Adaptive collaborative management of community forests in Asia ...
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36 • Ravi Prabhu, Cynthia McDougall and Robert Fisher<br />
Learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an ACM approach can <strong>in</strong>clude reproductive learn<strong>in</strong>g but<br />
focuses much more on constructivist and especially transformative<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g. The emphasis on the latter re<strong>in</strong>forces the significance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
theory and practice l<strong>in</strong>kage <strong>in</strong> this approach. Paulo Freire is <strong>of</strong>ten credited<br />
for ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g the term ‘praxis’ for this l<strong>in</strong>kage, referr<strong>in</strong>g to ‘reflection<br />
and action upon the world <strong>in</strong> order to transform it’ (Freire 1974: VII,<br />
186). Praxis is typically represented and played out <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> a spiral<br />
‘action-reflection-action’ process. Such a process helps people to critically<br />
analyse their daily experience (or practice) as a way <strong>of</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g theory,<br />
so that they can collectively act to change their situation or practice; the<br />
relationship between practice/theory/practice is an <strong>in</strong>timate, dialectical<br />
one (Arnold 1985). Draw<strong>in</strong>g from its application <strong>in</strong> action research <strong>in</strong><br />
education (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988), we can see an ‘action research’<br />
spiral illustrat<strong>in</strong>g progression <strong>of</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g and action (Figure 2-4).<br />
Reflect<br />
Plan<br />
Act & observe<br />
Reflect<br />
Act & observe<br />
Revised Plan<br />
Revised Plan<br />
Figure 2-4. Action research spiral. Adapted from Kemmis and McTaggart (1988)<br />
Although the learn<strong>in</strong>g-related theory outl<strong>in</strong>ed above <strong>in</strong>volves group<br />
processes, learn<strong>in</strong>g theory based on <strong>in</strong>dividual learn<strong>in</strong>g and development<br />
also plays an important role <strong>in</strong> the ACM approach. Specifically, Kolb’s (1984)<br />
well-known work on learn<strong>in</strong>g and development—which he, <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly,