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118 • Trikurnianti Kusumanto the livelihood assets that they could draw upon. In the research sites, the two most significant assets affected were human and social capital. In terms of human capital, ACM appeared to increase people’s leadership capacity, knowledge and skills in communication, negotiation and interaction, as well as individual motivation to act on problem situations. Stakeholders of different power status were able to build relationships, as illustrated by the district forestry service and the communities in Pasir and the original population and settlers in Jambi. In some situations, the increased human capital improved social processes. Leadership, for example, benefited the larger group and community processes. These increases of human capital were most likely occurred because each intervention phase emphasised the development of knowledge and relationships, and because the consequent experience and confidence of local actors helped them take proactive roles in their own investigation and learning. Of the various elements of social capital—reciprocity, networks and connectedness, rules, norms and sanctions, and relations of trust—we saw the most improvement in the last. Relationships and trust developed between settlers and original inhabitants in Jambi, and between government and communities in Pasir. Social networks among stakeholders began to take form, albeit mostly during facilitated interactions. Reciprocity and the sharing of norms amongst stakeholders were also evident to some extent. The ACM intervention was short, however, and we do not yet know to what extent these changes can persist without external facilitation. In terms of causality, there is a likely positive association between ACM’s repeated emphasis on communication and relationship building with the observed changes in social capital. Based on our observations, ACM may also have affected other livelihood assets, if the strengthening of social and human capital can eventually support the formation of the natural, physical and financial capital. In Pasir, for instance, the social links and trust developed amongst stakeholders leveraged funds from the forestry service for the purchase of planting materials (25,000 tree seedlings) for the community’s rehabilitation efforts, and also leveraged training support from a neighbouring community for the production of rattan. The latter may in the long run increase people’s income, and this financial capital may in turn affect human capital, since many community members wanted to use their land for rattan production. Livelihood changes in the sites are listed in Table 4-4.
Chapter 4: Improving Forest Quality and Livelihoods in Indonesia • 119 Table 4-6. Livelihood outcomes from social processes of change fostered by ACM Type Improved access to livelihood assets Redistribution of access to livelihood assets amongst actors Adoption of new livelihood strategies Improved institutions, policies and organisations for determining people’s access to livelihood assets Example Access to market and financial sources (Pasir) Establishment of village representative body for more equitable participation in decision making about natural resources; settlers allowed to own customary land (Jambi) Initiation by farmers of rattan cultivation on private land (Pasir) Mechanisms of communication between communities and government services (Pasir and Jambi) Enhanced ability to transform assets to benefits Enhancement of village headman’s leadership skills, leading to benefits for community (Jambi) In the five years since the ACM research project discussed here was concluded, the effects of action research activities remain apparent. In Pasir, after CIFOR withdrew at the end of the project term, former staff from the partner NGO in early 2003 resumed the work in close collaboration with the district government, focusing on the rehabilitation of degraded lands. For this fieldwork, relationships that had been built between the communities and outside agencies appeared to be essential. In Jambi, CIFOR and the partner NGOs resumed work in March 2003 and continued till late 2006. This second project phase focused on learning activities to obtain official management rights of the customary forest. The local institutions and democratic community structures built in the first phase were crucial for improving the community’s capacities and sense of self-determination to negotiate their forest rights with the district government (Kusumanto 2006).
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Adaptive Collaborative Management o
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Copyright © 2007 by Center for Int
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iv • Contents Chapter 5. Muddling
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vi • Foreword problem solving. Th
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viii • About the Contributors God
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Acknowledgements In early 1999, two
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Chapter 1. Introduction: People, Fo
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Chapter 1: Introduction: People, Fo
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Chapter 2: Adaptive Collaborative M
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Chapter 3: Adaptiveness and Collabo
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Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusio
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CIFOR is a leading international fo
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