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124 • Trikurnianti Kusumanto Another lesson learned is that ACM enables management initiatives to handle imbalances—in resource distribution, for example—because it can insert learning in socio-political processes. An ACM-inspired decisionmaking structure uses social learning as an instrument for the stakeholders to arrive at political decisions. In the process of decision-making, previous decisions are adjusted if the stakeholders deem it necessary. Lastly, we learned that the major outcomes of the ACM approach are improvements in human and social capital—the prerequisite for long-term improvements in forest resources and human well-being. Our relatively short-term research indicates that adapting old configurations of human and social relationships to new constructions supported the formation of livelihood assets—natural, financial and physical. Those lessons provide a necessary base for considering whether an ACMbased decision-making structure can address the two shortcomings of present forest management systems. We begin with what Lee (1999) says about the ways people organise themselves for solving different decision problems (Figure 4-6): in structures where stakeholders are organised around rules of management with agreed outcomes and means of management (representative structures), structures where stakeholders negotiate about management outcomes with already agreed means (bureaucratic structures), or structures where stakeholders seek to agree about the means of management with already agreed outcomes (collegial structures). Conflicts, Lee suggests, are decision situations that cannot be handled through one of these structures because stakeholders can agree about neither the management outcomes nor the means to achieve them. Conflict requires that stakeholders shift from an unstructured to a structured context. This is often done by either ‘settling conflicts’ (i.e., seeking to agree what outcomes to target) or ‘planning’ for a future consensus (i.e., looking for agreement on what means to deploy). Each path has its drawbacks, Lee asserts. Settling conflicts may not work because there may simply be no common ground for disputant parties. Planning for future consensus may illuminate not only opportunities to collaborate but also incompatible differences. Initially cooperative parties may then disrupt the processes or even decline to participate. Given these weaknesses, Lee argues, learning becomes an essential mode of handling conflict in complex environments.
Chapter 4: Improving Forest Quality and Livelihoods in Indonesia • 125 Preference about outcomes Agree Disagree Agree Computation in bureaucratic structure Bargaining in representative structure Beliefs about causation Disagree Judgment in collegial structure planning settling CONFLICT Figure 4-6. Decision-making structures for solving decision problems Source: Lee 1999, adapted from Thompson, J.D. and Tuden, A. 1959 Strategies, Structures and Processes of Organizational Decision. In: Thompson, J.D. (ed.) Comparative Studies in Administration. University of Pittsburgh Press. Reprinted with permission of Lee. Our field experience supports Lee’s assessment: learning is essential for shifting divergence or conflict in a complex, unstructured situation to a structurally manageable context. Learning enabled stakeholders to interact more systematically and become better organised for making collective choices. What is crucial, however (and here we go a step further than Lee), is the way learning contributes to more structured decision making. Knowledge that is collectively constructed can inform joint decision making. In contrast, ‘scientifically’ grounded knowledge in itself may have limited utility in real life because it does not necessarily lead to changes in people’s behaviour (Van Meegeren 1997), and the link between knowledge and behaviour is tenuous (Röling and Maarleveld 1999). In our ACM fieldwork, knowledge building is inserted into social and political processes, encouraging actors to act on newly acquired knowledge and adapt behaviours. Resource management knowledge—and specifically, understanding causation in management problems—is no longer confined to the realm of scientists but has become the domain of stakeholders.
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Adaptive Collaborative Management o
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Copyright © 2007 by Center for Int
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iv • Contents Chapter 5. Muddling
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vi • Foreword problem solving. Th
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viii • About the Contributors God
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Acknowledgements In early 1999, two
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Chapter 1. Introduction: People, Fo
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Chapter 1: Introduction: People, Fo
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Chapter 2: Adaptive Collaborative M
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Chapter 6: Facilitating Change from
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Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusio
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CIFOR is a leading international fo
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