Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, 1853 - Harvard Model United Nations
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, 1853 - Harvard Model United Nations
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, 1853 - Harvard Model United Nations
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>,<br />
<strong>1853</strong><br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
Introduction5<br />
History and Discussion of the Issue 5<br />
Current Situation 20<br />
Bloc Positions 24<br />
Proposed Solutions 24<br />
Suggestions for Further Research 25<br />
Position Paper Guidelines 25<br />
Closing Remarks 26<br />
Bibliography28<br />
<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
1
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2012<br />
A Letter from the Secretary-General<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Stephanie N. Oviedo<br />
Director-General<br />
Ana Choi<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administration<br />
Ainsley Faux<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Alexandra M. Harsacky<br />
Comptroller<br />
Sofia Hou<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Innovation and Technology<br />
Juliana Cherston<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
S. Ethan Lyle<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Economic and Social Council<br />
Charlene S. Wong<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
I could not be more honored to welcome you to the fifty-ninth session of <strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong><br />
<strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong>. Our entire staff of 205 <strong>Harvard</strong> undergraduates is eager to join with you<br />
this January at the Sheraton Boston for an exciting weekend of debate, diplomacy, and<br />
cultural exchange. You and your 3,000 fellow delegates join a long legacy of individuals<br />
passionate about international affairs and about the pressing issues confronting our World.<br />
Founded in 1927 as <strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> League of <strong>Nations</strong>, our organization has evolved<br />
into one of America’s oldest, largest, and most international <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> simulations.<br />
Drawing from this rich history, <strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> has strived to emphasize<br />
and promote the unique impact of the UN and its mandates in the eradication of humanity’s<br />
greatest problems. Despite its difficulties and often-unfortunate image in the press, the<br />
<strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> is truly a global body with representation of 193-member states and is the<br />
closest the World has ever achieved to a “Parliament of Man.”<br />
At HMUN, we strive to recreate this body and the international environment it fosters<br />
through our emphasis on welcoming more and more international delegations to our<br />
conference each year. For the fifty-ninth session, HMUN is proud to welcome delegations<br />
from over 35 countries to share their experiences with others from across the World. Not<br />
only can you debate global issues in committee, but also discuss the China-US relations with<br />
a delegate hailing from Shanghai or EU economic policy with a delegate from Germany. I<br />
encourage you to go above and beyond research and discussions within your committee to<br />
learn from your fellow delegates.<br />
In this guide, you are about to embark on a valuable intellectual endeavor. Your committee<br />
director has worked tirelessly to research and compile this extensive background guide.<br />
Please use it as a foundation in your own research for committee and to contribute to<br />
your debates and final resolutions. I wish you the best of luck in your preparation and in<br />
committee this January.<br />
Sincerely,<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 588-0285<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2012<br />
secgen@harvardmun.org<br />
22 Specialized Agencies
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2012<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Stephanie N. Oviedo<br />
Director-General<br />
Ana Choi<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administration<br />
Ainsley Faux<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Alexandra M. Harsacky<br />
Comptroller<br />
Sofia Hou<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Innovation and Technology<br />
Juliana Cherston<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
S. Ethan Lyle<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Economic and Social Council<br />
Charlene S. Wong<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
Welcome to the Specialized Agencies! It is my deepest pleasure to welcome you to this elite<br />
organ. The SA is uniquely structured to maximize delegate experience. The average SA<br />
committee size is 16 delegates; as such, there are abundant opportunities for every attendee<br />
to participate. With the largest staff of any organ, and yet the fewest number of delegates,<br />
extraordinary attention from the dais is guaranteed. By the numbers, you should expect the<br />
highest quality, most innovative, and most exciting committees that <strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong> can offer.<br />
But numbers aren’t everything, and the SA is far more than a collection of statistics. The<br />
competition to staff the SA is intense; as a result, your committee’s directors and junior staff<br />
are at the top of their game. Since April 2011, your dais has spent untold hours preparing<br />
every facet of committee so that your simulation is as realistic as possible. Having already<br />
seen their epic and incredible background guides, I can tell you that each of them has<br />
poured his or her soul into making your committee experience unmatched anywhere.<br />
Needless to say, HMUN would not be complete without you, the delegates. The HMUN<br />
SA has long been the ultimate test of mettle on the high school circuit, and the mere chance<br />
to compete on your committees is the dream of many a delegate. Success on the SA will<br />
not come easily; equal measures of preparation, enthusiasm, and creativity will be critical.<br />
Victory will not come without sacrifice. Of course, I have no doubt that each of you will<br />
rise to the challenge.<br />
As a <strong>Model</strong> UN delegate in high school, I have been in your position as an SA delegate<br />
many times. Never before have I seen such a slate of original committees, with endless<br />
potential for creativity. I hope you are as excited as I am to change the world forever – or at<br />
least for four days. Best wishes, and I look forward to meeting you this January!<br />
Sincerely,<br />
Charlene S. Wong<br />
Under-Secretary-General for the Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2012<br />
sa@harvardmun.org<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 588-0285<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
3
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
<strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong> <strong>Nations</strong> 2012<br />
Dear Delegates,<br />
Hunter M. Richard<br />
Secretary-General<br />
Stephanie N. Oviedo<br />
Director-General<br />
Ana Choi<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Administration<br />
Ainsley Faux<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Business<br />
Alexandra M. Harsacky<br />
Comptroller<br />
Sofia Hou<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Innovation and Technology<br />
Juliana Cherston<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
General Assembly<br />
S. Ethan Lyle<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Economic and Social Council<br />
Charlene S. Wong<br />
Under-Secretary-General<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
Hello, and welcome to the <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong>. I’m really excited for our<br />
committee: we’ve selected you out of an impressive applicant pool to create the perfect<br />
committee to explore this very volatile era of Chinese history. As you might know (and as<br />
you will certainly know after reading this study guide), the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion had the power<br />
to change the entire course of China’s future. By rewinding the trajectory of what has now<br />
become one of the modern superpowers, we can pause at this vital crossroads and put our<br />
creativity to the test, extrapolating what might have been.<br />
But enough about history, we’ll talk about that plenty in the committee room. In the present,<br />
I’m looking forward to getting to know all of you over the course of the weekend. While<br />
not pretending to be a hallucinating Chinese emperor (which happens more often than<br />
you’d guess), I’m really interested in indie music and art. I play a couple of instruments; I’ve<br />
been in a few bands. I also love to run along the beautiful (if freezing) Charles River here in<br />
Boston when I wake up early enough. I’m from a small town in a small state (Delaware), but<br />
I’m much happier here in the city. In school, I study engineering, but don’t worry: I don’t<br />
spend all of my time in a lab. As you can probably guess, I’m really interested in history,<br />
religion, and art, and especially in East Asian culture (I’m probably going to minor in East<br />
Asian studies if all goes well).<br />
So what am I hoping for at HMUN this year? First of all, as a fellow delegate, if you<br />
take anything away from this committee, I hope you take away a lot new friendships and<br />
perspectives, because these are the things that will stay with you the longest. Secondly, as<br />
your director, I’m excited for the discussions and mayhem that will arise in our committee.<br />
Please don’t be afraid to stand up for what you (and by you, I mean the historical you)<br />
believe in. Our committee is a collection of ambitious, hardened warriors and religious<br />
visionaries: I expect both (respectful) conflict and conflict resolution. Thirdly, I hope that<br />
you learn something from this committee: my fellow staff and I have put a lot of work into<br />
providing historical references for you, and the more everyone prepares before conference,<br />
the more exciting and productive our committee sessions will be. Lastly, let’s have fun! Hit<br />
me up outside the committee room, and I better see you all at the delegate dance.<br />
Welcome to the Specialized Agencies and to the <strong>Heavenly</strong> Council.<br />
Sincerely,<br />
59 Shepard Street, Box 205<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138<br />
Voice: (617)-398-0772<br />
Fax: (617) 588-0285<br />
Email: info@harvardmun.org<br />
www.harvardmun.org<br />
Kyle Rawding<br />
Director, <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
taiping@harvardmun.org<br />
44 Specialized Agencies
INTRODUCTION<br />
The topics that will be examined by this committee<br />
are twofold. Firstly, as a council of generals, we will be<br />
chiefly concerned with the advancement of the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion. This pursuit includes several facets: efficient<br />
management of resources and manpower, military<br />
strategizing and long-term planning, and relations with<br />
both the opposing forces of the Qing and the wildcard<br />
forces of the Western powers. Will we attempt to secure<br />
the foreigners’ blessing or will we attempt to drive them<br />
out as well? Remember that this is a young rebellion,<br />
fought and led by farmers and miners (who have only<br />
just set down their plows and picks) against a trained<br />
imperial army. But also keep in mind the power of<br />
popular support and the fire of injustice that burns deep<br />
in the souls of the downtrodden.<br />
Secondly, it is the duty of this council to carry out its<br />
religious quest to create a heaven on earth, from improving<br />
living conditions for all through collectivization of land<br />
and resources, to instituting moral reforms, to spreading<br />
the message of the One True God among the unconverted.<br />
The lengthy rule of the Qing overlords has inflicted<br />
sweeping changes to traditional Chinese culture (for<br />
example, the mandated queue hairstyle for men or the<br />
promotion of foot-binding among women). The battle<br />
to overthrow Qing influence is just as vital in the home as<br />
on the battlefield, and the reforms passed by this council<br />
can go a long way towards translating military rebellion<br />
into cultural rebellion. Caught up in the politics of the<br />
uprising are the issues of religion and education as well,<br />
two fields long monopolized by popular animist beliefs<br />
and government-sponsored Confucianism. As the earthly<br />
soldiers of the One True God, it is up to the <strong>Taiping</strong> to<br />
stomp out both of these heresies, from local shrines all<br />
the way up to the government’s bureaucratic exams.<br />
In short, I charge this committee with the task<br />
of furthering the <strong>Taiping</strong> aim of stamping out Qing<br />
influence on both the macroscopic and individual levels.<br />
HISTORY AND DISCUSSION OF THE<br />
ISSUE<br />
This background guide will first examine the main<br />
aspects and the trajectory of the rebellion itself: prerebellion<br />
conditions, causes of the rebellion, a detailed<br />
chronology of the rebellion, and an overview of the<br />
current situation. The second half will then explore<br />
the inner workings of the rebellion and its leaders: the<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
history of internal reforms, and life within the <strong>Heavenly</strong><br />
<strong>Kingdom</strong>.<br />
Pre-Rebellion Conditions and Causes<br />
Before examining the course of the rebellion, it will be<br />
useful to understand the rebels’ context and background<br />
by first studying the people themselves, then expanding<br />
outwards to include sweeping trends across China, and<br />
finally exploring China’s interaction with the rest of the<br />
world.<br />
Traditions and Values of China<br />
CONFUCIANISM<br />
Before the coming of the <strong>Taiping</strong>, the backbone<br />
of intellectualism and everyday morality in China has<br />
been the set of traditional Confucian ideals handed<br />
down generation after generation, one of the few things<br />
binding together the diverse and enormous population<br />
of nineteenth-century China. Throughout the centuries,<br />
Confucianism has become infused into nearly every aspect<br />
of learning and knowledge: the highly competitive civil<br />
service examinations were based on close memorization<br />
and analysis of a wide collection of Confucian texts,<br />
schoolrooms were decorated with tablets bearing the<br />
sage’s instructions, and even children learning to read<br />
for the first time used the “Three Character Classic”<br />
(simplified Confucian doctrine written in triplets of<br />
common characters). 1<br />
VILLAGE LIFE AND POPULAR RELIGION<br />
Built on the Confucian ideal of filial piety, the nuclear<br />
family is the main unit of social structure for the Chinese<br />
people. Extended family ties provide an additional<br />
support network, but one that is often tenuous at best.<br />
Nor do villages provide much more social structure; with<br />
so many peasants living at or below the poverty line, efforts<br />
to promote the “greater good” are a luxury not many can<br />
spare afford. As described in Teng’s survey of <strong>Taiping</strong>era<br />
China, villages are “more a residential agglomeration<br />
of peasant households than a functioning community”. 2<br />
Due to imperial inefficiency and corruption amongst local<br />
officials, the powers of government and law-enforcement<br />
often fall to the wealthiest family in the vicinity: wealth<br />
can buy tutors for the civil service exams (and often can<br />
even buy the government positions outright), and with<br />
government posts comes further wealth. 3 However, even<br />
such disjointed villages are brought together by their<br />
search for higher powers to ease their plight. Because<br />
5
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
Confucianism is a philosophy and not a religion, the<br />
more spiritual needs of the people have been satisfied by<br />
an enormous pantheon of both national and local deities<br />
governing every aspect of life. In order to pay proper<br />
homage to these many gods, myriad shrines and temples<br />
dot the Chinese countryside, and dozens of festivals,<br />
parades, and feasts fill the Chinese calendar. 4<br />
The State of the Empire<br />
THE HISTORY OF THE QING<br />
At this point in history, the Qing dynasty has been<br />
in possession of China for approximately 200 years.<br />
Founded by a Manchu clan (an ethnic minority) in<br />
northeastern China in 1644, the leaders of the Manchu<br />
uprising were comprised of hunter-gatherer Chinese<br />
allied with their more war-like Mongol neighbors to the<br />
north. Together, the rebel group that would become the<br />
Qing overthrew the reigning Ming capital at Beijing and,<br />
after a shuffling of rulers and a series of initial reforms,<br />
established a new dynasty. Included in these initial<br />
reforms were the creation of a Manchu script and a new<br />
civil administrative system (including ethnic quotas to<br />
promote Manchu involvement), both of which served to<br />
institutionalize Manchu culture in a nation of primarily<br />
non-Manchu. The Qing continued to solidify their power<br />
over China for a century until reaching their peak with<br />
the rule of the Qianlong Emperor, who further increased<br />
Qing hegemony through a series of initiatives including<br />
the widespread suppression of popular revolt, the<br />
consolidation of a national library, and the subsequent<br />
initiation of a “literary inquisition”. However, with<br />
this amassing of power came the increasing prevalence<br />
of internal corruption, exemplified by the imperial<br />
bodyguard Heshen who accrued countless riches over<br />
the course of his career. It is approximately one century<br />
after the reign of the Qianlong Emperor – one century<br />
rife with popular uprisings, government corruption, and<br />
increasing European interference – that the stage was set<br />
for the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion.<br />
POVERTY<br />
Poverty is the most immediate issue plaguing the<br />
common man in 1850’s China, and it has proven to be<br />
one of the greatest motivating factors for people to join<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> cause. A financial crisis is gripping the Qing<br />
Empire from the national treasury all the way down to<br />
each individual home. On a macroscopic level, this crisis<br />
is the result of administrative inefficiency (for example,<br />
the emperor has been unable to change the tax rate<br />
since 1712), a lack of economic buffers such as credit or<br />
state-issued bonds, widespread corruption and internal<br />
theft, and a massive drain on silver reserves as a result<br />
of costly opium importation. 5 These issues are further<br />
complicated by runaway population growth without an<br />
accompanying increase in arable land. Between 1751 and<br />
1851, the population of China more than doubled from<br />
182 million to 432 million, while the area of arable land<br />
has increased by only 8.5%. 6 With such a large population<br />
depending on insufficient food supplies, “a partial failure<br />
of crops or a change in the course of trade reduce masses<br />
of population to a state of starvation and drives them<br />
to support life by pillage”. 7 In the years preceding the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion, this already dire situation has been<br />
exacerbated by a series of famines, floods, and droughts<br />
that have pushed the country to the brink of rebellion.<br />
ETHNIC RESTLESSNESS<br />
Within the generally struggling agrarian population<br />
of China are ethnic groups that are set at an even greater<br />
disadvantage. Tribes like the Miao, Yao, and Hakka<br />
are all seen as outsiders, encroaching on the hereditary<br />
landholdings of natives, and are often relegated to<br />
unappealing mountainous areas. The Hakkas, however,<br />
are not so different from their native neighbors as to<br />
provoke total exclusion. They often take on unwanted<br />
occupations (as barbers, miners, and blacksmiths) but<br />
are guaranteed several slots in the local examinations<br />
for bureaucratic posts. 8 What differentiates the Hakka<br />
the most is their nonconforming gender roles. Unlike<br />
most women in Qing China, Hakka women have never<br />
bound their feet, granting them the ability as well as the<br />
expectation to work alongside their male counterparts.<br />
In order to maintain their carefully guarded existence<br />
among the antagonistic natives, Hakkas have a long<br />
history of banding together to stand up to neighbors<br />
and are said to have been the last group to submit to<br />
the Manchu conquerors. 9 This gender egalitarianism and<br />
fighting spirit has proven very important to the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion, with both Hakka men and women moving<br />
out of the farm fields and onto the battlefield.<br />
BUREAUCRATIC BREAKDOWN<br />
The Qing dynasty, ruler of China since 1644, finally<br />
reached its peak during the reign of the Emperor Qianlong,<br />
after whom each successive ruler was less and less fit to<br />
rule, especially in the troubled economic times discussed<br />
earlier. 10 Massive spending on a lavish summer palace<br />
and border control significantly drained the imperial<br />
66 Specialized Agencies
treasury, as did the power-grabbing efforts of Qianlong’s<br />
bodyguard Ho-shen, who amassed for himself twenty<br />
public offices and an outrageous fortune of 800 million<br />
taels. 11 This blatant nepotism and even racism (Ho-shen,<br />
like most high-ranking officials, was of Manchu descent)<br />
did a great deal to devalue the centuries-old meritocratic<br />
system of civil service exams, provoking several minor<br />
revolutions. It is common knowledge among the<br />
Chinese people that public offices are often sold rather<br />
than earned, and that the low wages of public officials are<br />
supplemented through bribery and extortion. 12 Nearing<br />
the time of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion, blow after blow has<br />
chipped away at Qing hegemony including increased<br />
piracy, disastrous defeat in the Opium Wars, a declining<br />
military, natural disasters, and the growing threat of<br />
foreign interference. When rebellion finally struck, it is<br />
small wonder that the <strong>Taiping</strong> were able to gain such a<br />
foothold.<br />
A battle between Qing and European troops during the Opium war.<br />
History of Foreign Influence<br />
CANTON<br />
The foreign powers that would one day prove to be<br />
so influential in the events of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion were,<br />
for nearly a century, strictly confined to a single patch of<br />
land 270 paces long and wide. 13 This patch of land was<br />
the port of Canton, allotted to the Europeans (and later<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
the Americans) in an effort by China to regain control of<br />
foreign trade under an agreement known as the “Canton<br />
System”. On the foreigners’ territory were built thirteen<br />
factories called “hongs”, named after the nationality of<br />
their inhabitants, who numbered about 300. 14 Within the<br />
hongs could be found Spanish, Dutch, Danish, Swedish,<br />
Austrian, English, and American representatives among<br />
others. Each nation vied for a share of the hefty profit<br />
to be made from trading opium, silk, medicine, furs,<br />
porcelain, and western goods. In addition to economic<br />
transactions, this port served as a conduit for language,<br />
religion, and ideas to pass from one culture to another<br />
and contributed greatly to the spread of Christianity<br />
within China. Western missionaries coming from<br />
Canton often hired local boats and illegally distributed<br />
their evangelical literature throughout the villages along<br />
the coast. Eventually, some of these pamphlets made<br />
their way to the village of Hong Xiuquan and sparked<br />
the religious furor that preceded<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion.<br />
THE OPIUM WAR<br />
The first major conflict that<br />
set the tone for future relations<br />
between China and the West was<br />
the Opium War that lasted from<br />
1839 to 1842. 15 Distressed by the<br />
pervasive economic and moral<br />
drain caused by the European<br />
importation of opium and the<br />
rapidly growing number of<br />
Chinese addicts, China struck back<br />
against Britain (the main importer).<br />
Britain, in turn, saw an opportunity<br />
to finally extricate its Chinese trade<br />
from Qing imperial restrictions,<br />
and thereby expand its sphere of<br />
influence throughout the whole<br />
of China. Battles were fought, but<br />
the British won easily. Although<br />
the Chinese had far more troops<br />
at their disposal, the combination of the British forces’<br />
superior technology (for example, the steamship) and<br />
renowned discipline led to a series of embarrassing routs<br />
for the Chinese. The Manchu troops, once infamous for<br />
their ferocity, came to be regarded as “paper tigers.” 16 The<br />
war was a total disaster for China, failing to accomplish<br />
any of its goals: the Treaty of Nanking scored concession<br />
7
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
after concession for the British without giving an inch in<br />
return.<br />
1842: THE TREATY OF NANKING<br />
The Treaty of Nanking marked the advent of a new<br />
era in Chinese history, and not a proud one. Shamed<br />
by the loss of the Opium War but still prideful and<br />
xenophobic, the “Chinese authorities tried their best to<br />
get the British forces out of China by signing the peace<br />
treaty without even reading the articles”. 17 Indeed, some<br />
scholars have concluded that the Opium War’s exposure<br />
of the weaknesses within the Qing government directly<br />
inspired subsequent insurrections, including the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion. 18 With Britain’s victory also came countless<br />
new opportunities for trade, trade that was now under<br />
European control rather than Chinese. Deprived of the<br />
tiny port of Canton, the British seized Hong Kong and<br />
secured five additional Chinese ports for European trade.<br />
The many Chinese who, under the Canton System, had<br />
supplemented legal trade with profitable smuggling<br />
ventures, were ousted by the more capable British<br />
supervision of river trade; many of these smugglers<br />
turned instead to open piracy. These pirates would later<br />
prove to be an important faction during the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion: a considerable force whose loyalties changed<br />
with the wind (see “Bandits and Pirates” below). Other,<br />
more direct consequences of the Treaty of Nanking were<br />
massive war reparations to be paid to Britain, recognition<br />
of the British consuls’ authority, the release of all British<br />
prisoners of war, and the official cession of Hong Kong<br />
to Britain.<br />
Chronology of the Rebellion<br />
Having established the context of the rebellion, it<br />
is now possible to trace the rebellion from its humble<br />
beginnings to the current impressive state of the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>.<br />
HONG XIUQUAN<br />
In order to thoroughly understand the present<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, it is necessary to first study<br />
both its origins and it originator: namely, Hong Xiuquan,<br />
the <strong>Heavenly</strong> Emperor. Originally from the village of<br />
Guanlubu in the province of Guangdong, the Hongs are<br />
a Hakka family – an ethnic minority or “guest people”<br />
still not quite accepted by the older inhabitants of this<br />
area. Despite their Hakka lineage, the Hongs have a long<br />
history of powerful figures in the Chinese bureaucracy,<br />
from Confucian scholars to high officials. Unfortunately<br />
for the Hongs however, this aptitude was apparently not<br />
passed down to later generations; ever since the Hongs’<br />
move to Guangdong in the 1600s, “none of the Hongs<br />
are recorded as having passed the state examinations,<br />
even at the local level”. 19 Nonetheless, the future seemed<br />
bright for the young boy who at the time was called Hong<br />
Houxiu, but would come to be known as Hong Xiuquan.<br />
Even as a child, Hong “displayed the personality traits that<br />
were to affect his course in later life. He was egocentric,<br />
liked to be the leader of his playmates, and would beat<br />
anyone who did not obey his orders”. 20 His family, tutors,<br />
and even village leaders had high hopes for him as his<br />
obvious intelligence and great memory earned him the<br />
opportunity to study for the bureaucratic examinations,<br />
despite his family’s poverty. In 1836, after a lifetime of<br />
careful preparation and memorization, Hong took a<br />
stab at the examinations with no more success than his<br />
recent ancestors. Three subsequent attempts were equally<br />
fruitless, possibly because of his inability to raise funds for<br />
a bribe, or simply because of the incredibly low passing<br />
rates. However, two things that the future <strong>Heavenly</strong><br />
Emperor did gain from this process were a growing<br />
hatred for the imperial bureaucracy, and a Christian text,<br />
given to Hong by a foreign missionary lingering near the<br />
waiting test-takers. Although he only gave it a cursory<br />
glance at the time, this text would later prove to be the<br />
catalyst for the entire <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion.<br />
ORIGINS OF THE GOD-WORSHIPPING SOCIETY:<br />
EARLY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY INFLUENCE<br />
It is widely believed that the missionary who<br />
gave Hong the Christian text was Edward Stevens, an<br />
American minister assigned to Canton as the chaplain of<br />
The fateful exam hall where Hong applied for public service so<br />
many times before receiving the Bible that would irrevocably<br />
change his life.<br />
88 Specialized Agencies
the American Seamen’s Friend Society. 21 He had spent the<br />
past several years personally (and illegally) distributing<br />
translated Christian books – such as doctrines, sections of<br />
the gospel, collected Bible stories. Stevens was assisted by<br />
the efforts of a Chinese Christian named Liang Afa, who<br />
as a boy had worked carving wooden printing blocks for<br />
a Scottish missionary. Having absorbed the material he<br />
was helping to print and thus converting to Christianity,<br />
Liang became one the leading propagators of printed<br />
Christian doctrine throughout China, enlisting fellow<br />
missionaries to distribute boxes of books across the<br />
countryside. Many missionaries, like Stevens, targeted<br />
the large crowds of intellectuals that gathered at the sites<br />
of bureaucratic examinations, trying to gain a foothold<br />
among the future leaders and<br />
thinkers of China. As radical<br />
as the Christian doctrine<br />
was within the traditional<br />
Confucian culture, the books<br />
were snatched up as fast as<br />
the missionaries could supply<br />
them for various reasons:<br />
their excitingly foreign<br />
concepts and promises of<br />
paradise, the rarity and value<br />
of books among peasants,<br />
or out of pure greed for<br />
handouts from westerners.<br />
Regardless of the motives of<br />
the books’ recipients, it is<br />
undeniable that the word of<br />
God was beginning to spread<br />
among the people of China.<br />
HONG’S FIRST VISION<br />
After qualifying again at the county level in 1837,<br />
Hong returned to Canton to attempt the bureaucratic<br />
examinations. He did not pass, and overcome with<br />
exhaustion from the long journey and disappointment<br />
from failure, he collapsed in bed and remained there for<br />
weeks. It was during this long period of fevered sleep<br />
that prophetic visions first began to visit Hong. These<br />
fantastic dreams, incredibly detailed and filled with<br />
potent symbolism, would form the basis for the doctrine<br />
of the God-Worshippers and indeed the ideology of the<br />
entire <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion. The visions proceeded in the<br />
following manner:<br />
A crowd of people began to carry Hong to the depths<br />
of Hell as he offered dying words to friends and family.<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
He was welcomed by men in robes who cut him open<br />
and replaced all of his organs, a woman who called herself<br />
his mother, an imposing bearded man in a dragon robe<br />
who called himself Hong’s father, and an elder brother.<br />
His father grieved for the sins of the Chinese people<br />
and their current state of slavery to the “demon devils”,<br />
whose leader was Yan Luo (the king of Hell, according to<br />
Chinese Buddhism).<br />
Hong also grieved for humanity, and he asked for<br />
his father’s permission to battle the demon devils, which<br />
was granted along with a sword and a seal. With these<br />
weapons, Hong and an army of angels forced the demons’<br />
retreat from the 33 levels of heaven, but at the final battle,<br />
spared Yan Luo’s life.<br />
Victorious, Hong was<br />
granted a heavenly palace, a<br />
wife (the “First Chief Moon”),<br />
a son, and a new name befitting<br />
a king (Hong Xiuquan).<br />
Hong’s father provided moral<br />
instruction, but all the while<br />
he warned that Hong must one<br />
day return to earth to save the<br />
people from the demon devils.<br />
Hong departed from<br />
heaven, leaving behind his<br />
heavenly family, in order to<br />
return to his earthly one.<br />
During the entirety of<br />
these visions, Hong’s family<br />
had nursed his writhing and<br />
shouting person. He was not<br />
A pictorial representation of Hong’s first vision.<br />
bed-ridden, or even unaware of<br />
his surroundings: records exist of coherent conversations<br />
between Hong and his family, songs that he sang,<br />
and heavenly poems transcribed during his period of<br />
“illness”. Psychological studies of Hong have compared<br />
his delirious state to the similarly revelatory trances of<br />
St. Paul, George Fox, and Pope John XXIII. 22 Gradually,<br />
Hong recuperated, returning to his studies, teaching<br />
job, and duties as a husband and a father. According<br />
to those who knew him, however, the period of illness<br />
had left him not weaker, but rather more imposing and<br />
confident: “his body increased in height and size, his<br />
pace became firm and imposing, his views enlarged and<br />
liberal. [Hong] also started to take an active interest in<br />
political affairs, both local and national” 23 .<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
9
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
ORIGINAL DOCTRINE AND INTERPRETATIONS<br />
These visions lingered in Hong’s mind for seven years,<br />
profound but inexplicable until his friend Li Jingfang,<br />
while sifting through Hong’s bookcase, came across the<br />
text given to Hong by the Christian missionary many<br />
years before. Li asked to borrow the book, and upon<br />
reading it, excitedly returned it to Hong and insisted that<br />
he read it too. Within its pages, Hong found answers<br />
to the many questions raised by his visions: Liang Afa,<br />
the Chinese missionary who authored the text, discusses<br />
the omnipotent father figure Hong saw (God) in great<br />
depth, as well as the king of demons whom Hong spared<br />
(the Devil) and the elder brother seated at the side of<br />
the father (presumably Jesus). Much of the symbolism<br />
and imagery is consistent between the vision and the text<br />
(blazing swords, angels, and heavenly thrones), especially<br />
because Liang made the effort to translate the Biblical<br />
names into their Chinese mythological counterparts (for<br />
example, the Devil as Yan Luo). The text tells both of<br />
the fall of man (whom Hong’s heavenly father grieved<br />
over in the vision) and of the redemption promised by<br />
Jesus’ death. Lastly, Liang speaks of a final battle and a<br />
judgment to fall upon the people of all nations.<br />
Indeed, Hong discovered many parallels between<br />
himself and his heavenly elder brother, such as remarkable<br />
aptitude as a child and the fact that Jesus’ evangelism<br />
did not begin until age thirty – the same age that Hong<br />
was when he read the text. Liang had also added his own<br />
commentary to the texts, bolstered by Old Testament<br />
stories, incorporating criticism of Confucianism,<br />
Buddhism, Taoism, and their contributions to popular<br />
Chinese idolatry. He points to Christianity, the religion<br />
of the westerners, as the one pure faith, free of idolatry<br />
and misguided teachings. Liang also speaks very strongly<br />
against substance use (most specifically opium and<br />
alcohol), a theme that would surface later in <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
doctrine.<br />
Drawing on this biblical theology and Liang’s remarks,<br />
Hong constructed a cohesive narrative of what had<br />
transpired in his visions and where his role as God’s son<br />
should lead him next. Also coloring this interpretation<br />
were traditional Chinese values such as a focus on family<br />
– as shown by the detailed genealogy of Hong’s heavenly<br />
family – and Confucian moral teachings that provided<br />
more familiar ethical justifications for his newly adopted<br />
doctrine. Out of this whole experience, Hong emerged<br />
convinced that:<br />
He was indeed God’s son, and Jesus was his elder<br />
brother.<br />
Like Jesus, he had been born into the role of savior.<br />
Building upon the foundation and the teachings<br />
Jesus had left during his earthly life, Hong’s purpose was<br />
to rid China and the world of its demon oppressors`,<br />
although at this point it remained unclear who these<br />
demons actually were.<br />
The Western Christian ideals were the truth, and all<br />
other faiths were misguided at best. To worship anyone<br />
or anything but the Christian God was blasphemy and<br />
contributed to the worldly strength of the demons.<br />
Although full of gaps, personal commentary, and<br />
imperfect cultural translations, Liang’s document<br />
confirmed for Hong the legitimacy and profundity of his<br />
visions, and it spurred him to assume leadership in the<br />
battle against the idolatry that had saturated China.<br />
EARLY EVANGELISM<br />
Hong began his new life as a Christian in the same<br />
way that his elder brother Jesus had: with baptism. Hong<br />
and his friend Li baptized each other in the manner<br />
prescribed in Liang’s text. Then, in order to begin their<br />
war against the demons, they each ordered swords<br />
to be made like the one with which Hong had smote<br />
the demons of his vision. Their crusade had humble<br />
beginnings, with poetry writing and retelling of Hong’s<br />
dream throughout the village. Family and close friends<br />
were the first converts, most notably Hong Rengan<br />
and Feng Yunshan, who would later become two of the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion’s most important generals. While not<br />
preaching, the converts ravenously studied Liang’s text<br />
for new insights, which were then passed on throughout<br />
the village and carried home to other villages by visitors<br />
stopping in Guanlubu.<br />
SPREAD AND DEVELOPMENT<br />
THE BREAK<br />
One of the first ways in which Hong and his<br />
followers struck at the “demons” was by attacking the<br />
place where the demons’ false teachings first took hold<br />
in the peoples’ minds: the classroom. By edict, Chinese<br />
classrooms were lined with tablet after tablet extolling<br />
the words of Confucius and his disciples. All of these<br />
teachings typically would be thoroughly drilled into<br />
the minds of any ambitious young person aiming for<br />
future public service. Like many of his followers, Hong<br />
was a teacher. Piece-by-piece, the God-Worshippers<br />
confiscated the offending tablets. This action provoked<br />
protest from both concerned parents and town officials,<br />
10 Specialized Agencies
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
who quickly relieved the desecrators from their posts.<br />
Devoid of jobs, increasingly at odds with town leaders,<br />
and itching for bigger ways to spread their new faith, the<br />
God-Worshippers decided to take to the road. At this<br />
point, the main circle of believers included Hong, Feng<br />
Yunshan, Hong Rengan (although his parents prevented<br />
him from leaving with the others), and several relatives.<br />
Li Jingfang had by this point fallen out of favor. The four<br />
God-Worshippers then left Guanlubu in the spring of<br />
1844 in search of open hearts and open minds.<br />
EXPANDING VISIONS<br />
Hong and his followers first moved southward<br />
towards Canton, passing through the city and circling<br />
it to the south, then swinging northward again in a<br />
crescent around Guanlubu. Everywhere they went, the<br />
God-Worshippers spread their message, enjoying great<br />
success with relatives living in such villages. After about<br />
a month, Hong proposed that the group disband for<br />
the sake of efficiency. He and Feng Yunshan would<br />
attempt to push westward to where the most distant of<br />
their converts had spread to a village called Sigu. Along<br />
their route, they managed to leave behind disciples eager<br />
to help expand their area of influence. In the village of<br />
Sigu, Hong’s throng of followers grew to number in the<br />
hundreds, but having been separated from his family for<br />
months, he decided to return home. Upon arriving in<br />
Guanlubu, Hong returned to his job as a schoolteacher,<br />
all the while developing his doctrine in a series of texts.<br />
Recognizing the power of religious texts in aiding<br />
the process of conversion, Hong began to transcribe<br />
his own doctrine and commentary under the title of<br />
“Exhortations to Worship the One True God”, drawing<br />
on both Liang Afa’s book and traditional Chinese poems<br />
and even, ironically, Confucian texts. He especially<br />
emphasized six of his own commandments:<br />
Do not succumb to lust.<br />
Obey one’s parents.<br />
Do not kill.<br />
Do not steal.<br />
Avoid witchcraft and magic.<br />
Do not gamble. 24<br />
Hong also developed a simple religious ceremony for<br />
gatherings of worshippers, including hymns, sermons,<br />
and collective prayers: Christian elements were infused<br />
with distinctively Chinese traditions (for example,<br />
combining a baptism with ceremonial tea-drinking).<br />
Feng, on the other hand, did not return to Guanlubu<br />
immediately, but instead stayed on the road with one<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
of his loyal converts. The two moved throughout the<br />
Guangxi province, following waterways and highways<br />
from village to village until they finally reached the<br />
region surrounding Thistle Mountain. It was Feng who<br />
originally coined the term God-Worshipping Society,<br />
and also Feng who first collected a cohesive group of<br />
followers, and led them to Thistle Mountain.<br />
An example of a <strong>Taiping</strong> religious service.<br />
ORIGINS AT THISTLE MOUNTAIN<br />
The first rumblings of what would become the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion were heard in a region of China known as<br />
Thistle Mountain. Feng Yunshan, one of Hong’s earliest<br />
and most avid converts, had become separated from<br />
Hong in 1844 but decided to continue his evangelist<br />
activities. 25 Aided by local believers, Feng moved among<br />
the villagers of the Thistle Mountain region, constantly<br />
preaching and collecting a growing group of eager<br />
followers that he dubbed the “God-Worshipping Society”.<br />
His remarkable success in these efforts may be attributed<br />
to the demographic inhabiting this region. These rural<br />
people lacked traditional Confucian educations, were of<br />
the same outcast Hakka background as Hong and Feng,<br />
had little to thank the Qing for, and were very similar to<br />
the poor farmers that Jesus often addressed in the Gospel<br />
(in the Sermon on the Mount and agrarian parables). 26<br />
Hong rejoined Feng in 1847, finding him by following<br />
the trail of converts left in his wake. During the years of<br />
their separation, Hong had been ceaselessly writing and<br />
developing his doctrine. Reunited with his most faithful<br />
follower, the two took it upon themselves (and their<br />
fresh converts) to rid the Thistle Mountain region of its<br />
many idols and shrines, including the most controversial<br />
11
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
“heretic” of all: Confucius. Their work began small –<br />
stealing the Confucian tablets out of schoolrooms and<br />
defacing minor mountain shrines – but quickly escalated<br />
when the God-Worshippers set their sights on the most<br />
prestigious of Thistle Mountain idols, a spirit known<br />
as King Gan, to whom at least five temples had been<br />
dedicated. 27 Denouncing King Gan as a manifestation of<br />
the Devil, Hong and a group of his followers raided the<br />
foremost of these temples, desecrating the image of Gan<br />
and covering the walls with “triumphant poems” and “a<br />
manifesto of defiance”. 28<br />
Such insolence did not go unnoticed. While cementing<br />
the God-Worshippers’ commitment to fighting idolatry<br />
and raising Hong in the estimation of his followers, the<br />
destruction of the shrine also provoked the anger of<br />
local authorities. Although the local magistrate refused<br />
to take any official action against the troublemakers,<br />
members of the landed gentry took matters into their<br />
own hands by arresting Feng (Hong had left town to visit<br />
friends). They charged Feng with crimes of organizing<br />
a brotherhood numbering in the thousands, defaming<br />
local gods and destroying their shrines, and preaching<br />
a false religion. A tense struggle ensued when the God-<br />
Worshippers forcibly freed Feng, causing the gentry to<br />
raise more militia and again arrest Feng and several of<br />
his lieutenants. Finally, the entire matter was handed<br />
over to the judgment of the local magistrate. In the end,<br />
supported by convincing legal arguments (proof of the<br />
God-Worshippers’ peaceful doctrine and guarantees<br />
against persecution of Christians spelled out in the Treaty<br />
of Nanking) and equally convincing bribes from wealthy<br />
believers, Feng was released. However, he was required to<br />
return to his hometown that was a province away.<br />
Inspired by the excitement of recent events, the God-<br />
Worshippers’ areas of influence grew into four rough<br />
areas surrounding Thistle Mountain. They funded their<br />
operations with the support of wealthy believers, whose<br />
assets were cheerfully absorbed by the policy of collective<br />
land and treasury holdings. 29 Despite these patrons’<br />
ability to bribe local officials, escalating friction with the<br />
local gentry resulted in several more incarcerations during<br />
1849. At the same time, an increasingly anti-Qing stance<br />
grew among the God-Worshippers and would soon break<br />
into open conflict.<br />
INITIAL SKIRMISHES<br />
Although no clear point marks the beginning of<br />
armed conflict between the <strong>Taiping</strong> and their Qing<br />
oppressors, the momentum behind the God-Worshipper<br />
movement in 1850 made it clear that such conflict was<br />
both imminent and inevitable. 30 Hong’s rhetoric became<br />
increasingly warlike as the year went on. It became<br />
common knowledge among the God-Worshippers that<br />
the “demons” and “devils” against which their leader<br />
had preached for years were in reality their Manchu<br />
overlords, and that the spiritual battles that had been<br />
previously foretold would be fought not in the soul but<br />
on a bloody battlefield. Precautions and first steps were<br />
taken: beacons, signal lights, the organization of military<br />
hierarchy, the mobilization of troops, the purchase<br />
of gunpowder, and the secret manufacture of arms. 31<br />
Many Chinese flocked to the <strong>Taiping</strong> camps – displaced<br />
Hakkas, impoverished farmers, even bandits and pirates<br />
– anyone with a reason to wish for the downfall of the<br />
Qing or to value the stability of army life. As the God-<br />
Worshippers’ numbers swelled and their cause hardened,<br />
several groups solidified as threats to the <strong>Taiping</strong> cause.<br />
The Battle of Jintian<br />
FIRST BLOOD<br />
December of 1850 marked the Qing’s first moves<br />
to suppress the early rebellion. Following rumors and<br />
by tracking gunpowder purchases, a small Qing force<br />
cooperating with local militia discovered and closed in<br />
on the small village where Hong and his family were<br />
encamped. They cut off the one path into the city by<br />
erecting a hedgehog-like wall of sharpened bamboo<br />
stakes. However, Hong managed to send word through<br />
the mountain passes to Jintian, the main <strong>Taiping</strong> base, in<br />
time for the rebels to mount an attack on the Qing force’s<br />
rear, routing them and removing the stakes. 32 Qing forces<br />
suffered fifty casualties, including a magistrate, marking<br />
the first death among the Manchu “demons.”<br />
THE BATTLE OF JINTIAN<br />
The Qing forces swiftly rallied and retaliated with<br />
increased numbers and purpose. In late December, an<br />
army of Qing soldiers and local militiamen took up<br />
position five miles from Jintian. 33 Their numbers having<br />
swelled to over 10,000 by the recent flood of recruits,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels readied themselves in a defensive<br />
formation. 34 The Battle of Jintian began on 1 January<br />
1851; by the end of the day, the Qing forces had been<br />
encircled and routed. Subsequent reinforcements that<br />
came the next day were similarly defeated. 35 Despite<br />
this victory, the lack of spoils deflated the enthusiasm of<br />
many <strong>Taiping</strong> recruits, and, realizing which side would<br />
12 Specialized Agencies
soon be more desperate for their help, many of the<br />
pirates and Triads even deserted to offer their services to<br />
the Qing. In an effort to replenish supplies, the rebels<br />
quickly moved to capture the nearby village of Jiangkou,<br />
a prosperous town with good defensive capabilities. They<br />
The throes of a battle between the Qing Imperial Army and the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels.<br />
successfully took the village and held it for over a month<br />
despite renewed aggression from the Qing, but in early<br />
March they succumbed and fled the city, beaten but well<br />
supplied. In all the excitement of their first few victories,<br />
Hong Xiuquan officially declared the advent of the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, marking 1851 as the first<br />
year of a new calendar based on the Western model. 36<br />
THE FLIGHT FROM THISTLE MOUNTAIN<br />
Despite their initial burst of successes, the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
rebels began to stumble as the Qing devoted more and<br />
more troops to the suppression of the mountain uprising.<br />
Ling Shiba, a passionate early convert who had continued<br />
spreading Hong’s doctrine and collecting troops and<br />
supplies in his leader’s absence, led a band of rebels to<br />
take the nearby town of Yulin. Garnering popular support<br />
and fresh recruits by opening the local granaries to the<br />
poor, Ling moved onwards with a force of 3,000 to rejoin<br />
his leader but was successfully rebuffed by determined<br />
Qing forces (with the assistance of the pirate leader Big<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
Head Yang – one of those who had deserted the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
after Jintian). 37 Hong and his generals decided that<br />
the best course of action would be to catch the Qing<br />
completely off-guard by abandoning Thistle Mountain<br />
and moving swiftly to their next target. Burning villages<br />
and stripping the countryside of<br />
supplies as they went, the rebels<br />
set off to the northeast, leaving the<br />
bewildered Qing forces trailing. In<br />
official Qing records, entry after<br />
entry bemoans the reluctance of<br />
Qing troops, the local embezzlement<br />
that has prevented proper defense<br />
maintenance in villages, and the<br />
ineptness of the Qing pursuit:<br />
“Our mighty army only follows<br />
after them, but is in no condition to<br />
attack them at strategic points. We<br />
move only when the rebels move…<br />
It would seem that our army is less<br />
intelligent than the brigands.” 38<br />
THE CAPTURE OF YONGAN<br />
Hurrying along the Meng River,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> armies headed towards<br />
their target, the prosperous city of<br />
Yongan. By the time the Qing forces<br />
tailing them were able to determine<br />
where the rebels were headed, the<br />
rebels had already taken the city<br />
by a combination of ruse (using fireworks and rattling<br />
stones to exaggerate their numbers) and strategy (siege<br />
equipment and wall-scaling regiments). 39 Hoping to<br />
gain the support of the city’s inhabitants, Hong vowed<br />
heavy punishment for looting and actively pursued the<br />
restoration of the city to recapture prosperity. 40 However,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> troops did raid the vacant homes of landed<br />
gentry who had fled, reaped the harvests of their fields,<br />
distributed some of the bounty to the local populace,<br />
and collected the rest in the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s common treasury.<br />
Despite the ever-swelling ranks of the <strong>Taiping</strong> troops<br />
(which then numbered over 20,000) and defensive<br />
precautions thrown up around the city (including<br />
earthworks, patrols in the surrounding countryside, and<br />
wooden watchtowers), Qing armies of more than 46,000<br />
troops began to amass outside the city and occasionally<br />
moved to cut communications or to strike at the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s<br />
furthermost outposts. 41<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
13
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
The first major Qing attack came in the form of the<br />
successful destruction of a <strong>Taiping</strong> supply depot at the very<br />
edge of the rebels’ domain. Others such assaults followed<br />
until Yongan was completely cut off from all supply<br />
lines. Qing informants were occasionally discovered, but<br />
the threat of those left undiscovered remained. By the<br />
beginning of 1852, it became clear that the rebels had<br />
to break free or else perish within the walls of Yongan.<br />
In early April, moving through the least guarded of<br />
Yongan’s gates, the whole of the <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong><br />
forced their way through the startled Qing defenses and<br />
into the safety of the mountains; approximately 2,000<br />
rebels succumbed to the Qing’s pursuit, but in an act of<br />
vengeance, the rebels left a trail of mines and ambushes<br />
(causing strategic avalanches) that repaid in kind, leaving<br />
5,000 Qing dead. 42<br />
SIEGES EN ROUTE<br />
Although it was not by choice that the <strong>Taiping</strong> fled<br />
their homes in Yongan, their brief stay<br />
there supplied them with considerable<br />
numbers of new recruits (the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
forces by then numbered over 40,000) as<br />
well as supplies. Furthermore, additional<br />
supplies were stripped from the dead<br />
Qing pursuers, including a large store<br />
of gunpowder and Qing banners and<br />
uniforms for decoys. 43 Their flight,<br />
which at one point took them upriver,<br />
was aided by the negligence of Big-Head<br />
Yang (the very same pirate who had<br />
deserted the <strong>Taiping</strong> after Jintian and<br />
had proved instrumental in preventing<br />
the meeting of Ling Shiba’s army with<br />
the main force). Although still employed<br />
by the Qing, Yang seemed reluctant<br />
to finish off his prey too early into the<br />
hunt, and, after a suitable bribe, let them pass without<br />
pursuit. The rebels’ destination was Guilin: the Guangxi<br />
province’s prosperous capital.<br />
However, despite their luck with Big-Head Yang<br />
and their Qing uniform disguises was not enough as the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> were thwarted by a Qing general who managed<br />
to reach Guilin in time to warn against the approaching<br />
army. Despite the rebels’ recent acquisition of a company<br />
of former miners (who were invaluable in attempting a<br />
siege), Guilin’s strong walls and lengthy circumference<br />
proved too much for even the inventive <strong>Taiping</strong>. Cutting<br />
their losses by stealing a fleet of forty ships and heavily<br />
bribing Big-Head Yang for yet another safe voyage, the<br />
rebels moved on ever northward. Stopping briefly to<br />
capture the port city of Xingan, the <strong>Taiping</strong> kept moving.<br />
The <strong>Taiping</strong> were in the midst of passing the city of<br />
Quanzhou when a Qing wall guard took a haphazard<br />
shot at the marching rebels, striking Feng Yunshan. In an<br />
immediate and collective act of rage, the rebels halted their<br />
march and turned on Quanzhou with unprecedented<br />
fury, battering its walls until they successfully forced<br />
an entry. They promptly slaughtered all who remained<br />
within.<br />
Stripping the city of all its useful resources and<br />
expanding their fleet with 200 stolen ships, the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
pushed heedlessly onward, directly into an ambush. 44<br />
Jiang Zhongyuan, the militia leader who had laid the<br />
trap, was a member of the landed gentry and the son of a<br />
powerful family who had taken the burden of public safety<br />
upon himself. Jiang, however, came from a far wealthier<br />
The ambush on the Yangtze River proved fatal to the <strong>Taiping</strong> fleet.<br />
and more influential family than any of the landlords the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> had dealt with before, and presented therefore an<br />
entirely new kind of threat. The ambush in question was<br />
aimed mainly at the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s new navy, which had begun<br />
to cause apprehension amongst the Qing commanders;<br />
as noted in an official transcript, “if the brigands descend<br />
by river as well as by land, the entire situation will be<br />
beyond control.” 45 This ambush consisted of a cunning<br />
blockade laid at a bend in the river, impossible to see until<br />
almost directly upon it. The trap was sprung with terrible<br />
efficiency, smashing into the first of the ships, which in<br />
turn was slammed from behind by an unstoppable pileup<br />
of the entire fleet. Shots from Jiang’s troops, hidden in<br />
14 Specialized Agencies
the trees of the riverbank, began a fire that spread rapidly<br />
throughout the jumble of compacted ships.<br />
If the fleet had merely been stolen warships, the loss<br />
would have been great but replaceable. However, upon<br />
first taking possession of their fleet, the <strong>Taiping</strong> had<br />
filled the ships with their supplies and dependents (the<br />
wives and families of the soldiers) in order to move more<br />
rapidly, and so the destruction was therefore catastrophic.<br />
Ten thousand troops were lost that day, along with 300<br />
ships; the damage would have been far worse if, as Jiang<br />
had planned, a second Qing force had been waiting for<br />
the floundering rebels on the opposite riverbank, but the<br />
leader of this cooperative force apparently did not carry<br />
through with his assignment. 46 Battered and in need<br />
of quick refuge, the <strong>Taiping</strong> moved towards the city of<br />
Yongzhou only to find it prepared for their arrival, so<br />
they instead veered southwards towards the unsuspecting<br />
city of Daozhou. The rebels rested for about six weeks<br />
in Daozhou, using the time to collect supplies, troops,<br />
and composure. Many locals flocked to the rebel cause<br />
– upwards of 50,000 by some estimates – drawn by their<br />
anti-Qing rhetoric, past military successes, and promises<br />
of paradise to come. 47 Because of their familiarity with the<br />
surrounding area, these recruits would prove invaluable in<br />
scoping out local cities and guiding the growing <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
flotilla through nearby waterways. The rebels’ first move<br />
that broke this period of inactivity was a failed siege<br />
against the city of Changsha, which, during the brief<br />
period of time between the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s first minor stab at<br />
its defenses and their full onslaught, was able to summon<br />
over 40,000 Qing defenders to its walls. 48 Deciding that<br />
the month-long siege was not worth continuing and<br />
having thoroughly stripped the countryside of supplies,<br />
ships, and men, Hong ordered his troops onwards in an<br />
impressive display of military might.<br />
THE CAPTURE OF WUCHANG<br />
Upon abandoning Changsha, the <strong>Taiping</strong> struck<br />
boldly at the provincial capital of Wuchang with all of<br />
the cunning and tricks of war they had gained through<br />
past experience. Their flotilla grew rapidly as the army<br />
absorbed any ships and boatmen in its path, using the<br />
speedy vessels to rapidly carry supplies, gunpowder, and<br />
dependents along a course that covered 300 miles in less<br />
than a month. 49 Upon arriving at the lake-side city of<br />
Wuchang, instead of directly attacking its well-defended<br />
walls as in previous over-ambitious sieges, the rebels<br />
instead gained footholds in two nearby cities, and then<br />
struck at Wuchang’s weak underbelly: its harbor side. In<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
spite of all of the defensive measures taken by the Qing,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> took Wuchang in early <strong>1853</strong>. It was the largest<br />
city they had ever occupied, and it provided the first real<br />
opportunity to execute the many social and religious<br />
reforms the <strong>Taiping</strong> leaders had been developing for<br />
years, including the collectivization of land and wealth,<br />
the division of housing by sex, the allocation of food<br />
staples, and the banning of trade within city walls. To<br />
the surprise of the recovering Qing, however, the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
abandoned Wuchang within a month, taking with them<br />
all of the gold, silver, gunpowder, supplies, and men<br />
they could carry on the more than 2,000 ships they had<br />
commandeered from the area surrounding the city. 50<br />
NANJING, THE HEAVENLY CAPITAL<br />
The rebels’ destination was none other than the old<br />
Ming capital, the prosperous city of Nanjing. Tracing<br />
the route of the Yangtze River, the <strong>Taiping</strong> moved as<br />
rapidly as possible, stopping only to suck dry those cities<br />
offering little resistance, picking no fights they were not<br />
certain they would win. All those in the rebels’ path<br />
were advised to yield; in return for unchecked passage,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> promised “an absence of incidents,” but<br />
swore that resistors would be “completely annihilated”. 51<br />
Moving even more swiftly than on the flight to Wuchang,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> flotilla covered the 600 miles to Nanjing in<br />
less than a month. 52 Despite the city’s impressively stout<br />
walls, Nanjing was a sprawling metropolis, too large<br />
to be well defended throughout, even by the tens of<br />
thousands of Qing troops within. Striking at both the<br />
city’s least defended corner and its core with shots from<br />
surrounding hillsides, the rebels quickly breached the<br />
walls, and with a flurry of bloodshed, stamped out the<br />
last “demons” from what would become their <strong>Heavenly</strong><br />
Capital.<br />
Revision and Rejection: Subsequent Visions and<br />
Rejection of Confucianism<br />
Having followed the rebellion’s military course from<br />
its humble beginnings to its current, formidable state of<br />
affairs, let us now examine its evangelical trajectory from<br />
within, exploring the leaders and internal dynamics of<br />
this revolutionary religious movement.<br />
After rejoining Feng in 1847 at Thistle Mountain,<br />
Hong and his lieutenant set out to expand and elaborate<br />
on Hong’s original vision, drawing from the full text of the<br />
Bible (of which they had recently acquired a translation)<br />
and a newfound animosity towards Confucius. Their<br />
hostility towards Confucius contrasted with their<br />
15
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
previous mere dissatisfaction with the idolatrous<br />
corruption of his teachings. In these new retellings of<br />
his original vision, Hong incorporated a scene in which<br />
his heavenly father praises the flawless sanctity of the<br />
Bible and accuses Confucius of spreading idolatrous<br />
mistruths to supplant the One True God in China. In<br />
this revised dream, Confucius, “seeing that everyone in<br />
the high heaven pronounced him guilty, secretly [flees]<br />
down from heaven, hoping to join up with the leader of<br />
the demon devils” 53 . As punishment, God has Confucius<br />
mercilessly whipped and bars him<br />
from ever returning to the world.<br />
This violent addition and<br />
shameless revisionism foreshadowed<br />
not only the militaristic future<br />
of the God-Worshippers but also<br />
the frequency with which God’s<br />
authority would be invoked to justify<br />
new policies proposed by Hong and<br />
his generals. Indeed, as the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
movement grew increasingly radical,<br />
the voices and opinions of Jesus and<br />
the One True God were “channeled”<br />
with increasing frequency, especially<br />
by Feng Yunshan (who claimed<br />
to be the voice of God) and Xiao<br />
Chaogui (first a convert, and later<br />
a general who claimed to be the<br />
voice of Jesus). This claim to divine<br />
preference and private heavenly<br />
communication channels would<br />
later bring the <strong>Taiping</strong> leaders into<br />
conflict with European Christians,<br />
who found their claims incredulous.<br />
INTERACTION WITH<br />
EUROPEAN CHRISTIANS<br />
Besides the original missionaries who had handed<br />
Hong Xiuquan that fateful text, Hong had come into<br />
contact with very few Western Christians, especially<br />
considering how much religious authority he had<br />
secured. It is therefore unsurprising that, given the small<br />
bits of real Christian doctrine available to Hong, the<br />
religion he extrapolated from this information quickly<br />
evolved into a form of Christianity rather different<br />
from its European counterpart. In his early years as a<br />
Christian, Hong was able to secure an audience with an<br />
American missionary named Issachar Roberts, who for<br />
a time tutored Hong and his cousin Hong Rengan in<br />
biblical matters. However, just before receiving an official<br />
baptism, ill-meaning competitors for Robert’s attention<br />
framed Hong as a fraud simply seeking missionary society<br />
handouts. Roberts banished Hong, and for a long time<br />
afterwards, Hong’s Christian development was entirely<br />
under his own tutelage.<br />
As Hong gained access to more biblical texts, it<br />
became increasingly apparent that several major<br />
disconnects existed between the European and <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
forms of Christianity. These disconcerting gaps were first<br />
made starkly apparent by the<br />
visit of British representatives<br />
to the <strong>Heavenly</strong> City on<br />
a fact-finding mission.<br />
Delighted by the opportunity<br />
to interact with live European<br />
Christians, Hong assigned<br />
Yang Xiuqing, his deputy,<br />
to compare doctrine with<br />
the visitors. Yang submitted<br />
a list of fifty questions<br />
to the British, asking for<br />
confirmation of the physical,<br />
anatomical details of the<br />
Trinity as recorded in Hong’s<br />
vision (hair color, height, and<br />
clothing) and the genealogy of<br />
the <strong>Heavenly</strong> family (number<br />
of children and their ages).<br />
The British were flabbergasted<br />
by this request for details that<br />
they considered irrelevant<br />
to God or unknowable to<br />
the mortal Christians, and<br />
Several European missionaries, dressed in robes and they responded mostly with<br />
examining Chinese script.<br />
generalities and denials that<br />
such information existed. However, to cement the split,<br />
the British translator stated, “We place no faith in any<br />
one of your dogmas to this effect [concerning Hong<br />
Xiuquan’s divine heritage], and can subscribe to none of<br />
them. We believe only what is revealed to us in the Old<br />
and New Testaments….” 54<br />
This came as quite a shock to the leaders of the God-<br />
Worshipping Society, a shock that was translated into<br />
firm denial and a determination to edit – and if necessary,<br />
re-write – the Bible. As God, speaking through his<br />
medium Yang, advised, “Those books [the Old and New<br />
Testaments] are neither polished in literary terms nor<br />
are they fully complete. You must all consult together,<br />
16 Specialized Agencies
and correct them so that they become both polished and<br />
complete.” 55 This enthusiasm to reject and correct was an<br />
integral part of the inner workings and progress of the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and would manifest itself in a variety<br />
of reforms.<br />
Holy Reforms<br />
Not all of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion was fought on the<br />
battlefield. Many of the most revolutionary aspects<br />
of the rebellion were found within the ranks of the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> Army, and later within the walls of the <strong>Heavenly</strong><br />
<strong>Kingdom</strong>. A series of reforms on every level – from the<br />
domestic to the bureaucratic – all contributed towards<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> dream of a utopian society.<br />
REJECTION OF MANCHU INFLUENCE<br />
The largest and most visible reform was that for which<br />
the entire rebellion was fought: the overthrow of Manchu<br />
rule in China. The <strong>Taiping</strong>’s hatred for the Qing rulers was<br />
not simply a product of hard times, a bloated bureaucracy,<br />
or Hong’s visions, although all of these factors fanned<br />
the flames. It is important to remember that the Qing<br />
were a dynasty of foreign invaders, who had come from<br />
Manchuria in the early seventeenth century, complete<br />
with very different customs and traditions than those of<br />
the native Chinese or even the migratory Hakka. In fact,<br />
the Hakka were remembered as the last Chinese group to<br />
bow to Manchu rule, a fighting spirit resurrected in the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion. Upon taking control of the country,<br />
A Chinese man smoking an opium pipe while receiving a haircut. The Qing Dynasty forced<br />
all Chinese men to wear their hair in queues.<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
the Qing proceeded to force Manchu customs into every<br />
home, ordering men to adopt the shaved forehead and<br />
long ponytail called the “queue” and imposing a new<br />
standard of beauty that required women to painfully<br />
bind their feet to the point of crippling.<br />
As such, one of the most identifiable physical traits<br />
of a <strong>Taiping</strong> warrior was his rebelliously unbound<br />
hair and unshaved forehead. The <strong>Taiping</strong> fought back<br />
psychologically against the Manchu “demon-devils”<br />
through the very usage of such names: the dehumanization<br />
of the enemy is a common propaganda tactic in war, but<br />
rarely are enemies demoted so enthusiastically as to be<br />
relegated to the ranks of hell. Hong and his generals even<br />
took care to announce the renaming of several major<br />
Qing strongholds to reflect their hellish nature: for<br />
example, Peking was “Demon’s Den.” 56<br />
REJECTION OF CONFUCIAN TRADITION AND<br />
BUREAUCRACY<br />
In addition to overthrowing the foreign influences<br />
on both Chinese government and daily life, the God-<br />
Worshippers also took on the even more ambitious task<br />
of erasing one thousand years of Confucian tradition.<br />
As discussed in the section “Subsequent Visions and<br />
Rejection of Confucianism,” Hong took a hard stance<br />
early in his doctrinal development against the oncebeloved<br />
philosopher whose teachings he had spent his<br />
entire life memorizing. Hong claimed that this false<br />
prophet had usurped the One True God’s place of honor<br />
in the minds of the Chinese people.<br />
The implication of this stance was<br />
the responsibility to bring down the<br />
centuries-old Chinese bureaucratic<br />
system of meritocratic government<br />
based on Confucian knowledge.<br />
Whether prompted by a deep-seated<br />
thirst for vengeance against the exams<br />
that had denied him a life of privilege<br />
or by genuine religious devotion,<br />
Hong and his followers extended their<br />
rebellion against the Qing demons<br />
to this larger revolt against the even<br />
older system used to propagate demon<br />
ideology. After securing Nanjing as the<br />
nascent <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> Capital, the<br />
rebel leaders set about creating new<br />
exams, based on Christian doctrine,<br />
to train a new class of bureaucrats.<br />
REJECTION OF POLYTHEIST<br />
17
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
CHINESE TRADITION<br />
One of the first reforms that Hong and his<br />
followers sought was to rid Chinese society from the<br />
pervasive presence of idolatry. As the name of the God-<br />
Worshipping Society would suggest, the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels<br />
were adamant about the existence and uniqueness of the<br />
One True God. However, the Chinese pantheon at that<br />
time was prolifically polytheistic: the majority of Chinese<br />
people worshipped hundreds of major, minor, and even<br />
local deities. As such, one of the <strong>Taiping</strong>s’ first decisive<br />
steps was the desecration of a local shrine paying homage<br />
to a spirit known as King Gan (see “Origins at Thistle<br />
Mountain” and “Village Life and Popular Religion” for<br />
more information).<br />
Following this initial burst of iconoclasm, the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong>s have continued to take a hard stance against<br />
Chinese polytheism and iconography. Taoists and<br />
Buddhists, perceived as the furthest from the Christian<br />
doctrine, received the least sympathy: upon the taking<br />
of Nanjing, every single temple and all of its contents<br />
were destroyed. 57 Monks and priests were treated harshly,<br />
and were forced to either convert or die. Muslims and<br />
Catholics, as closer relatives of <strong>Taiping</strong> Christianity,<br />
were afforded more grace. Nanjing’s mosques were<br />
left untouched, and although Catholics were brutally<br />
compelled to adopt the <strong>Taiping</strong> doctrine during the<br />
initial taking of the city, they were afterwards left alone.<br />
Toward all conquered peoples, the rebels have adopted<br />
a policy of forced conversion to both <strong>Taiping</strong> religion<br />
and culture, including mass baptisms, the swearing of<br />
oaths, and the absorption of all converts’ assets into<br />
central holdings.<br />
COLLECTIVIZATION OF FOOD, LAND, AND<br />
MONEY<br />
Notable for both its effects within the microcosm of<br />
the rebel kingdom and for its precociousness in the world<br />
at large, the <strong>Taiping</strong>s’ system of collectivization was one<br />
of the most interesting of rebel reforms. Very early on<br />
in the course of the rebellion (perhaps in 1849 with the<br />
charitable donation of a large parcel of land by a family<br />
of fervent believers), the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels adopted a policy<br />
of keeping all land, funds, grain, and other resources<br />
in large communal holdings. 58 Each new convert, rich<br />
or poor, was absorbed into the system and redealt his<br />
due. As the rebels were taking the walled city of Yongan<br />
in 1851, this process became codified in an attempt to<br />
thwart looting and regain the trust of the citizens within:<br />
“From this day on all soldiers and officers are ordered that,<br />
every time you kill demons or capture their cities, you<br />
must not hoard away for yourself the gold and valuables<br />
you find…but must hand over everything to the sacred<br />
treasury of our <strong>Heavenly</strong> Court.” 59<br />
This collectivization is certainly not a new concept<br />
to the Chinese; however, its justification and execution<br />
is rather different from a simple village storeroom. In<br />
explaining the idea to his converts, Hong referred to<br />
Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (one of the stories included<br />
in his very first Christian text) in order to illuminate the<br />
promise that God would provide for all human needs.<br />
He did, however, also imply that in the coming <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, the allocation of riches would favor<br />
the bravest and most loyal of <strong>Taiping</strong> troops.<br />
Even more curiously, the state-run nature of this<br />
collectivization seems to reverberate very closely with the<br />
new world-changing ideas of German thinker Karl Marx<br />
and the concepts of communism he has proposed only<br />
three years before the <strong>Taiping</strong> occupation of Yongan.<br />
Gender Roles and the Separation of the Sexes<br />
TAIPING WOMEN<br />
The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebel army included both male and female soldiers.<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> women have occupied a rather fascinating<br />
combination of social positions. Caught at the crossroads<br />
between chaste, obedient wives and fearless, battletested<br />
warriors, the female rebels face both the burden<br />
of traditional patriarchy and the opportunity to prove<br />
themselves on the battlefield. The <strong>Taiping</strong> army includes<br />
regiments comprised entirely of females, and even minor<br />
female generals. The origin of these expectations of<br />
female participation can be traced to the rebels’ Hakka<br />
roots: Hakka women were never footbound like many<br />
Chinese women, so they were often found in the fields<br />
working alongside their husbands and sons. Indeed,<br />
some of the more hardened veterans, given positions of<br />
18 Specialized Agencies
authority in the new capital, were utterly unsympathetic<br />
to recently conquered women who had been pressed into<br />
agricultural labor: “They ordered the new sisters to untie<br />
their bound feet, and then to carry bricks, tiles, and rice<br />
or to gather fuel and dig moats. Many of the women<br />
whose feet had been bound were unaccustomed to labour<br />
and were worked to death or committed suicide.” 60 This<br />
disconnect helps show exactly how unusual the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
women were in comparison to their civilian counterparts.<br />
ABSTINENCE LAWS<br />
Despite certain trends towards breaking<br />
down gender gaps in the workforce, the God-<br />
Worshipping Society firmly thrust separation<br />
by sex into every home. Although from his<br />
earliest commandments Hong had censured<br />
licentiousness, the <strong>Taiping</strong> obsession with<br />
enforcing abstinence did not truly begin<br />
until 1850 when a series of decrees slowly<br />
built segregation of the sexes into the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
lifestyle. Drawing on an Old Testament<br />
example, any couple caught breaking<br />
abstinence laws was brutally beaten for their<br />
sins. As the gender segregation system became<br />
more established, separate barracks were<br />
designated for each gender as decreed by Hong: “the men<br />
have the men’s areas and the women have women’s areas;<br />
they are not allowed to intermix. Men or women who<br />
commit adultery or who are licentious are considered<br />
monsters; this is the greatest possible transgression of the<br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> Commandments.” 61 Even conquered people<br />
were relocated into newly assigned neighborhoods in<br />
their fallen cities, men apart from women. These edicts,<br />
however, seem to exclude Hong himself, who keeps a<br />
harem of “princess consorts” of whom he has warned his<br />
generals never to be jealous.<br />
REJECTION OF SUBSTANCE USE<br />
The <strong>Taiping</strong>s’ other puritanical crusade was against<br />
recreational substance use, namely alcohol and opium.<br />
Drawing dually from Biblical condemnation and from<br />
the horrors of China’s recent Opium War (fought against<br />
the British opium trade that had managed to addict so<br />
many Chinese), denunciation of substance use has been<br />
a part of God-Worshipper doctrine since its earliest<br />
days. As Hong warns in his “Exhortations to Worship<br />
the One True God”, “With iron [men] bound the<br />
rivers and hills; because of wine they perished…In the<br />
present times how many spirited Chinese have ruined<br />
themselves by their constant use of the opium pipe!” 62<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
With these admonitions as the foundation, the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
adopted very strict blue laws promising harsh beatings<br />
followed by public execution for any smokers of opium.<br />
Unfortunately, this clear opposition to the drug trade<br />
already foreshadowed conflict with the Western powers<br />
who, through their victories in the Opium War, had<br />
recently secured the power to propagate these very<br />
substances.<br />
A man smoking opium, considered by the <strong>Taiping</strong> to be the worst of sins.<br />
Nanjing: Earthly Paradise<br />
ADMINISTRATION<br />
With the capture of Nanjing came the partial<br />
realization of the rebels’ dream: the establishment of a<br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> Capital for their paradise on earth. For the<br />
first time, the <strong>Taiping</strong> have an actual kingdom in which<br />
they can put their many reforms into practice. This<br />
opportunity adds another dimension to the rebellion:<br />
adopting a home for the God-Worshippers requires<br />
a level of long-term planning previously unnecessary,<br />
and therefore a new bureaucracy. Creating an effective<br />
governing body is a big step towards proving the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
as a worthy replacement for the reigning Qing.<br />
The first steps towards establishing the government of<br />
the newly declared <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> involved<br />
a flurry of infrastructural and civil development, resulting<br />
in calls for the creation of a new system of meritocratic<br />
exams to populate this budding bureaucracy. From the<br />
deluge of decrees raining down from the offices of the<br />
high advisors, it was clear that this nascent administration<br />
would exert influence over every aspect of daily life.<br />
19
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
DAILY LIFE WITHIN THE WALLS<br />
In expanding from a simple collectivized military<br />
group into a fully utopian-style state, the God-Worshippers<br />
have undergone major changes in daily life, with even<br />
more ambitious reforms in store. Each man, woman, and<br />
child – even the recently conquered – are now counted<br />
and collected into groups of families<br />
sharing granaries and chapels. Daily<br />
religious involvement is a must, as is<br />
skilled trade work (in addition to the<br />
requisite farming of one’s own land).<br />
Land is divided based on family size<br />
and previous service in the rebellion.<br />
Families are provided with enough<br />
to get by, but all surplus is absorbed<br />
into the central treasury to be divided<br />
evenly amongst the masses according<br />
to need. A draft is constantly in place,<br />
but the laws of conscription respect<br />
extenuating circumstances. At this<br />
point, many of these reforms are in<br />
their earliest states, but the sudden<br />
creation of so many bureaucratic<br />
responsibilities has created a power<br />
vacuum waiting to be filled.<br />
POWER STRUGGLES<br />
As the scale of the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion increased, several parties began to jostle<br />
internally for more power. Several factors have<br />
complicated this delicate balance. The first is Hong’s<br />
increasing reticence. As he becomes more and more<br />
absorbed in the subtleties of doctrine, as well as taking<br />
pleasure in his newfound luxury, Hong is increasingly<br />
disinterested in military, civil, and political affairs. The<br />
second complication in this power struggle is the very<br />
nature of power in a theocracy: authority flows from<br />
proximity to God, and when several of Hong’s generals<br />
(Yang Xiuqing and Xiao Chaogui in particular) claim to<br />
channel the voices of the Trinity, the rules of reality and<br />
truth are subject entirely to ambition. Lastly, there is an<br />
increasing tendency amongst members of the Hong clan<br />
to exert their heavenly bloodline and familial influence on<br />
Hong and his generals, claiming to trump even trusted<br />
advisors. Understandably, these competing powers add a<br />
layer of complication to the already tenuous development<br />
of the <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> into a world power.<br />
INTERACTIONS WITH FOREIGNERS<br />
It was inevitable that, in provoking the government<br />
of one of the largest countries and highest-prized markets<br />
in the world, the rebels would come into contact with<br />
the numerous Western powers with serious economic<br />
and political interest in the future of China. Among<br />
the various Western powers<br />
exerting spheres of influence<br />
in China, Britain is by far the<br />
most prevalent and therefore<br />
the most heavily invested in<br />
the outcome of the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion. Having recently<br />
waged successful wars against<br />
the Qing government, the<br />
Crown is unlikely to let its<br />
efforts go to waste. At this<br />
point, British interaction<br />
has been limited to two factfinding<br />
missions dispatched<br />
to Nanjing. The French<br />
and Americans have each<br />
dispatched one similar<br />
envoy. None of the Western<br />
representatives have been<br />
allowed within the walls of<br />
Nanjing, communicating<br />
entirely by letter in lists of<br />
questions and answers. The <strong>Taiping</strong> have communicated<br />
their eagerness to explore opportunities to exchange goods<br />
and ideas, but the rebels’ conviction of their monopoly on<br />
God’s favor has exasperated the Western representatives<br />
thus far. Interactions with foreigners are precarious, and<br />
a diplomatic misstep could have disastrous consequences<br />
for future relations with the Westerners.<br />
The <strong>Heavenly</strong> Emperor Hong Xiuquan, dressed in his<br />
imperial finery.<br />
CURRENT SITUATION<br />
The Northern Campaign and Current Challenges<br />
With a prosperous capital city secured, a massive<br />
armada at their command, vast stores of treasure and<br />
supplies, and ever-increasing manpower, where would<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> next turn to? Their ambition never flagging,<br />
Hong and his generals set their sights on the very heart of<br />
the “demons”: the Qing capital, Peking. Currently, a force<br />
of over 70,000 <strong>Taiping</strong> troops is marching northward. 63<br />
The fate of the campaign still hangs in the balance;<br />
despite the rebels’ recent military successes and all of the<br />
20 Specialized Agencies
fighting prowess they have acquired, they are entering<br />
unknown territory, drawing ever closer to the core of the<br />
Qing empire, and now have no speedy Yangtze river to<br />
accelerate their trek.<br />
On other fronts, the rapid expansion and hit-and-run<br />
tactics used by the <strong>Taiping</strong> have resulted in a large swath<br />
of territory whose “possession” by the rebels is tenuous at<br />
best. As such, the rebel forces are split between northward<br />
pursuit of new territory and the bitter struggle to maintain<br />
and even regain regions that have been conquered once<br />
already. Many Chinese have reason to be unhappy with<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> rule: scholars and magistrates whose Confucian<br />
education has come<br />
under question;<br />
families unwilling to<br />
send sons to become<br />
soldiers; ardent<br />
Taoists, Buddhists,<br />
and Catholics;<br />
merchants no<br />
longer allowed to<br />
set up shop in the<br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> Capital;<br />
and above all,<br />
wealthy landowners.<br />
The landed gentry<br />
has had ample time<br />
to collect all of these<br />
dissatisfied groups and more into fierce militia, and when<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> forces return to quell dissent, they will no<br />
longer have the advantage of surprise.<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
A Chinese pirate ship like the ones used by Big Head Yang.<br />
Domestic Opponents and Threats<br />
In order to better understand the aforementioned<br />
crises that currently face the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels, let us explore<br />
the key actors and relevant enemies in this vast game of<br />
war and revolution.<br />
LANDED GENTRY AND THE QING:<br />
As previously discussed, the landed gentry and the<br />
provincial governments of China are often inextricably<br />
tied by family relations, financial dealings, and mutual<br />
interests: the rich buy their way into public office, and<br />
once there, act to protect their own. Even those not<br />
officially in power – clan leaders who have passed even<br />
the lowest of civil service exams - often take it upon<br />
themselves to be the caretakers of the public order, as<br />
seen in the case of Feng’s trial. In their eyes, the God-<br />
Worshippers represent a threat as real as the Heaven-and-<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
Earth Society (see “Secret Societies” below), bandits, or<br />
pirates. The Qing Army, working with gentry-raised local<br />
militias, would obviously form the largest opposition<br />
to the <strong>Taiping</strong> cause later on; at this point, however, it<br />
had not provoked open conflict with the amassing rebel<br />
camps.<br />
SECRET SOCIETIES<br />
An amorphous brotherhood whose members<br />
and purposes spanned from benign to nefarious, the<br />
Heaven-and-Earth Society (or “Triads”) is a loose<br />
cannon in the eyes of both the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels and the<br />
Qing. Originally conceived as a system of mutual aid<br />
(whether loans or bodily protection),<br />
the Heaven-and-Earth Society has<br />
developed into an exclusive network<br />
of bandits, merchants, and thugs from<br />
whom the only protection has been<br />
admittance into their ranks. Their<br />
means of funding have swelled to<br />
include highway robbery, smuggling,<br />
unofficial “toll stations”, and gambling<br />
dens. The Qing are hard-pressed to<br />
combat this growing threat because<br />
of its ambiguity: there is no specific<br />
demographic that ties together the<br />
brotherhood besides personal interest.<br />
While the Triads’ self-proclaimed goal<br />
is the eventual overthrow of the Qing and the restoration<br />
of the preceding dynasty, the Ming, Hong has refused<br />
to associate his crusade with this brotherhood on the<br />
grounds that the end purpose of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion<br />
is not to restore the Ming but to establish a <strong>Heavenly</strong><br />
<strong>Kingdom</strong>, the likes of which have not been seen since<br />
Eden. However, their considerable membership, anti-<br />
Qing stance, and proven fighting ability could make the<br />
Triads powerful, if risky, allies.<br />
BANDITS AND PIRATES<br />
Often found among the ranks of such brotherhoods<br />
are the many Chinese plunderers of both land and<br />
sea. Bandits, often hiding in the very same mountain<br />
safeholds as the <strong>Taiping</strong>, have for centuries reaped the<br />
bounty of wealthy landowners in the valleys of China and<br />
siphoned the riches of bustling trade routes. However, in<br />
recent years, this scourge has been rapidly multiplied<br />
by the waves of pirates and smugglers driven from the<br />
coast by the British fleets. The elaborate confederation of<br />
pirates that have held sway over the South China Sea for<br />
half a century has been, within a few years, pushed out<br />
21
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
from the area under the British navy’s jurisdiction and<br />
into the smaller rivers and waterways of mainland China.<br />
The Qing’s inept river patrols can do little to quash them<br />
here, and the pirates’ legendary ferocity has inspired<br />
terror among all who dare to try. Ironically, the pirates<br />
are known to deal with European merchants directly in<br />
an illicit smuggling network: at the same time that the<br />
British navy patrols the Hong Kong waterways in an<br />
effort to protect British trade from the pirates, Chinese<br />
pirates disguised as merchants often dock, refuel, and<br />
collect cargo to be distributed on the mainland. 64 Like<br />
the Triads, the pirate and bandit forces present both a<br />
problem and a solution to the <strong>Taiping</strong>: their vast numbers<br />
and mastery of the wilderness and waterways make them<br />
far more preferable as allies than enemies, but their<br />
mercenary nature calls into question the trustworthiness<br />
of any such alliances.<br />
Concurrent and Emergent Global Factors<br />
The year is <strong>1853</strong>: the Third Year of the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>. Across the globe, several events of<br />
similar magnitude are taking place with indirect but<br />
definite effects on the future of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion.<br />
THE NIAN REBELLION<br />
Beginning in 1851, another revolution has broken<br />
out across Northern China, helping to deflect some of<br />
the Qing’s attention from the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels. 65 The main<br />
motivations of this rebellion, the Nian Rebellion, revolve<br />
around the Qing government’s unwillingness to repair<br />
and maintain anti-flooding infrastructure, coupled<br />
with a particularly disastrous series of natural disasters,<br />
years of economic hardship, and even sexual frustration<br />
among men due to mass female infanticide (as a result<br />
of the aforementioned economic hardship). Although<br />
some of the same provocations have contributed to mass<br />
support for both the Nian and the <strong>Taiping</strong>, the Nian<br />
lacks the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s political and religious agendas while<br />
having the added advantage of being centralized in some<br />
of the most prosperous regions of China. As of yet, the<br />
Nian rebels have shown little interest in supporting the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> efforts, but cooperation between the northern<br />
and southern rebels could prove to be a fatal blow to the<br />
Qing.<br />
THE OPENING OF JAPAN<br />
Geographically closest to the upheavals in China<br />
is the increasing threat of European aggression against<br />
the Japanese. Unwilling to permit the sort of Western<br />
foothold that has developed in China, in a display of<br />
power Japan has refused all Western trade attempts<br />
(except for the Dutch) and even declared a Seclusion<br />
Order. The American government, working through<br />
its navy, has alternated between attempts at negotiation<br />
and threats of force for several decades, but it is losing<br />
patience and becoming inclined towards a forceful<br />
“opening” of Japan. 66 Such a precedent, if set, could<br />
have a drastic influence on future Euro-Sino relations<br />
by cementing the success of the trespasses already begun<br />
with the Opium Wars.<br />
THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 AND THE<br />
COMMUNIST MANIFESTO<br />
All around the world and for a variety of reasons, a<br />
series of revolutions broke out in the year 1848: Italy,<br />
France, Ireland, the German States, Denmark, Austria,<br />
Switzerland, Poland, Belgium, Latin America, and even<br />
such distant states as Sri Lanka all underwent significant<br />
political upheaval. 67 Among the European revolutions,<br />
the common factor was growing liberalism and<br />
discontent with absolutist monarchies. Along with the<br />
increasing sway of the popular press, the publication of<br />
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel’s incendiary Communist<br />
Manifesto fanned the insurrectionary flames. Marx and<br />
Engel decried the injustices of the current social hierarchy<br />
as exploitative of the working class. Despite the huge<br />
distance--both geographic and cultural--between these<br />
authors and the leaders of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion, many<br />
of their policies and motivations were rather similar.<br />
While all of the revolutions of 1848 ultimately failed,<br />
the ideologies and reforms proposed in The Communist<br />
Manifesto did not die with these initial revolutionaries.<br />
GROWING UNREST IN INDIA<br />
On the British-controlled Indian subcontinent,<br />
another type of revolution is brewing. Infuriated by<br />
Britain’s total disregard for Hindu tradition and the<br />
growing influence of the East India Company in both<br />
politics and society, the Indian people are a growing<br />
force against British rule, especially the 200,000 sepoys<br />
(Indian soldiers) currently employed by the British. 68 At<br />
this point in <strong>1853</strong>, the East India Company has all but<br />
assumed the mantle of governing India, but it certainly<br />
does not have India’s loyalty. Any forecasting of Britain’s<br />
future should include the imminent mutiny of this<br />
valuable colony.<br />
22 Specialized Agencies
AMERICA DIVIDED<br />
Although it managed to survive the revolutions of<br />
1848 unscathed, the <strong>United</strong> States of America may also<br />
be headed down the path towards civil war. Conflict<br />
between the slave-holding, agrarian South and the more<br />
industrial North intensified over a series of disputes<br />
regarding the induction of new states as either slaveholding<br />
or free (thereby influencing the economic and<br />
political leanings of its inhabitants). Despite the calming<br />
effects of the Compromise of 1850 (an agreed-upon<br />
method for the designation of new states with regard to<br />
slavery), within months, Southern states began to discuss<br />
secession from the <strong>United</strong> States. 69 As this antagonism<br />
deepens, either war or secession seems inevitable in the<br />
near future.<br />
Foreign Stances and Interests in the Rebellion<br />
TRADE INTERESTS<br />
Although the foreign powers in China, namely<br />
Britain, America, and France, have done little to directly<br />
aid or inhibit the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebellion as of yet, it would be<br />
foolish to believe that these powers will not hold a great<br />
deal of influence in the future of the rebellion. Thanks<br />
to their success in both Opium Wars and the benefits<br />
awarded by the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the British<br />
have secured a hefty sphere of influence, and both the<br />
The first of several “unequal” treaties, the Treaty of Nanking ended the Opium War with a series of<br />
concessions to the British.<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
Americans and French have built up considerable trade<br />
with the Chinese as well. As such, Westerners may be<br />
understandably wary of both the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s opium<br />
prohibitions (opium is one of the most profitable – and<br />
addictive – Western imports) and the general abolition of<br />
trade within the <strong>Heavenly</strong> Capital of Nanjing. However,<br />
the limited trade (mainly smuggling) that has occurred<br />
between the <strong>Taiping</strong> and Westerners thus far has<br />
definitely shown optimistic possibilities for future trade<br />
negotiations, unlike the Qing’s traditional xenophobic<br />
reluctance towards relations with the West.<br />
INDIFFERENCE AND NEUTRALITY<br />
The current relationship between the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
and Western powers is, in truth, a lack of any official<br />
relationship at all. Despite the proclamation of the<br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> in 1851, the <strong>Taiping</strong> have not yet<br />
remained in one place long enough to enact the majority<br />
of the policies and reforms proposed by <strong>Taiping</strong> leaders<br />
over the years, or even to solidify control over those<br />
territories already conquered. Western powers are unlikely<br />
to acknowledge the legitimacy of any such nomadic<br />
“kingdom,” but with the taking of Nanjing and the<br />
physical establishment of the <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, actual<br />
discussion between Western representatives and <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
leaders may begin to take place. In order to form normal<br />
relations with foreign governments, it is imperative that<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> establish themselves as<br />
a legitimate, stable state that could<br />
realistically serve as a replacement<br />
for the current Qing bureaucracy.<br />
Only then will foreign powers<br />
regard the rebels as anything<br />
more than armed peasants. As of<br />
late, it would appear that Britain,<br />
France, America and other such<br />
powers are awaiting clear signs of<br />
whether the rebels’ political aims<br />
align with the foreigners’ vision of<br />
a China willing to submit to their<br />
imperialism. Until such signs are<br />
seen, the foreigners seem content<br />
to let the rebels further cripple<br />
the already submissive Qing.<br />
MERCENARIES AND<br />
PARTICIPATION<br />
While the Western powers<br />
have not officially participated in<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebellion, individual<br />
23
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
Westerners certainly have in a variety of capacities. In<br />
the midst of rebel ranks, it is not uncommon to find<br />
mercenaries – both Chinese and foreign – with no greater<br />
tie to the <strong>Taiping</strong> cause than their next paycheck. 70<br />
These soldiers possess the advantage of prior fighting<br />
experience (and in the case of foreign mercenaries,<br />
their nontraditional methods and weapons), but also<br />
the drawback of indifference towards the <strong>Taiping</strong>’s<br />
ultimate political, social, and religious goals – many of<br />
these men may want no part in the <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong><br />
they are fighting to achieve. Other Westerners take a<br />
less direct – but still vital – role in the war: that of the<br />
supplier. Recognizing early on the<br />
superiority of Western weapons,<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> began purchasing mass<br />
quantities of Western arms and the<br />
equipment to begin their own arms<br />
production. These arms often made<br />
their way along waterways under<br />
the guise of civilian shipments<br />
(rifles were labeled as “umbrellas”,<br />
gunpowder casks marked “salted<br />
butter”). 71 Shipments of food and<br />
civilian goods were also smuggled<br />
into <strong>Taiping</strong> territory by a variety<br />
of Chinese and Western smugglers,<br />
often right under the nose of both<br />
British and Qing authorities (see<br />
“Bandits and Pirates”).<br />
BLOC POSITIONS<br />
While the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels have displayed remarkable<br />
cohesion considering the increasing size and diversity of<br />
their ranks, it is inevitable that several competing factions<br />
might coalesce among the troops. This is especially true<br />
among those contending for positions of power.<br />
FAMILY: HONG RENGAN, HONG XUAN JIAO,<br />
HONG TIANGUIFU<br />
Calling upon the strong bonds of family and clan, the<br />
members of Hong’s extended family collectively assert<br />
their influence upon both Hong and, through their own<br />
political posts, upon the direction of the rebellion as a<br />
whole. By promoting nepotism (favoritism within the<br />
family) and suspicion of power-hungry motives among<br />
all non-relatives, whispers in the ear of the <strong>Heavenly</strong><br />
Emperor have begun to earn the Hongs an increasing<br />
presence among the <strong>Taiping</strong> elite.<br />
THE FOUR KINGS: YANG XIUQING, XIAO<br />
The Imperial Seal of the <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>.<br />
CHAOGUI, WEI CHANGHUI, FENG YUNSHAN<br />
As the four most influential leaders of the <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
Rebellion under Hong Xiuquan, this group has obviously<br />
already secured the <strong>Heavenly</strong> Emperor’s favor and trust.<br />
However, even within these four, a constant competition<br />
is waged for supremacy over the other three: each new<br />
honorary title awarded provokes a round of jealous<br />
suspicion, a process only complicated by individual<br />
claims of divine preference.<br />
UP-AND-COMING GENERALS: SHI DAKAI, LUO<br />
DAGANG, LI XIUCHENG, TANG ZENGZHAI, QIN<br />
RIGANG, CHEN YUCHENG, TAN SHUNTIAN<br />
In addition to the<br />
quartet of kings occupying<br />
the highest echelons of<br />
power, the Council is filled<br />
with numerous ambitious,<br />
battle-tested officers<br />
who have already risen<br />
meteorically from lowly<br />
peasants to trusted advisors<br />
to the <strong>Heavenly</strong> Emperor. If<br />
they are to have their way,<br />
their trajectories will include<br />
even higher ambitions<br />
of greatness, ambitions<br />
that are currently blocked<br />
by the hegemony of the<br />
aforementioned four.<br />
RELIGIOUS LEADERS:<br />
YANG XIUQING, FENG YUNSHAN, XIAO<br />
CHAOGUI<br />
However, the battlefield is not the only ground on<br />
which this war is being fought: the <strong>Taiping</strong> is a spiritual<br />
rebellion as much as a political one. As such, the possession<br />
of religious authority has proven an even quicker path<br />
to power than military competency, especially given the<br />
numerous generals who have claimed to be personally<br />
the voices of the Trinity – and who can argue with the<br />
voice of God? This conveniently incontrovertible source<br />
of power and awe has inextricably intertwined <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
politics with religion in a way that could potentially<br />
strangle the entire Council.<br />
PROPOSED SOLUTIONS<br />
In light of the various obstacles that currently face the<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> rebels, it seems prudent to consider all possible<br />
solutions that present themselves to the Council.<br />
24 Specialized Agencies
The taking of Nanjing has marked an important<br />
pivot point in the <strong>Taiping</strong> military advance. For the<br />
first time, the rebels have secured a stronghold large and<br />
sturdy enough to resist considerable attacks from Qing<br />
forces. It is up to the Council to decide whether or not<br />
the center of gravity of the rebellion should be shifted<br />
from an ever-advancing, never pausing onslaught to a<br />
single centralized point, radiating outward from behind<br />
the walls of Nanjing. Each approach offers its own merits<br />
and shortcomings, so this decision shall be left to the<br />
brilliant military strategists of this Council.<br />
In terms of the Western powers, the <strong>Taiping</strong> rebels<br />
could potentially seek an alliance, exploiting the<br />
Westerners’ already strained relations with the Qing<br />
dynasty. In doing so, however, it must be remembered<br />
that the Europeans have just recently sunk considerable<br />
resources into securing the Qing’s submission, and the<br />
disorder presented by the <strong>Taiping</strong> uprising could be seen<br />
as a threat. If an alliance is not sought, the rebels could<br />
also seek to succeed where the Qing had failed, namely<br />
expelling the Westerners from the country altogether.<br />
Lastly, concerning the religious pursuits of the<br />
rebellion, the increasing friction between spiritual<br />
figureheads within the rebellion leadership coupled with<br />
controversy between <strong>Taiping</strong> and European accounts<br />
of Christianity place the fate of <strong>Taiping</strong> religion at a<br />
crossroads. Whose account is the correct one, and who<br />
has the authority to decide? Possible solutions could<br />
include widespread religious reform, assumption of<br />
total religious hegemony by one figure, or an attempt at<br />
resolution through compromise.<br />
Please keep in mind that this is a short list of only<br />
several possible solutions to these complicated and<br />
multifaceted issues. Creativity and well-researched<br />
innovation is welcome and highly encouraged among<br />
the council members: by all means do not feel limited to<br />
these suggestions.<br />
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER<br />
RESEARCH<br />
Hundreds, if not thousands, of scholarly works have<br />
been authored on the subject of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion. In<br />
the course of my own research for this study guide, several<br />
of these resources have proved more informative than<br />
others. Jonathan Spence’s God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan is widely regarded<br />
as the authoritative source on the topic; its excellent<br />
readability and astute analyses of the rebellion’s key actors<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
make it an outstanding initial source of insight. Another<br />
work, Ssu-yü Teng’s The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western<br />
Powers: A Comprehensive Survey also offers fascinating<br />
details about the rebellion’s global context. Lastly, Franz<br />
Michael’s The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion: History and Documents<br />
includes many useful and informative primary sources to<br />
provide a first-hand look at these exciting events as they<br />
unfolded.<br />
POSITION PAPER GUIDELINES<br />
Position papers provide a first opportunity to take a<br />
stance on the exciting issues we will be debating, and in<br />
doing so demonstrate the fruits of your research. As the<br />
name suggests, these papers will balance an understanding<br />
of the current situation of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion with<br />
insight into how your character might have responded in<br />
such a context. A well-researched position should touch<br />
upon each of the relevant issues we will be discussing, so<br />
please include the following in your response:<br />
• Your character’s recommendations for the<br />
most advantageous next steps in the rebellion:<br />
advancing upon the enemy, consolidating control<br />
over already-taken territory, etc.<br />
• The course that should be taken in future<br />
interaction with Western powers.<br />
• Your character’s opinions on reforms within the<br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>: which reforms have been<br />
most useful, which have proved ineffective, and<br />
which should next be undertaken.<br />
Please note that this is not a character biography (these<br />
will be provided for you), although some research into<br />
your character’s background will of course be invaluable<br />
to understanding their perspective. I am aware that, due<br />
to the historical documents available to us now, some<br />
characters will be better documented than others. If you<br />
are having trouble determining your character’s stance<br />
due to a lack of information, I may be able to point you<br />
towards additional resources. A committee of delegates<br />
comfortable in arguing their respective positions makes<br />
for the most rewarding and realistic debate experience, so<br />
please give this position paper some thought.<br />
Each delegate will be expected to contribute a<br />
position paper – one page single-spaced, written in essay<br />
format (i.e. not bullet points). Further instructions on<br />
how to submit position papers will be released closer to<br />
conference. Rest assured that this is not a purposeless<br />
assignment; my staff and I look forward to reading<br />
your papers, from which we will craft the committee<br />
accordingly.<br />
25
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
CLOSING REMARKS<br />
Thank you for reading this study guide. It should<br />
serve you well as the first step in your preparation for our<br />
upcoming committee. However, as with any historical<br />
reference, it is very difficult to include a full picture<br />
of such a dynamic event in one volume, so I therefore<br />
highly encourage you to continue your research among<br />
any of the thousands of resources written on the subject<br />
of the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion. I have included a list of sources<br />
I found helpful in writing this study guide; use these to<br />
your best advantage, but please do keep in mind the time<br />
frame of our committee. Any information you unearth<br />
from after the start of our committee may be thought<br />
of as one of many possible futures, and I assure you that<br />
your Crisis Director, Min Hwang, will be creative in her<br />
interpretation of possible turns of events. The year is<br />
currently <strong>1853</strong>, and the <strong>Taiping</strong> forces have only recently<br />
taken Nanjing and are currently converting the city into<br />
their <strong>Heavenly</strong> Capital.<br />
The more research you do, the stronger your<br />
position as a delegate will be, and the more smoothly<br />
our committee will flow. However, in addition to the<br />
many textual resources available to you, please think of<br />
me as another useful resource, and feel free to direct any<br />
questions about the <strong>Taiping</strong>, our committee, or HMUN<br />
in general to me. I’d love to hear from you both before<br />
and after committee. With these words, I set you on your<br />
way to becoming fierce generals and visionary leaders,<br />
and eagerly wait for January when all of your hard work<br />
will come alive.<br />
Notes<br />
1 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 148<br />
2 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 31<br />
3 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 102<br />
4 Ibid., 35<br />
5 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 11<br />
6 Ibid., 27<br />
7 Ibid., 28<br />
8 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 25<br />
9 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 19<br />
10 Ibid., 20<br />
11 Ibid., 20<br />
12 Ibid., 27<br />
13 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 4<br />
14 Ibid., 4<br />
15 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 23<br />
16 Ibid., 23<br />
17 Ibid., 23<br />
18 Ibid., 25<br />
19 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 28<br />
20 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 34<br />
21 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 31<br />
22 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 37<br />
23 Michael and Chang, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion: History and Documents, 34<br />
24 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 73<br />
25 Ibid., 80<br />
26 Ibid., 80<br />
27 Ibid., 99<br />
28 Ibid., 100<br />
29 Ibid., 114<br />
30 Ibid., 126<br />
31 Ibid., 127<br />
32 Ibid., 126<br />
33 Ibid., 83<br />
34 Ibid., 130<br />
35 Ibid., 130<br />
36 Ibid., 132<br />
37 Ibid., 134<br />
38 Ibid., 136<br />
39 Cheng, Chinese Sources for the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion, 1850-1864, 21<br />
40 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 139<br />
41 Ibid., 145<br />
42 Ibid., 153<br />
43 Ibid., 154<br />
44 Ibid., 159<br />
45 Cheng, Chinese Sources for the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion, 1850-1864, 30<br />
46 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 159<br />
47 Ibid., 163<br />
48 Ibid., 164<br />
49 Ibid., 168<br />
50 Ibid., 169<br />
51 Michael and Chang, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion: History and Documents, 183-184<br />
52 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 171<br />
53 Ibid., 98<br />
54 Ibid., 232<br />
55 Ibid., 233<br />
56 Ibid., 181<br />
57 Ibid., 176<br />
58 Ibid., 114<br />
59 Ibid., 141<br />
60 Teng, The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey, 98<br />
61 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 150<br />
62 Ibid., 75<br />
63 Ibid., 210<br />
64 Ibid., 210<br />
65 Perry, Chinese Perspectives on the Nien rebellion, vii<br />
66 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Japan”<br />
26 Specialized Agencies
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
67 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Revolutions of 1848”<br />
68 Crawfurd, Buckland, and Clift, Journal of an Embassy from the Governor General of India to<br />
the Court of Ava With an Appendix, Containing a Description of Fossil Remains, 53<br />
69 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “American Civil War”<br />
70 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan, 238<br />
71 Ibid., 312<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
27
<strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, <strong>1853</strong><br />
Bibliography<br />
“American Civil War.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web.<br />
06 Jul. 2011. .<br />
Cheng, J. Chester. Chinese Sources for the <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion, 1850-1864. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press;,<br />
1963. Print.<br />
Crawfurd, John, William Buckland, and Clift. Journal of an Embassy from the Governor General of India to the Court of<br />
Ava With an Appendix, Containing a Description of Fossil Remains. 2d ed. London: Colburn, 1834. Print.<br />
“Japan.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Jul. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Michael, Franz H., and Chung Chang. The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion: History and Documents. Seattle: University of Washington<br />
Press, 1971. Print.<br />
Perry, Elizabeth J.. Chinese Perspectives on the Nien rebellion. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1981. Print.<br />
“Revolutions of 1848.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web.<br />
06 Jul. 2011. .<br />
Spence, Jonathan D.. God’s Chinese Son: the <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> of Hong Xiuquan. New York: W.W. Norton,<br />
1996. Print.<br />
Teng, Ssu. The <strong>Taiping</strong> Rebellion and the Western powers: A Comprehensive Survey. Oxford: Clarendon press, 1971. Print.<br />
28 Specialized Agencies
GUIDE TO DELEGATE PREPARATION<br />
AND RULES<br />
The Specialized Agencies at <strong>Harvard</strong> <strong>Model</strong> <strong>United</strong><br />
<strong>Nations</strong> 2012 comprise the Security Council, the African<br />
Court On Human and People’s Rights, and the Continual<br />
Crisis simulations. The Security Council simulation<br />
follows the same rules of procedure that apply to the<br />
General Assembly and Economic and Social Council,<br />
with an exception that gives the five permanent members<br />
(China, France, the <strong>United</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong>, the <strong>United</strong> States,<br />
and the Russian Federation) a veto in substantive voting.<br />
The African Court will follow special rules of procedure,<br />
which will be detailed by the director. Parliamentary<br />
procedure will be limited in Continual Crisis committees.<br />
By nature of their small size, debate in the Specialized<br />
Agencies will be much more informal than in other organs.<br />
A greater emphasis will be placed on close negotiations<br />
between delegates to work out the details of resolutions<br />
and directives, in both moderated and unmoderated<br />
caucuses. Delegates will have ample opportunities to<br />
speak and participate in resolving complex issues.<br />
Continual Crisis Committees<br />
Spanning a diverse range of topics, regions, and time<br />
periods, the Continual Crisis committees include: the<br />
Ad-Hoc Committee on the Aftermath of the Japanese<br />
Earthquake, General People’s Committee of Libya<br />
2011, Council of Ministers of Colombia 2010, <strong>Taiping</strong><br />
<strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> <strong>1853</strong>, Cabinet of Pompey the Great,<br />
and a Joint Crisis set in 1980 between the Supreme<br />
Defense Council of Iran and the Iraqi Revolutionary<br />
Command Council.<br />
Instead of debating two distinct topic areas laid out<br />
in advance in the study guide, these committees will<br />
focus on a particular political, social, or military crisis.<br />
Throughout committee, delegates will face new and<br />
changing challenges and must make real-time decisions.<br />
In addition to the dais staff, each continual crisis<br />
committee has a crisis staff, including a Crisis Director,<br />
who will coordinate events in real time to respond to<br />
delegate actions. Crisis staff may interrupt debate at<br />
any point to break new information. In addition to<br />
participating in debate in the committee room, delegates<br />
are encouraged to conduct private affairs and take creative<br />
actions through interactions with crisis staff.<br />
In almost all continual crisis committees, delegates<br />
represent a particular individual instead of a nation, and<br />
will step into the shoes of historical figures, military<br />
Guide to Delegate Preparation and Rules<br />
leaders, and cabinet members. In preparing to represent<br />
an individual, it is crucial to research his or her perspective<br />
on the conflict or issue. Crisis staff will provide delegates<br />
with a preliminary biography outlining each character’s<br />
role and powers in the committee, but delegates will<br />
greatly benefit from researching as many personal details<br />
as they can. A high level of preparation will not only<br />
allow delegates to participate fully in the debate and stay<br />
true to their character, but also add personality and flair<br />
to the experience. Some roles may be fictional or only<br />
loosely based on a real figure; delegates assigned to these<br />
roles have the unique opportunity to develop their own<br />
personality and views within the guidelines provided by<br />
their biography. It is also useful to keep in mind that the<br />
committee director will also portray a character (as the<br />
Prime Minister, President, or other head of state).<br />
For committees set in a different time period, especially<br />
the <strong>Taiping</strong> <strong>Heavenly</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> <strong>1853</strong>, the Cabinet of<br />
Pompey the Great, and the Iran-Iraq Joint Cabinet Crisis,<br />
delegates will not be allowed to use or reference any<br />
events that occurred after the date on which committee<br />
is set. The time period of the committee will be given<br />
in the study guide and on the first day of committee.<br />
Anachronistic references damage the historical realism<br />
of the simulation and detract from the enjoyment and<br />
experience of all delegates. At the same time, delegates<br />
should not feel bounded by history--delegates have free<br />
reign over the course of history, and the possibilities are<br />
virtually endless.<br />
Due to the fast pace of debate, the use of<br />
parliamentary procedure in Continual Crisis committees<br />
is limited. The flow of the committee will depend on the<br />
preferences of the dais. Details about procedure used in<br />
specific committees will be provided in the study guide<br />
or at the start of the first committee session. In general,<br />
instead of a speakers’ list, discussion in Continual Crisis<br />
committees takes place through moderated caucuses in<br />
which the chair calls upon delegates to speak. Delegates<br />
may motion for unmoderated caucuses to suspend<br />
formal debate and discuss freely or work on directives<br />
and communiques.<br />
Working Documents<br />
Unlike traditional committees, continual crisis<br />
committees do not pass resolutions. Depending on the<br />
committee, they can issue directives, communiques, and<br />
press releases. Directives take specific actions, and must<br />
be sent by an individual, a group of individuals, or the<br />
Specialized Agencies<br />
1
Guide to Delegate Preparation and Rules<br />
committee as a whole. An individual may only send a<br />
directive if it is within his or her portfolio powers, as<br />
detailed in the character biography released by the crisis<br />
staff. If the directive is not issued by the whole committee,<br />
it can be sent privately, and its contents will not be<br />
revealed to the committee. At the director’s discretion,<br />
a minimum number of signatories may be necessary for<br />
the directive to be introduced. Directives will be voted<br />
on as they are introduced, and will be passed by simple<br />
majority vote unless the director stipulates otherwise.<br />
Communiques allow delegates to communicate with<br />
foreign governments (including the other committee in<br />
a joint crisis), and individuals outside the committee.<br />
Press releases, issued to specific newspapers, can reveal<br />
information to the public or state the committee’s<br />
position on a particular event. Throughout the committee,<br />
notes can be used to communicate between delegates, to<br />
ask the dais a question, or to send a private directive or<br />
communiqué.<br />
DIRECTIVE<br />
Sample Working Documents<br />
Deploy naval forces under the US Commander<br />
South Atlantic to blockade Cuba. Effect a<br />
quarantine of vessels headed to Cuba carrying<br />
offensive military equipment.<br />
PRESS RELEASE<br />
To: New York Times<br />
From: US National Security Council<br />
We have today been informed by Chairman<br />
Khrushchev that all of the IL-28 bombers now<br />
in Cuba will be withdrawn in 30 days. He also<br />
agreed that these planes can be observed and<br />
counted as they leave. Inasmuch as this goes a<br />
long way towards reducing the danger which<br />
faced this hemisphere four weeks ago, we have<br />
this afternoon decided to lift our naval quarantine.<br />
-<strong>United</strong> States National Security Council<br />
COMMUNIQUÉ<br />
To: Politburo of the Soviet Union<br />
From: US National Security Council<br />
We demand an immediate dismantling of missile<br />
bases already under construction or completed in<br />
Cuba. Additionally, we demand that all offensive<br />
weapons be removed from Cuba. Any nuclear<br />
missile launched from Cuba against any nation<br />
in the Western Hemisphere will be regarded as<br />
an attack by the Soviet Union on the <strong>United</strong><br />
States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon<br />
the Soviet Union.<br />
22 Specialized Agencies