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98 • Trikurnianti Kusumanto problems. And yet as described above, local systems tend to be nonadaptive, incapable of responding to new demands and rapid changes at broader levels. Consequently, because community-focused initiatives do not link to these to wider-level structures and processes, local action often runs up against the constraints associated with higher-scale dynamics. Indeed, the legal and policy setting of forest management all too easily creates cultural, legal, economic and political disincentives for local people to sustainably manage their resources. Can adaptive collaborative management work? The conditions that have thwarted participatory forestry initiatives are primarily social: these initiatives have failed to address the complex dynamics of societal change—in particular, the changing relationships between interest groups in evolving political and socio-economic conditions. This observation was the spark for the research project: would an adaptive collaborative management approach be useful in the Indonesian context, where forest management decision making seems to be uncertain and chaotic, and make a difference in forest quality and human well-being? In our view, ACM was worth investigating in the Indonesian setting in part because it placed the concept of learning at the centre but also because it had the potential to bring about on-the-ground changes to forests and people’s livelihoods. A core thrust of ACM is ‘social learning’ (Chapter 2). In social learning, individuals or groups communicate with one another to understand shared problems, explore solutions and negotiate options and eventually make collective decisions (e.g., Maarleveld and Dangbégnon 1999; Jiggins and Röling 2000). Social learning enables adaptation to adjust management. ACM also became interesting as a potential means for Indonesia’s institutions—particularly the dominant top-down, science-based ones—to learn their way out of the tensions between old practices and new demands. For institutions, social learning involves not only microlevel processes (e.g., learning among stakeholders about the uses of a given forest area) but also the ways in which existing institutions interact (Woodhill 2002). In the rest of this chapter the term learning rather than social learning is used, but throughout, the concept of social learning forms the basis of the discussion.
Chapter 4: Improving Forest Quality and Livelihoods in Indonesia • 99 Research project methodology To investigate the potential of an ACM approach to enhance participatory forest management initiatives, the Indonesian ACM research team undertook field assessments and participatory action research from 2000 to 2002 in two sites, on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. The field assessments, intended as context studies for the participatory action research, used traditional and participatory methods of data gathering data on local history, ecology, society, economies, and policies. Field teams composed of CIFOR researchers 3 and community facilitators from local nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) 4 facilitated the participatory action research, engaging local stakeholders so as to ensure their ownership of the research. The action research operated at two levels: in one, ACM processes guided by participatory action research engaged the different actors and were catalysed by the team, working as facilitators; in the other, a more traditional ‘extractive’ approach, the researcher observed and analysed these processes. Thus at times the researcher located her/himself within the group, and at other times was outside, taking the role of facilitator of processes and researcher of those processes, respectively. Research Sites 5 The two selected sites (Figure 4-1) are known for their dipterocarp forests and high-value timber, the most important forest product in the country. Forest cover, however, is rapidly decreasing: between 1985 and 1997 the forest cover of Sumatra and Kalimantan decreased by 25 to 29 percent and 21 to 25 percent, respectively (Forest Watch Indonesia and Global Forest Watch 2001). Excessive logging, forest fires and land-use conversions (to oil palm plantations, resettlement projects, and agricultural land) have been major causes of this deforestation. The two sites exemplify the local ramifications of the problems of forest management.
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Copyright © 2007 by Center for Int
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iv • Contents Chapter 5. Muddling
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vi • Foreword problem solving. Th
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viii • About the Contributors God
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Acknowledgements In early 1999, two
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Chapter 1. Introduction: People, Fo
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Chapter 1: Introduction: People, Fo
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Chapter 2: Adaptive Collaborative M
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Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusio
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CIFOR is a leading international fo
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