relationship<br />
with various blocks of countries—namely developing<br />
countries, European countries, Middle Eastern countries,<br />
<strong>and</strong> East Asian countries—<strong>and</strong> to play a role in policy<br />
“CERN is the epicenter of great<br />
excitement in the frontier of<br />
physics...”<br />
reform to continue motivating the progress of scientific<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing within a cohesive <strong>and</strong> collaborative<br />
environment. Under CERN’s current philosophy,<br />
developing countries are asked to produce materials<br />
used to build the detectors rather than provide financial<br />
contributions, <strong>and</strong> CERN has made great efforts towards<br />
data distribution in these nations. Are there additional<br />
initiatives that should be taken?<br />
This topic is meant to forge a reactionary debate<br />
following events at CERN, <strong>and</strong> while debate should<br />
center around the future role of CERN within the<br />
international community, there is also room to talk<br />
more broadly about how to forge<br />
better communication in scientific<br />
research, <strong>and</strong> furthermore how to<br />
prioritize scientific research. Analyze<br />
<strong>and</strong> react to your country’s policies<br />
with CERN, consider CERN’s role in contemporary<br />
society, <strong>and</strong> create a vision for the future of scientific<br />
collaboration that is in line with your country’s policies<br />
in preparation for debate.<br />
Internet Censorship<br />
In April, 2010, Google released a tool entitled<br />
Government Requests which disclosed government data<br />
requests directed at Google. Brazil, Germany, India, <strong>and</strong><br />
the <strong>United</strong> States top the list for removal requests, <strong>and</strong><br />
Brazil, the <strong>United</strong> States, the <strong>United</strong> Kingdom, <strong>and</strong> India<br />
top the list for data requests. Meanwhile, following a<br />
cyber attack in January of 2010, Google officially stopped<br />
censoring data in China, redirecting users to uncensored<br />
data from Hong Kong’s servers. The trouble that Google<br />
has faced in its quest to divulge the world’s information<br />
is illustrative of the conflict between governmental<br />
censorship <strong>and</strong> the right to maintain access to global<br />
information.<br />
Human Rights Watch (HRW) has attempted<br />
to perform thorough investigations into censorship<br />
throughout the world. In one case study, HRW<br />
reported that a Tunisian internet café had a sign reading:<br />
“Opening disk drives is strictly forbidden. Do not touch<br />
the parameters of the configurations. It is forbidden to<br />
access prohibited sites. Thank you.” Tunisia is not alone<br />
in regularly blocking information concerning human<br />
rights abuses. Human Rights Watch also writes that<br />
Iran is known to imprison journalists <strong>and</strong> bloggers that<br />
publish words of dissent against the government, <strong>and</strong><br />
Egypt has detained people in the past for various illegal<br />
online activities.<br />
4<br />
Specialized General Assembly Agencies
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
While countries recognize the necessity of the<br />
internet in the regulation of economics <strong>and</strong> politics in<br />
modern times, many countries simultaneously have<br />
blocked massive amounts of data from users. The goal<br />
of this topic area is to consider various proposals for<br />
reacting to internet censorship, <strong>and</strong> also to develop<br />
new <strong>and</strong> innovative policies. Human Rights Watch, for<br />
example, has suggested releasing all those detained for<br />
“exercising their right to free expression,” unblocking<br />
websites “that carry material protected by the rights to<br />
free expression <strong>and</strong> free information,” among other strict<br />
<strong>and</strong> clear courses of action. Amnesty International has<br />
also performed extensive research into online censorship,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in 2006 presented their findings at the UN Internet<br />
Governance Forum. In particular, Amnesty urged China<br />
to give domestic journalists the same rights as foreign<br />
journalists.<br />
The primary questions that need to be addressed<br />
concern reacting to Google’s latest stance on censorship,<br />
as well as deciding when, by national <strong>and</strong> international<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards, a country is just in requesting information<br />
from companies or denying information from their<br />
citizens. The issue of censorship is highly complex <strong>and</strong><br />
has recently drawn significant international attention,<br />
following Google’s policy modifications. Thus, this is<br />
a particularly opportune time for the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong><br />
to outline clear suggestions for reform in relation to<br />
censorship.<br />
HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE<br />
The <strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Cultural</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Humanitarian</strong> Organization<br />
(SOCHUM), is the Third Committee of the <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong> (UN) General Assembly, established with<br />
the signing of the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Charter in 1945.<br />
According to Articles 9 <strong>and</strong> 10 of the Charter, committees<br />
composing the General Assembly have the right to put<br />
forth suggestions to the Security Council <strong>and</strong> to <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong> member states, implying that all resolutions<br />
passed by SOCHUM are unbinding <strong>and</strong> thus will only<br />
be effective if they have received widespread support<br />
among member states, all of whom are present on<br />
General Assembly committees. 1<br />
Two of the primary roles of the General Assembly<br />
that are pertinent to the Third Committee are, as<br />
stated in Article 13 of the UN Charter: “promoting<br />
international cooperation in the economic, social,<br />
cultural, educational, <strong>and</strong> health fields, <strong>and</strong> assisting in<br />
the realization of human rights <strong>and</strong> fundamental freedoms<br />
for all” 2 (UN Charter, Article 13). The goal of discussing<br />
General Assembly<br />
international collaboration in science is, in the spirit of<br />
SOCHUM’s commitment to international cooperation<br />
<strong>and</strong> social concerns, to address how to best foster a<br />
dynamic working environment for scientific endeavors<br />
in a way that is inclusive of developing <strong>and</strong> developed<br />
nations, <strong>and</strong> that does not discriminate against women<br />
or minorities. In recent years, however, SOCHUM’s<br />
emphasis has been related on Human Rights concerns,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in the General Assembly’s 60 th session, for example,<br />
31 out of 62 resolutions addressed issues of human<br />
rights. 3 In discussing internet censorship, we are more<br />
broadly addressing the infringement of a person’s right<br />
to access information.<br />
In the past, SOCHUM is known for having made<br />
great strides in empowering women worldwide. In 1979,<br />
the General Assembly passed The Convention On the<br />
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against<br />
Women, which, in the words of the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>, is<br />
described as an “international bill of rights for women.” 4<br />
The Committee also responds to issues of racial<br />
discrimination, oversees the recently formed Human<br />
Rights Council, protects the rights of refugees, preserves<br />
the right to free expression, reacts to social concerns such<br />
as crime prevention <strong>and</strong> drug control, <strong>and</strong>, most broadly,<br />
promotes international collaboration. 5 The 64 th Session<br />
of SOCHUM was chaired by Normans Penke of Latvia,<br />
announced in Press Release GA/10831 in June, 2009.<br />
SOCHUM is a large <strong>and</strong> active committee dedicated<br />
to addressing issues of social, cultural, <strong>and</strong> humanitarian<br />
concern. Due to the extensive responsibilities of<br />
the committee, it regularly collaborates with such<br />
organizations as the UN Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture<br />
Organization (FAO), The UN Environmental<br />
Programme (UNEP), The UN High Commissioner for<br />
Refugees (UNHCR), The UN Education, Scientific, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Cultural</strong> Organization (UNESCO), The <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong><br />
Children’s Fund (UNICEF), <strong>and</strong> the World Health<br />
Organization (WHO), <strong>and</strong> thus plays a pivotal role in<br />
shaping the focus <strong>and</strong> progress of the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>.<br />
TOPIC A: INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC<br />
COLLABORATION<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
The role of science has grown dramatically more<br />
significant in the modern era: fueled by advances in<br />
communications technology, as well as the ambitious<br />
determination of scientists to pursue large scale (<strong>and</strong><br />
5
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
thus expensive) projects, science has become increasingly<br />
more collaborative in nature. The International Council<br />
for Science (ICSU) states that “Progress in science is made<br />
through the worldwide exchange of ideas, information,<br />
data, <strong>and</strong> materials… science is a cooperative exercise that<br />
thrives on open international interaction <strong>and</strong> exchange.” 6<br />
Science has taken a front seat in the global arena,<br />
<strong>and</strong> today, it is your job to ensure that all nations <strong>and</strong><br />
all people have the opportunity to engage fully in the<br />
excitement. In this topic area, you will focus on the<br />
social implications of large scale international scientific<br />
organizations. Namely, how large collaborations like<br />
the International Space Station (ISS) <strong>and</strong> CERN (le<br />
Conseil Européene Pour La Recherche Nucléaire) should<br />
best cooperate with developing nations, politically<br />
controversial nations, <strong>and</strong> minority groups in order to<br />
maximize the spread of scientific knowledge <strong>and</strong> entice<br />
the world in cutting edge research, while preserving<br />
the cultural <strong>and</strong> humanitarian rights of scientists from<br />
developing nations.<br />
In theory, scientific organizations are a remarkable<br />
demonstration of global unity. CERN, for example, which<br />
hosts visiting scientists of 85 nationalities, successfully<br />
turned on the Large Hadron Collider in March 2010,<br />
which smashes together protons at speeds near that of<br />
light, representing one of the gr<strong>and</strong>est successes of a<br />
major scientific collaboration. Furthermore, CERN has<br />
made active efforts towards developing an environment<br />
inclusive of all nations. South Africa, for example,<br />
recently joined the ATLAS collaboration; ATLAS is<br />
one of the two major experiments at the Large Hadron<br />
Collider. Reports, released during the 2010 World Cup<br />
matches, read as follows: “The South Africa Cluster has<br />
been unanimously admitted as a new member of the<br />
ATLAS collaboration, increasing the number of ATLAS<br />
institutions to 174. Representatives of the SA cluster<br />
were greeted…with Vuvuzela blowing.” 7<br />
However, great limitations to the large scale scientific<br />
collaboration remain, defined by the ICSU as threats<br />
to the freedom of association, which refers to travel<br />
restrictions for scientists, <strong>and</strong> threats to the freedom<br />
to pursue science, which refers to political restrictions<br />
placed on scientists. 8 If scientists from certain countries<br />
cannot travel, then those countries are left pursuing<br />
science in isolation, <strong>and</strong> some may deem the act of<br />
scientists being denied access to collaborations based<br />
on political, religious, ethnic or gender background as<br />
a case of discrimination. It remains a great concern to<br />
define how the international community should respond<br />
to cases where scientists are suspected of threatening<br />
The International Space Station, a major success in international collaboration<br />
6<br />
Specialized General Assembly Agencies
scientific security—such as one CERN scientist suspected<br />
of possessing ties to Al Qaeda in 2009—or cases where<br />
national politics interfere with global pursuits—such as<br />
the 2005 murder of Iraqi professor Wissam Al-Hashimi,<br />
a former vice-President of the International Union of<br />
Geological Sciences. 9<br />
Efforts to develop science into a globally inclusive<br />
pursuit have resulted in issues of critical concern to<br />
the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>, ranging from the alienation of<br />
developing nations that may lack the resources to<br />
contribute substantially global scientific endeavors, to<br />
an onslaught of discriminating<br />
behavior. The proper course of action<br />
to jump-start the development of<br />
international collaborations while<br />
preserving fundamental rights<br />
remains to be determined. How<br />
developing <strong>and</strong> developed nations should go about<br />
collaborating, considering the unequal balance of power<br />
<strong>and</strong> economic strength involved, remains a major policy<br />
dispute. 10<br />
History of the Problem<br />
For centuries, collaboration among scientists has been<br />
necessary in order to establish fundamental scientific<br />
<strong>and</strong> societal st<strong>and</strong>ards, such as the st<strong>and</strong>ardization of<br />
time zones <strong>and</strong> the development of consistent units of<br />
measurement. 11 However, at the dawn of the 20 th century,<br />
scientific collaboration among nations really began to<br />
take structure. In 1899, the International Association<br />
of Academies was established in Wiesbaden, Germany,<br />
uniting many prominent scientific institutions of the<br />
time like the Royal Society of London, the Academia<br />
dei Lincei in Italy, <strong>and</strong> the national Academy of the<br />
USA. The IAA’s charter stated that “The object of the<br />
association shall be to initiate <strong>and</strong> otherwise to promote<br />
scientific undertakings of general interest, proposed by<br />
one or more of the Academies, <strong>and</strong> to facilitate scientific<br />
intercourse between different countries.” 12<br />
After World War I, the International Research Council<br />
came into being. Its goals were to coordinate international<br />
scientific efforts, to create useful associations, <strong>and</strong> to<br />
communicate with relevant governments. 13 The ICSU<br />
continued to work on international st<strong>and</strong>ards in science,<br />
such as the development of a table of constants. In 1945,<br />
41 countries united to establish UNESCO through<br />
the newly formed <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the ICSU was<br />
the first NGO signed in by UNESCO. Henri Laugier,<br />
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
“For centuries, collaboration among<br />
scientists has been necessary in order<br />
to establish fundamental scientific<br />
<strong>and</strong> societal st<strong>and</strong>ards...”<br />
assistant Secretary General for the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>, saw<br />
value in the development of international laboratories,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in 1956, UNESCO founded CERN. 14 Throughout<br />
recent history, scientific collaboration has helped to<br />
bring societies together, even during periods of political<br />
turmoil. CERN, for example, worked with scientists in<br />
Eastern Europe <strong>and</strong> Russia even during the Cold War. 15<br />
As the 20 th century progressed, more emphasis was<br />
placed on the inclusion of developing nations in scientific<br />
pursuits, as can be seen in the creation of TWAS (Third<br />
World Academy of Sciences), TWNSO (Third World<br />
Network of Scientific Organizations)<br />
<strong>and</strong> in 1993, TWOWS (Third World<br />
Organization of Women in Science).<br />
In 2006, TWAS <strong>and</strong> TWNSO helped<br />
to form COSTIS, an organization<br />
that promotes science-based<br />
economic development in developing countries <strong>and</strong><br />
promotes south-south <strong>and</strong> north-south collaboration. 16<br />
This organization is of particular interest to developing<br />
nations because its focus is on methods of scientific<br />
development that motivate economic growth, such as<br />
water purification <strong>and</strong> energy efficiency technologies.<br />
TWAS, an organization run through UNESCO <strong>and</strong><br />
funded primarily by the Italian Government, also<br />
provides incentives for scientists to remain in developing<br />
nations, such as eight monetary prizes per year awarded<br />
to scientists who have spent at least ten years working in<br />
a developing nation, as well as the TWAS-AAS-Microsoft<br />
monetary award for African scientists with distinguished<br />
achievements in computer science. 17<br />
The ICSU<br />
Although organizations such as TWAS have been<br />
active <strong>and</strong> effective, The ICSU currently dominates the<br />
world’s stage when it comes to motivating international<br />
scientific collaboration, its members comprising<br />
111 scientific bodies, 29 scientific unions, <strong>and</strong> 134<br />
countries. 18 The ICSU has frequently defended the rights<br />
of scientists seeking visas for international travel. In the<br />
1970s <strong>and</strong> 1980s, the ICSU defended Eastern European<br />
Scientists who were denied visas to attend scientific<br />
meetings in Western nations. In the 1980s, for example,<br />
Taiwanese scientists were often denied visas by mainl<strong>and</strong><br />
China, Chinese scientists struggled to gain visas to Israel,<br />
Iraqis experienced difficulty obtaining visas for Sweden<br />
<strong>and</strong> South Korea, <strong>and</strong> Cuban scientists failed to obtain<br />
visas to the US <strong>and</strong> Australia. The ICSU was frequently<br />
successful in working with governments to reverse visa<br />
General Assembly<br />
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decisions, <strong>and</strong> when the ICSU failed to do so, it took<br />
other courses of action. 19 For example, in 1988 the<br />
ICSU General Assembly was relocated from Japan to<br />
China because Japan refused to administer visas to South<br />
African scientists. 20<br />
In 2002, the ICSU<br />
strongly condemned a<br />
boycott of Israeli scientists<br />
sponsored by the <strong>United</strong><br />
Kingdom, which had<br />
come in response to the<br />
Israeli treatment of Palestinian<br />
students. The boycott became<br />
so severe that two Israeli<br />
scientists were fired from<br />
British scientific journal<br />
boards. The ICSU has<br />
also defended the rights of<br />
scientists in countries where<br />
speaking about topics such<br />
as health, education, or<br />
environmental issues in<br />
some cases result in torture,<br />
denial of medical treatment<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or arrest.<br />
In 2006, Southern African<br />
nations <strong>and</strong> Japan launched<br />
the Southern African Science<br />
<strong>and</strong> Technology Community<br />
(SASTeC) which is an<br />
organization of embassy staff members from southern<br />
Africa located in Japan. The goal of this organization is to<br />
organize scientific exchange programs <strong>and</strong> to formulate<br />
methods for data sharing. Japan also agreed to fund a<br />
number of research projects within Africa. 21<br />
The ICSU: Freedom of Speech <strong>and</strong> Persecuted<br />
Scientists<br />
In the 1980s, the ICSU intervened on behalf of<br />
physicist Andrei Sakharov, who was persecuted by the<br />
Soviet Union for expressing concern over uncontrolled<br />
progress <strong>and</strong> development as well as potentially dangerous<br />
applications of science. In the 1990s, various organizations<br />
intervened in response to environmentalist Wangeri<br />
Maathai, who had criticized Kenyan deforestation <strong>and</strong><br />
was imprisoned as a result, as well as Yuri B<strong>and</strong>azhevsky,<br />
a research scientist who was imprisoned after expressing<br />
concern over Belarusian policies on the detrimental<br />
health effects of Chernobyl. 22 Such cases of persecution<br />
represented a severe obstacle to collaborative pursuits.<br />
Case Study: International Space Station<br />
As the cold war came to a close, US President Ronald<br />
Reagan announced that NASA would construct a space<br />
station, <strong>and</strong> furthermore, that this project would be<br />
collaborative in nature: Japan, France, Canada, <strong>and</strong> West<br />
The Gemini South Telescope in Chile. Developing nations occasionally provide useful physical resources,<br />
such as tall mountains, for performing scientific research <strong>and</strong> may help motivate developed nations<br />
to collaborate globally<br />
Germany all helped to fund the project, <strong>and</strong> later on,<br />
Russia was invited to join as well. However, the <strong>United</strong><br />
States took a leadership role from the start. Eugene<br />
Skolnikoff, A professor at the Massachusetts Institute<br />
of Technology who was involved with the ISS said: “We<br />
would decide what we wanted to do <strong>and</strong> tell others what<br />
to do <strong>and</strong> pony up the money. We tended to do this<br />
unilaterally <strong>and</strong> tell the others they had to go along.” 23<br />
In 2003, the collaborative nature of the project, however,<br />
finally began to show. Following a cease on US space flight<br />
after NASA’s Columbia shuttle exploded, NASA turned<br />
to the space station’s Russian teams to bring supplies to<br />
the station <strong>and</strong> to retrieve the astronauts on board; these<br />
flights were paid for by the European nations involved.<br />
In 2010, there was consensus that president Obama’s<br />
space plan is far more internationally collaborative<br />
in nature than that of previous US presidents. Eliott<br />
Pulhamm, head of the Space Foundation, applauded the<br />
collaborative tone of Obama’s policy statements, stating<br />
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that cooperation “is essential to bringing the benefits of<br />
space to the greatest number of people of the planet.”<br />
One example of enhanced collaboration comes through<br />
the sharing of data concerning current satellite locations,<br />
which acts as a confidence booster between nations <strong>and</strong><br />
helps to prevent unforeseen spacecraft collisions. 24<br />
Current Situation<br />
In a 2010 interview, ICSU Executive Director<br />
Deliang Chen stated that “Many of the problems we face<br />
are global in nature, covering a broad range of disciplines.<br />
Resources are quite limited at national level. We have to<br />
have more international cooperation efforts to achieve<br />
the goals necessary for society.” 25 Non-governmental<br />
organizations such as Sweden’s Sida, the World Bank,<br />
<strong>and</strong> NATO have all provided extensive funding for<br />
international scientific projects. 26 The increased number<br />
of scientific papers with authors of multiple nationalities<br />
suggests that international collaboration is on the rise; 27<br />
specifically, the percent of internationally co-authored<br />
papers nearly doubled between 1990 <strong>and</strong> 2000. 28<br />
However, studies analyzing such statistics often fail<br />
to address why such a transformation is taking place, for<br />
which certain theories have been proposed <strong>and</strong> will soon<br />
be elaborated upon: developing countries see benefits<br />
to cooperating with developed countries, increased<br />
division exists betweens scientific fields, there has been<br />
increased investment in science, there has been growth of<br />
communications technology <strong>and</strong> international trade, <strong>and</strong><br />
large scale projects require financial contributions from<br />
multiple countries in order to thrive. However, scientists<br />
should be wary of resorting to international organizations<br />
purely for financial issues, seeing as competition among<br />
different laboratories or organizations helps push research<br />
forward more swiftly. 29<br />
Wagner <strong>and</strong> Leydesdorff: Counter-theories<br />
In order to properly assess how to drive scientific<br />
collaboration, it is important to study theories of why<br />
global interaction is on the rise, <strong>and</strong> Wagner <strong>and</strong> Lydesdorff<br />
present compelling conclusions. Specifically, they argue<br />
that the aforementioned explanations are insufficient to<br />
explain growth in scientific collaboration over the last<br />
two decades. 30 Some additional factors that may have<br />
stimulated an increase in co-authored papers include preestablished<br />
special programs, which may account for the<br />
increased co-authorship between Sc<strong>and</strong>inavian <strong>and</strong> Latin<br />
American <strong>and</strong> African countries, as well as the increasing<br />
political cohesion of the European Union. Some authors<br />
General Assembly<br />
have claimed that increased collaboration has come as<br />
a result of core scientific countries, whose behaviors<br />
are adopted by “peripheral countries.” However, in the<br />
1990s it was more the case that developing nations would<br />
link to regional hubs rather than global science centers.<br />
Another theory suggested that as science becomes<br />
more specialized, scientists must look further, perhaps<br />
often internationally, to find colleagues with similar<br />
research interests. To test this theory, Wagner <strong>and</strong><br />
Leydesdorff in 2003 performed studies that concluded<br />
that while seismology is a more specialized field than<br />
geophysics, it is also more internationalized, <strong>and</strong><br />
furthermore, that based on six case studies, international<br />
collaboration has been growing across all scientific fields,<br />
both broad <strong>and</strong> specialized. 31 Furthermore, it is true that<br />
large scale projects with high budgets, such as accelerator<br />
experiments or space research, often require contributions<br />
pooled from multiple countries. However again, the<br />
authors point out that collaboration is increasing in all<br />
fields of science, <strong>and</strong> not just in reputedly high-budget<br />
fields. 32<br />
As for the growth in public support for research, while<br />
it is logical that developing countries may be increasingly<br />
interested in participating in international collaboration,<br />
this theory does not explain the motivations of developing<br />
nations. The authors instead suggest that collaboration is<br />
motivated by the ‘recognition <strong>and</strong> rewards’ mechanisms<br />
within science, where scientists seek to publish papers<br />
with well-known researchers, <strong>and</strong> researchers seek out<br />
collaborators who are “most likely to enhance their<br />
productivity <strong>and</strong> credibility,” namely, those who are most<br />
likely to produce new knowledge. 33 Thus, they suggest<br />
that policy makers should be wary of knowledge leaks<br />
– for example, a scientist may uncover results that are<br />
considered valuable to a corporation in another country<br />
<strong>and</strong> may choose, for his or her benefits, to exploit the<br />
data there. 34<br />
Existing Collaboration <strong>Model</strong>s<br />
Two types of collaboration models exist: bottom<br />
up collaboration, in which individual scientists work<br />
together informally, <strong>and</strong> top down collaboration, in<br />
which a contractual agreement is signed <strong>and</strong> government<br />
authorities are involved. 35 Many scientists, including<br />
former CERN Director General Chris Llewellyn-<br />
Smith, are against top-down approaches. 36 In the case<br />
of CERN, physicists in the USA, Russia, <strong>and</strong> India put<br />
pressure on their governments, ultimately persuading<br />
these governments to sponsor scientific involvement at<br />
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CERN. 37 Informal collaboration allows scientists from<br />
developed countries to access <strong>and</strong> work with scientists<br />
from underdeveloped countries with specific skills <strong>and</strong><br />
gives access to regions of geological or environmental<br />
interest to scientists, both for study <strong>and</strong> for the<br />
development of special facilities, such as telescopes placed<br />
on top of mountains in Chile <strong>and</strong> Hawaii. Collaboration<br />
is also beneficial if scientists wish to study diseases<br />
prevalent in developing regions. 38 Developing nations,<br />
however, must ensure that they are reaping fair benefits<br />
from research performed, such as a share in intellectual<br />
property rights. 39<br />
Communications Technology <strong>and</strong> “The Grid”<br />
The Internet has facilitated collaboration among<br />
nations, allowing scientists to work together on papers<br />
without physical proximity, <strong>and</strong> also allowing scientists<br />
to perform complex data analysis with simply a<br />
computer <strong>and</strong> an internet connection. In fact, the World<br />
Wide Web was originally designed for the purpose of<br />
facilitating collaboration among scientists. Research<br />
shows that nearly all collaborations begin with in-person<br />
discussions, <strong>and</strong> is then kept alive via conferences <strong>and</strong><br />
research facilities, suggesting that communications<br />
technology is not solely responsible for motivating<br />
collaboration. 40 However, in some cases, it can be<br />
argued that communications technology is imperative<br />
for research; such is often the case when an experiment<br />
relies on grid computing. Grid computing is the process<br />
by which computers throughout the globe are linked<br />
together to increase computer power <strong>and</strong> simulation<br />
speeds by enormous magnitudes. 41 Naturally, in order<br />
to establish a grid, people worldwide must contribute<br />
their computer power, thus requiring high levels of<br />
international collaboration. CERN provides an example<br />
of a large <strong>and</strong> effective grid, which is composed of over<br />
100,000 computers in 33 countries <strong>and</strong> makes data from<br />
the Large Hadron Collider available to users anywhere<br />
in the world.<br />
Case Study: CERN<br />
CERN “worked” because early on, prior to facile<br />
transatlantic travel, European particle physicists had<br />
no other big lab but CERN, <strong>and</strong> furthermore, there<br />
was a distribution of power among countries at CERN,<br />
<strong>and</strong> thus a more balanced spectrum of views among<br />
the larger countries; hence, when the big countries<br />
disagreed, smaller countries were capable of swaying<br />
votes. 42 Furthermore, governments took a relatively<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s-off approach to CERN, giving scientists a lot of<br />
power to design <strong>and</strong> manage the laboratory. In certain<br />
cases, rather than ask cities <strong>and</strong> countries to contribute<br />
funding, CERN instead requested the contribution<br />
mechanical components <strong>and</strong> has even provided cash<br />
in return; such was the case at least until 2003 with<br />
Russia <strong>and</strong> India—as well as the cities of Tokyo, Beijing,<br />
Chicago, <strong>and</strong> Madrid 43 —stimulating local industries<br />
<strong>and</strong> ultimately bringing together the parts at CERN in<br />
Geneva, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>. 44<br />
Scientists generally spend short periods of time<br />
onsite, <strong>and</strong> then return to their home institutions<br />
The LHC Particle Accelerator, located in Geneva, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, the<br />
result of a 10,000+ scientist collaboration<br />
where they can continue to work on software <strong>and</strong> data<br />
analysis. One motivation for short periods of stay is to<br />
discourage the brain drain process by which developed<br />
nations absorb talent from developing nations; scientists<br />
immerse themselves in a worldly atmosphere, <strong>and</strong> take<br />
the knowledge back to their home institutes. 45 CERN<br />
has also used its grid as a tool for promoting involvement<br />
with nations; countries like Iran <strong>and</strong> Pakistan have<br />
demonstrated interest in helping to develop the grid. 46<br />
In October, 2009, the world was shocked to<br />
learn that a CERN scientist working on the LHCb<br />
experiment—another of the Large Hadron Collider’s<br />
major experiments—had been arrested in Vienne, a<br />
town near the lab, by the French secret service for<br />
suspicious ties to al-Qaeda. The scientist was a 32 year<br />
old Frenchman of Algerian decent who was believed to<br />
be communicating via internet with al-Qaeda officials<br />
<strong>and</strong> possibly planning attacks in France. 47 CERN<br />
cooperated with the investigation, <strong>and</strong> upon further<br />
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analysis, authorities determined that the CERN scientist<br />
was indeed intending to commit at least one attack on<br />
France.<br />
Most recently, CERN <strong>and</strong> the International Space<br />
Station have been collaborating on the Alpha Magnetic<br />
Spectrometer (AMS-02) project. On August 26 th , 2010,<br />
AMS-02 was flown from CERN in Geneva to the <strong>United</strong><br />
States, where after some additional testing it will be<br />
launched on board the International Space Station where<br />
it will perform research on dark matter <strong>and</strong> antimatter. 48<br />
Case Study: China<br />
Since China initiated the Open Door policy in<br />
1978, the country’s role in scientific collaboration has<br />
skyrocketed; by 1997, China was participating in 35,000<br />
international projects related to science, which is 25<br />
times the number from 1978. The country has invited<br />
700,000 foreign specialists into the country <strong>and</strong> sent off<br />
300,000 citizens for international training. 49 From 1997<br />
to 1998, computer sales grew from 3.4 million to 4.7<br />
million, <strong>and</strong> have since skyrocketed. China has made<br />
substantial efforts to collaborate with European nations<br />
in scientific domains. For example, in 2001, the China-<br />
European Union Science <strong>and</strong> Technology Cooperation<br />
Promotion Office (CECO) was established with the goal<br />
of integrating Chinese scientists into European science<br />
programs, narrowing the gap between Chinese <strong>and</strong> EU<br />
scientific pursuits. The European Union also received<br />
benefits, gaining access to China’s National High<br />
Technology Research <strong>and</strong> Development Programme<br />
as well as the National Key Basic Research Program. 50<br />
CECO is meant to reform the scientific collaborative<br />
relationship between China <strong>and</strong> the EU, <strong>and</strong> has been<br />
successful thus far.<br />
Case Study: the Middle East<br />
UN Resolution 1737 imposed sanctions against<br />
Iran for failure to halt uranium enrichment programs.<br />
In response, European nations including France, the<br />
Netherl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> Sweden refused visas to Iranian<br />
physicists. The Centre Nationale de La Recherche<br />
Scientifique (CNRS) in France declared that all projects<br />
collaborating with Iran needed to undergo security<br />
screenings. Furthermore, mathematician Ali Tahzibi<br />
is an example of an Iranian citizen, employed at the<br />
University of Sao Carlos in Brazil, who carefully arranged<br />
<strong>and</strong> purchased plane tickets for a sabbatical with CNRS’s<br />
Institute of Mathematics in Dijon. However, quite<br />
unexpectedly the French government failed to issue him<br />
a visa. 51<br />
General Assembly<br />
In July of 2008, the Netherl<strong>and</strong>s banned Iranians from<br />
accessing nuclear laboratories, <strong>and</strong> following September<br />
11, US visa qualification processes for Iranian citizens<br />
have been meticulous <strong>and</strong> lengthy. 52 The ICSU considers<br />
this a case of blatant discrimination, <strong>and</strong> worries that<br />
organizations may avoid collaborating with Iranians due<br />
to the added administrative burden. A similar situation<br />
exists in Israel, in which procedures for a Palestinian<br />
student to study in the country are so restrictive so as to be<br />
nearly impossible to comply with; Israeli academies have<br />
protested against the government-imposed restrictions;<br />
the ICSU has protested as well <strong>and</strong> stated: “Academic<br />
Institutions should have the responsibility <strong>and</strong> freedom<br />
to select students <strong>and</strong> staff without political or military<br />
interference.” 53<br />
Case Study: Africa<br />
The ICSU has 3 regional offices dedicated in parts<br />
of Africa in order to “ensure that the voice of developing<br />
countries influences the international agenda <strong>and</strong> ensure<br />
that scientists from the South are not only involved in<br />
research in frontier areas but also have the capacity to<br />
address problems of local <strong>and</strong> regional context,” as stated<br />
by former ICSU president Goverdhan Mehta. 54 One<br />
illustrative example of successful African collaboration<br />
is through HESS, the high-energy stereoscopic system<br />
telescope, which is the world’s largest gamma-ray<br />
telescope <strong>and</strong> is located in Namibia. The project includes<br />
collaborators from Namibia <strong>and</strong> South Africa. 55 African<br />
research, much like research in all developing nations<br />
with weak economies, tends to focus on areas of science<br />
that may provide the most direct benefit to nations,<br />
such as research in the agricultural sector, which has<br />
the potential to reform crop growth <strong>and</strong> lead directly to<br />
economic growth. 56<br />
Additional Cases of Visa Rejections<br />
In 1984 there were 54 visa refusal cases for the<br />
International Geological Congress in Moscow. In 1989,<br />
two Iranian citizens applied for visas to attend the<br />
IUPAC Congress in Stockholm. However, unable to<br />
prove that they were scientists, Sweden denied them visas.<br />
In 2005, the <strong>United</strong> States failed to administer a visa to<br />
Cuban scientist Vicente Verez-Bencomo, who was about<br />
to receive an award for the development of a low cost<br />
meningitis <strong>and</strong> pneumonia vaccine. 57 Also in 2005, an<br />
Ethiopian scientist specializing in biodiversity was denied<br />
a visa by Canada. In 2006, the <strong>United</strong> States denied a visa<br />
to Goverdhan Mehta, former head of the Indian Institute<br />
of Sciences in Bangalore, on the grounds of potential<br />
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involvement with chemical warfare <strong>and</strong> bio-terrorism. 58<br />
The <strong>United</strong> States later apologized for the incident <strong>and</strong><br />
issued a visa immediately. Some international attention<br />
has been given to this issue; for example, in 1976 the Free<br />
Circulation of Scientists, St<strong>and</strong>ing Committee (SCFCS)<br />
produced for ICSU a document entitled “Advice to<br />
Indian scientist Goverdhan Mehta is one of many foreign intellectuals<br />
who have been denied visas.<br />
Organizers of International Scientific Meetings,” which<br />
set procedures for ICSU linked bodies <strong>and</strong> focused<br />
particularly on issues concerning the freedom of<br />
movement for scientists. 59<br />
Relevant Past Action<br />
In 2003, the OECD Global Science Forum published<br />
a report following a workshop held in Tokyo on “Best<br />
Practices in International Scientific Cooperation.” This<br />
workshop targeted the development of programs based<br />
in more than one country, the development of largescale<br />
facilities, <strong>and</strong> the regulation of large databases. 60<br />
In this report, it was decided that while a prescriptive<br />
formula is not possible, guidelines can be established<br />
in helping to establish a roadmap through working<br />
with “scientists, universities, research institutes, funding<br />
bodies, government agencies, legal advisors, high level<br />
government officials, intergovernmental agencies <strong>and</strong><br />
the public.” 61 Issues such as board representation are<br />
simplified if participants are all of the same or similar<br />
type, such as academic institutions or governments. 62<br />
Although there is a tendency to draw scientists<br />
largely from institutions worldwide—who continue<br />
to work for, <strong>and</strong> receive funding from, their home<br />
institutions—doing so may result in a lack of cohesion<br />
among scientists in the collaboration. The report explains<br />
that when governments are involved, collaborative<br />
agreements are equivalent to intergovernmental treaties,<br />
but are ultimately effective mechanisms for outlining<br />
policies for a new organization or project. Some form<br />
of leadership must be established, either by one country<br />
taking control or by the establishment of a rotating<br />
secretariat. 63 Some form of business plan <strong>and</strong> possibly a<br />
monetary contribution mechanism must be established<br />
as well, such as whether participating nations will<br />
contribute a flat rate, a rate based on GDP, or a rate<br />
based on to what extent the country is involved in the<br />
organization. 64 Will there be an entry fee? CERN <strong>and</strong><br />
other particle physics organizations have refrained from<br />
requiring a membership fee or accelerator operation<br />
fee, advertising an open door policy. 65 It must also be<br />
determined to what extent scientists from non-member<br />
countries will be able to access facilities <strong>and</strong> databases of<br />
the organization, as well as regulate the often inevitable<br />
political tension of choosing a location for any necessary<br />
facilities, be the facilities existing infrastructure or labs<br />
to be built in the future. 66 The workshop also considered<br />
the possibility of establishing a truly global funding<br />
system for international science, or a global institute<br />
that oversees scientific pursuits. 67 Finally, a checklist was<br />
produced outlining criteria to be considered when setting<br />
up an international collaboration, 68 <strong>and</strong> a template for a<br />
memor<strong>and</strong>um of underst<strong>and</strong>ing was drafted. 69<br />
The World Conference on Science has published a list<br />
of best practices <strong>and</strong> recommendations for strengthening<br />
international cooperation. These guidelines stated that<br />
developing nations need to play a larger role in the<br />
selection of research projects, make use of, <strong>and</strong> contribute<br />
to, electronic databases, <strong>and</strong> build national scientific<br />
centers such that scientists are more inclined to remain<br />
in their home countries. 70 For additional guidelines, see<br />
the cited report.<br />
One step the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> has taken is the<br />
declaration of scientific years, such as the International<br />
Year of Freshwater declared by UNESCO in 2003 <strong>and</strong><br />
the Year of the Dolphin declared by UNEP in 2007.<br />
Furthermore, in 1998, Resolution 53/199 of the UN<br />
General Assembly outlined a procedure for proclaiming<br />
international years, which states that any theme for a year<br />
“should be of priority concern to all or the majority of<br />
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countries <strong>and</strong> should contribute to the development of<br />
international cooperation in solving global problems, in<br />
particular those affecting developing countries.” 71<br />
In addition, UNESCO has played a substantial<br />
role in promoting international projects, one of which<br />
is the Synchrotron light for Experimental Science <strong>and</strong><br />
Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), involving<br />
Israel, Palestine, Iran, Jordan, Turkey, Egypt, <strong>and</strong> others,<br />
working to stimulate development <strong>and</strong> cohesiveness in<br />
the Middle East. 72<br />
The ICSU has outlined suggested roles for various<br />
domains of organizations. NGOs are meant to establish<br />
overarching principles <strong>and</strong> assist individual scientists<br />
in need. Intergovernmental Scientific Bodies are meant<br />
to uphold the Principle of Universality <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>le<br />
individual cases. National Academies <strong>and</strong> scientific<br />
associations are meant to assist with entry visas <strong>and</strong><br />
provide national guidelines. National governments<br />
are meant to develop research practice <strong>and</strong> ethics<br />
guidelines for scientists. International Scientific Unions<br />
<strong>and</strong> associations are responsible for freedom <strong>and</strong><br />
responsibility on an international level. Research funders<br />
are responsible for providing monetary resources without<br />
any discrimination, <strong>and</strong> develop effective research ethics<br />
guidelines to be followed as a condition of funding.<br />
Universities <strong>and</strong> research institutes should provide<br />
mechanisms for h<strong>and</strong>ling scientific misconduct <strong>and</strong><br />
should uphold the Principle of the University of Science<br />
at the institutional level. 73<br />
Some other international treaties that promote<br />
investment <strong>and</strong> participation in joint science <strong>and</strong><br />
technology endeavors include the Montreal Protocol<br />
(1987) the Vienna Convention for the Protection of<br />
the Ozone Layer (1985) The Convention on Biological<br />
Diversity (1992) The <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Framework on<br />
Climate Change (1992) the Kyoto Protocol (1997), <strong>and</strong><br />
the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Conference on Environment <strong>and</strong><br />
Development, which was passed in 1992 <strong>and</strong> dedicates<br />
chapters to forging a scientific <strong>and</strong> technological<br />
community, as well as the transfer of environmentally<br />
friendly technology. 74<br />
Electronic Resources<br />
In 1992 the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Conference on<br />
Environment <strong>and</strong> Development constructed a Chinese<br />
Bio-diversity Information System (CBIS), which helped<br />
to propagate scientific information. Countless similar<br />
databases have been established. African Journals<br />
On Line promotes African publications, BIREME, a<br />
General Assembly<br />
bibliographic information system on health-related<br />
sciences <strong>and</strong> SciELO, a publication system for full<br />
science journals originating from Latin America, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
similar system called LATINDEX. 75 In 2008 the ICSU<br />
announced that it would establish a World Data Centre<br />
system over a three year period, which seeks to provide<br />
open access to data for the global science community<br />
<strong>and</strong> to be “a common globally interoperable distributed<br />
data system that incorporates emerging technologies <strong>and</strong><br />
new scientific data activities.” 76 The ICSU Committee on<br />
Data for Science <strong>and</strong> Technology (CODATA) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
International Network for the Availability of Scientific<br />
Publications are two initiatives that help to increase the<br />
availability of scientific information. 77<br />
Proposed Solutions<br />
When scientists from different backgrounds are<br />
drawn together, an environment of creativity <strong>and</strong><br />
problem solving is created. As smaller nations develop<br />
scientific capacity, they are perceived as being able to join<br />
the global scientific network. Furthermore, international<br />
collaboration can contribute to growth in developing<br />
countries. Some suggest that government policy is only<br />
influential as far as creating incentives, <strong>and</strong> that it may be<br />
most effective for the government to limit its involvement<br />
to creating opportunities for likeminded researchers to<br />
meet <strong>and</strong> organize themselves around important scientific<br />
questions. 78 One report that analyzed collaboration<br />
among Middle Eastern nations numerically, by analyzing<br />
bibliographical statistical data, proposed that developing<br />
nations should produce a database outlining all existing<br />
scientific establishments, allowing the public to become<br />
more aware of such establishments. 79 International<br />
scientific cooperation programs that emphasize the needs<br />
of developing countries could be supported, particularly<br />
ones that in turn support scientists from developing<br />
countries who contribute to the needs of their countries<br />
of origin, as well as programs that make information<br />
widely accessible via the internet.<br />
A counter argument to collaboration is the following:<br />
competition is healthy for the fields of science <strong>and</strong><br />
technology, helping to corroborate results <strong>and</strong> create a<br />
more impassioned atmosphere of competition. Thus it<br />
is not necessarily in the world’s benefit for two similar<br />
laboratories to merge, but rather for them to compete a<br />
bit, <strong>and</strong> to share results with one another.<br />
When developing a new laboratory, there are<br />
huge financial benefits to using existing infrastructure.<br />
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However, building new infrastructure on “green-field<br />
sites” helps to bring all international collaborators in on<br />
equal footing. 80 Entering countries need to have a voice<br />
in policy decisions <strong>and</strong> experimental design, as oppose to<br />
the host country taking full control. A “Detailed Balance”<br />
proposal is another option; for example, if Europe were<br />
trying to strike a deal with the USA for the LHC, then<br />
Europe would have to later contribute to an American<br />
physics project. 81 Furthermore, the responsibilities of<br />
manufacturing experimental parts can be distributed<br />
among all participating nations, which allows all nations<br />
to make use of local industry, <strong>and</strong> gives nations a visible<br />
role in the project.<br />
There is a risk of developing nations becoming overly<br />
dependent on Western technology. African nations<br />
could continue to work through a New Partnership for<br />
Africa’s Development (NEPAD) which was established<br />
by Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal, <strong>and</strong> South Africa.<br />
African nations <strong>and</strong> other developing nations could<br />
invest in local scientists <strong>and</strong> research instead of foreign<br />
technology. 82 NEPAD, <strong>and</strong> similar organizations in<br />
other developing regions, can focus its efforts on forging<br />
a collaborative <strong>and</strong> organized research environment for<br />
scientists.<br />
Questions A Resolution Must Answer<br />
Overall, resolutions may suggest specific international<br />
collaborations that should be formed, <strong>and</strong>/or may propose<br />
innovative ideas to help sculpt the future of organizations<br />
like the ISS <strong>and</strong> CERN. Resolutions should also address<br />
issues of discrimination against scientists (as well as cases<br />
of visa rejection), <strong>and</strong> should make the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong><br />
policy on the role of developing nations in large-scale<br />
international organizations more concrete.<br />
What relationship should the <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong> have with CERN, the ICSU,<br />
<strong>and</strong> similar organizations in the future?<br />
In other words, what role should the government<br />
play in “bottom-up” collaborations that have been<br />
spearheaded by scientists, as well as with national<br />
<strong>and</strong> international science organizations?<br />
Can the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> rely on scientists to selforganize<br />
effectively? How can the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong><br />
go about stimulating international collaboration in<br />
the sciences?<br />
Can incentives be strengthened for developing<br />
countries to participate in international<br />
collaborations?<br />
How should blockades to collaboration, such as<br />
difficulties acquiring visas, be h<strong>and</strong>led? Although<br />
countries have a right to deny visas to suspicious<br />
subjects, cases of esteemed scientists failing to<br />
acquire visas continues to this day. Should visa<br />
policies somehow be modified? How should national<br />
<strong>and</strong> international science organizations respond to<br />
scientists who have been denied visas to study or<br />
work abroad?<br />
How do we justify dedicating resources to scientific<br />
research in physics <strong>and</strong> other sciences perceived as<br />
lacking practical benefit? How have we in the past<br />
<strong>and</strong> how will we in the future? There continues<br />
to exist a rift between developing countries that<br />
emphasize practical science <strong>and</strong> developed countries<br />
that dedicate significant portions of their budgets to<br />
pure sciences.<br />
What is the future of scientific collaboration? Should<br />
we develop additional large scale laboratories like<br />
CERN, <strong>and</strong>/or smaller labs in developing countries?<br />
Where does the future lie? If new labs are to be<br />
developed, how should collaborations best go about<br />
acquiring funds, decide where to physically place<br />
these labs, what the research emphasis will be, etc?<br />
What authority should member states of organizations<br />
like CERN have in controlling the organization as<br />
compared to states that take less of a role in funding<br />
<strong>and</strong> operating the organization?<br />
What role should developing countries play in<br />
international scientific organizations? How can we<br />
stimulate the participation of developing nations in<br />
this domain? How should we ensure that developed<br />
nations do not take full authority over setting the<br />
scientific agenda of an international collaboration?<br />
What are the best strategies to implement in order to<br />
manage the brain drain? Should developing nations<br />
play a role in pure science, or is it ok for developing<br />
nations to focus primarily on scientific pursuits that<br />
have clear-cut potential for economic gain?<br />
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Bloc Positions<br />
Broadly, policy analysis can be divided into developing<br />
<strong>and</strong> developed nations. However, within these broader<br />
groups, keep in mind that specific countries have<br />
nuanced policies <strong>and</strong> that it is wise to use this only as a<br />
starting point.<br />
Developing <strong>Nations</strong><br />
Currently, developed nations account for 20% of the<br />
world population <strong>and</strong> 80% of the world’s information,<br />
<strong>and</strong> thus much work needs to be done to promote<br />
the intellectual growth of developing nations. 83 While<br />
developing nations may recognize the value of science<br />
<strong>and</strong> technology in boosting economic growth, they do<br />
not necessarily see incentives in collaborating with more<br />
developed nations, nor do they necessarily see direct gains<br />
from investment in large-scale scientific pursuits. 84 On the<br />
one h<strong>and</strong>, there are many benefits to collaborating with<br />
scientifically developed nations. Developing nations can<br />
access expert knowledge in scientific fields <strong>and</strong> can apply<br />
this knowledge to issues of local concern. Scientists from<br />
developing nations can also gain access to more advanced<br />
facilities <strong>and</strong> can benefit from funding dedicated to large<br />
collaborations; some initiatives, such as the International<br />
Development Research Centre in Canada <strong>and</strong> the<br />
International Development Cooperation Agency in<br />
Sweden, have contributed directly to motivating global<br />
scientific collaboration. 85 Effective collaboration can also<br />
enhance political relationships between nations.<br />
Many disadvantages have been cited, however. For<br />
one, developed nations may take a stronger role in<br />
projects, using developing nations as mere data collectors,<br />
<strong>and</strong> having a firmer hold on the research agenda to be<br />
followed. 86 Whereas developed nations are often eager<br />
to pursue pure scientific exploration—often without<br />
an explicit purpose beyond pushing the boundaries<br />
of human knowledge—government officials from<br />
developing nations are far more concerned with direct<br />
societal problems for which there are benefits to be<br />
reaped from science, 87 such as questions concerning fresh<br />
water supplies <strong>and</strong> stabilizing crop growth.<br />
The Brain Drain issue comes into effect, concerning<br />
scientists from developing nations who travel to<br />
General Assembly<br />
developed nations <strong>and</strong> exercise their knowledge there,<br />
rather than in the needy countries of origin. 88 Finally there<br />
are many burdens associated with collaboration, such as<br />
language differences, traveling expenses, discrimination<br />
against scientists—an issue particularly targeted by the<br />
ICSU 89 —as well as bureaucratic inconsistencies between<br />
the two collaborating nations. 90 These are all factors that<br />
developing nations consider when determining how to<br />
get involved with scientific pursuits.<br />
Developed <strong>Nations</strong><br />
Developed nations seek to pursue scientific research<br />
that has both practical, economic, <strong>and</strong> political benefits,<br />
as well as purely intellectual benefits, with potential<br />
unforeseen applications in the future. Many developed<br />
nations have made active efforts to incorporate<br />
developing nations into large-scale projects, but as we<br />
have seen, often developed nations retain power to set<br />
the scientific agenda, <strong>and</strong> in some cases fail to grant<br />
visas to scientists. Developing nations work to satisfy<br />
their personal interests <strong>and</strong> motives while attempting to<br />
simultaneously collaborate with nations worldwide. This<br />
balancing act proves difficult; as stated in the ICSU’s<br />
1989 Universality of Science booklet, “Only in an ideal<br />
world would all individual scientists be enabled to make<br />
the most fruitful use of their abilities.” 91<br />
Suggestions for Further Research<br />
Begin your research on the ICSU website, scanning<br />
through the organization’s various policy statements <strong>and</strong><br />
documents concerning the universality of science. Also<br />
look at the regional websites available for the ICSU which<br />
address specific projects that the organization has been<br />
working on, many of which have not been discussed in<br />
this guide.<br />
Here is Africa’s page, for example (http://www.icsuafrica.org/projects.htm).<br />
From there, look at the websites<br />
for some of the major existing collaborations, <strong>and</strong>, in<br />
part for your own benefit, spend a moment exploring<br />
the scientific research being performed as well! Then,<br />
move on to analyze your country’s specific policies <strong>and</strong><br />
past actions.<br />
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TOPIC B: INTERNET CENSORSHIP<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
The Internet, first developed by Sir Tim Berners-Lee<br />
at the CERN Physics laboratory, has grown to represent<br />
one of the cornerstones of contemporary society,<br />
facilitating the high-speed global spread of information. 92<br />
Naturally, governments have responded to the increased<br />
ease of information flow by developing more rigorous<br />
regulatory mechanisms specifically catered to cyberspace.<br />
Data censorship on the web, however, frequently comes<br />
into conflict with a human’s right to freedom of speech<br />
as well as his or her right to access information. It is<br />
difficult, if not impossible, to strike a balanced middle<br />
ground when it comes to censoring data, <strong>and</strong> the idea of<br />
“moderately restrictive <strong>and</strong> effective at the same time” is<br />
perhaps unrealistic, <strong>and</strong> hindered by the complexity of<br />
this issue. 93<br />
It is possible to develop a sense of the depth of<br />
the conflict by recognizing how difficult it can be<br />
to determine when a website merits censorship. For<br />
example, Spain, Tunisia, <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> remove terrorist<br />
websites, despite the fact that “many radical <strong>and</strong> extremist<br />
groups perceived as terrorists by some state do not regard<br />
themselves as such.” 94 On a similar note, countries have<br />
widely divergent st<strong>and</strong>ards for obscene sexual material,<br />
<strong>and</strong> it can be concluded that in an extensive list of<br />
questionable material, there will likely be some country<br />
that considers each respective item to be censorshipworthy.<br />
95 It is difficult in such cases to determine whether<br />
governments are entitled to restrict information of this<br />
type, or whether such acts breach fundamental human<br />
rights.<br />
At the same time, some believe that a certain<br />
level of data censorship is necessary, <strong>and</strong> in fact the<br />
International Covenant on Civil <strong>and</strong> Political Rights<br />
(GA Res. 2200A) states that the right to freedom of<br />
expression is “subject to certain restrictions,” namely,<br />
restrictions that are necessary “for respect of the rights<br />
or reputations of others” <strong>and</strong> “for the protection of<br />
national security.” 96 The latter is particularly pertinent, as<br />
governments frequently attribute cases of censored data<br />
to acts intended to protect national security. Google, for<br />
one, recently released a page that maps how many data<br />
requests <strong>and</strong> removal requests the company has received<br />
from each respective country. Brazil tops the list with<br />
3663 data requests <strong>and</strong> 291 removal requests. Germany,<br />
India, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>United</strong> States follow for greatest numbers<br />
of data removal requests. 97<br />
Thus we are faced with a difficult overarching<br />
question: when is it justified to withhold data from<br />
the general public, how does a country prove that<br />
certain information threatens national security, <strong>and</strong> is<br />
it possible to create generic guidelines when countries<br />
possess divergent viewpoints about sensitive subjects<br />
such as terrorism, pornography, <strong>and</strong> anti-governmental<br />
Current levels of censorship throughout the world<br />
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discourse? And can we h<strong>and</strong>le internet censorship in a<br />
similar manner as censorship of other media, given the<br />
speed of the Internet <strong>and</strong> the ability of an individual to<br />
use it to connect readily with others, thus creating the<br />
potential for more serious consequences when people are<br />
given full liberties of this manner? 98<br />
In the past year, the issue of internet censorship has<br />
become particularly pressing: following a number of<br />
cyber attacks traced to China, Google announced that<br />
web searches would no longer be censored in China, <strong>and</strong><br />
that instead users would be redirected to Hong Kong’s<br />
servers. 99 Shortly after this announcement, the BBC<br />
quoted a Chinese governmental official stating: “Google<br />
has violated its written promise it made when entering the<br />
Chinese market by stopping filtering its searching service<br />
<strong>and</strong> blaming China in insinuation for alleged hacker<br />
attacks.“ 100 Furthermore, on 19 May, 2010, the Pakistan<br />
Telecom Authority banned Facebook, a globally popular<br />
social networking website, in protest against content<br />
offensive to Muslim tradition. 101 Internet censorship is<br />
a very real <strong>and</strong> dominant concern on the contemporary<br />
political arena, threatening freedom of speech <strong>and</strong> also<br />
empowering governments to act out against companies<br />
<strong>and</strong> websites who refuse to comply with state policy.<br />
History of the Problem<br />
The Internet did not gain popularity among the<br />
masses until the 1990’s, transferring gradually from<br />
institutions of higher education to the general public.<br />
One author refers to this first decade as a period of<br />
“amazement”, during which technology was subject to<br />
little regulation as compared to modern times. 102<br />
The Early Days<br />
In the late 1990’s, China was known to block<br />
IP Addresses, <strong>and</strong> communist organizations, fearing<br />
the spread of information, blocked websites that<br />
corresponded to threatening radio <strong>and</strong> television<br />
stations. 103 The Internet however, provided many roots<br />
for people to circumvent such attempts; proxies, websites<br />
that accessed <strong>and</strong> displayed illegal information, were<br />
the easiest method for circumventing this censorship.<br />
Meanwhile, from 1997-1998, the Internet remained<br />
illegal for Iraqi civilians, 104 <strong>and</strong> in 1998 Google appeared<br />
on the market, quickly gaining popularity throughout<br />
the <strong>United</strong> States.<br />
Human Rights Watch reported that while officials<br />
in Saudi Arabia have had access to the internet since<br />
1994, it was not made publicly accessible until 1999<br />
General Assembly<br />
once the government felt it could adequately monitor<br />
content, <strong>and</strong> in fact the government openly, <strong>and</strong> proudly,<br />
admitted to having censored 200,000 websites in the<br />
first 18 months. 105 The <strong>United</strong> States <strong>and</strong> the European<br />
Commission focused their efforts primarily on Child<br />
Pornography, <strong>and</strong> encouraged users to voluntarily employ<br />
filtering systems. In 1998 the <strong>United</strong> States attempted<br />
to pass the Child Online Protection Act, which would<br />
require certain domains to restrict access to minors.<br />
However, the <strong>United</strong> States Federal Court ruled that Acts<br />
of this sort violate free speech, <strong>and</strong> thus it did not take<br />
effect. 106<br />
In Burma, Burmese expatriates communicated over<br />
an early email system called seasia-l to discuss Southeast<br />
Asia, <strong>and</strong> in 1994 BurmaNet became the first online<br />
news source for Burma, triggering an onslaught of prodemocracy<br />
websites. By 1996, the government put forth<br />
new policies by which citizens had to be registered with<br />
the Ministry of Communications to own a computer,<br />
<strong>and</strong> also developed news websites of their own. 107<br />
The Early 2000’s<br />
Iran<br />
In 2000, the Iranian government shut down more<br />
than 100 print media, which in turn increased the<br />
dominance of online journalism <strong>and</strong> online blogging<br />
in the country; although Iran claims in theory to allow<br />
citizens to express their views, as Article 23 of the Iranian<br />
Constitution states that “no one may be molested or<br />
taken to task simply for holding a certain belief,” the<br />
Supreme Council for <strong>Cultural</strong> Revolution nonetheless<br />
has prohibited all anti-governmental online discourse. 108<br />
Treatment of online Bloggers in Iran has been remarkably<br />
severe at times, despite the claim in Article 19 of the<br />
International Covenant on Civil <strong>and</strong> Political Rights<br />
(ICCPR), ratified in 1975 by Iran, <strong>and</strong> stating that,<br />
as quoted by a 2005 report by Human Rights Watch:<br />
“Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression;<br />
this right shall include freedom to seek, receive, <strong>and</strong><br />
impart information <strong>and</strong> ideas of all kinds, regardless<br />
of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the<br />
form of art, or through any other media of his choice.” 109<br />
In particular, in 2004 the Iranian Judiciary cracked<br />
down strongly against online journalists, arresting <strong>and</strong><br />
detaining many writers.<br />
One such story was recounted in a letter to the<br />
president of Iran at the time by a detainee’s father, quoted<br />
by Human Rights Watch: “the interrogator blindfolded<br />
Hanif <strong>and</strong>…the first question posed by the interrogator<br />
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was to ‘write down all your immoral activities <strong>and</strong><br />
corruptions’…Then, the interrogator told Hanif that<br />
according to confessions made by [another detainee],<br />
Hanif was the technical chief of the Rooydad Web site<br />
<strong>and</strong> asked Hanif to explain his activities…During sixtysix<br />
days of detention, Hanif spent fifty-nine days in a<br />
China Redirected Google Users to local search engines, resulting in<br />
outcry.<br />
solitary cell with approximate dimensions of two meters<br />
by one-<strong>and</strong>-a-half-meters.” 110 Cases of this sort, in<br />
which the Iranian government revolts against journalists,<br />
continue to be reported up through present times. For<br />
many more specific cases of maltreatment of online<br />
journalists in Iran, as well as in Syria, Tunisia, <strong>and</strong> Egypt,<br />
consult the cited Human Rights Watch report.<br />
China<br />
China first considered regulating the Internet in 1995<br />
when the Hong Kong government set up a working group<br />
to discuss “objectionable materials on the Internet.” 111<br />
Beginning in 1996, people with Internet accounts were<br />
required to register with the PSB (China’s federal police<br />
force), provide proof of identification, <strong>and</strong> fill out a Police<br />
File Report Form. In addition, they were required sign<br />
the Internet Access Responsibility Agreement, which<br />
prohibits Chinese citizens <strong>and</strong> foreign visitors from<br />
transmitting pornography or “state secrets.” 112 Fearing<br />
further regulation by the Chinese government, Internet<br />
Service Providers (ISP)s united to form the Hong Kong<br />
Internet Service Providers Assocation (HKISPA), <strong>and</strong> in<br />
1997 they put forth a Code of Practice, which encouraged<br />
legal activity on the internet <strong>and</strong> promoted user privacy;<br />
in truth, upon analysis, this code was brief, vague, <strong>and</strong><br />
perhaps only an effort to fend off the government. 113<br />
From 2000 to 2002, two new technologies, “dynamic<br />
filtering”(a way of configuring a router to filter requests)<br />
<strong>and</strong> “DNS hijacking,” (the ability to redirect away from<br />
a domain name) prevented Chinese web users from<br />
accessing proxies. 114 In September 2002, China blocked<br />
Google for the first time for a period of two weeks, <strong>and</strong><br />
in November 2003 China released what has come to be<br />
known as “the Great Firewall of China” which prevented<br />
certain content from being accessible from within the<br />
country. 115 By 2006, Google launched a Chinese edition<br />
of its search engine that censored political content <strong>and</strong><br />
thus complied with Chinese law. Websites containing<br />
words like “democracy,” “freedom” <strong>and</strong> “human rights”<br />
were blocked. In fact, Cisco Systems, an American<br />
Company, has provided much of the equipment that<br />
China uses to block websites. 116 In 2002, <strong>Harvard</strong> Law<br />
School performed a study in which they discovered that<br />
Google.com was redirected to a number of other search<br />
engines, one example of which is pictured. However,<br />
popular outrage forced the government to revert back to<br />
the original Google <strong>and</strong> try out alternative techniques for<br />
censorship. 117<br />
Australia <strong>and</strong> Other Middle Eastern <strong>Nations</strong><br />
Meanwhile, Australia passed the Broadcasting<br />
Services Amendment (Online Services) Act, which<br />
restricted pornographic content, <strong>and</strong> numerous Middle<br />
Eastern nations including Tunisia, Syria, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>United</strong><br />
Arab Emirates released the internet to the general public<br />
while maintaining a close watch on its content. 118<br />
Jordan, Morocco, <strong>and</strong> Egypt are among the more<br />
flexible in their history of internet censorship, although<br />
a number of questionable incidents dominate Egypt’s<br />
history. For example, in 2003, Ashraf Ibrahim, a political<br />
activist, was detained <strong>and</strong> charged with, as quoted by<br />
Abdulla from Human Rights Watch, “harming Egypt’s<br />
reputation by spreading abroad false information.” 119 By<br />
2005, Tunisia experienced substantial internet censorship,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Human Rights Watch reported that hanging in an<br />
internet café was a portrait of President Zine El Abidine<br />
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Ben Ali with a sign reading “Opening disk drives is<br />
strictly forbidden. Do not touch the parameters of the<br />
configurations. It is forbidden to access prohibited sites.<br />
Thank you.” 120<br />
Numerous accounts exist of this sort. For example,<br />
Human Rights Watch also reports the case of Abd al-Razik<br />
al-Mansuri, a political activist who wrote many articles<br />
on www.akhbar-libya.com, but was later sentenced to<br />
one <strong>and</strong> a half years of prison, supposedly on the grounds<br />
of possessing an unlawful firearm. 121<br />
<strong>United</strong> States <strong>and</strong> Europe<br />
In 2004, The Federal Communications Commission,<br />
led by Chairman Michael Powell, announced the<br />
“Four Freedoms,” which Chairman Genachowski of<br />
the Brookings Institution summarized as: “Network<br />
Operators cannot prevent users from accessing the lawful<br />
internet content, applications, <strong>and</strong> services of their choice,<br />
nor can they prohibit users from attaching non-harmful<br />
devices to the network.” 122 In 2009, Genachowski was<br />
also a proponent of transparency of broadb<strong>and</strong> Internet<br />
access companies, such that providers could not change<br />
the status of the Internet without alerting the general<br />
population.<br />
The <strong>United</strong> States has drafted a Global Online<br />
Freedom Act, introduced by New Jersey Representative<br />
Chris Smith, which would place restrictions on US<br />
companies operating in countries thought to censor<br />
data. 123 The European Union has proposed drafting a<br />
similar document. Officials from the European Union<br />
have expressed fears concerning the pressure that western<br />
technology companies have received to censor <strong>and</strong><br />
disclose data. Google in China is a prime example of<br />
a company that for a while complied with censorship<br />
stipulations.<br />
In 2008, a number of European representatives<br />
brought forth “A Proposal for a Directive Of the<br />
European Parliament <strong>and</strong> of the Council Concerning<br />
the EU Global Online Freedom Act.” It called for the<br />
establishment of the Office of Global Internet Freedom<br />
(OGIF) within the European External Action Service,<br />
for 20 million Euros to be dedicated to anti-censorship<br />
tools, <strong>and</strong> for great pressure on European technology<br />
companies to develop st<strong>and</strong>ards in conducting business<br />
with foreign governments while protecting human rights.<br />
One of the EU policy statements within this document<br />
is: “to prohibit any European business from cooperating<br />
General Assembly<br />
with officials of Internet-restricting countries in effecting<br />
the political censorship of online content” 124 (Article 3).<br />
Article 4 goes on to accuse European Businesses of this<br />
sort of “working contrary to the foreign policy interests<br />
of the Member States of the European Union,” <strong>and</strong><br />
Article 5 appends a section on electric information to the<br />
EU Annual Report on Human Rights. Most forcefully,<br />
the document claims that any company that provided<br />
information about its users to foreign companies would<br />
be subject to criminal charges. 125<br />
In 2001, France <strong>and</strong> Germany requested that Google<br />
remove pro-Nazi search results, justifying the act by<br />
claiming that the information was not censored from the<br />
Internet, but only hidden from searches. 126 Alas, it is just<br />
to claim that as the Internet developed worldwide, so too<br />
did the global focus on regulation of cyberspace.<br />
Current Situation<br />
In 2006, the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ)<br />
reported the ten most censored countries. North Korea<br />
topped list, followed by Burma, Turkmenistan, Equatorial<br />
Guinea, Libya, Eritrea, Cuba, Uzbekistan, Syria, <strong>and</strong><br />
Belarus. 127 Internet censorship is a conflict that pervades<br />
contemporary society, though the development of the<br />
situation over the last few years varies from country to<br />
country.<br />
Republic of Korea<br />
South Korean policy is that anonymity does not exist<br />
in cyberspace – a special government code identifies<br />
all web posters, allowing the government to keep tabs<br />
on how people are expressing their opinions. 128 The<br />
Korea Communication St<strong>and</strong>ards Commission (KCSC),<br />
responsible for data censorship, can essentially remove<br />
any data they deem warrants limited access. A <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong> Human Rights Commission report responded<br />
in the following manner: “The reality is that no Internet<br />
service provider has challenged KCSC’s decision in court<br />
<strong>and</strong> the person who posted contents is not guaranteed<br />
a right to challenge it. This makes freedom of speech<br />
in Korea vulnerable to government suppression. KCSC,<br />
a body controlled by a majority of commissioners<br />
appointed by the ruling party <strong>and</strong> the president, uses the<br />
authority not to cull out defamatory or crime-aidingor-abetting<br />
mater[ial] but to suppress the voices critical<br />
of the government” (A/HRC/11/NGO/20, pg 5). The<br />
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government clearly maintains a tight grasp on Internet<br />
content.<br />
Case Study: China: Shi Tao, Yahoo, <strong>and</strong> Google<br />
As of July 2006, Amnesty International reported at<br />
least 54 imprisoned internet users, <strong>and</strong> Shi Tao, a poet<br />
<strong>and</strong> journalist, is one of them. Tao was head of the news<br />
division of Contemporary Business News, where at a<br />
meeting, Chinese Communist Party Central Propag<strong>and</strong>a<br />
Bureau security concerns were discussed. 129 In April<br />
2004, Tao sent an email to a pro-democracy website in<br />
the <strong>United</strong> States, in which he disclosed information<br />
about the Chinese government attempting to minimize<br />
attention on the 15 th anniversary of a substantial<br />
crackdown on pro-democracy activists. The Chinese<br />
government arrested Tao after receiving information<br />
from Yahoo, claiming he had unlawfully disclosed a<br />
“state secret.” 130 Yahoo Inc. openly admitted to having<br />
disclosed data to the Chinese government.<br />
On 11 September 2005, The Washington Post<br />
quoted Yahoo co-founder Jerry Yang in saying: “To be<br />
doing business in China, or anywhere else in the world,<br />
we have to comply with local law. We don’t know what<br />
they want that information for, we’re not told what<br />
they look for. If they give us the proper documentation<br />
<strong>and</strong> court orders, we give them things that satisfy both<br />
our privacy policy <strong>and</strong> the local rules.” 131 A statement<br />
of this sort raises questions of the bounds on corporate<br />
responsibility, forcing us to question whether companies<br />
like Yahoo Inc. hold any accountability for what they<br />
consider to be “legal processes,” 132 or whether only<br />
governments that censor data should hold accountability.<br />
The World Organization for Human Rights USA believes<br />
that Yahoo is to blame, filing a statement of claim in<br />
2009 that Yahoo’s release of information in the case of<br />
Shi Tao was unjust. 133<br />
Yahoo’s insistence that business <strong>and</strong> politics should<br />
be treated as two separate entities comes into question<br />
when we consider recent developments, discussed briefly<br />
above, of Google’s presence in China. On 22 March,<br />
2010, Google boldly shut down its China-based search<br />
engine, <strong>and</strong> on 25 March, 2010, GoDaddy, a popular<br />
website that sells domain names, followed suit. 134 It<br />
should be noted that many countries require censorship<br />
of Google’s content: for instance, Google agreed to<br />
censor websites in Germany listed on the Federal Agency<br />
for Media Endangering Youth, <strong>and</strong> thus search results<br />
for the same terms on the US <strong>and</strong> German sites are<br />
different. 135 Google’s decision to terminate its Chinese<br />
search engine came as a result of the company’s desire<br />
to provide unfiltered data to Chinese citizens, given<br />
that attacks had been targeted at the Gmail accounts of<br />
Chinese Human Rights Activists <strong>and</strong> were seeking to<br />
further reduce freedom of speech on the web. Google’s<br />
blog updates on the subject received a remarkable amount<br />
of press <strong>and</strong> brought the conflict of Internet Regulation<br />
to the forefront of international debate.<br />
Case Study: The Saffron Revolution In Burma<br />
Since 1962, Burma had been ruled by the Burma<br />
<strong>Social</strong>ist Program Party, which enforced firm socialist<br />
policies throughout the country that lead the country to<br />
severe poverty. On 19 August, 2007, the 88 Generation<br />
Student Movement, a group of students, monks, doctors,<br />
housewives, <strong>and</strong> othersprotested against the Burmese<br />
military regime in a rally that attracted 150,000 <strong>and</strong> lasted<br />
for months. Bloggers <strong>and</strong> journalists captured details<br />
of the event, outsourced information to international<br />
media, which used satellite television <strong>and</strong> radio to<br />
broadcast the protest within Burma. 136 On 29 September,<br />
2007, the Burmese government reacted by shutting<br />
down the Internet <strong>and</strong> mobile phone service entirely, in<br />
an information blockade that lasted nearly two weeks. 137<br />
Ultimately, many believe that the protest had little<br />
political effect on the country, but the Revolution still<br />
demonstrated the power of simple technology to rapidly<br />
spread information, <strong>and</strong> also the threat of the current<br />
status of the Internet in many under-developed nations,<br />
where ISPs <strong>and</strong> Internet infrastructure is still tied to the<br />
government. 138<br />
Case Study: Facebook <strong>and</strong> Google in Pakistan<br />
On 19 May, 2010, The Pakistan Telecommunication<br />
Authority (PTA) blocked access to Facebook following a<br />
“Draw Mohammad” competition. The Draw Mohammed<br />
competition was seen as a disgrace among the religious,<br />
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“status update” service built into Google<br />
Mail, was released, <strong>and</strong> right after<br />
Google started encrypting user-website<br />
communication, according to Reporters<br />
Without Borders. 144<br />
Protest of Facebook <strong>and</strong> Google in Pakistan<br />
who believe that Mohammad should not be represented<br />
pictorially. The PTA followed with an order on 20 May,<br />
2010 to block access to Youtube, as well as Wikipedia,<br />
FlickR Internet access on Blackberry devices, <strong>and</strong> 450<br />
other websites according to Reporters Without Borders<br />
(RWB) <strong>and</strong> Newsweek. 139 Locals rallied in the streets<br />
in support of the ruling <strong>and</strong> of the Islamic Lawyers’<br />
Movement that brought the contest to the government’s<br />
attention, believing Facebook to have disgraced Pakistani<br />
tradition. The Pakistani Telecommunication Authority,<br />
according to Newsweek, said that the Pakistani people<br />
were in support of this decision. 140 Pakistan was open<br />
to discussing with companies how to align website<br />
content with country policies, <strong>and</strong> in fact Facebook has<br />
considered censoring content to appease the Pakistani<br />
government. 141<br />
The Middle East<br />
On 29 April, 2010 Reporters Without Borders<br />
announced that the interior Ministry of the <strong>United</strong><br />
Arab Emirates was planning on keeping track of cyber<br />
café customers, only furthering the public’s loss of<br />
anonymity on the internet. 142 Furthermore, a pattern has<br />
emerged in Middle Eastern countries whereby during<br />
periods of social unrest, the Internet has been known to<br />
slow down, with censorship levels peaking. Reporters<br />
Without Borders also reported on 11 February, 2010<br />
that during the Islamic Revolution’s 31st anniversary,<br />
internet connections in Iran were slowed in major cities,<br />
SMS messaging was partially blocked, <strong>and</strong> Google Mail<br />
had been blocked (mail services are harder to monitor<br />
than typical websites). 143 Furthermore, the Iranian<br />
government announced that it would permanently block<br />
Google Mail, a decision that came after “Google Buzz,” a<br />
General Assembly<br />
Contemporary Australia<br />
Australia is rare in the sense that it<br />
is a democratic nation but still funds<br />
an administrative censorship body,<br />
though it is to be noted that this body’s<br />
censorship responsibilities are limited<br />
to pornographic <strong>and</strong> illegal content. In<br />
the last few years, proposed changes to<br />
Australian censorship policies have caught the eyes of<br />
major technology companies as well as the general public.<br />
One change concerns increased stringency on monitoring<br />
pornography: when entering Australia, people must<br />
report whether they carry pornographic content, <strong>and</strong><br />
airport officials are now allowed to examine the contents<br />
of laptops <strong>and</strong> iPhones for pornography, which in some<br />
cases is considered a “prohibited import.” 145<br />
In addition to more stringent monitoring<br />
of pornography, Stephen Conroy, Australia’s<br />
Communications Minister, is helping to draft laws<br />
for a new m<strong>and</strong>atory Internet filter for pornography,<br />
advocating for terrorism, crime instruction, <strong>and</strong> drug<br />
use that Australia plans to implement. During a senate<br />
hearing in May, 2010, Conroy was criticized for attacking<br />
Google for certain breaches in privacy protection, such<br />
as the revelation that Google retains certain information<br />
about people’s internet connections, thereby deflecting<br />
attention on his own internet filter. 146<br />
Google <strong>and</strong> Yahoo are two corporations that have<br />
expressed doubt about Australia’s reforms. Conroy<br />
defended his plan by arguing that countries including<br />
the <strong>United</strong> Kingdom <strong>and</strong> Canada have filters as well.<br />
But Google responded that these filters are restricted<br />
to Internet pornography, <strong>and</strong> thus run little risk of<br />
countering the right to freedom of expression. 147 Local<br />
News agency The Australian questioned Conroy’s<br />
policy proposals, arguing that having to filter through<br />
all internet activity will greatly slow down the Internet,<br />
<strong>and</strong> also that websites like Amazon, which sells products<br />
that are considered illegal under Australia’s proposed<br />
legislation, would potentially be banned or restricted. 148<br />
As a note, however, Australia has been open <strong>and</strong><br />
attentive to how people are reacting to their censorship<br />
plan – Google’s opinion piece, for example, is posted<br />
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online, <strong>and</strong> is here excerpted: “Google, like many other<br />
Internet companies, has a global, all-product ban against<br />
child sexual abuse material, which is illegal in almost every<br />
country…but moving to a m<strong>and</strong>atory ISP level filtering<br />
Protest in Australia<br />
regime with a scope that goes well beyond such material<br />
is heavy h<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> can raise genuine questions about<br />
restrictions on access to information.” 149 Controversy<br />
remains, although overall the Australian government has<br />
demonstrated itself to be a proponent of some censorship.<br />
Relevant UN Actions<br />
Throughout this guide we have cited the Universal<br />
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) as a core<br />
document that guarantees the right to freedom of<br />
expression. Countries including China voted for the<br />
document back in 1948. However, even though China<br />
signed the International Covenant on Civil <strong>and</strong> Political<br />
Rights (ICCPR), they did not ratify the treaty <strong>and</strong> thus<br />
are not legally bound to it. 150 Furthermore, states do not<br />
have full discretion under UN legislation to determine<br />
what constitutes a national threat, as UN Special<br />
Rapporteur Abed Hussein previously elaborated that only<br />
in the most serious cases of a direct military or political<br />
threat can such freedom be breached. 151 In a report to<br />
the UN Commission on Human Rights, Hussein urged<br />
that the Internet be treated in a similar manner to other<br />
means of communication <strong>and</strong> that freedom of expression<br />
be guarded under international legislation, such as the<br />
UDHR <strong>and</strong> the ICCPR.<br />
In February 2010, the General Assembly circulated a<br />
document submitted by RWB (<strong>and</strong> named A/HRC/13/<br />
NGO/88) in which the organization condemned Tibet<br />
<strong>and</strong> China for temporarily shutting down certain<br />
blogging sites <strong>and</strong> blaming technical issues. Pressure to<br />
comply with the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> <strong>and</strong> to allow for UN<br />
visitors is one tactic for motivating a nation to modify its<br />
policies. For example, addressing the UN Human Rights<br />
Council, RWB urged the UN to push for the immediate<br />
release of detained Tibetan journalists, writers, <strong>and</strong><br />
bloggers, to “end Internet censorship <strong>and</strong> crackdown on<br />
press freedom,” <strong>and</strong> most notably, to arrange for a visit<br />
of a UN Special Rapporteur on “the right to freedom<br />
of opinion <strong>and</strong> expression, whose invitation has been<br />
pending since 2002.” 152 The Johannesburg principle<br />
of 1995 states that freedom of expression can only be<br />
restricted, in the least extreme manner possible, when<br />
national security or public morals have been called into<br />
question, but only in cases where the threat is severe,<br />
incontestable, <strong>and</strong> there is no alternative to censorship. 153<br />
In 2005, the Working Group on Internet Governance<br />
published a report following the 2003 World Summit<br />
on Information Society (WSIS). The report placed<br />
emphasis on Internet governance in developing nations.<br />
In addition, a forum linked to the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> was<br />
established in which stakeholders would discuss issues<br />
concerning internet governance, the details of which are<br />
outlined in the report, but whose responsibilities include<br />
“interfacing with intergovernmental bodies <strong>and</strong> other<br />
institutions on matters under their purview which are<br />
relevant to Internet governance, such as IPR, e-commerce,<br />
trade in services, <strong>and</strong> Internet/telecommunications<br />
convergence” <strong>and</strong> “contributing to capacity-building for<br />
Internet governance for developing countries, drawing<br />
fully on local sources of knowledge <strong>and</strong> expertise.” 154<br />
In 2008, it was revealed that the International<br />
Telecommunication Union, a UN agency, was in talks<br />
with government officials concerning the potential for<br />
developing a legal “IP Traceback” mechanism more<br />
commonly known as Q6/177. In response to governments<br />
in favor of legal trace back mechanisms, Steve Bellovin,<br />
a prominent Columbia University computer scientist,<br />
stated that, as quoted by CNET, “institutionalizing<br />
a means for governments to quash their opposition<br />
is in direct contravention of the UN’s own Universal<br />
Declaration of Human Rights.” 155<br />
In November of 2009, an Internet Governance<br />
Forum (IGF) sponsored by the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> was held<br />
in Sharm El Sheikh in Egypt, <strong>and</strong> an incident occurred in<br />
which Open Net Initiative representatives were required<br />
by <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> officials to remove a poster containing<br />
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information about Internet censorship. This event caused<br />
great stir among Internet freedom activists. 156<br />
In the Geneva Convention on Internet Freedom, held<br />
in Geneva on March 9 th , 2010, the drafted declaration<br />
stated that “Internet providers should not be allowed to<br />
provide governments, corporations, or third parties any<br />
information about their users without their legal consent”<br />
(Article 9) <strong>and</strong> “Any attempt to restrict or intimidate<br />
people from free, uncensored, <strong>and</strong> secure access of the<br />
Internet constitutes a fundamental abridgement of<br />
human rights <strong>and</strong> undermines the promotion of peace<br />
<strong>and</strong> world order” (Article 10). 157<br />
In summary, while the issue of Internet censorship<br />
has garnered a substantial amount of attention from<br />
<strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> committees over the last few decades,<br />
there has yet to be an effective mechanism put forth that<br />
creates concrete privacy st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> ensures that the<br />
right to freedom of expression is protected.<br />
Proposed Solutions<br />
One domain of solutions consists of developing<br />
proposals for regulatory mechanisms for the Internet that<br />
allow governments to react in the case that international<br />
security is threatened, but also allow people to interact<br />
freely in cyberspace. The 2005 Working Group on<br />
Internet Governance referenced earlier outlined<br />
four proposals for forming an improved mechanism<br />
for regulating the Internet: (1) A Global Internet<br />
Council with representation from each region whose<br />
responsibilities would include coordinating international<br />
public policy about Internet-related issues; (2) More<br />
focus on reforming ICANN’s Governmental Advisory<br />
Committee, <strong>and</strong> a forum with equal representation<br />
of stakeholders that could coordinate issues between<br />
internet governance organizations, in lieu of an oversight<br />
organization; (3) An International Internet Council<br />
that could h<strong>and</strong>le issues that do not fall within the<br />
responsibilities of other intergovernmental organizations<br />
(4) A Global Internet Policy Council responsible for<br />
international internet-related public policy, A World<br />
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names <strong>and</strong> Numbers<br />
responsible for the technical <strong>and</strong> economic development<br />
of the internet, <strong>and</strong> a Global Internet Governance Forum<br />
that facilitates coordination of public policy issues. 158<br />
Another domain of solutions includes proposing<br />
courses of action for companies <strong>and</strong> other Non<br />
Governmental organizations that come under pressure<br />
from repressive governments to modify privacy policies.<br />
General Assembly<br />
An example of one initiative that has been taken, <strong>and</strong><br />
can be exp<strong>and</strong>ed upon, is the Global Network Initiative,<br />
launched in October 2008, whose members currently<br />
include Google, Human Rights Watch, Microsoft,<br />
Yahoo, <strong>and</strong> the Berkman Center for Internet And Society<br />
At <strong>Harvard</strong> University. The founding documents for<br />
this Organization, which can be accessed online, state<br />
that “Information <strong>and</strong> Communications Technology<br />
companies have the responsibility to respect <strong>and</strong> protect<br />
the freedom of expression <strong>and</strong> privacy rights of their<br />
users” <strong>and</strong> that “The implementation of these principles<br />
by participating companies requires their integration<br />
into company decision making <strong>and</strong> culture.” 159 The<br />
founding documents <strong>and</strong> policy suggestions of the<br />
Global Network Initiative (GNI) are highly specific <strong>and</strong><br />
it is strongly encouraged that delegates consult the GNI<br />
guidelines for companies in more depth as they begin to<br />
develop solution proposals.<br />
One broad initiative the GNI has taken is to<br />
implement a three-phase process. In phase 1, from 2009-<br />
2010, companies work independently to implement the<br />
Principles of the GNI. In phase 2, by 2011, independent<br />
assessors will have been chosen, <strong>and</strong> companies will<br />
choose which independent assessor is responsible for<br />
reviewing their policies. In phase 3, from 2012 onward,<br />
the GNI board will approve a selection of independent<br />
assess ors for future use. 160 Of course, it is not guaranteed<br />
that every country agrees with the policies put forth by<br />
organizations such as this one, but it provides a firmly<br />
developed example of how the world might go about<br />
regulating technological companies on a global scale.<br />
A third domain of solutions consists of enlisting<br />
the public to help combat illegal content as a means of<br />
regulating content while paying genuine attention to the<br />
voice of the public. The European Commission has taken<br />
some steps of this sort by founding the International<br />
Association of Internet Hotlines (INHOPE) in 1999<br />
under the EC Safer Internet Action Plan. 161 INHOPE<br />
has hotlines that receive reports from the general public<br />
who encounter illegal Internet content. The EU Safer<br />
Internet Program also has some additional programs<br />
set up including INTERPOL, a 2009 illegal child<br />
pornography database that helps investigators coordinate<br />
globally, <strong>and</strong> I-DASH, a database for illegal video content<br />
that similarly helps police coordinate. 162<br />
Most of the aforementioned solutions target countries<br />
that, aside from some limited forms of content, believe<br />
that people should have free reign on the internet. Many<br />
nations, as this guide has shown, disagree fundamentally<br />
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with this point of view. In this case, the goal for such<br />
nations is to argue for increased censorship to be legal<br />
<strong>and</strong> to bend the previously mentioned solution domains<br />
accordingly.<br />
Furthermore, as emphasized in my letter to you, I<br />
am very eager to hear innovative <strong>and</strong> yet-to-be-explored<br />
methods for reacting to Internet regulation, <strong>and</strong> thus<br />
do not by any means feel limited by ideas previously<br />
brought forth. Instead, it would be best to bring forth<br />
new concepts that are in line with your country’s policy.<br />
Questions A Resolution Must Answer<br />
When is it just to censor cyberspace, <strong>and</strong> what<br />
body (or bodies) should make this decision? To<br />
answer this question, consider whether individual<br />
governments, individual technological companies/<br />
ISPs, or an international body of some sort should<br />
have the authority to decide what can justifiably be<br />
censored. How can this definition best be clarified?<br />
Also consider, in light of the Universal Declaration<br />
of Human Rights, if censorship of any form is legal<br />
at all. If you enlist a body to define protocols, what<br />
relationship will this body have to the GNI, who<br />
will be represented in this body, <strong>and</strong> what are some<br />
suggested conclusions that this body might come to?<br />
Could the body develop laws that vary from region<br />
to region? If you believe that governments should<br />
retain the right to govern the Internet, how do you<br />
justify this belief?<br />
How Should Internet Censorship <strong>and</strong> Censorship<br />
of Other Media Compare? Should the Internet<br />
<strong>and</strong> printed media be h<strong>and</strong>led in a similar legal<br />
manner, or else how does the speed <strong>and</strong> accessibility<br />
of the Internet effect how the UN should react to<br />
censorship?<br />
What Political Responsibilities Should Companies<br />
Have, And How Does One Regulate <strong>and</strong> Enforce<br />
These Political Responsibilities?<br />
Companies like Yahoo, Google, <strong>and</strong> online News<br />
websites have in some cases put forth that in order to<br />
enter a nation’s market they must abide by local law.<br />
Is this a justification for censorship, <strong>and</strong> if not, what<br />
authority should companies have whilst publishing<br />
data in cyberspace?<br />
How Should the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Best Respond to the<br />
Mistreatment of Web Posters?<br />
Countless stories, some discussed in this guide, have<br />
been released concerning the mistreatment <strong>and</strong><br />
torture of web bloggers <strong>and</strong> web journalists, often<br />
posting information that challenges the residing<br />
power. What methods can the UN employ to<br />
circumvent this abuse of human rights?<br />
How Should the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Go About Bridging<br />
the Information Gap Between Censored Countries<br />
And the Rest of the World?<br />
Does the UN have the right to supply mechanisms for<br />
circumventing censorship techniques to the general<br />
public? Should it be recommended to the Security<br />
Council that sanctions should be applied? Does the<br />
UN have the right to go against government wishes<br />
in the first place?<br />
How Should the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> Go About Procuring<br />
Information About the Status of the Internet<br />
Abroad?<br />
Should technological experts continue to devise<br />
means of determining which websites are blocked<br />
in countries? Should the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> place<br />
pressure on nations notorious for censorship to<br />
allow UN officials <strong>and</strong> rapporteurs into the nation?<br />
Or are such actions breaching the role of the UN,<br />
<strong>and</strong> should the organization instead continue to rely<br />
on information that citizens do manage to convey<br />
illegally?<br />
Bloc Positions<br />
Asia<br />
China, Burma, <strong>and</strong> Vietnam are particularly known<br />
for censoring politically sensitive topics, whereas<br />
Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, <strong>and</strong> the Philippines have shown<br />
little signs of national filtering. In addition, many<br />
Asian nations are known for spreading propag<strong>and</strong>a via<br />
government-owned websites. In general, Asian nations<br />
seek to preserve political power; they recognize the<br />
importance of the Internet in modern society, but in<br />
most cases would be keener on passing resolutions that<br />
recognized the benefits of censorship in maintaining<br />
political <strong>and</strong> social order.<br />
Often, Asian nations seek to disguise such motives: for<br />
instance, more <strong>and</strong> more, Asian nations have passed laws<br />
that restrict “online defamation <strong>and</strong> vigilantism,” but in<br />
reality are applied when the government wishes to curb<br />
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online journalism. 163 Asian nations have also increased<br />
data retention requirements so as to allow for improved<br />
tracking. 164 Those nations that endorse censorship will<br />
support policies that allow for greater government<br />
regulation of the Internet, whether this motive is made<br />
clear or disguised in policy. However, increased research<br />
has made the rest of the global community more aware<br />
of the extent of filtering, <strong>and</strong> thus Asian nations must<br />
be careful to preserve their image in the eyes of other<br />
nations.<br />
Australia<br />
Australia’s policies are substantially stricter than<br />
those of all Western nations, as the constitution does<br />
not provide its citizens with freedom of speech. The<br />
Australian Communications <strong>and</strong> Media Authority has<br />
substantial power to regulate Internet content under The<br />
Broadcasting Services Amendment Bill of 1999, though<br />
the government also endorses a number of optional<br />
filters that people are encouraged to implement. 165<br />
Australia uses many reasons to remove Internet content,<br />
including, according to Opennet, “hate speech, copyright,<br />
defamation, <strong>and</strong> security policies.” 166 Australia has also<br />
refused to make use of ISP filtering. While the country<br />
does not support censoring at the level of some of the<br />
most vigilant nations―Australia pays attention to public<br />
desires, for example by posting feedback to their recent<br />
policy proposals online―the country is known to be fairly<br />
pro-internet censorship, especially as compared to New<br />
Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> to Western nations.<br />
Commonwealth of Independent States<br />
Countries like Ukraine, Georgia, <strong>and</strong> Kyrgyzstan see<br />
the Internet as a potential security threat <strong>and</strong> use this as a<br />
basis for supporting some Internet regulation. Following<br />
an Open Net Initiative test in 2006, Uzbekistan was<br />
found to filter the internet on the same level as countries<br />
like China <strong>and</strong> Iran, Turkmenistan is also known to filter<br />
the Internet substantially, <strong>and</strong>, conversely, Azerbaijan,<br />
Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Ukraine had more mild forms of regulation. This<br />
region also uses Internet defamation laws as a means of<br />
targeting unwanted content, <strong>and</strong> there have been cases in<br />
which governments have applied pressure to websites to<br />
comply with governmental protocols. 167 Overall, Internet<br />
regulation is increasing over time in these nations,<br />
although it is not particularly severe at present. 168<br />
General Assembly<br />
Europe<br />
Over the last decade, Europe has increased its filtering<br />
on pornographic <strong>and</strong> racist content. ISP companies have<br />
been known to feel pressure to regulate information<br />
when receiving requests to remove content so as not<br />
to come under scrutiny by governmental associations.<br />
The European Union has been working hard to create<br />
common st<strong>and</strong>ards for Internet filtering such as more<br />
clearly defining the roles <strong>and</strong> responsibilities of ISPs, <strong>and</strong><br />
determining what should be regulated by region-wide law<br />
verses by each individual country. 169 As of 2005, many<br />
substantial search engines in Germany opted to use lists<br />
provided by a government agency responsible for media<br />
classification in filter search results that are harmful to<br />
minors. Some have criticized this system since the list<br />
of censored websites are not disclosed; however, since<br />
the websites are only being filtered from search results<br />
<strong>and</strong> not from the internet, disclosing the list is seen by<br />
the government as defeating the purpose of this form of<br />
censorship in the first place. 170<br />
Latin America<br />
Besides Cuba, which employs systematic filtering,<br />
countries in Latin America filter Internet content in a<br />
similar manner as the <strong>United</strong> States <strong>and</strong> Europe. Not<br />
too much legislation exists specifically concerning<br />
the Internet, although journalists have long been<br />
threatened, tortured, <strong>and</strong> murdered by Latin American<br />
governments. 171 Instances of Internet regulation are<br />
treated on a case-by-case basis due to the lack of general<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards. 172<br />
Middle East <strong>and</strong> Africa<br />
Despite remaining one of the most heavily censored<br />
regions in the world, the Middle East recognizes the<br />
importance of the Internet in modern economics, <strong>and</strong><br />
thus has invested fruitfully in its IT domains. 173 However,<br />
at the same time, countries have invested in regulatory<br />
technologies, often provided by Western nations.<br />
According to OpenNet, “The censors in the region attempt<br />
to control political content using technical filtering, laws<br />
<strong>and</strong> regulations, surveillance <strong>and</strong> monitoring, physical<br />
restrictions, <strong>and</strong> extra-legal harassment <strong>and</strong> arrests.<br />
Filtering of content deemed offensive for religious, moral,<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultural reasons is pervasive in many countries <strong>and</strong><br />
is growing.” 174 Furthermore, governments continue to<br />
disguise filtering as technical malfunctions, <strong>and</strong> Internet<br />
regulation only continues to become more stringent.<br />
Internet use is still limited in Sub-Saharan Africa, <strong>and</strong><br />
only Ethiopia is known to actively censor data. However,<br />
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<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
this is not to say that Sub-Saharan Africa supports an<br />
open Internet; only that it is difficult to know at present<br />
to what extent Internet filtering will take hold there in<br />
the future. 175<br />
<strong>United</strong> States <strong>and</strong> Canada<br />
The <strong>United</strong> States <strong>and</strong> Canada contain about one<br />
fifth of the world’s Internet users. 176 The Internet is<br />
regulated in some contexts, such as in schools, <strong>and</strong> in<br />
cases of child pornography. Canada also restricts Internet<br />
hate speech. The First Amendment has prevented many<br />
attempts for Internet regulation in the US, <strong>and</strong> often,<br />
private parties have succeeded in removing content from<br />
the Internet rather than blocking it. 177 The US has been<br />
known less for the removal of content, however, <strong>and</strong><br />
more for intense surveillance <strong>and</strong> wiretapping of Internet<br />
communications mechanisms, particularly under former<br />
president Bush. 178 One should thus not believe that<br />
the US <strong>and</strong> Canada are free from Internet regulation,<br />
though regulation is certainly of a different nature than<br />
that of China, Australia, <strong>and</strong> the Middle East. However,<br />
especially recently, the US has reaffirmed its commitment<br />
to freedom of speech. In a recent speech, Hilary Clinton<br />
vocalized the US support of tools to circumvent censorship,<br />
as well as a desire to pursue innovative means of getting<br />
information to people throughout the world. 179<br />
Suggestions For Further Research<br />
Please come to committee having done additional<br />
research! Develop familiarity with your country’s policy,<br />
<strong>and</strong> invest some time into finding sources, books <strong>and</strong><br />
documents of your own. To get you started, here are a<br />
few websites that are particularly helpful:<br />
http://www.julesmaaten.eu/_uploads/EU%20<br />
GOFA.htm. Here you will find “The Directive Of the<br />
European Parliament And the Council Concerning the<br />
EU Global Online Freedom Act”. This will give delegates<br />
representing European nations in particular a sense of<br />
how Europeans treat censorship in cyberspace.<br />
http://en.rsf.org. This is the official Reporters<br />
Without Borders website, which contains very valuable<br />
<strong>and</strong> recent information about the status of the Internet<br />
in countries throughout the world, as well as a solid<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the work that RWB has performed.<br />
http://www.hrw.org/en/node/11563/. This 2005<br />
report by Human Rights Watch entitled “False Freedom”<br />
gives a thorough look, with many first h<strong>and</strong> examples, of<br />
the mistreatment of Internet journalists in Egypt, Iran,<br />
Syria, <strong>and</strong> Tunisia. It would be helpful to peruse the<br />
main Human Rights Watch website as well.<br />
http://www.dbcde.gov.au/submissio<br />
ns/20100316_11.34.55/256-Google%20ISP%20<br />
filtering%20submission%20Feb%202010.pdf. Here is<br />
a link to the full report that Google submitted to the<br />
Australian government concerning the potential for<br />
increased censorship in that nation. It contains a lot of<br />
valuable information about Google’s policies in general,<br />
<strong>and</strong> about contemporary Australia.<br />
Here is a link to the report produced by the Working<br />
Group on Internet Governance in 2005, http://www.<br />
wgig.org/docs/WGIGREPORT.pdf, which established<br />
many important definitions related to censorship <strong>and</strong><br />
also proposed the four models for an international body<br />
that were discussed earlier.<br />
Finally, check out Opennet.net <strong>and</strong> http://<br />
www.globalnetworkinitiative.org/ for some valuable<br />
information about initiatives that have previously been<br />
taken in reaction to Internet censorship.<br />
POSITION PAPERS<br />
Please Submit Position Papers at a length of ~1 page<br />
per topic. High quality position papers will show me that<br />
you have performed additional research in each topic<br />
area <strong>and</strong> that you have a developed stance of where your<br />
country’s policy lies. High quality position papers will<br />
also be succinct yet direct. Please address the key points<br />
of the issue, your country’s past actions with regards to<br />
each issue, <strong>and</strong> a summary of the course of action that<br />
you intend to take in committee<br />
Background: Succinctly summarize the issue at h<strong>and</strong><br />
(~1 shorter paragraph)<br />
Past Action: Address how your country’s policy has<br />
come to be. Were there particular people or events that<br />
lead to this policy? What are the key historical events that<br />
are beneficial to know about? (~1 longer paragraph)<br />
Future Action: What course of action would your<br />
country like to take? What position will your country<br />
argue in regards to the most contentious elements of<br />
each issue? And, what are some countries that share your<br />
position, <strong>and</strong> some countries that oppose your position?<br />
(~1-2 paragraphs)<br />
While you are by no means limited in committee to<br />
the contents of your position paper, I should be able to<br />
refer to the paper <strong>and</strong> quickly get the sense that you know<br />
what your country feels strongest about. Position papers<br />
are as much meant to help me as they are to help you. You<br />
will be able to refer to your position paper throughout<br />
committee to remind yourself of key points of debate,<br />
<strong>and</strong> writing the paper will provide an opportunity<br />
26<br />
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for you to get a good sense of how you will conduct<br />
yourself in committee. This is a big committee <strong>and</strong> a big<br />
conference, <strong>and</strong> with that comes some responsibility for<br />
preparing adequately. A position paper will ground you,<br />
but to st<strong>and</strong> out in committee <strong>and</strong> to be able to most<br />
thoroughly represent your country’s policies, you will in<br />
most cases need to prepare <strong>and</strong> bring along additional<br />
research. Please contact me over the next few weeks with<br />
any questions in regards to position papers!<br />
CLOSING REMARKS<br />
I spent this past summer researching at CERN<br />
where I saw a beautiful model of international scientific<br />
collaboration in action <strong>and</strong> attended meetings that<br />
addressed the issue of developing countries in the domain<br />
of research. From this experience the issue of improving<br />
models for collaboration <strong>and</strong> spreading this type of<br />
institution more widely very much appeals to me. While<br />
it may not turn out to be highly relevant to committee,<br />
I encourage you to spend a bit of time exploring the<br />
latest experiments at CERN, which you may have heard<br />
about from recent news articles <strong>and</strong>/or from Angels <strong>and</strong><br />
Demons. Over time, experiments making use of data<br />
from the LHC are likely to change how we underst<strong>and</strong><br />
the underlying nature of the universe.<br />
I am very excited about these two topics, <strong>and</strong> I hope<br />
that this background guide has helped to get you excited<br />
too. As I said in the opening remarks, I hope that beyond<br />
the scope of this committee, learning more about the<br />
social <strong>and</strong> cultural implications of internet censorship<br />
<strong>and</strong> large scale scientific collaboration will help make<br />
you more aware that modern science <strong>and</strong> technology is<br />
awesome, but also very much restricted by how we (<strong>and</strong><br />
during committee, how you!) choose to shape our world’s<br />
global policies.<br />
ENDNOTES<br />
1 <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>, Charter of the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, available at: http://www.<br />
unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3930.html, Article 12 [accessed 26 May 2010]<br />
2 ibid, Article 13<br />
3 “<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong>.” Welcome to the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>: It’s Your World. Web. 27 May 2010.<br />
.<br />
4 “Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.” Welcome to the <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong>: It’s Your World. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
5 “UN General Assembly - Third Committee - <strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> & <strong>Cultural</strong>.” Welcome to the <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong>: It’s Your World. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
6 Universality of Science in a Changing World. Issue brief. International Council For Science, Dec. 2004.<br />
7 Herton, Gregor. “Decisions <strong>and</strong> Elections at the ATLAS Collaboration Board, 2 July 2010.” 7 July 2010.<br />
E-mail.<br />
8 Universality of Science in a Changing World. Issue brief. International Council For Science, Dec. 2004, 1.<br />
9 ICSU Condemns Violence Against Scientists in Iraq. Statement. International Council For Science, Jul.<br />
2006, 1.<br />
General Assembly<br />
10 International Scientific Collaboration: a Quick Guide. “Introduction.” SciDev. Geoffrey Oldham, 1 Apr.<br />
2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2010. .<br />
11 Greenaway, Frank. Science International. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 1996.Print. 1<br />
12 ibd, 10-11<br />
13 ibd, 23<br />
14 ibd, 72-73<br />
15 Liewellyn-Smith, Chris. “International Collaboration in Science: Lessons From CERN.” SCIENCE FOR<br />
THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY A New Commitment (2000): 132. Print.<br />
16 “G77’S Ministers of Foreign Affairs Endorse New Consortium for S&T.” Welcome to TWNSO. Web. 20<br />
Aug. 2010. .<br />
17 TWAS - The Academy of Sciences for the Developing World. Web. 20 Aug. 2010. .<br />
18 Stirling, George C. “INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COLLABORATION: INTERNATIONAL<br />
YEARS OF SCIENCE.” OECD Global Science Forum, 10 Sept. 2007. Web. .<br />
19 “Freedom, Responsibility, <strong>and</strong> the Universality of Science.” ICSU, 2008. Web. 2010. . 6<br />
20 Ibd, 6<br />
21 Malakata, Michael. “Southern Africa to Boost Collaboration with Japan.” SciDev, 28 Feb. 2008. Web.<br />
22 Aug. 2010. .<br />
22 ibd, 8<br />
23 Niiler, Eric. “The Politics of the International Space Station : NPR.” NPR, 14 Mar. 2003. Web. 25<br />
Aug. 2010. .<br />
24 Spotts, Pete. “Obama Space Policy Prizes International Cooperation.” Christian Science Monitor,<br />
28 June 2010. Web. 25 Aug. 2010. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2010/0628/Obama-spacepolicy-prizes-international-cooperation<br />
25 Gristwood, Adam. “Create or Conform?” Public Service UK, 20 Apr. 2010. Web. 26<br />
Aug. 2010. .<br />
26 Wagner, Carloine S. <strong>and</strong> Loet Leydesdorff, 10<br />
27 International Scientific Collaboration: a Quick Guide. “The Benefits of International<br />
Collaboration.” SciDev. Geoffrey Oldham, 1 Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2010. .<br />
28 Wagner, Carloine S. <strong>and</strong> Loet Leydesdorff, 3<br />
29 Liewellyn-Smith, 132<br />
30 Wagner, Carloine S. <strong>and</strong> Loet Leydesdorff. “Network Structure, Self-Organization<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Growth of International Collaboration in Science”, 3. (for detailed citations see table 1 in the<br />
cited article).<br />
31 Wagner, Carloine S. <strong>and</strong> Loet Leydesdorff, 5<br />
32 ibd, 5<br />
33 ibd, 21<br />
34 ibd, 24<br />
35 International Scientific Collaboration: a Quick Guide. “Formal <strong>and</strong> Informal Collaboration.”<br />
SciDev. Geoffrey Oldham, 1 Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2010. .<br />
36 Liewellyn-Smith, 132<br />
37 Liewellyn-Smith, 134<br />
38 International Scientific Collaboration: a Quick Guide. “Formal <strong>and</strong> Informal Collaboration.”<br />
SciDev. Geoffrey Oldham, 1 Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2010. .<br />
39 ibd, “The Values of Formal Collaboration”<br />
40 Wagner, Carloine S. <strong>and</strong> Loet Leydesdorff, 7<br />
41 “Grid Briefings: Grid Computing in Five Minutes.” Gridtalk. European Commission, Aug. 2008.<br />
Web. Aug. 2010. ,1.<br />
42 Liewellyn-Smith, 133<br />
43 Ellis, John. “Developing Countries <strong>and</strong> CERN.” CERN Courier. CERN, 1 July 2003. Web. 25<br />
Aug. 2010. .<br />
44 Liewellyn-Smith, 133<br />
45 ibd, 133<br />
46 ibd, 133<br />
47 “’Al-Qaeda-link’ Cern Worker Held.” BBC, 9 Oct. 2009. Web. 27 Aug. 2010. .<br />
48 “AMS Experiment Takes off for Kennedy Space Center.” CERN Press Release, 18 Aug. 2010. Web.<br />
28 Aug. 2010. .<br />
27
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
49 Hu, Quiheng. “Science Across Borders: How Far to the Goals.” SCIENCE FOR THE TWENTY-<br />
FIRST CENTURY A New Commitment (2000): 129. Print.<br />
50 “European Focus on Biotechnology in China.” Success Stories. European Commission, 2005. Web.<br />
.<br />
51 Butler, Declan. “France Cracks down on Iranian Scientists.” Nature, 10 Dec. 2008. Web. .<br />
52 ibd<br />
53 Gustafsson, Bengt. “Sanctions Against Scientists Threaten Progress.” Nature, 8 Oct. 2009. Web. 26<br />
Aug. 2010.<br />
54 Campbell, Carol. “Education In Developing World A Top Priority.” SciDev, 24 Oct. 2008. Web.<br />
28 Aug. 2010. .<br />
55 High Energy Stereoscopic System. Web. 27 Aug. 2010. .<br />
56 Ch<strong>and</strong>iwana, Stephen. “NEPAD: Vision for Africa.” Science Careers, 8 Nov. 2002. Web. 28 Aug.<br />
2010. http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_magazine/previous_issues/articles/2002_11_08/<br />
noDOI.11154576044829791144. “Pareto’s Law”.<br />
57 Alfano, Sean. “US Denies Cuban Scientist Visa.” CBS News, 8 Nov. 2005. Web. 26 Aug. 2010.<br />
.<br />
58 “No Decision on Indian Scientist’s Visa Yet: US Embassy.” The Times of India, 17 Feb. 2006.<br />
Web. 25 Aug. 2010. . http://www.<br />
siliconindia.com/shownews/Denial_of_visa_to_scientist_sparks_outrage_in_US_-nid-31082.<br />
html<br />
59 “Advice to Organizers of International Scientific Meetings.” ICSU, 1995-1996. Web. Aug. 2010.<br />
.<br />
60 “Report of the Workshop on Best Practices in International Scientific Cooperation.” OECD Global<br />
Science Forum, Feb. 2003. Web. Aug. 2010. . “Overview”, 1.<br />
61 ibd, “Background”, 2<br />
62 Michalowski, Stefan. A Template for Establishing, Funding, <strong>and</strong> Managing an International<br />
Scientific Research Project Based on an Agreement Between Governments or Institutions. OECD,<br />
23 June 2005. Web. Aug. 2010. .<br />
63 “Report of the Workshop on Best Practices in International Scientific Cooperation.” OECD Global<br />
Science Forum, Feb. 2003. Web. Aug. 2010. .“Leadership”, 5<br />
64 ibd, “Funding <strong>and</strong> Finance”, 5<br />
65 Liewellyn-Smith, 133<br />
66 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001207/120706e.pdf<br />
67 ibd, 9<br />
68 See Annex B, “Checklist of Best Practice Principles,” Report of the Workshop on Best Practices in<br />
International Scientific Cooperation<br />
69 Michalowski, 9-18<br />
70 Michalowski, “Thematic meeting report”<br />
71 Liewellyn-Smith, “Table 2”, 4<br />
72 Cashmore, Roger. “Science Helps Bring <strong>Nations</strong> Together.” CERN Courier, 12 Nov. 2004. Web.<br />
Aug. 2010. .<br />
73 “Freedom, Responsibility, <strong>and</strong> the Universality of Science.” ICSU, 2008. Web. 2010. . 19-20<br />
74 “International Cooperation in Science And Technology: An Overview of African Protocols <strong>and</strong><br />
Approaches.” African Ministerial Council on Science <strong>and</strong> Technology. Web. Aug. 2010. .<br />
75 Cetto, Ana María. “Sharing Scientific Knowledge through Publications: What Do Developing<br />
Countries Have to Offer?”. 149<br />
76 http://www.icsu-wds.org/<br />
77 “Freedom, Responsibility, <strong>and</strong> the Universality of Science.” ICSU, 2008. Web. 2010. . 9<br />
78 Wagner, Carloine S. <strong>and</strong> Loet Leydesdorff, 25<br />
79 Alami, J. El, JC Dore, <strong>and</strong> JF Miquel. “INTERNATIONAL SClENTlFlC COLLABORATION<br />
IN ARAB COUNTRIES.” Web. Aug. 2010. . Conclusion, 370<br />
80 Liewellyn-Smith,134<br />
81 ibd, 134<br />
82 Ch<strong>and</strong>iwana, Stephen. “NEPAD: Vision for Africa.” Science Careers, 8 Nov. 2002. Web.<br />
28 Aug. 2010. . “The Role of Scientists.”<br />
83 Xuan, “The development of the Internet in China <strong>and</strong> its influence on<br />
sharing of scientific information.” . 144<br />
84 International Scientific Collaboration: a Quick Guide. “Introduction.” SciDev. Geoffrey Oldham, 1<br />
Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2010. .<br />
85 ibd, “The Benefits of international collaboration”<br />
86 ibd, “Possible Disadvantages”<br />
87 Hu, 131<br />
88 Hu, 131<br />
89 Hu, 131<br />
90 International Scientific Collaboration: a Quick Guide. “Introduction.” SciDev. Geoffrey Oldham, 1<br />
Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2010. .“Possible<br />
Disadvantages.”<br />
91 Greenaway, 107<br />
92 Ward, Mark. “BBC NEWS | Technology | How the Web Went World Wide.” BBC NEWS. Web.<br />
30 May 2010. .<br />
93 Timofeeva, Yulia. Censorship in Cyberspace: New Regulatory Strategies in the Digital Age on the<br />
Example of Freedom of Expression. Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2006. 14. Print.<br />
94 Timofeeva, 19.<br />
95 Timofeeva, 22.<br />
96 International Covenant on Civil <strong>and</strong> Political Rights, G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR<br />
Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force Mar. 23,<br />
1976, Article 12<br />
97 “Government Requests Directed to Google <strong>and</strong> YouTube.” Google. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
98 Timofeeva, 24<br />
99 Drummund, David. “A New Approach to China: an Update.” Official Google Blog. 22 Mar. 2010.<br />
Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
100 “BBC News - China Condemns Decision by Google to Lift Censorship.” BBC NEWS | News Front<br />
Page. 23 Mar. 2010. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
101 Bawany, Aleem. “Facebook Ban: Ramifications of PTA’s Censorship Efforts – The Express Tribune.”<br />
The Express Tribune - Global St<strong>and</strong>ard, Local Perspective. 24 May 2010. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
102 Timofeeva, 45<br />
103 Defeat Internet Censorship: Overview Of Advanced Technologies And Products. Issue brief. Global<br />
Internet Freedom Consortium, 21 Nov. 2007. Web. Section 3. 28 May 2010. .<br />
104 Abdulla, Rasha A. The Internet in the Arab World: Egypt <strong>and</strong> beyond. New York: Peter Lang, 2007.<br />
77. Print.<br />
105 Abdulla, 77<br />
106 “Internet Censorship - Law & Policy around the World.” Electronic Frontiers Australia: Civil<br />
Liberties Online. Electronif Frontiers Australia, 28 Mar. 2002. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
107 Chowdhury, Mridul. The Role of the Internet in Burma’s Saffron Revolution. Issue brief. Internet<br />
& Democracy Case Study Series. The Role of the Internet in Burma’s Saffron Revolution. Berkman<br />
Center At <strong>Harvard</strong> University, Sept. 2008. Web. 28 May 2010. Section: “the New Mass Media<br />
<strong>Model</strong> in Burma.”<br />
108 2005, July. “False Freedom” Human Rights Watch. 14 Nov. 2005. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
109 ibid, “Legal Constraints on Free Expression.”<br />
110 ibid, “The Group Detentions of August-October 2004.”<br />
111 Rao, S<strong>and</strong>hya, <strong>and</strong> Bruce C. Klopfenstein. Cyberpath to Development in Asia: Issues <strong>and</strong> Challenges.<br />
Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002. 75. Print.<br />
112 Rao, 72<br />
113 Rao, 76-77<br />
114 “Defeat Internet Censorship White Paper” (see citation xvii), 5.<br />
115 International Debates. April 2010, Vol. 8 Issue 4, 21-23.<br />
116 Goodman, Peter S. “Yahoo Says It Gave China Internet Data - Washingtonpost.com.” The<br />
Washington Post. 11 Sept. 2005. Web. 28 May 2010. .<br />
117 A Starting Point: Legal Implications of Internet Filtering. Rep. Opennet Intiative, Sept. 2004. Web.<br />
28 May 2010. .<br />
118 Abdulla, 82-85<br />
119 Abdulla, 86<br />
120 “False Freedom.” (See Citation xxii). Section 3.<br />
121 “False Freedom” (See Citation xxii). Section 3, “Summary: Regional Overview.”<br />
28<br />
Specialized General Assembly Agencies
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
122 Genachowski, Julius. “Preserving a Free <strong>and</strong> Open Internet: A Platform for Innovation,<br />
Opportunity, <strong>and</strong> Prosperity.” OpenInternet.gov. 21 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
123 Internet Censorship Fact Sheet. Issue brief. Amnesty International. Web. 28 May 2010. .<br />
124 European Union. DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL<br />
concerning the EU Global Online Freedom Act. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN<br />
COMMUNITIES, 2008. Web. 28 May 2010. .<br />
125 Nolan, Justine. “The China Dilemma: Internet Censorship <strong>and</strong> Corporate Responsibility.”<br />
University of New South Wales, 12 Dec. 2008. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
126 A Starting Point: Legal Implications of Internet Filtering. Rep. Opennet Intiative, Sept. 2004. Web.<br />
28 May 2010. .<br />
127 “PRESS CONFERENCE ON ‘10 MOST CENSORED COUNTRIES’.” <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>. 2 May<br />
2006. Web. 28 May 2010. .<br />
128 http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G09/136/80/PDF/G0913680.<br />
pdf?OpenElement<br />
129 “HRIC Case Highlight: Shi Tao <strong>and</strong> Yahoo.” Human Rights in China, 2005. Web. 28 May 2010.<br />
.<br />
130 “CHINA: Shi Tao.” Amnesty International USA. 2010. Web. 29 May 2010. .<br />
131 Goodman, Peter S. “Yahoo Says It Gave China Internet Data.” Washington Post. 11 Sept. 2005.<br />
Web. 31 May 2010. .<br />
132 ibid.<br />
133 Nolan, Justine. “The China Dilemma: Internet Censorship <strong>and</strong> Corporate Responsibility.”<br />
University of New South Wales, 12 Dec. 2008. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
134 “After Google, Another US Internet Company Decides to Limit Its Services in China.” Reporters<br />
Without Borders. 25 Mar. 2010. Web. 29 May 2010. .<br />
135 Timofeeva, 66<br />
136 “Asia: Overview.” OpenNet Initiative. Web. 29 May 2010. .<br />
137 Chowdhury, Mridul. The Role of the Internet in Burma’s Saffron Revolution. Issue brief. Internet<br />
& Democracy Case Study Series. The Role of the Internet in Burma’s Saffron Revolution. Berkman<br />
Center At <strong>Harvard</strong> University, Sept. 2008. Web. 28 May 2010. Section: Introduction<br />
138 Ibid, Section: “The Saffron Revolution <strong>and</strong> the New Mass Media <strong>Model</strong>.”<br />
139 “List of Blocked Websites Gets Longer.” Reporters Without Borders. 20 May 2010. Web. 30 May<br />
2010. .<br />
140 Husain, Mir<strong>and</strong>a. “Losing Facebook: Inside Pakistan’s Decision to Crack Down on the Web.”<br />
Newsweek. 21 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
141 Ibid.<br />
142 “Files to Be Kept on Internet-users Going Online in Cybercafes.” Reporters Without Borders. 29 Apr.<br />
2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
143 “Connections Severed or Slowed <strong>and</strong> Google Mail Blocked in Latest Anti-Internet Offensive.”<br />
Reporters Without Borders. 11 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
144 ibid.<br />
145 Matyszczyk, Chris. “Porn on Your Laptop? Aussie Customs Looks for It | Technically Incorrect -<br />
CNET News.” Technology News - CNET News. 20 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
146 “Google Hits Back at Conroy.” Sydney Morning Herald. 26 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
147 Valentino-DeVries, Jennifer. “Google, Yahoo Object to Australia’s Plan for Internet Filtering.” Wall<br />
Street Journal. 26 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
148 Fitzgerald, Ross Ross. “Internet Censorship Remains Part of Conroy’s Agenda | The Australian.”<br />
The Australian. 8 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
149 Publication. M<strong>and</strong>atory ISP Level Filtering Submission to the Department of Broadb<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Communications & Digital Economy. Google, 20 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
150 Nolan, Justine. “The China Dilemma: Internet Censorship <strong>and</strong> Corporate Responsibility.”<br />
University of New South Wales, 12 Dec. 2008. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
151 Report of the U.N. Special Rapporteur, Mr Abid Hussein, pursuant to the Commission on<br />
Human Rights Resolution 1993/45”. Reference E/CN.4/1995/32, 14 December 1995, para 48.<br />
152 <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>. A/HRC/13/NGO/88: “Written Statement Submitted by Reporters Without Borders<br />
International, a Non-governmental Organization in Special Consultative Status” Human Rights<br />
Council, 5 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
153 2005, July. “False Freedom” Human Rights Watch. 14 Nov. 2005. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
154 Report of the Working Group on Internet Governance. Rep. June 2005. Web. 30 May 2010. .11-12.<br />
155 McCullagh, Declan. “U.N. Agency Eyes Curbs on Internet Anonymity | Politics <strong>and</strong> Law - CNET<br />
News.” Technology News - CNET News. 12 Sept. 2008. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
156 “FAQ: What Happened at the Internet Governance Forum? | OpenNet Initiative.” OpenNet<br />
Initiative. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
157 “Geneva Declaration on Internet Freedom.” Geneva Summit for Human Rights, Tolerance <strong>and</strong><br />
Democracy. 9 Mar. 2010. Web. 31 May 2010. .<br />
158 For More information on each of these proposals, see pages 13-16 of the Report of the Working<br />
Group on Internet Governance<br />
159 “Principles.” Global Network Initiative. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
160 “Governance, Accountability, <strong>and</strong> Learning Framework” Global Network Initiative. Web. 30 May<br />
2010. .<br />
161 See inhope.org<br />
162 “Fighting Illegal Content - Europa - Information Society.” EUROPA - European Commission. Web.<br />
30 May 2010. <br />
163 “Asia: Introduction”” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
164 “Asia: Conclusion”” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
165 “Australia <strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong>: Offensive Content” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010.<br />
.<br />
166 “Australia <strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong>: Conclusion” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
167 “Commonwealth of Independent States: Overview” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010.<br />
.<br />
168 “Commonwealth of Independent States: Conclusion” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May<br />
2010. .<br />
169 “Europe: Introduction” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
170 “Europe: <strong>Social</strong> Filtering” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
171 “Latin America: Introduction” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
172 “Latin America: Conclusion” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
173 “Middle East/North Africa: Introduction” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
174 “Middle East/North Africa: Conclusion” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
175 “Sub Saharan Africa: Conclusion” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
176 Internet Usage World Stats - Internet <strong>and</strong> Population Statistics. Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2010.<br />
Web. 31 May 2010. .<br />
177 “North America: Introduction” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
178 “North America: National Security, Computer Security” OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May<br />
2010. .<br />
179 Clinton, Hilary Rodham. “Remarks on Internet Freedom.” January 21st, 2010. <br />
General Assembly<br />
29
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Topic A: International Collaboration in Science<br />
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Cetto, Ana María. “Sharing Scientific Knowledge through Publications: What Do Developing Countries Have to<br />
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.<br />
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30<br />
Specialized General Assembly Agencies
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
No Decision on Indian Scientist’s Visa Yet: US Embassy.” The Times of India, 17 Feb. 2006. Web. 25 Aug. 2010.<br />
“Report of the Workshop on Best Practices in International Scientific Co-operation.” OECD Global Science Forum,<br />
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SCIENCE.” OECD Global Science Forum, 10 Sept. 2007. Web. .<br />
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Xuan, “The development of the Internet in China <strong>and</strong> its influence on sharing of scientific information.” .<br />
Topic B: Internet Censorship<br />
A Starting Point: Legal Implications of Internet Filtering. Rep. Opennet Intiative, Sept. 2004. Web. 28 May 2010.<br />
.<br />
Abdulla, Rasha A. The Internet in the Arab World: Egypt <strong>and</strong> beyond. New York: Peter Lang, 2007. 77. Print.<br />
“After Google, Another US Internet Company Decides to Limit Its Services in China.” Reporters Without Borders.<br />
25 Mar. 2010. Web. 29 May 2010. .<br />
Bawany, Aleem. “Facebook Ban: Ramifications of PTA’s Censorship Efforts – The Express Tribune.” The Express Tribune<br />
- Global St<strong>and</strong>ard, Local Perspective. 24 May 2010. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
“BBC News - China Condemns Decision by Google to Lift Censorship.” BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 23 Mar. 2010.<br />
Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
Chowdhury, Mridul. The Role of the Internet in Burma’s Saffron Revolution. Issue brief. Internet & Democracy Case<br />
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2008. Web. 28 May 2010.<br />
Clinton, Hilary Rodham. “Remarks on Internet Freedom.” January 21 st , 2010. .<br />
“Connections Severed or Slowed <strong>and</strong> Google Mail Blocked in Latest Anti-Internet Offensive.” Reporters Without Borders.<br />
11 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
“Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.” Welcome to the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>: It’s<br />
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Drummund, David. “A New Approach to China: an Update.” Official Google Blog. 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 27 May 2010.<br />
.<br />
European Union. DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL concerning the EU<br />
Global Online Freedom Act. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES, 2008. Web. 28 May<br />
2010. .<br />
“False Freedom” 2005, July. Human Rights Watch. 14 Nov. 2005. Web. 30 May 2010.<br />
“Files to Be Kept on Internet-users Going Online in Cybercafes.” Reporters Without Borders. 29 Apr. 2010. Web. 30<br />
May 2010. .<br />
Fitzgerald, Ross Ross. “Internet Censorship Remains Part of Conroy’s Agenda | The Australian.” The Australian. 8 May<br />
2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
Genachowski, Julius. “Preserving a Free <strong>and</strong> Open Internet: A Platform for Innovation, Opportunity, <strong>and</strong><br />
Prosperity.” OpenInternet.gov. 21 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
“Geneva Declaration on Internet Freedom.” Geneva Summit for Human Rights, Tolerance <strong>and</strong> Democracy. 9 Mar. 2010.<br />
Web. 31 May 2010. .<br />
General Assembly<br />
31
<strong>Social</strong>, <strong>Humanitarian</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Cultural</strong> Committee<br />
Goodman, Peter S. “Yahoo Says It Gave China Internet Data - Washingtonpost.com.” The Washington Post. 11 Sept. 2005.<br />
Web. 28 May 2010. .<br />
“Google Hits Back at Conroy.” Sydney Morning Herald. 26 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
“Government Requests Directed to Google <strong>and</strong> YouTube.” Google. Web. 27 May 2010. .<br />
Husain, Mir<strong>and</strong>a. “Losing Facebook: Inside Pakistan’s Decision to Crack Down on the Web.” Newsweek. 21 May<br />
2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
International Covenant on Civil <strong>and</strong> Political Rights, G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52,<br />
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.<br />
Internet Censorship Fact Sheet. Issue brief. Amnesty International. Web. 28 May 2010. .<br />
“List of Blocked Websites Gets Longer.” Reporters Without Borders. 20 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
Matyszczyk, Chris. “Porn on Your Laptop? Aussie Customs Looks for It | Technically Incorrect - CNET News.” Technology<br />
News - CNET News. 20 May 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory ISP Level Filtering Submission to the Department of Broadb<strong>and</strong>, Communications & Digital Economy. Google,<br />
20 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
McCullagh, Declan. “U.N. Agency Eyes Curbs on Internet Anonymity | Politics <strong>and</strong> Law - CNET News.” Technology<br />
News - CNET News. 12 Sept. 2008. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
Nolan, Justine. “The China Dilemma: Internet Censorship <strong>and</strong> Corporate Responsibility.” University of New South<br />
Wales, 12 Dec. 2008. Web. 30 May 2010. .<br />
OpenNet Initiative. 2009. Web. 30 May 2010.