Adaptive collaborative management of community forests in Asia ...
Adaptive collaborative management of community forests in Asia ...
Adaptive collaborative management of community forests in Asia ...
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Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusions • 217<br />
the timeframe <strong>of</strong> the research prevents us from see<strong>in</strong>g significant outcomes,<br />
the positive changes <strong>in</strong> social and human capital did beg<strong>in</strong> to stir changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> the more tangible, economic aspects.<br />
In none <strong>of</strong> the case studies did natural, physical or f<strong>in</strong>ancial capitals suffer<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong> the adoption <strong>of</strong> an ACM approach. This is not to say that<br />
some groups did not pr<strong>of</strong>it more than others: the relatively high transaction<br />
costs <strong>of</strong> a learn<strong>in</strong>g and collaboration approach seemed to favour richer<br />
members <strong>of</strong> local communities over poorer ones <strong>in</strong> Indonesia, although the<br />
explicit equity focus <strong>in</strong> Nepal may have countered this tendency slightly,<br />
with poorer members do<strong>in</strong>g relatively better.<br />
As expected, no major changes <strong>in</strong> forest condition were observed. There<br />
were, however, signs <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased local efforts to <strong>in</strong>crease value or condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the forest system across the sites. One was <strong>in</strong>tensified efforts to enhance<br />
the subsistence or commercial value <strong>of</strong> <strong>forests</strong> by plant<strong>in</strong>g bamboo, fruit<br />
trees, timber species, rubber trees or traditional herbals. In the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
a direct <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> natural capital was the plant<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> herbal and<br />
medic<strong>in</strong>al gardens <strong>in</strong> Basac (and concomitant improvement to livelihoods,<br />
if not to f<strong>in</strong>ancial capital), and <strong>in</strong> all three countries these efforts led to<br />
reductions <strong>in</strong> illegal extraction <strong>of</strong> forest products.<br />
In all Nepal sites there has been a decrease <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fraction <strong>of</strong> CFUG rules,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g by elite members.<br />
Unclear boundaries are an important problem because ‘open access’<br />
encourages behaviours that lead to overexploitation and the tragedy <strong>of</strong><br />
the commons. In all the case studies, much was done to resolve boundary<br />
disputes. Although the <strong>in</strong>ventories necessary to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effects were<br />
not or could not be carried out, there are good grounds to assume that an<br />
improvement <strong>in</strong> natural and possibly physical resources would follow.<br />
Furthermore, <strong>in</strong> some Nepal and Philipp<strong>in</strong>es sites, the self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
processes appeared to heighten awareness <strong>of</strong> forest conditions and thus<br />
motivate people to manage the land susta<strong>in</strong>ably; groups at several sites<br />
developed or expanded nurseries for reforestation 7 , made changes <strong>in</strong><br />
silviculture, or rewrote the rules about use. In Palawan, new rules governed<br />
the exploitation <strong>of</strong> almaciga res<strong>in</strong> and cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> immature trees. In Nepal,<br />
rules on the cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> green trees for fuelwood were enacted despite<br />
their cost to the <strong>community</strong> today. These are clear <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> natural<br />
capital.