Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, 1853 - Harvard Model United Nations

Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, 

1853 

COMMITTEE UPDATE PAPERS 

Dear Delegates, 

Welcome once again to the Specialized Agencies at Harvard Model United Nations 2012! The conference is now 

less than a month away. Our staff has undertaken countless hours of hard work and preparation to make the 2012 

conference the best yet. For your reference, this document contains committee update materials, which provides a 

valuable supplement to the information contained in the committee Study Guide. We hope that this document will 

provide yet another resource for your preparation in the lead-up to conference. 

If you have any questions regarding your committee, or to introduce yourself to your director, please contact your 

director directly at: taiping@harvardmun.org 

As always, do not hesitate to contact me if you have any conference questions or concerns. 

Sincerely, 

Charlene S. Wong 

Under-Secretary-General for the Specialized Agencies 

Harvard Model United Nations 2012 

sa@harvardmun.org 

Specialized Agencies 

1

Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, 1853 

Updates by Michael George, Alexander Quinn, 

Elsa Kania, and Francisco Maldonado, Assistant 

Directors 

The Common Man in Mainland China, 1850s 

Popular religion in China is very unrestricted. Most 

people are allowed to worship whichever god they 

choose as long as it “[does] not challenge the existing 

order.” 1 Major religions present in the rural countryside 

are Buddhism, Taoism, and polytheistic local beliefs. 

Although these people have gods that they pray to, the 

philosophy of Confucius is also a significant part of 

everyone’s daily life. The Taiping people will have to 

consider these teachings and their prevalence across the 

nation as they continue to bring religious reforms and 

bring more people into the fold of Christianity. As the 

Taiping Army has moved about southern China, it has 

destroyed large structures for any gods other than the 

Christian God. The Taiping movement is in direct conflict 

with the popular religion practiced by most of mainland 

China. However, the form of Christianity that Hong and 

his followers have set out practicing would bring riches to 

the poor and thus has become a compelling movement to 

follow. The significance of Christianity is that it preaches 

a monotheistic religion as well as demonizing Confucius 

(in the form of Christianity practiced by Hong). People 

are expected to all contribute to the general well-being 

of the whole society. Thus, as the rebellion spreads, land 

claimed by the Taiping is then redistributed equally 

amongst the God-Worshippers. Wealth is also confiscated 

and put in to the treasury of the Heavenly Society. These 

direct conflicts with Confucius will be a difficult barrier 

to overcome for the Taiping movement. 

Confucian teachings are widespread and engrained in 

to everyday life of the Chinese people. As stated by Fenby, 

“Generation after generation has upheld Confucian 

teachings, stressing proper human relationships, 

between ruler and minister, father and son, superiors 

and subordinates, the high and low.” 2 The teachings of 

Confucius were responsible for the current position of 

women in society. According to Confucian teachings they 

are “not allowed to socialize with men outside their family, 

and their husbands would not think of introducing them 

to acquaintances or mentioning them in conversation.” 

Women are not generally not seen as important, because 

it is the male line that counts in the heavily ancestrybased 

Confucian system. The male line is the one that 

carries on the family name and “[carries] out the essential 

practice of ancestor worship.” 3 Additionally, a family 

bearing only baby girls often would be disappointed 

because daughters eventually marry, after which time 

they are expected to live with their husband’s family and 

take care of their husband’s parents as they grew old. For 

this reason, parents would wish for a boy, who would not 

only carry on the family name, but also take care of them 

in their old age. 

Confucian teachings are seen to be a fundamental 

aspect of Chinese society, from the common man to the 

rulers on high. The bureaucratic exams used to determine 

aptitude for government posts are heavily based upon 

Confucius and his teachings. These exams are seen as a 

way to move up out of poverty and be able to advance 

further in to the world. However, less than 1% of people 

are able to pass the state level examinations. In addition, 

the increased ability of the urban and rural gentry to buy 

these positions has led to significant unrest. 4 Confucian 

teachings pervaded every aspect of life, but focused on 

five main relationships: “Ruler and subject, father and 

son, husband and wife, oldest son and younger brothers, 

elders and juniors.” 5 These types of relationships are 

meant to create a harmonious society, but not necessarily 

an egalitarian one. Lower class people are expected to 

respect the emperor, and so forth. Thus, the elderly are 

well respected in villages and play a significant role in 

the family life. Most families and extended families live 

together in the same village, and sons are expected to 

take care of their fathers. The virtues of these teachings 

are tested in the examinations at all levels. 

The Hakka people, who were the main instigators 

of the Taiping rebellion, do not follow these Confucian 

teachings as strictly as the majority of China. Hakka 

people were seen as outsiders; in the Cantonese dialect 

they are referred to as “guest-people.” 6 However, the 

Hakka people differ significantly in that their women do 

not bind their feet. 7 Bound feet are generally seen as a sign 

of attractiveness for Chinese women; however, because 

the Hakka women do not have bound feet they are able 

to work in the fields alongside the men. The unbound 

feet have also led to Hakka women only marrying Hakka 

men because other Chinese found the unbound feet 

unattractive and not befitting of a woman to be their 

wife. Their perceived status as “guest-people” has caused 

significant friction in the provinces in which they live. 8 

Villages are generally set up in a hierarchical system 

that eventually leads back up to the emperor. All of 

China is split up in to 18 provinces, 1,300 districts, and 

143 departments, with each district having a magistrate 

22 Specialized Agencies

to act as enforcer. A magistrate acts as mayor, sheriff, 

judge, coroner, tax collector, surveyor, prison governor, 

registrar, organizer of imperial examinations and bailiff. 9 

This system has led to a large amount of corruption 

due to the significant amount of power held by the 

singular figure of the district magistrate. The magistrates 

are supposed to be “father and mother officers” to the 

Chinese people because they had passed the rigorous 

Confucian examinations and believed his teachings. 10 

However, by the 1850s this is rarely the case. By this time 

only about 60% of them have passed the exams, with 

almost 20% bribing or paying for their positions. 11 This 

has led to magistrates becoming oppressors and making 

the common people ripe for revolt against an emperor 

and system that was not benefiting them. 

The imperial system has also had a large affect on 

agriculture. There are restrictions on the transportation 

of grain between provinces, to ensure that each province 

is able to sustain itself sufficiently. 12 Also, there are 

grain storage houses which the magistrates also control, 

acting as an overlord to distribute the food to the people. 

However, these systems have led to mass famines and 

food shortages following floods in the early 1850s. 13 

These mass famines then led to spirit of discontent among 

the common people, embodied in the Nian Rebellion 

(which was simultaneous with, but independent of, the 

Taiping Rebellion). The Nian Rebellion has had a large 

influx of members due to the massive flooding of the 

Huang He, and has been emboldened by the promising 

beginning of the Taiping movement. 14 

Foreign Players in the Taiping Rebellion 

OVERVIEW 

The Taiping Rebellion has been deeply influenced by 

contact with foreign powers. The ideological foundation 

for Hong Xiuquan’s movement originated in his contact 

with Christianity through Western missionaries, and the 

state weakness that has allowed the rebellion to be so 

successful was primarily due to military defeat by and 

unequal terms of trade with Great Britain, France, and 

the United States. Perhaps more importantly, in 1853, 

these foreign players stand poised to play a decisive 

role in determining the outcome of the rebellion itself. 

However, the policies pursued by the revolutionaries, 

particularly the prohibition against smoking opium, pose 

a threat to these powers’ economic interests and have the 

potential to alienate them. At this point in the rebellion, 

forging alliances with these dominant players is essential 



for the Taiping because the survival and legitimacy of 

their government will depend largely on its international 

acceptance. 

OPIUM TRADE 

Although opium had been sold in China since the 

7 th century, Great Britain became the leading supplier 

of opium in 1773. Other Western nations, including 

France and the United States, soon became involved 

in the opium trade as well. In the early years of trade 

with the West, foreign nations were restricted to trade 

zones such as that established in Canton (Guangzhou) 

in 1832 by the British East Indian Company. 15 This 

came to be known as the Canton system. At this time, 

trade was strictly controlled by the Manchu government. 

Merchant firms selected by the ruling Qing dynasty were 

given a monopoly on trade passing through China—in 

exchange for paying a substantial fee to the authorities. 

In Canton, a particular merchant guild, known as the 

cohong, managed trade between China and Westerners, 

serving as an intermediary between the Qing government 

and the governments of trading partners. 16 Although the 

British made efforts to expand trade beyond Canton, 

a decree made in 1757 by the Qing emperor declared 

that no other ports would be opened to foreign traders, 

and regulations were tightened. For example, traders in 

Canton were subject to Chinese law, presumed guilty 

until proven innocent. 

THE OPIUM WAR 

Opium proved incredibly lucrative for the British, 

financing both imperial ventures in India and the 

purchase of the popular Chinese tea. Beginning in the 

1790s, however, the Chinese court became increasingly 

concerned about the extent of opium use due the 

enormous social and economic consequences. At the 

time, a million people in China were addicted to opium. 

Although the court established a ban on opium imports, 

the opium trade continued largely unmolested, both 

grown domestically and smuggled into the country. 

Advisors to the emperor debated whether to enforce 

these prohibitions or to legalize the opium trade, but they 

ultimately opted to enforce the preexisting prohibitions 

in 1838. 

The Opium War originated from this attempt on the 

part of the Qings to ban opium, as well as a prevailing 

desire on the part of the British to expand trade beyond 

Canton to the lucrative markets beyond. Commissioner 

Lin Zexu, a midlevel imperial bureaucrat, was sent 

to the port of Canton to crack down on the opium 

3


trade, ordering the confiscation of opium supplies in 

1839. Around the same time, reports reached Britain of 

threats to civilians living in China. 17 The British Foreign 

Secretary at the time, Lord Palmerston, saw the seizure 

of opium as an act of war against the Crown. 18 Over the 

course of the war, the British sent naval and military 

expeditions into China, capturing several major cities, 

as superior British technology overwhelmed Chinese 

forces. The humiliating defeat of the Qing by the United 

Kingdom in the First Opium War greatly weakened the 

Chinese state. Subsequent to China’s defeat, the terms of 

trade between the two countries were renegotiated in a 

way unfavorable to China in the Treaty of Nanking. 

THE TREATY OF NANKING 

The 1842 Treaty of Nanking demanded substantial 

concessions from China. Perhaps most importantly, 

however, “treaty ports” were established in Canton, 

Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, opening these 

areas fully to unrestrained foreign trade and influence, 

including that of missionaries. Shortly thereafter, in 

1844, both the United States and France signed similar 

treaties with China to acquire the right to trade in 

these “treaty ports,” a right granted to all three “treaty 

powers.” Chinese was also forced to pay an indemnity 

to Great Britain and grant the British Hong Kong. 

Among the most important consequences of the Treaty 

of Nanking was the establishment of the principle of 

“extraterritoriality”, allowing for administration of justice 

for foreigners in the port cities where they lived under 

consular authorities rather than in the local Chinese 

legal system. This diminished the authority of the Qing 

and contributed to state weakness that allowed for the 

Taiping Rebellion. 

GREAT BRITAIN 

In the early 19 th century, Great Britain was the world’s 

leading imperial power and had substantial holdings 

overseas, notably in India. At the apex of its power and 

entering its imperial century, Britain was dominant in 

global politics, both economically and militarily, without 

a major rival after the defeat of France in the Napoleonic 

Wars, and established what is now known as the Pax 

Britannica, acting as global policeman. Britain was heavily 

involved in Asia as an imperial power, having recently 

incorporated Java, Singapore, Malacca, and Burma into 

its imperial holdings. 

FRANCE 

Beginning in the 17 th century, France was heavily 

involved as an imperial power in Indochina, particularly 

through interventions in Vietnam, and was competing 

with Britain for influence on the global stage. In 1664, 

the French East India Company was founded to compete 

with the British East India Company for trade, and 

France also had established several colonies in India 

and on the Indian Ocean. However, France had lost 

power and a substantial amount of its colonial holdings 

through conflict with Great Britain, most recently in the 

Napoleonic Wars. At the time of the Taiping Rebellion, 

however, France was active in building its Second Empire 

under Napoleon III, as in the 1830 invasion of Algeria. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

Just emerging from the throes of the Civil War, the 

United States maintained an inward focus, primarily on 

domestic issues and the challenges of Reconstruction. 

However, the U.S. was beginning to expand economically, 

recognizing the importance of trading routes in the East 

and increasingly involved in the opium trade. Unlike 

France and Great Britain, however, the U.S. had no 

colonial holdings in East Asia. However, at the time of 

the Taiping Rebellion, American interest in Asia was 

quickly gaining momentum. In July of 1853, American 

Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Tokyo Bay, 

seeking to establish trade and diplomatic ties that would 

open Japan up to the outside world. 19 

MISSIONARIES 

Large numbers of American missionaries traveled to 

China. One missionary, Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts 

proved particularly influential. Having arrived in China 

in 1837, he became, in 1844, the first foreigner to live 

and operate outside of the restricted areas, opening a 

mission in Canton, where he subsequently worked as 

a missionary for twenty-two years. 20 He was the only 

Western teacher to instruct the Taiping’s spiritual leader 

in Christianity and was initially called upon to advise 

him in spiritual matters before doctrinal differences 

proved divisive. 

Beginning around 1853, as reports began to emerge 

as to the Christian characteristics of the insurgents, 

missionaries almost immediately took notice and sought 

to establish relations with their fellow Christians. 21 

Through the linkage provided by Western missionaries 

came the potential for foreign support of the rebels 

due to the growing frustration of Western officials with 

the behavior of the Manchu in failing to fully observe 


previous treaties with regard 

to the opening of trade. Due 

in part to the insurgents’ 

Christian-derived religious 

beliefs, American and British 

hoped that the Taiping might 

be more cooperative with 

their aims. 22 


The Qing Dynasty 

No report on the 

Taiping Rebellion would be 

complete without an analysis 

of the Qing Dynasty. This 

update paper continues an 

elaboration on the Qing 

culture, government, and 

military from the beginning 

of the dynasty, but specifically 

in relation to the climate of 

the 1850s when the Taiping 

Rebellion began. 

CULTURE OF THE QING 

The Qing represented a vastly different culture from 

that of the previous dynasty, which largely represented 

the Han Chinese ethnic group. As ethnic Manchus who 

invaded from their stronghold in the Northeast, the Qing 

were thus faced with the unenviable task of governing a 

substantially large region whose culture was significantly 

different from their own. The crucial task at hand was 

how to balance the adoption of some Chinese cultural 

characteristics so that their leadership would be accepted 

by the Chinese themselves, while simultaneously 

remaining ‘Manchu’ in identity and without losing their 

own culture. The Manchus defined themselves primarily 

on the skills and values they associated with their skilled 

horsemanship and archery, as opposed to the books-andletters 

culture of Chinese Confucianism. 23 Their religion, 

a form of Shamanism, was also profoundly different. 

The Qing believed that shaman could pass between the 

human world and the world of the supernatural through 

spiritual death and rebirth, and could thus influence 

world events. 24 The Qing also patronized the form of 

Buddhism overseen by the Dalai Lama in Lhasa, Tibet, 

in order to control Mongol tribes that had converted 

to Buddhism. Qing emperors were thus well known for 

building Buddhist temples throughout China as a sign 

of this devotion. By also patronizing Buddhism, the 

Foreign powers did not hold the standing armies of the Qing dynasty in high esteem. Soldiers used 

antiquated weaponry, while units were slovenly and ill-disciplined. The dynasty’s military weakness 

put it at a disadvantage in treaty negotiations. 

Qing dynasty also successfully linked themselves to an 

important Chinese religious tradition, as some Chinese 

had adopted the religion from India hundreds of years 

earlier. 25 Despite these connections, however, the Manchu 

sought to preserve their culture as much as possible. The 

Qing government issued stringent separation orders, 

such as a ban on Manchu women from binding their 

feet, as was Chinese custom, and in edicts prohibiting 

intermarriage or joint enterprises of any sort. Manchuria, 

the Manchu homeland, was declared off-limits to any 

Chinese in order to keep it pure. The Manchus similarly 

commanded Chinese men to adopt the Manhu hairstyle 

known as the queue as a symbolic representation of 

their subjugation. 26 The Manchu Emperor Kanxi, often 

regarded as the Greatest of the Dynasty, was a role model 

in the promotion of Manchu identity, as exemplified 

by his periodic hunting trips north of the Great Wall, a 

staple of Manchu culture. Kanxi also successfully led the 

final rout of all Ming Resistance fighters in 1683. 27 

THE QING GOVERNMENT 

Ultimately, however, in order to rule, the Qing 

government did assimilate by adopting a variety of 

Chinese cultural and political traditions, such as filial 

piety and reverence for ancestors, the accepted body of 

magnificent state ritual, and, perhaps most importantly, 

China’s characteristic Confucian-based civil service 

examination system. In this regard, the Qing copied the 


5


broad outlines of the earlier Ming Dynasty’s governmental 

administration. As the Manchu were a clear minority in 

China, the Qing government had to woo the Chinese 

into their ranks in order to successfully govern. The Kanxi 

emperor, for example, explicitly issued an edict saying 

that both Han and Manchu were equal in their abilities 

as civil servants. 28 As such, by adopting Ming Dynasty 

governmental systems, the Qing successfully pacified the 

Chinese population. 29 Despite the overwhelming and 

clear numerical majority of the Han Chinese, however, 

positions in the government were essentially evenly split 

between Manchu and Chinese officials, as Manchus got 

preferential treatment in the examination system and in 

appointments. In general, Chinese leaders were overseen 

by Manchus—for example, while Chinese officials might 

be allowed to oversee a province, a Manchu leader would 

generally oversee a collection of provinces. Nonetheless, 

government itself was minimal, as was the standard of 

the day, and in local areas the ‘government’ was barely in 

control, depending upon alliances with local gentry to 

enforce any regulations or tax collection policy. 30 It is in this 

climate that the Xianfeng Emperor, inaugurated in 1850, 

served. Xianfeng, who was in power when the Taiping 

Rebellion broke out, was facing a variety of challenges 

to his rule, particularly those posed by rebellion across 

the empire, and by threats from increasingly assertive 

foreign powers. 31 Among his first acts as Emperor was his 

dismissal of Mujangga, a Manchu Chief Concilor who 

had favored deference and conciliation in dealings with 

the West in order to avoid military conflict. 32 While this 

did successfully avoid open war, China had been forced 

to accept increasingly damaging treaty terms as a result 

of the Opium Wars, and the increasing desire of foreign 

powers to open up China to trade. 

THE QING MILITARY 

The Qing Military was severely outranked by foreign 

powers, a factor in their weakness compounded by 

corruption and decentralization. Since the beginning 

of the Qing dynasty, the Qing military was organized 

into so-called ‘banners,’ named as such for the particular 

colored flags which marked each unit, formed of Manchu 

warriors. The Qing also controlled an “Army of the 

Green Standard,” originally formed out of the remnants 

of defeated Ming forces, but essentially a much larger 

Chinese constabulary force that was assigned to garrison 

posts throughout China. While civil officials controlled 

the Green Standard, military governors controlled the 

Manchu banners, who also kept the Green Standard in 

check. Although this was at first a strong system which 

led to the complete defeat of the Ming dynasty, by the 

mid-1700s corruption and poor morale had already 

begun to weaken the Banners. By the mid-1800s, it was 

clear that the Qing military could not hold a candle 

to foreign armies, with their steam-powered transport 

and self-firing rifles. In terms of technology, the most 

advanced Qing forces had ‘matchlocks,’ or guns which 

had to be ignited by hand, while most troops simply held 

knives, swords or clubs. 33 The extreme difference in power 

between Qing and foreign forces meant that the dynasty 

adopted a policy of avoiding military conflict, leading to 

the formation of an unequal treaty system stacked against 

Chinese interests. 34 This status quo formed despite the 

fact that ordinary Chinese, and Chinese leaders in the 

government, wanted more resistance to foreign threats. 

By the time the Taiping Rebellion began in 1850, the 

Qing military was clearly in disarray and unable to 

manage yet another threat. As such, the Qing dynasty 

under the Xianfeng Emperor modified its military 

strategy. Firstly, to protect the villages, ordinary civilians 

were trained and armed in village-level units overseen by 

local gentry, who were in charge of financing, recruiting 

and enlarging these forces. While there was a danger in 

empowering and arming ordinary civilians, the lack of 

any other option made it necessary. 35 These local militias 

were eventually transformed into quasi-regular contract 

troops upon which the Dynasty was heavily dependent. In 

1852, the Xianfeng Emperor put military commissioners 

in charge of bringing together these gentry-led local 

militias into larger federations. 36 The largest of these was 

the Hunan Army, led by the most important military 

leader of the day, Zeng Guofan. 37 The creation of these 

delegated, local-level armies was an implicit admission 

that the Banner and Green Standard Forces had failed 

to suppress the rebellions and showed the weakness of 

the Manchu military. Furthermore, the fact that Zeng 

Guofan and his forces were Chinese meant that the Qing 

were conceding Manchu influence, a permanent effect 

which would seriously weaken Manchu influence on the 

military. Despite this, the Hunan Army, along with other 

localized troops, were put in a much better position to 

address the Taiping Rebellion than the previous Green 

Standard and Banner forces. 38 


Character Biographies 

HONG XIUQUAN, DIRECTOR 

Born on January 1, 1814, in the Fuyuanshui 

Village, Hua County, Guangdong province, China, 

Hong Xiuquan was the youngest son of a poor Hakka 

family. Since childhood, Hong showed signs of great 

intelligence. At around the age of fifteen his parents were 

no longer able to afford his schooling, so he became a 

tutor to other children in his village and continued to 

study privately. His family had hopes that he would 

eventually pass the Imperial examination test used to 

enter the government bureaucracy. Even though he 

scored first in the preliminary examinations, he later 

took the first-degree examination for the first time at age 

22 and failed. He took the test four more times without 

success. Unable to work as a government official, Hong 

became an instructor at the Book Chamber House and 

several schools in Lianhuatang and other villages. 

During one his trips to take the examination, Hong 

encountered a Christian missionary preaching about the 

religion. There he received translations and summaries 

of the Bible written by the Christian missionary Liang 

Fa. After failing the test once more and suffering from 

a nervous collapse, Hong had several mystical visions. 

Seven years later, he associated these visions to the 

writings of Liang Fa, and interpreted them as messages 

from God giving him the task of ridding the world of 

demon worship. He then got rid of all his Confucian 

and Buddhist statues and books, and began to preach to 

his community about his visions. He followed to destroy 

other such icons around his town, activities deemed 

sacrilegious, and had to flee his town with one of his 

early followers Feng Yunshan in 1844. 

They went to the west to Guangxi, where the large 

Hakka population was much more willing to receive 

his teachings. The Hakka minority proved to accept his 

preaching more readily. After studying the Old Testament, 

preaching, developing his revolutionary theories 

and writing them, Hong returned to Guangxi where 

found that Feng Yunshan had gained a mass of around 

2,000 converts. This number was raised to somewhere 

between 15,000 and 30,000 by 1850. Alarmed by their 

amount, the authorities ordered them to be dispersed 

unsuccessfully and subsequently declared war with the 

group. Hong declared the foundation of the “Heavenly 

Kingdom of Transcendent Peace” on 11 January 1851, 

proclaiming himself as the Heavenly King of Great Peace. 

After capturing the city of Yongan and facing difficulties 



laying siege to other cities, in March 1853 Hong’s forces 

managed to take Nanjing and turned it into the capital 

of their movement where Hong rules from his Heavenly 

Palace. 

YANG XIUQING, COMMANDER IN CHIEF, 

MOUTHPIECE OF GOD 

Yang Xiuqing was born in Xincun village, 

Guangxi Province, China, around 1817. Orphaned at an 

early age, he became a firewood seller. After experiencing 

visions of God, he converted to Christianity in 1848, 

joined the Taiping band shortly before the start of the 

rebellion, and quickly rose to a high position. Yang 

claimed that because of trances in which the power of 

God moved through him, he had acquired the power to 

heal true believers. These powers helped him gain many 

supporters, but also a number of enemies. Because of this, 

Yang developed an extensive network of eyes and ears 

within the Taiping ranks that allowed him to rapidly root 

out any sources of discontent. In 1851, Yang was made 

commander-in-chief of the army and further on named 

“East King,” along with three other leaders of the rebellion 

who were given titles as “kings” of the four quarters of 

the Heavenly Kingdom. His escape from the imperial 

siege of Yongan on April 1852, and his performances 

at Yuezhou on December 1852, Wuchang on January 

1853, and Nanjing on March 1853 contributed toward 

his reputation as the Taiping Rebellion’s most skillful 

tactician and most talented field commander. As a 

religious leader, however, his tolerance of Confucianism 

and certain symbolic elements of traditional Chinese 

religion have caused friction with the all-condemning 

policies of Hong Xiuquan. 

XIAO CHAOGUI, MOUTHPIECE OF JESUS 

CHRIST 

Xiao Chaogui was a Hakka peasant devoted to the 

new religion of Hong Xiuquan. He is Hong’s brotherin-law 

and, during trances, channels the voice and spirit 

of Jesus Christ, advising Hong on religious and civic 

policy. Along with Yang, he played a major role in early 

stages of the rebellion, gaining many supporters through 

demonstrations of his supernatural abilities and leading 

the troops to victory after victory. As such Xiao quickly 

became a powerful and respected figure of the movement 

and in 1851, he was made the West King. In this same 

year he was severely wounded in a battle in Yongan. After 

a long recovery period he has been given different military 

assignments, awarded additional noble titles, and now 

commands several campaigns. 

7


WEI CHANGHUI, MINISTER OF COMMERCE 

Wei Changhui was born in 1823 into a powerful 

clan that controlled the market town named Jiantin in 

Guangxi. In the early days of the Taiping Movement, he 

was converted to Christianity by Feng Yunshan and Hong 

Xiuquan. His town of origin then became a haven for the 

Taiping followers, or “God Worshipers.” Because of his 

invaluable assistance during the Thistle Mountain days 

of the movement, Wei became a leader of the Taiping 

and was then named the North King of the Heavenly 

Kingdom. Constantly overshadowed by the more 

powerful kings of the East and West (whose prophetic 

abilities have earned them considerable influence over 

both Hong and the ranks of Taiping believers), Wei has 

become increasingly at odds with his peers, especially the 

seemingly omnipotent Yang Xiuqing, and the two take 

every opportunity to interfere in the other’s advancement. 

FENG YUNSHAN, MINISTER OF RELIGION 

(LEADER OF THE GOD WORSHIPPERS) 

Born in 1815, Feng was a neighbor, schoolmate, and 

close friend of Hong Xiuquan. He has followed Hong’s 

preaching since the earliest days and was the founder 

of the “God Worshipers” sect during the 1840’s. After 

fleeing their hometown, Feng and Hong embarked 

on a preaching mission into the neighboring province 

of Guangxi. There Feng founded and organized the 

Baishangdi Hui, or “God Worshippers’ Society” which 

combined Hong’s religious ideas with community-based 

social reform. The thousands of assembled believers that 

resulted gave rise to the first members of the Taiping 

Rebellion. When Hong proclaimed his Heavenly 

Kingdom of Great Peace in 1851, Feng was given the 

named Nanwang, or “Southern King,” and was made the 

general of the advance guard. In 1852, as the Taiping 

marched by the city of Quanzhou, Feng was seriously 

wounded, but has since begun to recover and reclaim his 

role at the helm of the God-Worshippers. 

SHI DAKAI, MINISTER OF THE TREASURY 

Shi Dakai was born in 1831 in Guigang, Guangxi, 

into a moderately wealthy peasant family, of half-Hakka 

and half-Zhuang parentage. Because he was orphaned, he 

became the head of his family at a young age. Despite his 

qualifications, he did not take the imperial examinations 

due to his critiques of the corrupt Qing dynasty. In 1849, 

still a teenager, Hong and Feng sought him to join the 

Taiping among the other five original leaders, where his 

brilliant tactics, skilled command of the troops, and fair 

administration of the public funds (“The Holy Treasury”) 

quickly gained him recognition. He was promptly made 

commander of his own army. Shi has won wide admiration 

for his gentle rule and fair administration. Many have 

joined the rebellion attracted by his reputation, and when 

the Kingdom was proclaimed, he was assigned the title 

of Wing King and Lord of Five Thousand Years. Shi was 

amongst the leaders of crucial importance to winning the 

city of Nanjing, victorious in every battle to win the city. 

LI XIUCHENG, MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE 

Li Xiucheng was raised as farm worker before he 

joined the Taiping. He became an eminent military leader 

of the Taiping Rebellion as of 1851 as the forces headed 

toward Yongan and rose quickly through the ranks 

because of his natural brilliance as a military commander 

in their campaigns in west and central China. Li became 

known as the Loyal King because a Qing general 

attempted to bribe him to kill Hong Xiuquan, but he 

refused. As a loyal server of Hong, he has led Taiping 

forces to many military victories, gaining the respect of 

locals and foreigners. 

HONG RENGAN, PRIME MINISTER 

Born on February 18, 1822, in Huaxian, Guangdong 

province, China, Hong Rengan is the cousin and 

former neighbor of Hong Xiuquan. When the rebellion 

started, Rengan initially fled to the British settlement 

of Hong Kong, where he was converted to Christianity 

and educated by the Protestant Swedish missionary, 

Theodore Hamberg. During this time, he also served as 

an assistant to a noted Scottish sinologist, James Legge, 

translating Chinese classics into English. During this 

time Rengan acquired great knowledge about Western 

politics, economics, history, geography, astronomy and 

other sciences. Because of his knowledge, he is promptly 

made second in chief when he joins the Taiping Rebellion. 

Rengan serves as the equivalent of a Prime Minister, 

taking the title of Prince Gan. As part of the Taiping, he 

is known for his reforms to the Kingdom, which tried 

to introduce such Western ideas as railroads, telegraphs, 

modern banks, and hospitals. 

TANG ZHENGZAI, COMMANDER OF THE NAVY 

Tang Zhengzai was born in 1816 in Xian de Qiyang 

Hunan. He was the main navy leader of the Taiping 

Rebellion, known as the King of Sail. He led the Taiping 

fleet in many battles, nearly destroying the Xiang Army. 

In 1853, during the battle to occupy Nanjing, Tang 

commanded the first offensive, successfully cutting off 

every river pass that could reinforce Nanjing, a crucial 


move to the Taiping’s victory. He has since trained other 

naval officers, including Li Ronfar and Li Xiucheng. 

LI SHIXIAN, MINISTER OF JUSTICE 

Li Shixian was born in 1834 in the Guangxi province. 

He was the cousin of military leader Li Xiucheng and is 

known for his formidable height. Li is a very distinguished 

military leader of the late Rebellion. He serves as a Field 

Marshal in battles in the Eastern and Western front. Li 

received the honorary title of King of Shi “Servant Prince” 

for his military work. A pupil and benefactor of some 

of the most prominent scholars of the era, Li was also 

appointed the minister of justice. 

LAI WENGUANG, AMBASSADOR TO BRITAIN 

Lai Wenguang was born in 1827 in Meizhou, 

Guangdong. He then moved to Guangxi to work. Lai 

is Hong Xiuquan’s wife’s younger brother, therefore 

Hong’s brother-in-law. His older brother Lai Hanying is 

also part of the Taiping Rebellion. He joined the Taiping 

group around 1851 and later became a military leader. 

Currently, Lai serves as messenger between Hong and 

the British representative Sir George Bonham and his 

interpreter, Meadows. He holds the position of Colonel 

General and was named the King of Zun, or “belief 

in God”. Lai has led Taiping forces to many military 

victories and attracted many northern Chinese to join 

the Taiping in fighting against the Qing government. 

HONG XUAN JIAO, COMMANDER OF THE 

FEMALE FORCES AND MINISTER OF FEMALE 

AFFAIRS 

The younger sister of Hong Xiuquan and the 

wife of Xiao Chaogui, Hong Xuan Jiao is currently the 

commander of the Taiping female regiments. Enraged by 

the death of loved ones, Hong Xuan Jiao rose through 

the ranks with the benefit of family connections to 

her current prominent status. Because of the close 

ties between Taiping military and civic culture, Hong 

Xuan Jiao also presides over female affairs in general, 

promoting Taiping cultural regulations and managing 

the administrative logistics of the female housing areas of 

the Heavenly Capital. 

CHEN YUCHENG, MINISTER OF LOGISTICS 

AND LABOR 

Chen Yucheng was born in 1834 in Guangxi to a 

peasant family. Chen is the nephew of a senior Taiping 

veteran. He joined the Taiping rebel forces at a young 

age during the march to the Yangtze in 1851. Chen was 

nicknamed “The Four Eyes Dog” because he had two 



prominent moles below his eyes. It has been said that 

these scare his opponents in battle. Because of his bravery, 

Chen has quickly risen in rank to general and now serves 

under the title of “Ying (Heroic) Prince”, and because of 

his tactical and logistical skills, he has been appointed the 

minister of logistics and labor. 

HONG TIANGUI FU, MINISTER OF EDUCATION 

Born around 1849, Hong Tiang Fu is the son of 

Hong Xiuquan. In the Kingdom he holds the position of 

Heavenly Prince, heir of the Heavenly King and therefore 

holder of divine status. Despite his status as the most 

logical successor to the throne of the Heavenly King, 

Hong Tiangui Fu has shown more interest in academics 

than military matters, preferring the book to the sword. 

His place of privilege, justified by birth and devoid of 

proven credentials, has caused resentment and distrust 

from the four kings, but Hong Tiangui Fu continues to 

be supported by members of the Hong clan intent on 

keeping power within the family. 

LUO DAGANG, MINISTER OF INTELLIGENCE 

AND AMBASSADOR TO PIRATES 

Luo Dagang had been a major secret society leader 

and a notorious pirate before becoming a sincere “God 

Worshipper.” After enlisting with the Taiping, he played a 

crucial role in seizing the city of Jiangkou and refurbishing 

Taiping forces in 1851. From this time onward, Luo 

became one of Hong’s key advisors, bringing the Taiping 

crucial skills in the command and execution of waterborne 

campaigning, navigation, and supply. In addition 

to these skills, Luo’s contacts within the secret society and 

pirate networks have proved invaluable to the Taiping 

cause, earning Luo the role of minister of intelligence 

and ambassador to pirates. 

QIN RIGANG, AMBASSADOR TO FRANCE 

Qin Rigang was born in 1821 to a Hakka family. He 

became a military leader of the Taiping Rebellion, known 

during his military tenure as the King of Yen or Yan King. 

He served under Hong Xiuquan’s administration and 

led the Taiping forces to many military victories. Qin 

trained and taught Chen Yucheng and Li Xiucheng. In 

1853 he led the siege of the city of Nanjing, proclaimed 

the capital of the Kingdom, along with Yang Xiuqing. 

This same year, Qin met the French representative De 

Bourboulon in this city to discuss the Kingdom and the 

interests and participation of the French in the Rebellion. 

TAN SHUNTIAN, SENIOR ADVISOR TO THE 

9


KING, CHIEF OF STAFF 

Tan Shuntian became an early follower of Hong. 

He experienced firsthand one of Xiao’s trances through 

which he was able to speak with Jesus. Later he became 

one of the Heavenly King’s senior officers, serving in 

a capacity similar to the modern notion of a chief of 

staff (mediating between the Heavenly King and the 

various other Taiping leaders directing the administrative 

responsibilities of the Heavenly Capital, etc). 

YUNG WING, AMBASSADOR TO THE UNITED 

STATES OF AMERICA 

Born in 1828 in Zhuhai, in the Guangdong province, 

Yung was trained in one of Robert Morrison’s missionary 

schools. Upon graduation Yung was sponsored by 

Samuel Robins Brown, a missionary in China, to attend 

Yale College (Class of 1854) as one of the first Chinese 

students to study in the United States. Yung Wing was 

naturalized as an American citizen on 1852. With his 

education, he seeks to combine his knowledge of the 

West and China in either the world of administration 

and business. Upon learning of the escalation of conflict 

between the Taiping and Qing, Yung abandoned his 

studies shortly before graduation to return to China and 

join the rebel cause. Yung has recently become a part 

of the court of the Taiping rebels in Nanjing, although 

many of his Western-inspired suggestions to improve the 

efficiency of the Kingdom have been met with resistance. 

WEI JUN, MINISTER OF POPULATION AFFAIRS 

Wei Jun was born in 1827 in Guangxi, and is Wei 

Changhui’s nephew. Wei served as a Colonel General 

during the early stages of the Taiping Rebellion, but now 

has been promoted to the rank of full general, leading such 

noted Taiping figures as Cheng Yucheng. His experience 

in overtaking and then successfully administering the 

Wuchang district provided him with the skills necessary 

to fulfill his post as minister of population affairs. 

Bibliography 

Boardman, Eugene P. “Christian Influence Upon the 

Ideology of the Taiping Rebellion,” The Far Eastern 

Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Feb., 1951), pp. 115-124, 

Association for Asian Studies, http://www.jstor.org/ 

stable/2049091. 

“Canton system.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia 

Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia 

Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 31 Oct. 2011. . 

Gelber, Harry G. “China as “Victim”? The Opium War 

That Wasn’t.” Center for European Studies , Working 

Paper Series #136. 

“opium trade.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia 



“Opium Wars.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia 



Mitter, Rana. Modern China. Sterling Publishing 

Company, Inc., 2009. 

Teng, Yuan Chung. “Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts 

and the Taiping Rebellion,” The Journal of Asian 

Studies , Vol. 23, No. 1 (Nov., 1963), pp. 55-67. 

Ward, J.R. The Industrial Revolution and British 

Imperialism, 1750-1850. The Economic History 

Review , New Series, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Feb., 1994), pp. 

44-65, Blackwell Publishing, http://www.jstor.org/ 

stable/2598220 

“China: Taiping Rebellion.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 

Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia 

Britannica, 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. 

“Confucianism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia 

Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. 

Web. 29 Oct. 2011. 

Fenby, Jonathan. “Sons of Heaven..” Modern China: the 

fall and rise of a great power, 1850 to the present. New 

York: Ecco, 2008. 1-16. Print. 

Spence, Jonathan D.. God’s Chinese Son: the Taiping 

Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York: W.W. 

Norton, 1996. Print. 



Notes 

1 Fenby, Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present, 12. 

2 Ibid, 5. 

3 Ibid, 6. 

4 Ibid, 7. 

5 Encyclopedia Brittanica Online “Confucianism” 

6 Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan, 25 

7 Ibid. 

8 Ibid. 

9 Fenby, 6. 

10 Ibid, 7. 

11 Ibid. 

12 Ibid, 12. 

13 Encylopedia Brittanica Online, “China:Taiping Rebellion” 

14 Ibid. 

15 “Canton system.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia 


16 “opium trade.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia 


17 Gelber, Harry G. “China as “Victim”? The Opium War That Wasn’t.” Center for European Studies , Working 

Paper Series #136. 

18 “Opium Wars.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia 


19 “MILESTONES: 1830-1860: The United States and the Opening to Japan, 

1853,” U.S. Department of State: Office of the Historian, accessed November 1, 2011, last modified 2011, http:// 

history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/Opening to Japan. 

20 Mitter, Rana. Modern China. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009. 

Teng, Yuan Chung. “Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts and the Taiping Rebellion,” The Journal of Asian Studies , Vol. 

23, No. 1 (Nov., 1963), pp. 55-67. 

21 Boardman, Eugene P. “Christian Influence Upon the Ideology of the Taiping Rebellion,” The Far Eastern 

Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Feb., 1951), pp. 115-124, Association for Asian Studies, http://www.jstor.org/ 

stable/2049091. 

22 Ibid. 

23 Schoppa, R. Keith. Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History. Upper Saddle 

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. Print. Pg. 26 

24 Ibid, pg. 28 

25 Ibid, pg. 29 

26 Ibid, pg. 29 

27 Ibid, pg. 27 

28 Ibid, pg. 28 

29 “Qing Dynasty (Chinese History).” Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Web. 26 Nov. 2011. . 

30 Ibid, pg. 31 

31 “Xianfeng (emperor of Qing Dynasty).” Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Web. 26 Nov. 2011. . 

32 Ibid, pg. 55 

33 Schoppa, pg. 54 

34 Ibid, pg. 55 

35 Yeung, King-To. “Suppressing Rebels, Managing Bureaucrats: State-building During the Taiping 

Rebellion, 1850-1864.” Thesis. 2007. Web. 26 Nov. 2011. . Pg. 20. 


37 Yeung, Pg. 21 



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