Empire Forestry Review

All Rights Reserved 

The 

Empire Forestry Review 

Edited by 

P. C. LANCASTER, O.D.E., M.A.(Oxon) 

Index to toI. 40 (103-106), 1961 

PUBLISHED BY 

THE EMPIRE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 

AT/THE ROYAL COMMONWEALTH SOCIETY, NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, 

LONDON, 

W.C.2. 

Editor-Secretary: P. C. LANCASTER, O.B.E., M.A.(Oxon) 

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•'. 

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By APPOINTMENT 

To HER MAJESTY THE QUEBN 

PRINTERS AND STATIONERS 

OXJ~ & SON (WINDSOR) LlD. 

4 HIOH STREET, WINDSOR

THE EMPIRE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 

Incorporated by Royal Charter, November 1921 

At/THE ROYAL COMMONWEALTH SOCIETY, 

NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, LONDON, W.C.2 

TELEPHONE: WHITEHALL 7209 

Patron: 

HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN 

President: 

HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY, P.C., K.T., G.C.M.G. 

Vice-Presidents: 

H.E. The GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA. 

H.E. The GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA. 

H.E. The GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND. 

C. E. LEGAT, Esq., C.B.E., B.Sc. 

Past Chairmen: 

1921-22. The Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT NOVAR, K.T., G.C.M.G., P.C. 

1923-24. Colonel The Rt. Hon. LORD COURTHOPE, M.C., D.L., P.C. 

1924-27. Sir JOHN STIRLING MAXWELL, Bt., K.T. 

1927-32. Sir P. H. CLUTTERBUCK, C.I.E., C ..B.E., V.D. 

1933-34. Sir JOHN STIRLING MAXWELL, Bt., K.T. 

1934-37. The Rt. Hon. VISCOU·NT STONEHAVEN, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., P.C. 

1938-54. The Rt. Hon. The EARL OF CLARENDON, K.G., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., P.C. 

1954-59. The Rt. Hon. LORD MILVERTON, G.C.M.G. 

1959-61. Sir HARRY CHAMPION, C.I.E., D.Se., M.A., K.St.J. 

OFFICERS: 

Chairman: 

BRYAN LATHAM, Esq., M.M. 

Vice-Chairman: 

Sir ARTHUR GOSLING, K.B.E., C.B., B.Se., F.R.S.E. 

Hon. Treasurer: 

D. H. RossER, Esq., O.B.E. 

Governing Council: 

Sir HARRY CHAMPION, C.I.E., D.Se., M.A. G. W. CHAPMAN, Esq., M.B.E. 

Sir W. L. TAYLOR, C.B.E., F.S.!. 

A. E. COLLINS, Esq., M.C.I.F. 

Colonel Sir S. S. MALLINSON, C.B.E., D.S.O., E. KELLY EDWARDS, Esq., M.A. 

M.C., D.L. 

R. M. GORRIE, Esq., D.Se. 

Colonel W. F. CHIPP, D.S.D., O.B.E., M.C., E.D. V. GRENNING, Esq. 

Colonel A. H. LLOYD, O.B.E., M.C., T.D., M.A. E. J. HONORE, Esq., B.A. 

Professor M. V. LAURIE, O.B.E., M.A. 

S. L. KESSELL, Esq., M.Se. 

Professor E. C. MOBBS, O.B.E., M.A. 

G. E. LAVIN, Esq., M.A. 

Dean J. W. B. SISAM, M.F. 

W. L. MARJORIBANKS, Esq., B.Se. 

F. S. COLLIER, Esq., C.M.G., C.B.E. C. D. ORCHARD, Esq., M.M., D.Se., B.Sc. 

J. P. EDWARDS, Esq., C.B.E. R.W.V.PALMER,Esq.,O.B.E.,M.A.,I.F.S.(retd.). 

A. R. ENTRICAN, Esq., C.B.E., M.I.C.E. B. J. RENDLE, Esq., B.Sc., A.R.C.S. 

W. A. ROBERTSON, C.M.G., F.R.G.S. G. J. RODGER, Esq., B.Sc. 

H. C. TOWNSEND, Esq., C.B.E. R. G. SANGSTER, Esq., B.Se. 

W. D. MACGREGOR, Esq., C.B.E., B.Se. E. J. SHRUBSHALL, Esq. 

R. R. WATERER, Esq., C.B.E. R. SMEATHERS, Esq., M.A. 

A. L. GRIFFITH, Esq., O.B.E., D.Se., M.A. JOHN T. SMITH, Esq. 

A. F. A. LAMB, Esq., O.B.E., B.Sc. C. SWABEY, Esq., C.M.G., B.Sc. 

F. C. FORD ROBERTSON, Esq., O.B.E., B.Sc. W. E. WATT, Esq., A.F.C., M.A. 

C. W. SCOTT, Esq., O.B.E., D.F.C., M.A. E. J. WmTE, Esq. 

DUNCAN STEVENSON, Esq., O.B.E., B.Se. R. G. M. WILLAN, Esq., C.B.E., B.Sc. 

N. V. BRASNETT, Esq., M.A. J. R. A. WRIGHT, Esq. 

Editor-Secretary: 

P. C. LANCASTER, O.B.E., M.A.(Oxon). 

Auditors: 

Messrs. DELOITfE, PLENDER, GRIFFITHS & Co., 

5 London Wall Buildings, London, E.C.2

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 

Professor M. V. LAURIE, O.B.E. (Imperial Forestry Institute). 

C. SWABEY, C.M.G., B.Sc. (Department of Technical Co-operation). 

P. C. LANCASTER, O.B.E., M.A. (Editor-Secretary). 

The Association's REVIEW is published quarterly in March, 

June, September and December. It is a medium for the exchange 

of information on forestry in all its aspects among the .foresters 

ofthe Commonwealth, and its contents include technical anddescriptive 

articles, technical notes, and reviews of current forest literature. 

Contributions are invited from members and others. A summary or 

abstract should be appended to every major article and should be an 

informative precis o.f the contribution and not merely a description 

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summaries or extracts. 

Twelve reprints o.f all articles published are issued .free to contributors. 

Any additional copies required can be purchased if ordered 

at least a fortnight before the times of publication of the REVIEW. 

The Association does not hold itse'f responsible .for statements 

or views expressed by authors ofpapers. 

Members are asked to bear in mind the desirability ofpatronising 

advertisers in the REVIEW wherever possible.

EMPIRE FORESTRY REVIEW 

INDEX TO VOLUME 40 (103-106), 1961 

Abura, Growth Conditions and Regeneration of. By J. McCarthy 

Afforestation Control in the National Parks of England and Wales (Editorial) 

Afforestation of Upland Heaths. By J. W. L. Zehetmayr (Review) 

AJrican Dadant Hive. By Dr. F. G. Smith, B.Sc.(For.), D.Se., N.D.B., F.R.E.S. (Review) 

Ambrosia Beetle: A Review of Factors affecting attacks in Trees and Felled Logs. By J. D. 

Bletchley, T.D., B.A., B.Sc., F.R.E.S., F.I.W.Sc., M.I.Biol. ... 

ANDERSON, J. A. R.: The Destruction of Shorea Albida forest by an Unidentified Insect 

ANSARI, T. A.: Riverain Forests of Sind. Hope or Despair 

Appointment to Steering Committee of D.S.I.R. United Kingdom (Editorial) 

Australia, News from (Editorial) 

A 

PAGE 

147 

178 

262 

13 

19 

228 

6 

92, 199 

B 

Back Numbers of the REVIEW (Miscellanea) 103 

Bedgebury Pinetum (Miscellanea) 12 

BIGG, J. M.: The Forest Problem of Sukumaland and a Suggested Remedy 329 

Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa. By C. W. Mackworth Praed and Capt. C. H. B. 

Grant (Review) 364 

BLETCHLEY, J. D., T.O., B.A., B.Sc., F.R.E.S., F.T.W.Sc., M.I.Biol.: A Review of Factors 

affecting Ambrosia Beetle Attack in Trees and Felled Logs 13 

Bois et Forets des Tropiques, No. 72 July-August 1960 (Periodical Review) 85 

Branching and Flowering Characteristics of Monterey Pine. By J. M. Fielding (Review) 262 

BRIDE, J. W.: The Use of the Oxford University "Mercury" Electronic Computer in the 

Construction of a Local Volume Table for the Species Triplochiton scleroxylon K.Schum ... 54 

British Association for the Advancement of Science, Meeting of (Editorial) 102 

_British Guiana, News from (Editorial) 97 

British Hardwoods, Guide to. _By W. B. R. Laidlaw, H.Se., D.Se. (Review) 79 

c 

Canada, News from (Editorial) 

6, 92, 194, 283 

C.C.T.A.jC.S.A. Inter-African Conference on Hydrology, Nairobi, 16th-26th January, 

1961. By O. Kerfoot 

139 

Change of Address of Preservation Developments Ltd. (Miscellanea) 

103 

Characteristics ofBack-Pack Pumps Used in ForestFire Suppression. ByJ. S. Mactavish (Review) 82 

Choice of Tree Species, F.A.O. Publication (Review) 

365 

Checking of Intergrown Knots during Seasoning of Radiata Pine Sawn Timber. By J. A. 

Kininmonth (Review) 

364 

Collection and Storage of Ash, Sycamore and Maple Seed. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 33 

(Review) 

368 

Conifer Study Tour in Mexico, F.A.O. (Editorial) 

99 

Contribution a L'Etude L'Eclatement des Billes de Hetre. By O. Lenz and H. J. Strassler (Review) 83 

Contribution towards a Watershed Management Research Plan for the Hunter Valley, New 

South Wales. By K. M. Gray (Review) 

263 

Contributions on Eucalypts in Israel. National and University Institute of Agriculture, 

Jerusalem, 1961 (Review) 

363 

Control of Termite Attack on Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. By R. G. Lowe (Research Notes) ... 73 

COOLING, E. N. G.: Pinus insularis-A Softwood of Considerable Potential Value to Northern 

Rhodesia 

119 .., 

Corrigendum (Miscellanea) ... 

103 

Collecting Tree Seed in Mexico. By H. V. Hinds and E. Larsen 

43 

Comment by Dr. M. M. Gorrie on Mr. R. W. Szechowyczs' Letter (Correspondence) 173 

Cone Production in Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menzisii). By T. N. Stoate, I. Mahood, E. C. 

Crossin 

105 

Creosoting Plant at Thetford Chase. By Donn Small (Review) 

174 

CROSSIN, E. C., STOATE, T. N., MAHOOD, I.: Cone Production in Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga 

menzisii) 

105 

C.S.I.R.O. Australia, News from (Editorial) ... 

97 

Cyprus: Annual Report of the Forestry Department 1959 (Review) 

378 

5

D 

DA COSTA, E. W. B., RUDMAN, P., and GAY, F. J. Relationship of Growth Rate and Related 

Factors to Durability in Tectona grandis 308 

Dangerous Concept of the Natural Forest, The. By T. R. Peace... 320 

Development and Yield of Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga taxffolia (Poir) Britt.) and Sitka Spruce 

(Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) in Southern Scandinavia and on the Pacific Coast. By 

Sten Karlherg (Review)... 366 

Diagnostic Sampling Technique in Tropical High Forest. By J. F. Hughes 350 

Dielectric Properties of Wood. By R. W. Peterson (Review) 178 

Die Veranderung der Naturlandschaft und Ihre Folgen in Nordparana Durch die Besiedlung. 

By Reinhard Maack (Review) 84 

Destruction of Shorea albida Forest by an Unidentified Insect. By J. A. R. Anderson... 19 

Douglas Fir Telephone Poles, Strength of. By W. M. McGowan (Review) 82 

D.S.I.R., U.K., News from (Editorial) 98 

E 

Eastern Nigeria: Ministry of Agriculture Forest Division Annual Report 1959-60 (Review) 185 

E.F.A. News (Editorial) ... 89, 189, 273 

Effect of Compression Wood on the Mechanical Properties of White Spruce and Red Pine. 

By E. Perm (Review) ... 82 

Effectiveness of Three Chemicals for Killing Sugar Maple and Associated Species. By D. C. F. 

Fayle (Review) 264 

EMPIRE FORESTRY HANDBOOK 1962 (Editorial) 11 

Eradication of Timber Pests, A New Technique for. By D. Boocock (Review) 175 

Estimation of Greenheart Volume from Small Scale Aerial Photographs. By E. J. G. 

Swellengrebel 162 

Eucalypts in Israel, Contributions on. National and University Institute of Agriculture, 

Jerusalem, 1961 (Review) 363 

Eucalypt Rain Forest and the Regeneration of the Eucalypts. By J. M. Gilbert. Review by 

A. D. Helms ... 134 

Eucalyptus citriodora, Control of Termite attack on. By R. G. Lowe 73 

Eucalyptus Seedlings, Some change in the growth habits of, caused by Nutrient Deficiencies. 

By G. M. Will 301 

European Forestry Commission. Second Study Tour on Applied Silviculture: Conversion of 

Degraded Hardwood Forests (Including Coppice) ... 30 

Experiments on the Ecology of Scots Pine Seedlings. By D. N. McVean ... 291 

Experiments Concerning Mahogany Germination. By A. L. A. Wolffsohn (Research Notes)... 71 

Experiments on the Direct Sowing of Scots Pine. By _D. N. McVean 217 

Experimental Design and Analysis in Forest Research. By J. N. R. JefJers (Review) 180 

F 

P.A.O. Notes (Editorial) ... 

F.A.O. Conifer Study Tour in Mexico (Editorial) 

F.A.O. Equipment Notes (Review) ... 

Fauna Preservation Society (Editorial) 

Fifth World Forestry Congress (Editorial) 

Flora Zambesiaca, Vol. 1, Pt. 2 (Review) 

Forest Management. By H. Arthur Meyer, Arthur B. Recknagel, Donald D. Stevenson and 

Ronald A. Bartoo (Review) 

Forest Problem of Sukumaland and a Suggested Remedy (The). By J. M. Bigg 

Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough (Editorial) 

Forest Tools and Instruments. By E. H. Huggard (Review) 

Forest Products. Designed by Barclays Bank (D.C.O.) (Review) 

Forestry Appointments Vacant (Editorial) 

Forestry and Game in the Savannahs of Ghana. By J. W. I. Mooney 

Forestry and Soil Conservation Adviser (Editorial) 

Forestry Equipment Notes, F.A.O. (Review) 

Forestry in U.S.A. (Editorial) 

Forestry Timber and Woodworking Fair (Miscellanea) 

PAGE 

8, 99, 201, 284 

99 

362 

288 

284 

368 

G 

GAY, F. J., DA COSTA, E. W. B., and RUDMAN, P.: Relationship of Growth Rate and Related 

Factors to Durability in Tectona grandis 308 

Ghana, News from (Editorial) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 

GILBERT, J. M.: Eucalypt Rain Forest and the Regeneration of the Eucalypts. Review by 

A. D. Helms ... ... 134 

GORRIE, DR. R. M.: Comment on Mr. R. W. Szechowycz's Letter (Correspondence) ... 173 

Great Britain: Forty-first Annual Report of the Forestry Commissioners for the year ended 

30th September, 1960 (Review) 270 

6 

365 

329 

101 

366 

174 

102 

203 

11 

176 

287 

12

PAGE 

GRIFFITH, DR. A. L. (Silviculturist) and HowLAr~D, P. (Forester): The Root Development 

of Transplants after planting in the Field 67 

Group Dying of Conifers. By J. S. Murray and C. W. T. Young (Review) 265 

Growth Conditions and Regeneration of Abura (Mitragyna stipulosa). By J. McCarthey", 

B.Sc.(For.) 124 

Guide to British Hardwoods. By W. B. R. Laidlaw, R.Se., D.Se. (Review) 79 

H 

HAGGETT, G. M. and JOHNSTON, D. R.: Thetford Forest Inventory 142 

HANCOCK, W. V., NORTHCOTT, P. L., COLBECK, H. G. M. and SHEN) K. C.: Vndercure, Casehardening 

in Plywood (Review) ... 178 

Hardwoods, Identification of (Review) 180 

HELMS, A. D.: Eucalypt Rain Forest and the Regeneration of the Eucalypts. Review. By J. M. 

Gilbert 134 

HINDS, M. V. and LARSEN, E.: Collecting Tree Seed in Mexico 43 

Honours List: 

HER MAJESTY'S New Year 1 

D.B.E.: W. R. Day, B.Sc., M.A. 

M.B.E.: Mrs. Genese 

Mr. E. W. Mackenzie 

Mr. D. Ross 

Lord Glentanar 

Mr. W. F. Watson 

Honours List: 

HER MAJESTY'S Birthday 91 

C.B.E.: R. G. M. Willan 

HOWLAND, P. (Forester) and GRIFFITH, DR. A. R. (Silviculturist): The Root Development of 

Transplants after Planting in the Field ... 67 

HUGHEs, J. F.: Diagnostic Sampling Technique in Tropical High Forest ... 350 

Hydrological Effects of Softwood Plantation Development in Bamboo Forest Streamcourse 

Areas (The). By Dr. H. C. Pereira 206 

Hydrology, C'.C.T.A./C.S.A. Inter-African Conference on, Nairobi, 16th-26th January, 1961. 

By O. Kerfoot 139 

I 

Identification of Hardwoods (Review) 

Impregnation Plant at Royal Highland Agriculture Show (Miscellanea) 

Inhibition of Drying of Lacquers on Commercial Timbers. By W. Sanderman, H. H. Dietrichs 

and M. Puth (Review) 

Interspecific and Intraspecific Variability of Some Australian Timbers to Fungal Decay. By 

L. B. Thrower and Lynette D. Osborne 

Investigations into Methods ofObtaining and Encouraging the Growth ofNatural Regeneration 

after Exploitation in Tropical High Forest in Southern Nigeria. By P. C. Lancaster (Review) 

Irrigation and Population in Ceylon, India and Pakistan (Correspondence) 

I.V.F.R.O. Congress, September 1961 (Editorial) 

J 

JACK, W. H., B.Sc.(For.)) Ph.D.: The Spatial Distribution of Tree Stems in a Tropical High 

Forest 

JOHNSTON, D. R. and HAGGETT, G. M.: Thetford Forest Inventory 

K 

KERFOOT, 0.: C.C.T.A./C.S.A. Inter-African Conference on Hydrology, Nairobi, 16th-26th 

JanuaryJ 1961 ... ... ... ... ... 

Kiln Drying of Lumber in Eastern Canada. By R. S. Millet (Review) 

L 

LANJOUW, J. and DE HULSTER, I. A.: The Vegetation of Suriname. Edited by (Review) 

LARSEN, E. and HINDS, H. V.: Collecting Tree Seed in Mexico (Article) ... 

Leary's Market Report for 1960 (Editorial) ... 

Library Report (Editorial) ... 

LOWE, R. G.: Control of Termite Attack on Eucalyptus eitriodora Hook. 

M, 

MCCARTHY, J.: Growth Conditions and Regeneration of Abura (Mitragyna stipulosa) 

MACGREGOR, J. J.: A Possible Mechanism for De~efminingTimber Fees and Royalties 

180 

12 

263 

242 

367 

172 

288 

234" 

142 

139 

364 

181 

43 

9 

290 

73 

124 

154

MCVEAN, D. N.: Experiments on the Direct Sowing of Scots Pine 

McVEAN, D. N.: Experiments on the Ecology of Scot's Pine Seedlings ... 

Mahogany Germination, An Experiment concerning. By A. L. A. Wolffsohn 

MAHOOD, I., STOATE, T. N., CROSSIN, E. C.: Cone Production in Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga 

mensizii) 

Mitragyna stipulps.a. Growth Conditions and Regeneration of Abura. By J. McCarthy 

/MoONEY, J. W. ~ Forestry and Game in the Savannahs of Ghana ... ... 

Meeting of British Association for the Advancement of Science (Editorial) 

Methods of Correlation and Regression Analysis. By M. Ezekral and K. A. Fox (Review)... 

Mexico, Collecting Tree Seed in. By H. V. Hinds and E. Larsen ... ... ... 

Mexico, F.A.O. Conifer Study Tour in (Editorial) 

N 

Nairobi-C.C.T.A.jC.S.A. Inter African Conference on Hydrology, 16th-26th January, 1961. 

By O. Kerfoot 

Natural Forest, The Dangerous Concept of. By T. R. Peace 

Natural Regeneration of Eucalyptus regnans. By T. M. Cunningham (Reviews) 

New Technique for Eradication of Timber Pests. By D. Boocock (Review) 

New Zealand Forest Service: Annual Report of the Forestry Research Institute for the year 

ended 31st March, ]958 (Review) 

New Zealand, News from (Editorial), .. 

Nigeria, News from (Editorial) 

Nigerian Trees, Vo!. 1. By R. W. J. Keay, C. F. A. Onochie and D. P. Staf1;{ield (R.eview) 

Nigerian Forestry Information Bulletin (New Series) No. 3. Assessment of the Olokemeji 

Fire Control Experiment. By J. R. Charter and R. W. J. Keay (Review) 

North Borneo, Disastrous Fire in (Editorial) ... 

Northern Rhodesia-Pinus insularis-A Softwood of Considerable Potential Value to. By 

E. N·. G. Cooling 

Notes on Visit to the Ponderosa Pine Region of South Central Oregon. By J. V. Thirgood, 

B.Sc., M.F. 

Nursery Techniques for Eucalypts (Review) 

Nutrient Content ofPinus radiata Trees, The. By H. R. Orl1zan and G. M. Will (Review) 

o 

PAGE 

217 

291 

71 

105 

124 

203 

102 

81 

43 

99 

139 

320 

260 

175 

270 

4, 91, 199, 277 

Obituaries: 

ACKERs, C. P. 

ANDERSON, PROFESSOR M. L. 

BIGGS, COURTNEY 

HILEY, W. E.... 

MARSHALL, COLIN 

MAYES, WILLIAM 

MOIR, STUART 

ROBERTSON, W. MAC F. 

SMITH, C. McLEAN 

YOUNG, J. V. ... '" '" ,.. '" ... ... ... ,.. 

Olokemeji Fire Control Experiment, Assessment of. By J. R. Charter and R. M. J. Keay (Review) 

OSBORNE, L. D. and THROWER, L. B.: Interspecific and Intraspecific Variability of Some 

Australian Timbers to Fungal Decay 

p 

96 

267 

367 

97 

119 

111 

182 

261 

89 

190, 274 

89 

190, 274 

2 

275 

189 

1 

Pakistan, News from (Editorial) 96, 200 

Paper-Making Studies on Mixture of Musanga cecropioides and Bambusa vulgaris. By J. R. 

Istas and E. L. Raekelboom (Review) ... 264 

PEACE, T. R.: The .Dangerous Concept of the Natural Forest 320 

PEREIRA, Dr. H. C.: The Hydrological Effects of Softwood Plantation Development in Bamboo 

Forest Streamcourse Areas. 206 

Photo-Interpretation. International Society of Photogrammetry (Editorial) 288 

Physiology of Trees. By Kramer and Kozlowski (Review) 80 

Picture by Retired I.F.S. Man (Miscellanea) ... 202 

,'- Pinus insularis, A Softwood of Considerable Potential Value to Northern Rhodesia. By 

E~ N. G. Cooling 119 

Pioneer Chain Saw (Miscellanea) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 

Plywood: Undercure, Casehardening in. By P. L. Northcott, H. G. M. Colbeck, W. V. Hancock 

and K. C. Shen (Review) 178 

Ponderosa Pine Region of South Central Oregon, Visit to. By J. V. Thirgood, B.S.c, M.F. 105 

Possible Mechanism for Determining Timber Fees and Royalties. By J. J. MacGregor (Review) 154 

Proceedings at the Thirty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the Empire Forestry Association 254 

Professional Foresters: Supply and Demand. By R. D. H. Rowe, B.Sc. 210 

Pseudotsuga menzisii. Cone Production in Douglas Fir. By T. N. Stoate, I. Mahood and 

E. C. Crossin 105 

8 

275 

3 

367 

242

Q 

PAGE 

Queensland: Annual Report of the Department of Forestry for the Year 1959-60 (Review) 184 

R 

Radiata Pine Sawn Timber, Checking of Intergrown Knots during Seasoning of. By J. A. 

Kininmonth (Review) 364 

Red Cedar, Utilising Residues from. By C. F. MeBride (Review) 79 

Red Pine, The Effect of Compression Wood on the Mechanical Properties of. By E. Perm 

(Review) ... 82 

Regeneration of the Eucalyptus, Eucalypt Rain Forest and the. By J. M. Gilbert. Review by 

A. D. Helms ... 134 

Relationship of Growth Rate and Related Factors to Durability in Teetona grandis. By 

W. B. Da Costa, P. Rudman and F. J. Gay 308 

Republic of Ireland: Annual Report of the Minister of Lands on Forestry for Years ended 31 st 

March, 1959 and 1960 (Reviews) ... ... ... ... 183, 370 

Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough. Forest Products (Editorial) 101 

Residues, Utilising from Western Red Cedar. By C. Fo MeBride (Review) 79 

Review of Factors Affecting Ambrosia Beetle Attack in Trees and Felled Logs. By J. D. 

Bletchley, T.D., B.A., B.Sc., F.R.E.S., F.I.W.Sc., M.I.Biol ... 13 

Riverain Forests of Sind, Hope or Despair. By T. A.. Ansari 228 

ROBERTs, HYWEL, Ph.D.: Seasonal Variation in the Starch Content of the Sapwood of 

Triploehiton se/eroxy/on K. Schum Sterculiaceae in Ghana, West Africa (Research Notes) 8, 61 

Root Development of Transplants after Planting in the Field, (The). By P. How/and (Forester) 

and Dr. A. L. GrijJith (Silviculturist) (Research Notes) 67 

ROWE, R. D.H.: Professional Foresters: Supply and Demand ... 210 

Royal Highland Agricultural Show, Impregnation Plant at (Miscellanea) 12 

Royal Scottish Forestry Society (Editorial) ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 

RUDMAN, P., DA COSTA, E. W.B. and GAY, F. J.: Relationship of Growth Rate and Related 

Factors to Durability in Teetona gralldis 308 

S 

Sarawak: Annual Report of the Forest Department, 1959 375 

Scot's Pine Seedlings, Experiments on the Ecology of. By D. N. McVean 291 

Seasonal Variation in the Starch Content of the Sapwood of Triplochiton sc/eroxylon K. 

Schum Sterculiaceae in Ghana, West Africa. By Hywel Roberts, Ph.D. 61 

Seed Campaign, World (Editorial) 95 

Shorea albida Forest, ·Destruction of, by an Unidentified Insect. By J. A. R. Anderson 19 

SMALL, DONN: A Creosoting Plant at Thetford Chase (Review) 174 

Society of American Foresters/Canadian Institute of Forestry Joint Annual Meeting (Editorial) 285 

Society of Foresters of Great Britain (Editorial) 101 

Soil and Minor Vegetation of Pine Forests in South-Eastern Manitoba. Forest Research 

Division of Canada (Review) 362 

Some Changes in the Growth Habit of Eucalyptus Seedlings caused by Nutrient Deficiencies. 

By G. M. Will 301 

South Africa, Union of (Editorial) 11 

South Africa, Union of: Annual Report of the Department of Forestry for Years ended 

31st March, 1957 and 1959 (Reviews) 86, 271 

t:-Spatial Distribution of Tree Stems in a Tropical High Forest, (The). By W. H. Jack, B.Sc.(For.), 

Ph.D. 234 

State Forestry in Oregon. By Professor J. V. Thirgood ... 249 

Status and Development of Elm Disease in Britain. By T. R. Peace (Review) 265 

Strength of Douglas Fir Telephone Poles. By W. M. MeGowan (Review) ... 82 

STOATE, T. N., MAHOOD, I., and CROSSIN, E. C.: Cone Production in Douglas Fir(Pseudotsuga 

menzisii) 105 

Sukumaland, The Forest Problem of and a suggested remedy. By J. M. Bigg 329 

Suriname, The Vegetation of. Edited by I. A. de Hu/ster and J. Lanjouw (Review)... 181 

SWELLENGREBEL, E. J. G.: Estimation of Greenhart Volume from Small Scale Aerial Photographs 

162 

Synecology and Silviculture in Ghana. By C. J. Tay/or, M.B.E., E.D., B.Se., Ph.D. (Review) 268 

Szechowycz, R. W.'s Letter, Comment by D. R. M. Gorrie (Correspondence) 173 

T 

Tasmania: Report of the Forestry Commission 1959/60 (Review) 183 

Teetona grandis, Relationship of Growth Rate and Related Factors to Durability in. By 

E. W. B. Da Costa, P. Rudman and F. J. Gay 308 

Termite Attack on Euca/yptus eitriodora Hook., Control of. By R. G. Lowe 73 

Thetford Forest Inventory. By D. R. Johnston and G. M. Haggett 142 

Thetford Chase, A Creosoting Plant at. By Donn Small (Review) 174 

9

PAGE 

Third and Fourth Reports of the West Mrican Timber Borer Research Unit for 1959 and 

1960 (Review) ... ... 369 

THIRGOOD, J. V., B.Sc., M.F.: Notes on a Visit to the Ponderosa Pine Region of South 

Central Oregon ... ... ... ... .. . ... .. . ... 111 

THIRGOOD, J. V., B.Sc., M.F.: State Forestry in Oregon 249 

TmRGOOD, J. V.: The Tillamook Burn and its Rehabilitation ... 342 

THROWER, L. B. and OSBORNE, LYNETTE D.: Interspecific and Intraspecific Variability of some 

Australian Timbers to Fungal Decay ... ... ... ...' ... ... 242 

Tillamook Burn and its Rehabilitation. By J. V. Thirgood ... ... ... 342 

Timber Fees and Royalties, A Possible Mechanism for Determining. By J. J. MacGregor 154 

Timber Industries Confederation, U.K. (Editorial) 98 

Timber Pests, A New Technique for Eradication of. By D. Boocock (Review) 175 

Timber Utilisation in Malaya. Edited by C. O. Flemich (Review)... 175 

Trees and Shrubs for Planting in Tanganyika. By G. Watkins (Review) ... 366 

Tropical High Forest, Diagnostic Sampling Technique in. By J. F. Hughes 350 

Tropical High Forest in Southern Nigeria, Investigations into Methods of obtaining and 

Encouraging the Growth ofNatural Regeneration after Exploitation in. By P. C. Lancaster 

(Review) 367 

u 

Uganda, News from (Editorial) ... 283 

Uganda: Report of the Forest Department for the period 1st January, 1959 to 30th June, 1960 


Undercure-Casehardening in Plywood. By P. L. Northcott, H. G. M. Colbeck, W. V. Hancock 

and K. C. Shen (Review) 178 

Union of South Africa (Editorial) 11 

Union of South Africa: Annual Report of the Department of Forestry for years ended 31st 

March, 1957 and 1959 (Review) 86, 271 

United Kingdom: Annual Report of the Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes 

Risborough, for 1960 (Review) ... ... 372 

United Kingdom Forestry Commission (Editorial) 6, 93, 190 

United Kingdom, News from (Editorial) 190, 278 

Use of the Oxford University "Mercury" Electronic Computer in the Construction of a Local 

Volume Table for the Species Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum, The. By J. W. Bride 54 

Utilising Residues from Western Red Cedar. By C. F. McBride (Review)... 79 

V 

Vacancy for Forestry Officer, Hong Kong (Miscellanea) 

Vacancy, Sierra Leone (Editorial) 

Vegetation of Suriname. Edited by I. A. de Hulster and J. Lanjouw (Review) 

Visitors (Editorial) 

202 

288 

181 

10, 90, 190, 273 

W 

Wattle Research Institute, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburgh, Annual Report of, 1959-60 


Western Region of Nigeria, News from (Editorial) 4 

Wide Experience (Miscellanea) 12 

Wild Life in an African Territory. By F. Fraser Darling (Review) 83 

WILL, G. M.: Some changes in the Growth Habit of Eucalyptus Seedlings, Caused by Nutrient 

Deficiencies by 301 

Wind Pressure on Buildings (Rationalised). By N. J. Masani and A. N. Bajaj (Review) 81 

Working Plans Code of the Forestry Commission of Great Britain (Review) 265 

World Demand for Paper to 1975 (Review) 264 

World Seed Campaign (Editorial) 95 

WOLFFSOHN, A. L. A.: An Experiment Concerning Mahogany Germination 71 

Wood Seasoning. By R. J. Millet (Review) 176 

Young, J. V., The Late (Correspondence) 

y 

... 172 

10

EMPIRE FORESTRY REVIEW 

Volume 40 (1), No. 103, March 1961 

IT is with deep regret that we have to anno'unce the death o'n 12th January 1961 

of W. MacF. Robertson, late Editor-Secretary. An obituary notice appears below. 

There has been in consequence a gap of more than six weeks, during which 

time there was no Editor-Secretary. Mr. Bryan Latham, o,ur Vice-Chairman, did 

an enormous amount of work in helping to keep the affairs of the Association 

going during that period and we know that all members will join in expressing 

their appreciation and thanks. Inevitably, however, this copy of the Review, and 

in particular the Editorial comments, are shorter than usual and this copy will 

reach members later than it should. For this we offer our apologies._ 

THOUGH none of our members was hono'ured by Her Majesty in the New Year's 

Her Majesty's Honours list several foresters and others working in forestry were 

New Y ear , s honoured. 

H n Mr. W. R. Day, B.Sc., M.A., lecturer In 

· 

forestry at Oxford 

JaD1~ oU~~61 University was awarded the O.B.E. Mr. W. R. Day has been a 

ry member of the staff of the Oxford School of Forestry and the 

Imperial Forestry Institute since the early 1920s. He has been distinguished for 

his research on tree pathology. 

The M.B.E. has been awarded to Mrs. Genese, Assistant Secretary, Royal 

Forestry Society of England and Wales; Mr. E. W. Mackenzie, Senior Executive 

Officer, Forestry Commission, Scotland; Mr. D. Ross, Head Forester to Lord 

Glentanar, and to Mr. W. F. Watson, Head Forester, Forestry Commission. 

Mrs Genese joined the staff of the Royal Forestry Society of England and Wales 

in 1935. She became Assistant Secretary in 1940, taking charge of the Society's 

administration while the Secretary was absent during the war. 

Mr. Mackenzie started in the Office of Woods and Forests in 1916 and was 

transferred to the Forestry Commission in 1920, and has wOlrked with the 

Commission ever since. 

Mr. Dune-an Ross served with the Forestry Commission until the early 1930s. 

He then became forester to Sir George Campbell of Succoth and went to the 

Glentanar Estate shortly before the war. 

Mr. F. Watson is the Head Forester, Forest of Dean. He entered the Office of 

Woods in 1916, served in the first war fro'ID 1916-1919 and entered the Forestry 

Commission School of Forestry in 1921. He has worked since then with the 

Forestry Commission. 

To all we offer our heartiest co,ngratulations. 

THE sudden death on 12th January 1961 of Mr. William MacFarlane Ro,bertson, 

Ob-tu • the late Editor-Secretary, came as a great shock both to the 

I ary- Members and to his many friends. 

:·bM;CF. Mr. Bryan Latham, our Vice-Chairman, writes: 

I t ~di~n, a "It was my privilege as a member of both the Executive 

s : ta 

cr 

or- Council and the Planning Committee to know the late Mr. Roberte 

ry son intimately fro-m the time he stucceeded Mr. H. R. Blanford, 

the previous holder, as the Association's Editor-Secretary in March 1952. He was 

2

2 EMPIRE FORESTRY REVIEW 

a man who carried out ably and conscientiously all the tasks to which he laid his 

hand. Besides successfully conducting the Association's work, he was a memb,er of 

the Standing Committee on Com'monwealth Forestry and for the last two years of 

his life he acted as an External Examiner to the Forestry School at the University 

of Edinburgh. Amongst other activities Mr. Robertso'n represented us at the 

Commonwealth Forestry Conference in Australia in 1957, where his enthusiasm 

for forestry and his friendlin~ss created a very favourable impression on both 

members of the Co'nference and the Australian hosts. 

"Bo,m in Edinburgh in November 1897, he was educated at Kircaldy High 

School. In 1916, being then eighteen years old, he enlisted in the Scottish Horse 

and saw active service in France from 1917 until the conclusion of war, being 

demobilised in February 1919. He grad,uated from Edinburgh University School 

of Forestry in 1922 with the degree of Bachelor of Science, and pro,mptly took up 

an appointment as a Forestry Officer in Nigeria. In 1926, prior to being promoted 

to Conservator of Forests in charge of the Ondo, Circle, Mr. Robertson undertook 

the tropical fo,restry course at the Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford, and toured 

the forests of Austria and Germany. 

"Further promotion came in 1936 when he was appointed C'o,nservator of 

Forests, Sierra Leone, while in 1939 he was transferred to, Tanganyika as Head of 

the Forestry Department there. During the Second World War he was seconded 

to the Army and was on Military Service in East Africa, Abyssinia and Somaliland 

until 1945., when he returned to his post in the Tanganyik'a Forestry Department. 

He retired in 1951 and, as mentioned earlier, took up his post with the Empire 

Forestry Association early in 1952. 

"Besides ably carrying out the executive and editorial duties of his office, it gave 

Mr. Robertson great pleasure to welcome Forest Officers and other visitors from 

all parts of the world. It was his great delight to' receive such visitors at the o,ffices 

of the Association and have informal talks with them on forestry affairs generally 

and any particular problems the visitors might put before him. 

"Mr. Ro,bertson leaves a widow and 'a married da'ughter, to whom the' Empire 

Forestry Association's deep,est sympathy will be extended." 

The Editor first met Robbie over thirty years ago when he was Conservator of 

Forests, Nigeria. He had then established a reputation as a very capable forest 

officer. He was very popular in the Department and all Assistant Conservators 

who worked under him will especially remember what kind, sympathetic and 

helpful treatment they received from him. His death has come as a great shock to 

us all. 

Messages of condolence have been received fro,m many other members in 

different parts of the Commonwealth. 

COLIN Marshall's death in November 1960 in Ghana after a short illness came as 

Ob-t r. a great shock to all his friends and colleagues, in particular to 

C rnI:~h 11 those connected with Malaya, where he had spent most of his 

o I a a service. John Colin Keswick Marshall was born in 1906 and went 

to Malaya in 1928 after reading Forestry at Oxford. He served in many states of 

what is now the Federation of Malaya, was in India and the United Kingdom on 

military duty between 1942 and 1945, served in the British Military Administration 

of Malaya in 1945-46, was seconded to Fiji as C'olnservator in 1947, returned to 

Malaya in 1950, and retired under Malayanisatio,n early in 1960, after which he 

took up a contract post in Ghana. These are the bare facts of his service, but no 

officer made a stronger mark within the Dep,artment or was more prominent in 

the country generally-he was awarded the P.J.K. (Pingat Jasa Kebaktian) for 

his public services when he was State Forest Officer, Perak.

EDITORIAL NOTES 3 

His interests were wide and every project undertaken was pursued with 

,unparalleled energy. The proper use of land, in later years at least, wa~ his prime 

interest, and had it not been for the disruption caused by' communist terrorism 

he might have been the founder of a new Department of Land Use. Utilisation 

and silviculture also claimed his attention, 'and on these and other subjects he was 

a frequent contributor to The Malayan Forester and departmental bulletins; ever 

a controversialist having many spirited tilts at Headquarters and the Research 

Branch. He was undoubtedly the Department's leading expert in explaining forestry 

to the p'ublic, and although his articles and conducted tours may have been frowned 

on by the more conserv'ative minded they became increasingly necessary with the 

growth of democratic go,vernment. 

But these brief notes do not do justice to, the man. Marshall was a personality 

in the best sense of the word: an enth'usiastic Volunteer Officer, serving with his 

usual energy in Malaya's unhappy experience of the war in 1941-42; an excellent 

target and big game shot; active in all measures to sup'press terrorism. His activities 

and interests, however, were too numerous to list, and he will be best remembered 

for his energy, ever-youthful enthusiasm, and particularly for his frie,ndship-and all 

that implies, his loyalty, generosity, kindness-which was shared by so many of 

those with whom he came into contact. 

He is survived by his wife and three children, to whom we offer our deepest 

sympathy. 

WITH deep regret we record the death of J. V. Young, late of the Indian Forest 

Ob-tu . Service, at Eastbourne on 8th September 1960 at the age of 76. 

J V I yary~ John Villiers Young was born in India in 1884. He was educated 

iFS (r~~ f' at Eastbourne College whence he proceeded to Cambridge in 

- • • • 1905, transferring later to Oxford prior to entering the Indian 

Forest Service. He w'as obliged to transfer fro,m Cambridge because Cooper's Hill 

had closed down and all candidates for the Indian Forest Service had then to pass 

through Oxford. He was the first entrant to, the Service after the closure of 

Cooper's Hill. 

On entering the Service in 1907 he was posted to, Burma where he served as an 

Assistant Conservato1r, first of all in Pyinmana and later in the Ruby Mines and 

Myitkyina Forest Divisions. In the first World War he served in a Pioneer Battalion 

in India returning at the end of the war to Myitkyina as Divisional Forest Officer. 

In 1919 he married and was then posted to' the charge of the Mayo,myo Forest 

Division, an app'ointment which he held until his retirement in 1925. 

Retiring to Eastbourne, Young interested himself in public work. He represented 

Hampden Park Ward on the Town Council from September 1938 to April 

1948 and was chairman of the Education Committee from 1940 to 1943. During 

the second World War he played an important part in Civil Defence and was 

Head Warden in the Langney District. He was President of the Sussex Rugby 

Football Union. "J.V." was, like his brother R. A. YOlung, who captained Cambridge 

at cricket and soccer in the early 1900s and afterwards played cricket for 

Sussex and England, a remarkable athlete. He captained his school at both rugger 

and cricket. He gained a Rugby Blue at Cambridge and then when obliged to 

transfer to Oxford he played for that university at both cricket and soccer. He 

had the rare distinction of being both a Cambridge Crusader and an Oxford 

Authentic. 

Jack Young was a m'an of sterling character, warm-hearted, modest aI)d a 

great lover of children and the co,mp'any of his fellow men. He is survived by a 

widow, a married son and daughter and five grandchildren, to all of whom we 

extend our sincere sympathy. 

WE have also heard with deep regret of the death on 26th February of Major 

Courtney Biggs, late New Zealand Forest Service. It is hoped that an o,bituary 

notice will appear in the next Review. 

2*


MR. R. T. GRAY sends us news from the Western Region of Nigeria. Mr. J. K. Ross 

News from is retiring and is now in the United Kingdom. His place as Chief 

the Western C?ns~rvator has been taken by Mr. E. I. O. A~pata, the first 

Region of NIgerIan to be J?romoted. to that P?st. .We heartIly congratulate 

Nigeria Mr. Akpata on hIS promotIon, and wIsh hun every success. 

Inevitably, with the independence of Nigeria, a number of 

European officers are returning to the U.K. for goo,d, and we understand that 

Messrs. Gray and Mitchell will be doing so in May. Mr. Caudwell retired last 

December. 

Addressing a session of the African Forestry COrmmission of the Food and Agricultural 

Organisation, Sir Adesoji Aderemi, Governor of Western Nigeria, stated 

that the Western Region is exporting timber at an ann'ual rate of 17,000,000 cubic 

feet. Fortun'ately the Forestry Division is dealing with the formidable task of replacing 

this, and he stated that 3,377,000 acres of forest are at present receiving 

regeneration treatment. 

MR. E. A. QUIST-ARCTON writes from Ghana that he has b'een appointed Chief 

News from Conservator of Forests. We heartily congratulate him on his 

Ghana promotion and wish him good luck. Mr. Foggie, formerly Chief 

Conservator, has become Forestry Adviser to the Minister of 

Agriculture. 

Mr. Quist-Arcton is optimistic about forestry in Ghana. He says that the present 

policy is to exploit the timber on unreserved land in an orderly manner. This we 

presume is before exploitation takes place in forest reserves. 

Retirement of Mr. Entrican 

MR. A. R. ENTRICAN, C.B.E., A.A.S.E., A.M.I.C.E, retired at the end of March from 

N sf, the post of Director-General, New Zealand Forest Service. Mr. 

eewZ rr m d Entrican was born in 1898 in Auckland, and was educated at 

N w ea an Auckland Grammar School and Auckland University College. In 

1921 he was ap,pointed to the New Zealand Forest Service as Engineer, and in 1939 

was pro,moted to the post of Director of Forestry, later Director-General of Forests. 

During his tenure of office Mr. Entrican has done an enormous amount of work 

in developing New Zealand's Forest Service. He was the pioneer of the Pinus 

radiata pulp and paper industry in New Zealand, and his inspiration and energy 

originated New Zealand's modern methods of timber preservation. Perhaps his chief 

interests have been the establishment of New Zealand's Forest Research Institute at 

Rotorua, where research and training are carried out, and the large increase in New 

Zealand of plantatio'ns of exotic species whereby their indigenous forests have been 

conserved. The energ,y that must have gone into these developments of New Zealand's 

Forest Service was very evident to those of us who, were fortunate eno,ugh to 

attend the Commonwealth Forestry Conference in New Zealand in 1957. 

Mr. Entrican's reputation, both in timber and forestry circles, extends far beyond 

New Zealand and his retirement will be regretted everywhere. 

We join in regretting his departure, and wish him a long and happy retirement. 

ApPOINTMENT OF NEW DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF FORESTS 

A. L. Poole, M.Sc., B(For)Sc., N.D.H. (N.Z.) 

WE are grateful to Information Section, New Zealand Forest Service for the 

following: 

"The Minister of Forests, the Hon. R. G. Gerard, announced today that the 

Public Service Commission has appointed the new Director-General of Forests,


New Zealand Forest Service. He is Mr. A. L. Poole, who has been Assistant 

Director of Forestry since 1951. 

"Mr. Poole will replace the present Director-General, Mr. A. R. Entrican, who 

retires on 31st March this year. 

"Born in Gisborne in 1908, Mr. Poole was educated at King's College, Auckland, 

and graduated from the A'uckland University College School of Forestry as a 

Bachelor of Forestry Science, and from Victoria University of Wellington as a 

Master of Science. In addition, he holds a Diploma in Horticulture. 

"In 1931 Mr. Poole joined the State Forest Service in Rotorua and was transferred 

successively to· Wellington and to the Hanmer and Balmoral Forests in 

Canterbury. From 1937 to 1940 he was on the staff of the Botany Division of the 

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. 

"In 1940 Mr. Poole was commissioned in the 15th New Zealand Forestry Company, 

2nd N.Z.E.F., in England; and served as Scientific Liaison Officer in London 

from 1941 until 1945. During this perio'd Mr. Poole observed and participated in a 

great deal of research throughout Britain, nearly all of it pertaining to the war 

effort. Later he served with the Forestry and Timber Control Section of the British 

Military Government in Germany. There he was brought into close contact with 

German foresters and forestry practice for, apart from attending to timber supplies, 

the task of the section was the rebuilding of the German Forest Service. 

"Upon on his return to New Zealand in 1947 Mr. Poole took up the position of 

Assistant Director of the Botany Division, D.S.I.R.; and became its Director in 

1949. Since 1951 he has been Assistant Director of the New Zealand Forest Service. 

"Last year Mr. Poole visited Europe, South Africa and Japan as an official representative 

of the New Zealand Government. His tour of observation and st·udy in 

Europe was designed to' give him an insight into present trends in forestry 

administration, forest legislation as related to· protection forests in the various 

states visited, and the modern techniques of timber utilisation in: Scandinavia. His 

particular interest in South Africa was the inspection of forests 0'£ the same species 

of pine as is gro'wn in New Zealand. Towards the end of 1960 Mr. Poole led the 

New Zealand delegation attending the E.C.A.F.E./F.A.O. C'onference on Pulp 

and Paper Development in Asia and the Far East, which was held in Tokyo. 

"Mr. Poole has published several research papers, principally on the New Zealand 

beeches, and has produced many papers on general forestry topics. His wide interests 

in scientific circles have been recognised by his being elected to the presidency of 

the Wellington Branch of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the New Zealand 

Institute of Foresters, and the New Zealand Ecological Society, and the Wellington 

Botanical Society. 

"Mr. Poole is married and has a son and a daughter." 

Many of us had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Poole in New Zealand in 1957, 

and realize how fortunate New Zealand is in having such a worthy successor to· 

Mr. Entrican. We wish him a long and successful term of office. 

Aerial Seeding 

FROM the wealth of news contained in fo'ur New Zealand newsletters we select 

the account of aerial seeding: 

"Early in October 1960 a Fletcher aircraft spread 470 lb. of Pinus radiata seed 

(treated with thirodust) over 157 acres of P. radiata cutover at Kaingoroa in 1 hour 

40 minutes flying time. 

"A portion of the area was covered at the rate of 6 lb. of seed per acre, being half 

P. radiata and half wheat. At this rate, cross sowing is possible and no ground control 

of flight is necessary. 

"The total cost, including ground control, seed .. etc., was £6 17s. Od. per acre. 

"Ground checks revealed satisfactory distribution ranging from I! to 8 lb. 

P. radiata seed per acre, with an average around the specified 3 lb. per acre.

6 E'MPIRE FORESTRY REVIEW 

"Provided germination and survival is up to expectations, the advantages of this 

metll0d of re-establishment are: 

(a) Approximately half the cost of enrichment planting. 

(b) Releases nursery space and labour for new planting. 

(c) Genetic improvement. Stock from direct seeding (selected seed) in September 

October beats regeneration from November seed shed or stock planted in the 

same year. 

"If successful (and early hand trials are very promising), the only snag is collection 

of sufficient seed. 

Appointments to the Forestry Commission 

WE are grateful to the Forestry Commission, U.K., for the following: 

"Her Majesty the Queen has approved the re-appointment of the 

t~e,,; fro: Earl of Radnor as Chairman of the Forestry Commission and the 

Ce o!e~ Y re-appointment as Commissioners of Major D. C. Bowser, Mr. 

OIDlDlSSIOD E. B. Latham and Major F. W. S. Strang Steel. 

U.K. "Her Majesty has also approved the appointment of Captain 

J. M. MacDonald and Mr. T. Taylor as Commissioners in succession to Mr. A. P. F. 

Hamilton and Mr. R. Taylor. 

"Captain J. M. MacDonald is a landowner, farmer and woodland owner and 

Chairman of Lochaber Sawmills Ltd., and recently relinquished the chairmanship of 

the Scottish Woodland Owners Association. 

"Mr. Thomas Taylor is Director of the Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society 

and has travelled widely abroad as Export Manager of the Society. He was for some 

years a member of the Glasgow Town Council." 

THE Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has informed us that Professor 

A e tm t M. V. Laurie, O.B.E., M.A., the Professor of Forestry at Oxford, 

PPOID • en has been appointed a member of the Steering Committee of the- 

C to St!ttenng f D.S.I.R.'s Forest Products Research Laboratory at Princes Ris 

ODUDI ee 0 borough. 

Dif·~~·' The appointment of Professor Laurie, who is so well known in 

e nlde the forestry world and to a great many members, will be welcomed 

Klog om by all. 

Appointment of Dr. J. D. B. Harrison 

WE are very glad to hear the news that Dr. J. D. B. Harrison was appointed Deputy 

N f Minister of Forestry in the new Federal Department of Forestry on 

C WS lt om 26th November, 1960. We heartily congratulate him on his 

ana appointment. 

Associate-Editor fo'r the whole of Ca'nada 

WE are pleased to report that while he was in Canada, after attending the World 

Forestry Congress, Mr Bryan Latham was able to obtain Dr. J. H. C. Smith's agreement 

to act as Associate-Editor for Canada. Dr. Smith is assistant Professor at the 

University of British Columbia, and we are extremely glad to welcome him as 

Associate-Editor. The pages of this review will greatly benefit from his help.


RESOURCES OF TO-MORROW PROGRAMME 

We are indebted to Mr. C. D. Schultz, of C. D. Schultz & Company Limited for 

a press release from the Associatio,n of Consulting Engineers of Canada. 

This announces the appointment of a committee on natural resources to assist in 

the "Resources of Tomorrow" programme launched by the Department of Northern 

Affairs and National Resources of Canada, under the Hon. WaIter Dinsdale, in cooperation 

with the ten Provincial Ministers of similar departments. The natural 

resources include water, timber, soil and wild life. 

The purpose of the programme is to endeavour to repair the damage of the past, 

much unwittingly done during the pioneer stages of Canada's development, and to 

improve the present situation in order to assure adequate "Resources for Tomorrow". 

The Provincial Governments are now preparing the background studies of the 

country's natural resources so that appropriate action may be take.n as soon as 

possible. The preliminary studies will be considered at a conference in Montreal in 

October 1961. 

The forests of Canada are one of their main natural resources, so we presume that, 

though the committee consists entirely of civil engineers, forestry will figure very 

largely in the discussions and the action to be taken. 

Forest Survey in Surinam 

We understand that a forest survey and economiC analysis for forest development 

in Surinam will be carried out by C. D. Schultz & Company Ltd., of Vancouver. 

Re-afforestation in Nova Scotia 

Mr. R. K. AlIen, our local secretary in Nova Scotia, has sent us a copy of the 

Industrial Review and Forecast of the Chro'n'icle-Herald and Mail Star of Nova 

Scotia, which gives us some facts about the forest policy of Nova Scotia. 

A considerable part of the Crown Lands are old fire barrens, and the policy is first 

to increase the area of Crown Land by purchasing private holdings and secondly to 

re-afforest this land. A target of one million acres has been fixed, and so far more 

than half of this has been obtained. Last year two hundred thousand trees were 

planted, and it is hoped to surpass this figure in 1961. 

During 1961 a busy year is predicted for the Department of Lands and Forests. A 

large planting and thinning programme is to be carried out and new roads and trails 

are to be built. 

The article e.nds by saying that over eighty-five per cent of the land of Nova Scotia 

is either forest or fire barren, and this land should be maintained as forest. 

WE take the following from The Times, 8th March, 1961, to whom we are indebted: 

• , "A fear lest the ten national parks in England and Wales should 

Affor~st:tti~: be exploited by commercial forestry syndicates has caused amenity 

~o;tro 1 1 ; k e societies to suggest that afforestation within parks should be brought 

a Iona ar s under the control of their planning authorities. 

of England "A manifesto has been drawn up jointly by the Standing Cornand 

Wales mittee on National Parks of the Council for the Preservation of 

Rural England and Wales and the Joint Action Group for the Protection of Dartmoor 

and Exmoor. 

"Lord Birkett states in a foreword that Dartmoor and Exmoor national parks are 

immediately threatened by commercial afforestation, and that the threat may at any 

time extend to other national parks. He recalls that many years ago a battle was 

fought in the Lake District against afforestation of certain lonely and lovely valleys


and bare hills in Eskdale, the preservation of that ,natural beauty being thought 

essential because of its unique character. 

"Today he says the preservation of the distinctive grandeur and beauty of Dartmoor 

and Exmoor is equally essential, and adds, 'In the shortsighted pursuit of 

immediate commercial ends, a noble heritage of beauty may be squandered, while 

the national park authorities who have powers of control over so much else that 

might damage the beauties of their parks are powerless to prevent the disfigurement 

that can result from unwise afforestation'. 

"An amendment of the National Parks Act, clothing the park authorities with the 

necessary powers, is being sought as a matter of urgency, and the immediate purpose 

of the manifesto is to rally support for the necessary step. 

"The sponsors of the manifesto say they have little confidence in the scheme of 

voluntary consultation with the national park planning authorities agreed upon by 

the Timber Growers Association, the Country Landowners Association, the Forestry 

Commission and the National Parks Commission about proposals for the afforestation 

of hitherto unplanted land in national parks. They cannot regard this as an 

adequate substitute for formal planning control." 

The manifesto consists of a pamphlet of twenty-four pages, with five sections and 

a foreword by Lord Birkett. Section I is an introduction, Section 11 deals with 

possible afforestation operations, Section III is headed "Necessary Action", and 

recommends that afforestation be brought under the direct control of the planning 

authorities of National Parks by amending the Town and Country Planning Act, 

147, Section 12-2(e) and the First Schedule, Part I, Class VII, of the General 

Development Order of 1950. Section IV is entitled "Supporting Evidence for the 

Control of Afforestation" and gives information on the uses of Dartmoor and 

Exmoor National Parks, describing their natural history and beauty. Section V gives 

information on cash grants and tax concessions to owners carrying out planting. 

There is also an additional note which states that an agreement has been reached 

between the Timber Growers Organisation, the Country Landowners Association, 

the Forestry Commission and the National Parks Commission for a voluntary scheme 

of consultation with National Park Planning authorities about proposals for the 

afforestation of hitherto unplanted land in National Parks. The note adds, however, 

that the sponsors of the memorandum have little hope in the effectiveness of such 

consultations. 

The manifesto does not say that it has been agreed that a survey of National Parks 

should be made from which they will be divided into categories regarding afforestation. 

Opinions over the best form of forestry in National Parks are bound to differ, but 

what we find difficult to understand is the lack of confidence in an agreement made 

by the bodies stated above. We have confidence in the results of consultations 

between the Park Planning authorities and the Timber Growers Association, the 

Country Landowners Association, the Forestry Commission and the Parks Commission, 

and we hope that this scheme will at any rate be given a fair trial. 

Forests of the Amazon 

A F.A.O. ,note gives some information on the forests of the Amazon, and states what 

it is doing there. 

F.A.O. Notes There is, according to the note, an area of 3.5 million square miles 

in which little is known of the tree species, and those trees known to be useful are 

usually widely scattered. (In the latter respect it is not very different from other areas 

of tropical forest.-Ed.) 

It states that to tap this vast wealth the existing forest area must be largely 

replaced by more useful species. Preliminary steps include the gathering of further 

information on the properties and possible uses of the various tree species to be 

found, and the propagation of the more useful ones.


Mr. John Pitt, now a lecturer at Oxford University, states that this was his job in 

the Amazon forests for the past five years. 

He states that he has carried out silvicultural investigations on securing natural and 

artificial regeneration. Planting trials have been carried out and thirty exotic species 

have been tried. 

Mr. Pitt has now left for Oxford University, and his successor is Dr. C. H. Holmes, 

formerly Conservator of Forests, Ceylon. 

Prevention of erosion in Turkey 

Another of our members, Mr. G. W. Chapman, has been working for F.A.O. on 

anti-erosion work in Turkey. An effort to feed the increased population and greater 

numbers of livestock has resulted in ploughing being extended into the hills, the 

forests being cut down, and over-grazing on the hillsides. 

The problem is not easy and entails a more intensive system of farming in the 

plains, while the population in the hills is reduced, and trees and grass are 

planted there. Torrent beds are dealt with by terracing and check-dams. 

Utilisation of small sized wood 

F.A.O. have sent us a note regarding a special meeting which should at the 

time of writing (17th March) be taking place on the utilisation of small sized wood. 

There is an increasing demand, the note says, for small sized wood, especially 

by the pulp and paper industry, but at present it is often impossible for such wood 

to reach industry at a reasonable cost. The aim of the meeting is to study the 

problems of increasing the efficiency of harvesting and transporting methods. 

The special meeting will be follo'wed by a one-week study tour in France and 

the United Kingdom. 

AGAIN we are indebted to Messrs. Leary for their annual survey of the timber trade 

Lear 's Market position. Very briefly, these are their views: 

R!port for Softwoods. In 1960 the trade had one of its best years since the 

1960 war. In spite of bad weather and the strike of tallymen at the 

London docks, the total consumption in U.K. for 1960 should be 

at least 1,675,000 standards compared to 1,555,000 standards fo,r 1959. This is the 

highest figure for twenty years. 

At the time of writing the report, it was calculated that the import for the year 

would be about 1,785,000 standards, which would be the highest since 1938. 

Can'ada, by doubling her export to the United Kingdom, co'ntributed about 50 per 

cent of the increased intake. 

Finland maintained her leading position in the list of supplying co,untries, with 

Sweden second, Russia third and Canada fourth. 

Because of this increased activity prices of softwood increased considerably. 

Freight r~tes also increased. 

The Conference of Exporters and Importers of Softwood was held in London 

during the year. Also during the year, representatives of the trade visited British 

Columbia, and representatives of the whole of the Canadian timber industry visited 

the United Kingdom in October. 

Hardwoods. During the first half of the year the firm market conditions of 

1959 prevailed, but later there was some slowing do'wn of trade. Prices rose 

during the first nine mo'nths, but tended to level off in the last quarter. Imports 

were considerable during summer and early 'aut'umn. At the end of the year the 

position was uneasy and a period of limited trading and intense competition was 

expected. 

Teak. In general the teak market remained steady and imports into the U.K. 

increased. Prices of teak rose in Burma but even so buyers were unable to cover 

their full requirements. In Thailand the market was disrupted by the activities of


inexperienced people shipping logs of low quality, while in Java business continued 

to b,e difficult. 

There is nothing of note to report regarding other Far Eastern hardwoods. 

West Africa. There was a steadily rising market, Ghana being the chief Co'mmonwealth 

supplier whose export of lumber to the United Kingdom increased. Nigeria 

remained the chief log supplier. 

In Ghana a departure was the setting 'up of the Ghana marketing board as sole 

exporters of Ghana wawa (obeche) logs. The board commenced o'perations on 

15th October. 

Afrormosia became increasingly popular, prices rising by about 30 per cent. 

East Africa. From East Africa a larger volume of b'usiness was conducted than 

in 1959. Such woods as mvule, mahogany, camphorwood and podo found regular 

markets. The new wages structure in Kenya and Tanganyika may adversely affect 

the prices of muhuhu. 

From Canada sales of hardboard increased, and prices remained firm. The main 

demand was for top grade maple timber, maple flooring and low grade birch. 

From Denm'ark imports mainly of beech were maintained and prices remained 

stable. Imports from Finland increased by more than 40 per cent. From France 

imports also increased and prices generally remained unchanged. From Japan 

imports rose a little and prices rose considerably. 

From Jugoslavia imports of sawn hardwoods, mainly beech, declined, and 

during the period January/October were 13 per cent less than d,uring the same 

period the year before. Beech prices remained ab,out the same. Difficulty was 

experienced in o,btaining prime quality in long lengths. 

Imports from Roumania were considerably higher during the first nine months 

of the year than in 1959. Fro,m V.S.A. imports of oak lumber increased 

considerably. 

Plywood. Plywoods continued to enjoy a strong demand and imports increased 

considerably, Finland enjoying about 32 p,er cent of this increase and Russia about 

14 per cent. Prices during the year increased for some sp'ecies. 

From Japan lauan was the major import, though trading in this species was 

difficult. Beech, sen and oak were in only mo'derate demand from Japan. 

Douglas fir plywood continues to grow in popularity. 

Chipboard. The demand for chipboard contin'ued to grow but was mostly satisfied 

by ho·me production. The high import duty retards the progress of overseas 

production, other than from Commonwealth sources. Prices during the summer 

were a little lower and have not since then risen to the former level. 

Fibreboard. As regards hardboard the year opened with steady purchases at 

prices fixed by Scandinavian mills, but as the year progressed comp,etition bro,ke 

out and prices fell to a point which must be below' prod'uction costs. 

Despite over-production, consumer demand continues to increase and the future 

may well show so'me hardening of the present extremely low price levels. 

As regards insulation board the position is much the same as with hardboard. 

Trading 'appears to have become a little more active of late. 

SINCE the present Editor has been here we have had the pleasure of visits from J. K. 

• ·t Ross, Duncan Stevenson, R. M. Harley, R. W. V. Palmer, A. J. 

V IS) ors Fyfe, P. A. Durgnat, H. F. Mooney and C. S. Cree. 

Keith Ross has just retired from the post of Chief Conservator, Western Region, 

Nigeria. He will not, we imagine, be idle for long. 

Duncan Stevenson, on the Governing Council, is of course well known to very 

many memb'ers. 

R. M. Harley was up from Devonshire and extremely busy. He unfortunately 

could only stay to consult a dictionary before dashing away.


R. W. V. P'almer, Editor of Forestry, is fortunately a frequent visitor. 

A. F. Fyfe, no'w enjoying retirement, was on his way to the West Indies. 

P. A. Durgnat, also o,n retirement from Malaya and enjoying some leisure, is 

likely to be taking up other employment. 

H. F. Mooney, back from Addis Ababa, has now retired from his post of 

Forestry and Soil Conservatio'n Adviser, British Middle East Development Division, 

and was on his way to Dublin. 

Charles Cree looked very well and is enjoying leave from Tanganyika. 

The Editor is very sorry to ,note that he missed his old friend J. D. Kennedy, 

who was here in December. 

A REVISED edition of the handbook is due in 1962 and this matter was discussed 

Empire at the last meeting of the Planning Committee. One suggestion from 

the Chair as follows: 

Forestry "In the next number of the REVIEW there should be an Editorial 

Handbook, calling on members for new ideas for the improvement of the 1962 

1962 edition." 

It is hoped that the work connected with producing and printing the new 

edition will be well in hand during 1961, so we shall be very pleased to have new· 

ideas from members as soon as possible. 

JUST before going to press comes the disturbing news that the Union of South 

Union f Africa is leaving the Commonwealth. With the political reasons for 

So th Af~c this we are not concerned, but we do most sincerely hope that this 

u a will not affect our friendly relations with our members and all 

foresters in the Union. 

AT the last moment we have news from H. F. Mo,oney that he has retired from 

Forestry and the post of Forestry and Soil Conservation Adviser, British Middle 

S -I East Development Division, and his place has been taken by Mr. 

Conse~ation D. F. Davidson, formerly Conservator of Forests, Cyprus. 

Adviser 

Corrigenda 

Vo,I. 39 (4), No. 102, December 1960, page 415, after line 29 and the words 

"but many more stems and branches" the following line was omitted: "were 

broken than during 'Alix'. Coastal Casuarina plantations 4-15 years". 

VoI. 39 (4), No. 102, December 1960, page 445, reference numbers (2), (3) 

and (4) should be., respectively, (4), (2) and (3).

MISCELLANEA 

BEDGEBURY PINETUM 

From the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, to whom we are grateful, 

comes the follo·wing press release regarding the terms of reference of Bedgebury 

Pinetum committee: 

"To advise the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (as responsible for 

both the Forestry Commission and the Ro,yal Botanic Gardens, Kew) on the 

management, maintenance and development at Bedgebury of as large a representative 

collection of coniferous trees as possible, for scientific study, for use as 

a reference collection by conifer growers, and for initial testing of new introductions 

of possible economic v'alue." 

The B,edgebury Pinetum, near Hawkhurst in Kent, was established nearly forty 

years ago and no'w covers ab'out 90 acres, nearly double the area of the site 

selected in 1923. It contains pines and other co'nifers from practically all the 

temperate regions of the world. Although the primary purpose of the Pinetum, 

as indicated by the terms of reference, is scientific 'and economic, it is also of 

educational value and interest to the general public. 

IMPREGNATION PLANT AT ROYAL HIGHLAND AGRICULTURAL SHOW 

Messrs. Pratchitt Brothers Ltd. have informed us that at the above show, to be 

held at Ingleston, near Edinburgh, on 20th-23rd June, they will be exhibiting their 

new Timber Impregnating Plant, and demonstrations will be carried out each day. 

FORESTRY, TIMBER AND WOODWORKING FAIR 

Messrs. John E. Buck & Co. Ltd. have given us news of a forestry, timber and 

woodworking fair to be held at Dusseldorf from the 20th to 29th October 1961. 

The show is to be internatio'nal, and it is intended to give a complete picture of 

all aspects of the timber industry. 

WIDE EXPERIENCE 

We hope our New Zealand correspondent will not mind us quoting the following 

from the New Zealand newsletter: 

"Conversation noted during a F~orest Service Staff Training Officer's interview 

of a prospective recruit in North Auckland recently: 'Have you had any experience 

in handling groups of men?' ... 'Yes, I've handled Europeans, Maoris, 

South Islanders . . . the Lot.' " 

12

A REVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING AMBROSIA BEETLE 

ATTACK IN TREES AND FELLED LOGS 

By J. D. BLETCHLY, T.D., B.A., B.Sc. 

F.R.E.S., F.I.W.Sc., M.I.BioI. 

(Officer in Charge, Entomology Section, 

Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough) 

SUMMARY 

This review was read by the author as a paper at the XIth International 

Congress of Entomology at Vienna, 1960. 

Circumstances which may affect attack in trees and felled logs are discussed 

under the headings physical, chemical and biological factors. It is concluded that 

although much work has been done many problems remain unsolved and some 

lines of further research are suggested. A reference list of 53 publications 

is appended. 

INTRODUCTION 

AMBROSIA beetles (Platypodidae and Scolytidae) are mainly associated with 

newly felled logs, but recent observations indicate that attack in standing trees 

may occur more frequently than was hitherto supposed (Fisher and Thompson, 

1952). Activity ceases once the timber is converted and dried but the resultant 

degrade causes severe economic losses. Estimates in British Columbia indicate that 

of the total volume of timber 11 per cent might be degraded on this account 

(McBride, 1950) and the value of better classes of timber might be reduced by 

50 per cent (Graham and Boyes, 1950). In Ghana annual losses from insect and 

fungal damage may exceed one million pounds (Webb and Jones, 1956). 

The need for a sound biological basis for future control measures was expressed 

in 1935 in a discussion at the Fourth Imperial Entomological Conference, but for 

several years, largely owing to World War 11, the extent of investigations depended 

on the availability of forest department staff overseas, who had to combine such 

work with other duties. However, the valuable data obtained (notably by F. G. 

Browne in Malaya and G. H. Thompson in Ghana) emphasised the necessity for 

more comprehensive studies. In January 1953, the West African Timber Borer 

Research Unit was formed and has since produced valuable information from 

Ghana and Nigeria. Members of the Unit received preliminary training in the 

Entomology Section of the Forest Products Research Laboratory, the officer in 

charge of which retained a general responsibility for the research programme in 

West Africa. 

This paper, which was read at the XI International Congress of Entomology at 

Vienna 1960, reviews some of the factors affecting ambrosia beetle attack in 

relation to data published by this Unit and elsewhere. General literature on 

ambrosia beetles was reviewed by Fisher, Thompson and Webb (1953, 1954). 

FACTORS AFFECTING ATTACK 

Biological, chemical, geographical and physical factors affecting insect attack on 

plants in general have been reviewed by Dethier (1947), Graham (1939) and 

Thorsteinson (1953) and in the case of ambrosia beetles by Fougerousse (1957). 

Physical Factors 

Moisture content of trees and timber is probably the most important physical 

factor affecting attack and may be correlated with local conditions (Edwards, 1951). 

Unbarked wawa (obeche, Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum) logs may be attacked 

within a few hours of felling in relatively dry forests, whereas in rain forests they 

13


may remain too wet to be attacked (Mackay, 1943). In Malaya it has been shown 

that risk of infestation is small after the moisture content has fallen to 40 per cent 

(Thomas and Browne, 1950). 

Variations in moisture content of trees will affect osmotic pressures in the sap 

and Merker (1956) found an association between dry seaso,ns, high osmotic values 

and bark beetle attack on spruce. Chararas (1959a, b, c. and d) considered that a 

marked reduction in osmotic pressure of bark and wood of conifers coincided with 

Scolytid attack. He found that when branches are not removed from freshly felled 

logs left in the sun, assimilation through the foliage combined with surface drying 

produced a rise in osmotic pressure in the bark giving some transient protection 

against Scolytid attack. Browne (1938b) related changes in moisture content to the 

osmotic pressure of the toxic solution and the intensity of ambrosia beetle attack 

following girdling and poisoning of trees with sodium arsenite. 

Temperature is also important in limiting the distribution of insect and host and 

possibly affecting growth of ambrosia fungi (Fisher, Thompson and Webb, 1954). 

A threshold temperature induces over-wintering Trypo'dendron lineatum (Oliv.) 

beetles to leave the forest litter in spring, although later in the seaso,n other factors 

appear to govern flight activity (Chapman, 1956; Chapman and Kinghorn, 1958). 

In West Africa some species of ambrosia beetles are crepuscular, others nocturnal 

and some appear only at mid-day (Rep. W.A.T.B.R.U., 1955-58). Such activity 

may be related to precise light intensity, humidity and temperature (Jover, 1952), 

and species normally flying only in late afternoon may appear at mid-day when the 

sky is overcast. The saturation deficit could, however, be the more important factor. 

Flight orientation may be influenced by the pattern of polarised light (Chapman 

1958b). Recent work in Canada indicates that freshly emerged Trypodendron 

beetles orientate themselves towards the light and only bore into wood in the 

absence of light, until a period of flight exercise abolishes this photopositive 

response, allowing the beetles to react to c'hemical and contact stimuli (Graham, 

1959). 

Material varying in size from twigs to large logs is attacked and girth has only 

a very ge.neral bearing on susceptibility, although individual species of ambrosia 

beetles may exhibit preferences (Browne, 1941; Webb and Jones, 1956; Rep. 

W.A.T.B.R.U., 1958-59). 

Chemical Factors 

Although much has been written on the significance of chemical attractants and 

repellants in relation to ambrosia and bark beetle attack, apart from the experiments 

of Graham and Werner (1956) and Cachan (1957), the existence of such substances 

rests mainly on inference. Existence of host specificity would suggest the productio,n 

of a range of attractants in different botanical families (Browne, 1952). These might 

be produced by pathological conditions in trees (Browne, 1958). Kraemer (1953) 

correlated bark beetle attack in spruce trees with a chemical attractant, the 

production of which was related to variations in the osmotic pressure of the sap. 

L~n attractant substance isolated by Graham and Werner (1956) and applied to 

unattractive green logs or old slabs of Douglas fir induced abundant attack by 

Trypondendron provided the antennae were present. Attractant properties may be 

reduced or inhibited by continued cellular activity, artificial ageing or heating 

(Kinghorn and Chapman, 1957). 

Alcohol can render wood attractive to ambrosia beetles even after seasoning 

(Cleare, 1938, Browne, 1952); similarly creosote, creosote-type preparations and fuel 

oil make unbarked logs highly attractive (Browne, 1949b, Webb and Jones, 1956). 

It has been suggested that the latter substances have a corrosive action on bark 

reducing its protective effect and releasing an attractant from the sapwood (Browne, 

1952). Possibly organic solvents dissolve an attractive substance prolo,nging the 

period of volatilization, thus rendering logs attractive for a longer time. Cachan 

(1957), however, found creosote itself was one of the most attractive substances 

when tested by olfactometer.

A REVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING AMBROSIA BEETLE ATTACK 15 

Biological Factors 

These include the structure and physiology of trees and timber, silvicultural 

practices and physiological patterns of behaviour of ambrosia beetles. 

Retention of bark is likely to provide some temporary protection in many 

instances (Rep. W.A.T.B.R.U., 1953-55). Thickness and hardness of bark govern 

the value of such protection, for example a species with highly susceptible sapwood 

nlay appear more resistant to ambrosia beetle attack than species with less 

susceptible sapwood in which the bark offers less effective protection (Browne, 

1950). Cachan (1957) studying Macrolobium found attack by Platyscapulus 

auricolnus Schauf. occurred only when both bark and wood were present; billets 

with bark removed or replaced by that of another species were not attacked. 

Similarly the bark of Macrolobium did not induce attack when covering billets of 

different species but infestation occurred when it was replaced on Macrolobium 

logs. 

It is doubtful whether ambrosia beetles can become established in completely 

healthy trees. External appearance alone does ,not provide an entirely reliable 

method of estimating tree vigour and attack may be associated with growth checks 

having no obvious cause (Fisher, 1937), or those produced by drought, damage or 

pathological conditions. Drought might also indirectly affect production of an 

attractant through changes in osmotic pressure. Attack on eucalyptus trees by 

Crossotarsus saundersi has been correlated with drought (Union S. Africa, Dept. 

Forestry, 1948). Defoliators would cause loss of vigour; Thompson (1959) has 

associated Trachyostus ghanaensis Schedl infestation in living Triplochiton 

scleroxylon with such damage. Attack may also follow fire damage (Gardner, 1957) 

or other injuries to the bark (Browne, 1938a). Platypus suffodiens malayensis (Schedl) 

infests jelutong trees (Dyera costulata Hook. f.) when unhealthy or following tapping 

wounds and injuries, but is only successful when the latex flow is reduced (Browne 

and Foenander, 1937). Trees may exhibit vigorous reactions to tunnelling by 

producing gums or resins (Baker, 1960). 

Causes of infestation in apparently healthy trees may be due to greater 

susceptibility of older ones, as with attack by Crossotarsus impar, or to local 

occurrences of abnormally high beetle populations, for instance when beetles seek 

alternative hosts through drying of infested logs (Browne, 1949a). 

Silvicultural practices may cause temporary susceptibility. Tree poisoning for 

canopy opening or destruction of weed trees may result in the build up of beetle 

populations which then attack standing trees. Saplings temporarily weakened by 

transplanting may be attacked in this way but infestations in established tree::; may 

also occur (Rep. W.A.T.B.R.U., 1955-58; Browne, 1952; Finnegan, McPhee and 

Watson, 1959). Some temp,orary weakness may result from growth responses 

following sudden increases in light. Observations by Kalshoven (1958) on Xyleborus 

fornicatus Eichh. in Schleichera oleosa trees are difficult to explain-young trees 

were attractive at a certain stage of growth especially during the rainy season; 

when under the canopy of other tree species only the most vigorous trees were 

attacked, thus indicating that a weakened condition of the host plant was not the 

primary factor. In logs, attack may commence immediately after felling or after an 

interval of weeks or months. Trypodendron lineatum prefers logs felled 2-6 months 

previously (Hadorn, 1933; Kinghorn and Chapman, 1957; Prebble and Graham, 

1957). In the tropics infestation may occur within an hour of felling (Rep. 

W.A.T.B.R.U., 1953-55). The time of year of felling in relation to susceptibility 

of logs appears to vary with the timber species (Chatterjee and Chatterjee, 1951; 

Baker, 1956), but in tropical forests where ambrosia beetles breed throughout the 

year, such a factor may be less important. 

The possible existence of host specificity is of particular interest. Development 

of a specific relationship between insect and host is likely to be more rapid in 

tropical forests, since short life-cycles and continuous o'verlap of generations 

facilitate selection of adaptive characters. The extent of specific relationships


between ambrosia beetle~ and their hosts needs further investigation. Browne (1958) 

found that a high proportion of ambrosia beetles in South-east Asia had specific 

host relationships, although selectivity was mainly not below the botanical family 

level. Specialisation was limited to a few plant families and appeared unconnected 

with the relative abundance of the plant family or its attractiveness to ambrosia 

beetles in general. Such selectivity would be favourable to the evolution of 

new races. Beeson (1941) has claimed that the sub-species or race fornicatior 

Egg. of Xyleborus fo'rnicatus Eichh. was evolved in this way, although more 

recently Kalshoven (1958) has thro'wn doubt on the validity of this separation into 

two forms. Marked host specificity has not been detected in West Africa (Rep. 

W.A.T.B.R.U., 1955-59), with some exceptions, e.g. Trachyostus ghana'ensis (Rep. 

W.A.T.B.R.U., 1958-59). 

Ambrosia beetles possess considerable flight capacities (Chapman, 1958a, Swabey, 

1935). Interactions between pop,ulations of ambrosia beetles or between them and 

other wood-boring insects are complex. Bark galleries made by Batocera rubus L. 

. (Cerambycidae) facilitate penetration by Platypus sufJodiens malayensis Schedl 

(Browne and Foenander, 1937). 

Cachan's (1957) studies on the behaviour of Platyscapulus auricomus with an 

olfactometer showed that establishment of the insects could be analysed into, three 

stages: (a) attraction of males and females by the bark or unbarked wo'od; (b) 

initial boring by the males in bark in contact with the wood; and (c) penetration 

by the females into the wood from galleries previously cut by the males, but when 

fertilised, females can penetrate in the absence of such galleries. Anderson (1948) 

considered that in initial boring, m'ale beetles of [ps pini (Say) released an odoriferous 

substance which attracted other beetles. However, C'hapman and Kinghorn 

(1958) concluded that heavy attack by Trypodendron reduced the attractiveness of 

logs. 

Since ambrosia beetles depend on fungi for their food, trees or logs must also be 

suitable for the growth of ambrosia fungi. The fungi mayor may not be specific 

to individual species or gro,ups of beetles or alternatively to their hosts (Fisher, 

Thompson and Webb, 1954). 

CONCLUSIONS 

Many data have been obtained on the factors governing ambrosia beetle attack 

but many problems remain unsolved. 

Specific relationships between beetle and host need further clarification especially 

in connexion with the occurrence of attractants. Variation in moisture content is of 

great importance in relation to attack in both standing trees and felled logs, not only 

because of 'upper~ and lower critical limits, but because resultant variations in 

osmotic pressures might be responsible for, or correlated with, the production of 

attractant substances. 

Should further investigations confirm that ambrosia beetle infestatio,n is more 

prevalent in standing trees than has hitherto been supposed, a number of factors 

will need further study: 

Intensity of attack in relation to correlation between phenological variations; 

damage by defoliators and ambrosia beetle attack; associations between soil 

condition and drainage and susceptibility to attack; vigour of the tree in relation 

to age, growth increments and wound reactions, as well as to occurrence of 

pathological conditions; and the existence and causes of fluctuations in the 

population of ambrosia beetle sp,ecies. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

This paper is published by permission of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

A REVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING AMBROSJA BEETLE ATTACK 17 

REFERENCES 

ANDERSON, R. F. (1948). Host selection by the pine engraver. J. econ. Ent., 41: 596-602. 

BAKER, J. M. (1956). Investigations on the oak pinhole borer, Platypus cylindrus Fab. A 

progress report. Rec. 1956 Ann. Conv. Brit. Wood Pres. Ass.: 92-102. 

BAKER, J. M. (1960). Ambrosia beetle attack on living Baikiaea insignis subsp. /11inor Leonard. 

En1p. For. Rev.: 39 (3): 341-343. 

BEESON, C. F. C. (1941). The ecology and control of the forest insects of India, and the 

neighbouring countries. Vasant Press, Dehra Dun, India. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1938a). Biologic~l notes on Malayan Scolytoidea. Malay. Forester, 7: 23-30. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1938b). The incidence of ambrosia beetle attack on poisoned and girdled 

trees. Malav. Forester, 7: 77-86. 

BROWNE, F.·G. (1941). The economic importance of Malayan ambrosia beetles. Malay. 

Forester, 10: 59-68. 

BRowNE, F. G. (1949a). Pinhole borer attack on living meranti trees. Malay. Forester, 12: 1-3. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1949b). Tests of preservatives against ambrosia beetles in Malaya. Malay. 

Forester, 12: 174-189. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1950). Ambrosia beetle attack on logs of tembusu and meranti tembaga. 

Malay. Forester, 13: 167-168. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1952). Suggestions for future research in the control of ambrosia beetles. 

Malay. Forester, 15: 197-206. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1958). Some aspects of host selection among ambrosia beetles in the humid 

tropics of South-east Asia. Malay. Forester, 21: 164-182. 

BROWNE, F. G. and FOENANDER, E. C. (1937). An entomological survey of tapped jelutong 

trees. Ma/ay. Forester, 6: 240-254. 

CACHAN, P. (1957). Les Scolytoidea mycetophages des forets de Basse Cote d'Ivoire. Problemes 

biologiques et ecologiques. Rev. Path, veg., 36 (1-2): 1-26 

CHAPMAN, J. A. (1956). Physiological and biological studies on the ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron 

lineatum (Oliv.). Unpub. notes. ' 

CHAPMAN, J. A. (1958a). Studies on the physiology of the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron in 

relation to its ecology. Proc. Tenth Int. Congo Ent., 4: 375-380. 

CHAPMAN, J. A. (1958b). A device for visualising the pattern of plane polarised light from 

blue sky. Nature, Lond., 181: 1393-1394. 

CHAPMAN, J. A. and KINGf:l0RN, l. M. (1958). Studies of flight and attack activity of the 

ambrosia beetlc, Trypodendron lineatu/1l (Oliv.), and other Scolytids. Canad. Ent., 90 (6): 

362-372. 

CHARARAS, M. C. (1959a). Les variations de la pression osmotique des coniferes, facteur 

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1907-1410. 

CHARARAS, M. C. (1959b). Recherches sur le desequilibre physiologique des branches de 

coniferes attaquees par les coleopteres scolytidae. C.R. A cad. Sci., Paris, 248: 3612-3614. 

CHARARAS, M. C. (1959c). Relations entre la pression osmotique et le role de la plante-hote 

a l'egard des coleopteres Scolytidae. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 249: 2109-2111. 

CHARARAS, M. C. (1959d). Relations entre la pression osmotique des coniferes et leur attaque 

par les Scolytidae. Rev. Path. veg., 38 (4): 215-233. 

CHATTERJEE, N. C. and CHATTERJEE, P. N. (1951). Insect borers of newly felled timber and 

their control. Indian For., 77: 740-746. 

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Agric. Res. Branch-For. Biol. Div. 15: (5): 2. 

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3

I McBRIDE, 


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THE DESTRUCTION OF SHOREA ALBIDA FOREST BY AN 

UNIDENTIFIED INSECT 

By J. A. R. ANDERSON 

(Assistant Conservator ofForests, Sarawak) 

SUMMARY 

Briefly describes the occurrence and distribution of Shorea albida in peat swamp 

forest in Sarawak and Brunei. Three vegetational associations are recognised in two 

J 

of which Shorea albida is gregarious. 

Approximately 30,000 acres of Shorea albida have been killed, and mortality has 

increased in the last ten years. Evidence from aerial photographic and ground surveys 

is given. 

The precise cause of the damage is unknown, but an unidentified and uncollected 

defoliating caterpillar is believed to be responsible. A contributory factor may be 

ecological disequilibrium of the peat-swamps. 

HOREA ALBIDA Sym. is found in peat swamp forest from the Sadong River 

Sin Sarawak to the Tutong River in Brunei and, as far as is known, is endemic to 

these two territories. It may possibly occur in the Sambas district ofIndonesian Borneo, 

but it is certainly absent from the Lawas and Limbang districts of Sarawak and from 

North Borneo. Though largely confined to peat swamps where it is gregariousunusual 

in tropical rain forest-it occurs also, to a lesser extent, on infertile, largely 

podzolic, soils in what is'locally known as Kerangas forest (Browne) or what has been 

termed heath forest (Richards). 

The peat swamps along the north-west coast of Borneo are of the raised bog type 

overlying recent alluvium and extend for a distance of up to fifty miles inland. Theirecology 

is at present being studied (Anderson). Six vegetational communities have 

been recognised and these are generally found in a catenary sequence from the 

perimeter to the centre of individual swamps. The communities are differentiated on 

floristic composition and on structure of the forest, and the forest types may be 

interpreted from aerial photographs (scale 1:25,000). Shorea albida occurs as the 

principal, frequently the sole, dominant in three communities (Nos. 2-4 in the 

catenary sequence), which are briefly described below: 

(2) Shorea albida-Gonystylus-Stemonurus association (locally known as a/an 

. forest). The canopy is uneven and large trees, frequently exceeding 12 ft. 

girth, of Shorea albida dominate the forest. These are usually hollow and often 

have the appearance of being moribund, with large stag-headed crowns. 

Mid-girth trees and regeneration of Shorea albida are almost entirely absent. 

The moderately dense middle and lower storeys are largely composed of 

species of the Gonystylus-Dactylocladus-Neoscortechinia association, which 

occurs on the perimeter of the swamps. 

(3) Shorea albida consociation (alan bunga forest). The average height of the 

even closed canopy ranges between 160 and 190 feet and is entirely composed 

of Shorea albida, which averages between thirty five and fifty trees to the 

acre with girths ranging from three to ten feet. The middle storey is largely 

absent and the moderately dense understorey consists of small trees of associated 

species. 

(4) Shorea albida-Litsea-Parastemon association (padang a/an forest). In this 

forest type the even closed canopy varies between 100 and 120 feet in height, 

but all trees are relatively small with few exceeding six feet in girth. The tall 

slender stems give a pole like aspect to the forest. Shorea albida is the principal 

dominant, with between 70 and 180 stems per acre, but other species, notably 

Litsea palustris Kostermans (msc.) frequently occur as co-dominants. 

3* 

19


Until recently Shorea albida forest has had little economic value. Large trees are 

usually defective and the great variation in density of the timber (Brazier) offers 

particular ultilisation problems. Its potential value, however, especially in the Shorea 

albida consociation, is recognised: the pure stands will produce an exceptionally 

high volume of timber per acre and extraction costs are low. It would appear that 

its value in the future may lie in an integrated timber industry with plywood, saw and 

chipboard mills. 

The first report of damage in Shorea albida forest was made in 1953 by Mr. J. H. 

Nelson-Smith after a reconnaissance flight over the lower reaches of the Baram 

LOWER BARAM 

FOURTH DIVISION, SARAWAK 

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Perimeter of Shorea Albida Forest ........---- 

Areas of dead Shorea Albida Forest. 1948.·'_ 

Areas of dead Shorea Albida Forest, 19-58·· .@ 

Scale 2 Miles to an Inch 

Figure 1. Map ofthe Lower reaches of the Bararn showing location ofdead patches ofShorea albida.

DESTRUCTION OF SHOREA ALBIDA FOREST 21 

River in northern Sarawak. Large areas downriver from the Bakong River were noted 

where heavy defoliation of Shorea albida had occurred. Subsequent examination of 

aerial photographs (sorties flown 1948) confirmed this report and it was possible to 

plot the location and extent of the damage. The margins of the damage in each locality 

are relnarkably precise and from the air the flat canopy of the pure Shorea albida 

forest resembles a moth-eaten carpet (see Plate 1). Further reconnaissance flights 

indicated that the damage had not occurred simultaneously; in some areas the dead 

trees had completely disappeared (subsequent ground inspection proved their former 

existence) and different stages from recent defoliation to complete absence of stems 

were noted. Moreover, recent damage, not visible on the 1948 photographs, was 

plotted. 

In 1958 further aerial photographic sorties were flown over part of the lower Baram 

and Brunei, and these provide evidence of the increase in damage during the previous 

ten years. Four new patches ofdamage, totalling 637 acres, have occurred in the forest 

downriver from the Puran River. These patches~ though quite distinct from each other, 

are closely grouped and lie on a line running approximately south-west by north-east. 

A further area of 395 acres on approximately the same axis occurs on the true right 

bank of the Baram and two further smaller patches, totalling 154 acres (not shown on 

the accompanying map), are to be found in the Ulu Panderuan in Brunei, a few 

miles to the east. In this last locality it is probable that defoliation occurred in 1948 

as the texture of the canopy as seen on the aerial photographs flown that ,year appears 

disturbed in the precise areas where dead patches forest are to be found on the 1958 

photographs. In the middle reaches of the Baram, and in its tributary the Bakong, 

four new areas of damage, totalling approximately 600 acres, have been noted on 

recent aerial photographs. These occur near Loagan Bunut, in the Beluru Protected 

Forest and upstream from Kuala Nyabor. It is probable that additional patches of 

damage are yet to be discovered in areas not covered by recent aerial photographic 

sorties. 

In 1955 two of the areas of the damaged forest were examined on the ground. 

A trace was cut into the forest downriver from the Puran River and three half-acre 

sample plots were enumerated. Two were sited in patches of dead forest and the third 

in a narrow intervening strip of undamaged Shorea albida forest. The location of the 

trace and sample plots is shown in Figure 1 and the aerial photograph illustrated on 

Plate 1 covers part of the same area. The results of the enumeration are included in 

Table 1. 

The surviving remnant of high forest (Plot 1) has the typical structure and floristic 

composition of the Shorea albida consociation, and is similar to plots enumerated 

elsewhere; the middle storey is largely absent, but there is a moderately dense understorey 

with seventy-nine trees, in the 12-24 inch class, to the half-acre. In the patch 

of dead Shorea albida forest nearest to the Baram (Plot 2) it was estimated that the 

Shorea albida trees had been killed ten to fifteen years previously. All the killed trees had 

fallen and only the rotting stumps and timber remain. No regeneration of the species 

was noted. The understorey is particularly dense with 161 trees in the 12-24 inch 

class. Tetractomia holttumii and Quercus sundaicus were very abundant. The understorey 

merges into an uneven canopy in which Gonysr.vlus bancanus is the principal 

dominant. The floristic composition is similar to that in undamaged forest, though 

some species which do not normally exceed twelve inches girth in the latter were 

recorded. In the second patch (Plot 3) it was estimated that the Shorea albida had 

been dead for at least twenty-five years and perhaps over thirty years. Only the remains 

of old stumps, in an advanced state of decay, can be found. Once again young trees 

and regeneration of Shorea albida were absent. Competition among the middle and 

understorey trees has eliminated many of the smaller stems and there is a greater 

number of trees in the 36-48 and 48-60 inch classes; Diospyros ferrea var. buxifolia is 

the most abundant dominant. The canopy height varies between eighty and one 

hundred feet, and is at least sixty feet below the height of the surrounding Shorea 

albida canopy 

Further extensive damage has recently occurred in the Badas peat swamps, which

22 EMPIRE FORES1~R)r REVIEW 

cover ninety square miles behind the oil field at Seria in Brunei. Near the River 

Belait one small area of damage of forty acres can be seen on the 1948 photographs, 

whereas the 1954 photographs show a large lozenge shaped area of damage of 680 

acres, and photographs taken in 1958 indicate the presence of two further smaller 

areas, 95 and 170 acres, near the permanent rail line across the swamp. On a number 

of occasions the damaged areas have been examined from the air, including a close 

inspection by helicopter. The stark gaunt stems of dead Shorea albida are extremely 

prominent and the areas of dead forest can be easily picked out from a distance of 

ten miles. The largest area of damage was visited by the author in 1954 when one of 

the transects cut during an ecological survey of the Badas swamps ilnpinged on the 

margin of dead forest. It was obvious that the Shorea albida had only recently been 

killed. The canopy was completely defoliated but the branch system and even smaller 

twigs were intact (see Plate 3). There was an absence of recent fallen foliage of Shorea 

albida but the surface of the swanlp was covered in what appeared to be decaying 

frass. No damage to other species was noted, nor were there any apparent signs of 

PLATE 1. 

Aerial photograph (Scale 1:25,000) of peat swamp forests of the Lower Baram, Sarawak. The dense 

white crowns are entirely Shorea albida. Sharply defined patches of damage may be clearly noted. 

This photograph covers part of the area shown in Figure 1 and includes the location of the trace and 

three sample plots.


revival of the Shorea albida trees, which are particularly dense here. The damaged 

area is composed of the Shorea albida-Litsea-Parastemon association and enumerations 

showed 160-190 trees of Shorea albida to the acre. 

The most extensive and remarkable area of damage has occurred in the Maludam 

Peninsula near the western limit of distribution of Shorea albida, about 270 miles 

from the nearest damaged forest in the Baram. The species covers a block of approximately 

197 square miles and is the largest single block of the species. An area of 

25,000 acres, a little more than one fifth of the total area of forest, was destroyed 

during a period of not longer than six months in 1948. It so happened that the destruction 

of tIle forest coincided with a series of aerial photographic sorties over parts 

of the area, so the time of the attack and the extent of the damage can be accurately 

checked. In the earliest photographs, flown 1947, the canopy is still intact, whereas 

in the area covered by the 1948 photographs it is clear that defoliation is occurring, 

the texture of the canopy being speckled as opposed to the pure even canopy of undamaged 

Shorea albida forest, the appearance of which is an almost unbroken white 

mass. On the 1949 photographs the crowns are completely defoliated, the bare individual 

crowns giving a feathery appearance to the canopy when the photographs 

are viewed through a stereoscope. From these sorties the area of the damage can be 

clearly delimited and subsequent sorties in 1952 and 1954 show no further developments. 

The area of destroyed forest extends for eighteen miles and virtually the entire 

Shorea albida forest between the Saribas and the Sungei Tissak has been killed from 

Bukit Bunga at the upriver margins ofthe peat swamp to Sungei Sila, a small tributary 

of the Saribas. The former forest was mainly of the Shorea albida consociation, 

though the central areas were probably of the Shorea albida-Litsea-Parastemon 

association and the damage also extended into the Shorea albida-Gonystylus-Stemonurus 

association towards the margin of the swamp. It is estimated that the average number 

of Shorea albida trees per acre was about sixty, which means that approximately 

1,542,000 trees have been killed. 

The destroyed forest has been flown over and visited on foot on a number of 

occasions. The characteristics of the damage are similar to those found in the Baram, 

though it would appear that there have been more survivors in the damaged zone 

in the Maludam Peninsula, especially towards the northern limits of the damage. 

Two-half acre plots were enumerated: Plot 1 in the Shorea albida-Gonys!.v1us-Stemonurus 

association and Plot 2 in the Shorea albida consociation. Twenty and forty-seven 

Shorea albida trees had been killed in the two plots respectively. No damage to other 

species was recorded. Seedling regeneration of Shorea albida was found in Plot 2. 

This probably originated from a tree a short distance outside the plot that had survived, 

and which fruited in 1954. In Plot 1 medium size trees of Gonystylus bancanus 

are dominant. This species is sub-dominant in the canopy of the undamaged forest. 

The middle storey, which is composed of a large number of species, is moderately 

dense. In Plot 2 the structure and floristic composition of the forest is similar to that 

found in Plot 3 in the Baram, with a large number (99) of trees in the 12-24 inch 

girth class. Tetractomia holttumii is again the most abundant species. 

Initially the cause ofthe damageinnorthernSarawakand Brunei was quite unknown. 

Indeed, there are still doubts on this point. The possibility that it may have been 

caused by pollution of the swamps originating from oil seepage or gas escapes was 

investigated. This hypothesis appeared attractive as the Brunei Shell Petroleum Company 

operate a concentrated oilfield on the littoral fringe three miles from the damage 

in the Badas area. Furthermore, exploratory wells, which proved to be dry, had been 

drilled along the banks of the lower Baram, and there are three well-known gas 

escapes or minor mud volcanoes on the margins of the peat swamps further upstream 

along the banks of the Bakong River, a tributary of the Baram. If, however, this had 

been the causal factor it is likely that evidence of pollution would have been found 

on the swamp surface and that the degree of damage would have tended to follow the 

natural drainage of the swamps. Moreover, severe pollution of the soil would almost 

certainly affect more than one species. It is considered more probable, therefore, that 

the cause of the damage is biological or pathological.

24 MPIR ORES1~R R VI W 

PLATE 2 

An extensive area of damage in the Lower Baram from the air. The sharp margins of the damage 

and alnlost total mortality of Shorea a/hida within the danlaged area may be clearly noted. 

PLATE 3 

xtensive damage in the Maludam Peninsula from the air. This photograph wa taken ten years 

after the de truction of the horea alhida and only one third of the dead trees remain tandjng.


There is little doubt as to the causal factor in the Maludam Peninsula. News of a 

plague of caterpillars, locally known as ulat bulu (hairy caterpillar) filtered through 

to the Forest Department, but when a forest officer made an investigation the infestation 

was over and he found neither the caterpillar nor the damage. The local 

people, however, and in particular the Ibans, who live along the banks of the Batang 

Lupar and Saribas and visit the Shorea albida forest in search of dammar and other 

minor forest produce, vividly recall the plague and tell lurid tales, sometimes no 

doubt somewhat exaggerated, of the infestation. The caterpillars were described 

as being one to one and a half inches in length, the thickness of a pencil, with black 

bodies and covered in reddish brown non-poisonous and non-irritant hairs. At the 

height of the infesta~ion there were millions of larvae, and according to at least one 

report, towards the end of the outbreak they completely covered the ground. The 

wife of the District Officer, Betong, on the southern bank of the Sariba~Jremembers 

caterpillars swarming into her gardens. They were greedily devoured by her hens, 

which subsequently died. Apparently the outbreak originated towards the southern 

end of the peninsula and spread northwards, finally petering out near Sungei Sila, 

a small tributary of the Saribas. It managed to cross the Sllngei Trusan but was 

contained between the Saribas and Tissak rivers, though the insect apparently tried 

to cross the latter. The infestation was at its height during the rice harvesting season, 

in March and April. Thousands of larvae were also found floating down the main 

rivers. There is no definite evidence that it attacked other species, though the Ibans 

reported that it also defoliated trees of other Shorea species, none of which grow in 

association with the pure stands of Shorea albida though some species are found as 

scattered trees in the Shorea albida-Gonystylus-Stemonurus association. Only one 

defoliation was noted and this was apparently sufficient to cause mortality. 

The damage has been attributed by the Entomologist, F.R.I., Malaya, to Hymantrids 

(tussock moths) or related Hypsidae, though of course confirmation of this must 

wait the collection of the insect. Arrangements have been made for the Entomologist 

to visit Sarawak when an attack is found in progress. A discussion at this stage on the 

insect and the infestation must be largely speculative, but there are certain factors 

that deserve comment. Each infestation is remarkably localised, with the destruction 

radiating from one point then suddenly ceasing. Presumably climatic conditionsperhaps 

a short dry spell-control the depredations of the insect. There is no sign 

of damage older than perhaps fifty years and it is therefore probable that the insect 

has only recently become a serious menace. It is indeed possible that it may not be 

indigenous. Perhaps its former host was another Shorea species from elsewhere in. 

Borneo or in another part of Malaysia. Certainly the infestation has increased at 

a very rapid rate during the past ten years, even if the exceptional damage in the 

Maludam Peninsula is discounted. Explosive outbreaks of infestation of this nature 

are extremely rare in primary tropical rain forest. Their absence is ascribed (Elton) 

to the usual complexity of the forest with a large number of species and no single 

dominant. The exception in this case is perhaps not the outbreaks but the gregarious 

stands of a single species. It may be noted that on two occasions during the past 

seven years the author has observed limited and localised outbreaks of defoliation 

by insects in tropical peat swamp forests. In 1953 heavy defoliation of species of 

Sapotaceae, especially of Palaquium walsurifolium, occurred in parts of the Rejang 

Delta. The large caterpillars responsible were eagerly collected by local Ibans to supplement 

their diet. In 1958 almost complete defoliation of Dactylocladus stenostachys 

occurred in the Naman Forest Reserve in the Rejang Delta. Mr. A. D. Parsons, a local 

forest officer, attempted, without success, to breed out the insect. In neither case was the 

defoliation fatal to the trees. It is noteworthy that Shorea albida appears particularly 

susceptible to damage by organic and inorganic agents. As many as fifty trees may 

be killed by a single lightning strike. The small holes in the pure canopy ofShorea albida 

to be seen on the aerial photographs are largely the result of lightning damage. 

After studying the peat swamps for some years the author has concluded that the 

ecology of the swamps is in disequilibrium. One effect is that Shorea albida is generally 

not regenerating on the outer margins of its distribution and is being replaced by

TABLE I 

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0\ 

SUMMARY OF TREES IN 12 INCH GIRTH CLASSES RECORDED IN PLOTS 1, 2 AND 3 IN THE BARAM, SARAWAK. 

Girth Classes: 

I 

12 I 24 

I 

I 

1 

36 

I 

48 60 72 84 Total 

Species: Plots: 1 2 3 I 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 

I 

I 

and over 

Shorea albida Sym. ... ... ... ... 8 6 9 7 5 35 

Gonystylus bancanus (Miq.) Kurz.... ... ... 6 4 4 7 12 5 4 5 2 18 22 9 

Copaifera palustris (Sym.) De Wit ... ... 7 5 10 1 5 1 8 5 16 

Palaquium cochlearifolium van Royen ... ... 6 5 9 1 1 2 7 6 11 

Diospyrosferrea (Willd.) Bakh. var. buxifolia (Roxb.) 

Bakh. ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 6 8 3 4 6 1 1 161 

11 11 30 

Dyera lowii Hook. f. ... ... ... 2 6 2 3 1 1 2 10 3 

Dactylocladus stenostachys Olive ... ... 2 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 

Combretocarpus rotundatus Dans. ... ... ... 5 4 3 3 2 1 9 6 3 

Buchanania arborescens BI. var. florida ... ... 1 1 

Polyalthia hypoleuca Rk. f. et Th. ... ... ... 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 

Ganua coriacea Pierre ex Dubbard ... ... 5 5 5 5 

Canthium didymum Gaertn. ... ... 9 13 2 1 10 13 2 

Sterculia rhoidifolia Stapf. ex Ridley ... ... 2 1 5 2 1 5 

Eugenia nemestima M. R. Rend. ... ... ... 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 4 4 

Eugenia sp. (2615) ... ... ... ... ... 4 1 1 1 4 1 

Eugenia sp. (4153) ... ... ... ... ... 3 2 1 3 2 1 

Eugenia chrismannii Merr. and Perry ... ... 1 1 

Tetractomia holttumii Ridley ... ... ... 9 54 11 1 7 3 10 61 14 

flex hypoglauca (Miq.) Loes. ... ... ... 3 9 11 3 9 11 

Nephelium melanomiscum Radlk. ... ... ... 2 2 7 3 1 2 2 11 

Xanthophyllum amoenum Chod. ... ... ... I 1 1 1 

Cyathocalyx biovulatus Boerl. ... . .. ... 1 1 I 1 

Calophyllum rhizophorum Boerl. et Koord. ... 1 I 

Mezzettia umbellata Becc. ... ... ... ... 2 1 3 

Stemonurus umbellatus Becc. ... ... ... 5 2 5 2 

Shorea inaequilateralis Sym.... ... ... ... I I 2 1 1 2 

Xanthophyllum sp. novo (2614) ... ... ... I 2 I 2 

Quercus sundaicus (BI.) Rehd. ... ... 22 1 23 

Palaquium ridleyi King et Gamble... ... ... 1 I 

Macaranga puncticulata Gage. ... ... ... 1 I 

Garcinia sp. (2828) ... ... ... ... 

1 I 

Vatica mangachapoi Blanco ... ... ... I 1 

::: I 

Hopea pentanervia Sym. ... ... ... ... I I I 

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Tristania grandifolia Ridley ... 

Linociera Spa (3282) ... 

Santiria gr~ffithii (Hook. f.) Engl. ... 

Litsea cylindrO£arpa Gamble 

Dryobalanops rappa Becc. ... 

Cratoxylon arborescens (Vahl.) Blume 

Parastemon versteeghii Merr. and Perry 

Xylopia coriifolia Ridley 

Litsea insignis (Bl.) Boerl. ... 

Hors/ieldia crassifolia (Hook. f. et Th.) Warb. 

Amoora rubiginosa Hiern. 

TABLE I-continued 

2 1 

Xerospermum muricatum (Griff.) Radlk. ... ... 1 I 

Goniothalmus malayanus Hook. f. et Th. .. . 1 1 

Cratoxylon glaucum Korth. ... ... ... ... I i I 

Garcinia rostrata B. and H. 1 1 I 

Garcinia vidna Ridley ... 1 I I 1 

Eugenia Spa ........•... . .• I I 1 I I! 1 

-- 

Totals .. . '" I 79 162 81 25 34 35118 8 27 I 6 5 1 9 7 1 5 1149 210 144 

2 

I 

1 

I 

2 

1 

1 

2 

111 

2221 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

o 

tT1 

\JJ 

,.., 

'"C n 

~ 

~ 

o z 

o 

~ 

~ 

::t: 

a 

~ 

t't'1 

~ 

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~ 

~ 

-....... 

o 

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en 

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-.....I


other dominants of the Gonystylus-Dactylocladus-Neoscortechinia association. The 

nature of this disequilibrium is being further investigated, and the hypothetical 

cause is attributed to either subsidence of the coast or a clinlatic change over the past 

two to three hundred years. It would appear that the disequilibriu111 is particularly 

affecting Shorea albida, making the species more susceptible al1d vulnerable to damage 

by organic and inorganic agents. 

The author acknowledges with thanks the assistance of the Director, Botanic 

Gardens, Singapore, in identifying botanical specimens and the permission of the 

Air Ministry for the publication of the aerial photograph shown in Plate 1. The 

assistance of the Brunei Shell Petroleum Company in placing at the author's disposal 

a helicopter is also gratefully acknowledged. 

REFERENCES 

ANDERSON, J. A. R. (1958): "Observations on the ecology of the peat-swamp forests of Sarawak 

and Brunei". Paper read at the Symposium on the Vegetation of the Humid Tropics, Bogor. 

December 1958. 

BRAZIER, J. D. (1956): "Density variation in the timber of Shorea albida". EMPIRE FORESTRY REVIEW, 

25, 40, 4-19. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1955). Forest Trees of Sarawak and Brunei. Government Printing Office, Kuching, 

Sarawak. 

BROWNE, F. G. (1952): "Kerangas lands of Sarawak". Malayan Forester, 15, 61-73. 

ELTON, C. S. (1958): Ecology ~f invasions by animals and plants. Methuen. 

RICHARDS, P. W. (1952): Tropical Rain Forest. Cambridge University Press.

TABLE 11 

SUMMARY OF TREES IN TWELVE INCH GIRTH CLASSES RECORDED IN PLOTS 1 AND 2 IN THE MALUDAM PENIN~ULA1 SARAWAK 

12 in. Girth Classes: i 12 24 I· 36 

------------------, I I 

Species: Plots: I I 2 I 2 I I 2 I I 2 1 

---I I 

Gonystylus bancanus (Miq.) King 

Litsea palustris Kostermans (msc.) 

Copaifera palustris (Sym.) De Wit 

Tetractomia holttumii Ridley 

Polyalthia hypoleuca Hook. f. et Th. 

Campnosperma coriacea (Jack) Hallier f. ex v. Steenis ... 

Litsea resinosa Bl. ... 

Palaquium pseudocuneatum H. J. Lam ... 

Neoscortechinia kingii (Hook. f.) Pax. et Hoffm. 

Polyalthia glauca (Hassk.) Boerl. 

Ganua coriacea Pierre ex Dubbard 

Knema kunstleri (King) Warb. ... 

Eugenia nemestima M. R. Hend. 

Quercus dasystachyus (Miq.) Rehd. var. gracilis Hatusima (msc.) 

Canthium umbel/atum Wight. ... 

Quercus jaheri Hatusima (msc.) ... 

Garcinia tetranda Pierre ... 

Samadera indica Gaertn. ... 

Gymnacanthera eugenii/olia (A. DC.) var. griffithii (Warb.) 

Sinclair ... ... ... 

Eugenia havilandii Merr. ... 

Santiria griffithii (Hook. f.) Engl. 

Cephalomappa malloticarpa J.J.S. 

Tetractomia parviflora Ridley 

Quercus sundaicus (Bl.) Rehd. 

Pygeum parviflorum Teijsm et Binn. 

Macaranga caladifolia Becc. 

Gonystylus forbesii Gilg. 

Diospyros /errea (Willd.) Bakh. var. bux(folia (Roxb.) Bakh.... 

Aromadendron nutans Dandy ... 

Dactylocladus stenostachys Olive 

Palaquium ridleyj King et Gamble 

Canthium didymum Gaertn. 

Pithecel/obium oppositum Miq. ... 

Dyera lowii Hook. f. ... 

Cyathocalyx biovulatus Boorl. 

Xanthophy//um amoenum Chod.... 

3 

2 

7 4 

12 1 

4 

22 

1 

3 

1 1 

2 9 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 1 

6 

4 

1 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 48 : 60 72 i 84 I Totals 

. 1 2 \ 1 2 I 1 2 I_l_~ 

6 2 17 4 I 7 2 t 5 

1 

2 I I 35 10 

2 I 1 I j I 3 

1 11 1 21· 1 1 I I 3 13 

10 46 1 1 

i I 11 46 

1 . I I I I 

1 \ I i 1 

2 : I 2 

I l' 1 1 2 

434 

2 

9 4 

1 1 

5 

4 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

4 

1 1 

4 9 

1 

I 

3 

I 

I 

I 167 

1 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

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t-i 

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e 

~1'-004 

o 

Z 

o 

"!1 

VJ 

~ 

o 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

S 

~ 

"T1 

o 

~ 

m CI.l 

~ 

Totals 

62 99 27 

8 1 9 

3 

7 

3 

105 113 

N 

\0

EUROPEAN FORESTRY COMMISSION 

SECOND STUDY TOUR ON APPLIED SILVICULTURE: 

CONVERSION OF DEGRADED HARDWOOD FORESTS 

(INCLUDING COPPICE) 

United Kingdom, 20-30th June, 1960 

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE- UNITED NATIONS 

ROME, 1960 

SUMMARY 

The background and the extent of the problem are first stated by G. B. Ryle. 

Details are then given by J. B. Stocks, as Rapporteur, of the application with 

special reference to shelterwood restocking. Some figures regarding costs are 

given and a summary of the silvicultural advantages end this section. 

Rapporteurs from the U.K., France and Germany give a general summary. 

E. G. Richards gives some information on the marketing problems to be 

solved. 

I-INTRODUCTION 

G. B. RYLE (Director of Forestry tor England) 

IN 1946 a Census of Woodlands indicated that we had in Great Britain an area of 

close on 850,000 acres (344,000 hectares) of woodland classified as coppice or 

scrub, nearly the whole of which was in urgent need of restocking by some means 

or another to bring it back to commercial productivity. The majority of these woodlands 

were in private ownership and though substantial areas have subsequently 

been acquired by the Forestry Commission there is still a major and an expensive 

problem lying in the hands of individual owners. 

Officers of the Forestry Commission, in particular in S.E. England and the Isle of 

Wight, and also in S.W. England and the East Midlands, have done much pioneer 

work in studying methods of restoration and have all found great advantages in 

adopting systems of shelterwood under widely varying ecological conditions-soil, 

climate, light intensity and herbage cover. 

In this densely populated country many townsfolk and not a few countrymen 

look with suspicion upon any clear felling of a woodland however impoverished it 

may have been. These same people often view with despondency any appearance 

of artificial replanting of a felled woodland especially if valuable conifers are used 

to replace low-grade hardwoods. The adoption of a shelterwood system is therefore 

of immense amenity value because, throughout the whole course of treatment right 

up to the full establishment of the new crop, the woodland beauty remains unsullied 

or is even enhanced. 

The following chapter summarises the methods, the techniques and the reasons 

for them as now adopted in the several English Conservancies where the problem 

has been tackled on a large scale. 

II-TREATMENT OF DEGRADED HARDWOOD AREAS FOR' SHELTERWOOD RESTOCKING 

Rappo'rteur: 

J. B. STOCKS, United Kingdom 

Until recently the re-establishment of new woodland on poor hardwood sites was 

almost invariably preceded by clear felling. Poor hardwoods can serve a useful 

purpose in the establishment of the newly planted crop. This shelterwood system 

is now being used very largely in the re-afforestation of derelict hardwood sites of 

30

EUROPEAN FORESTRY COMMISSION 31 

many types. The type of cover, the species which are planted, the procedure, the 

silvicultural, financial and management aspects are considered together with the 

amenity value of such a system. 

1. The types of poor woodland under consideration are those which are unlikely 

to develop into marketable high forest or coppice. They are generally hardwood 

or broadleaf crops and can be divided broadly into species which provide a high 

cover and those which are only capable of producing a low cover. 

2. The most commonly found species in the former or high cover classes are birch 

(Betula verrucosa and Betula pubescens), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), common oak 

· (Quercus rabur), durmast oak (Quercus petraea), sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), 

wych elm (Ulmus glabra), lime (Tilia platyphyllos) and sweet chestnut (Castanea' 

sativa). 

3. The low cover sp,ecies are mainly of coppice origin such as hazel (Corylus 

avellana), oak (Quercus), sweet chestnut (Castanea) and hornbeam (Carpinus 

betulus) or of shrub-like species among which the most common are field maple 

(Acer campestre), sallow (Salix capraea), hawthorn (Crataegus monogy'na), blackthorn 

(Prunus spinosa), dogwood (Co'rnus sanguinea), elder (Sam,bucus nigra), holly 

(flex aquitolium) and privet (Ligustrum vulgare). 

4. Those species which develop the higher cover are capable of growing to tree 

heights but the lower cover species are in general less than twenty feet (six metres) 

in height. 

5. Many different species are usually found on the same area except when the 

previous crop has been worked on a coppice rotation in which case the coppice 

species predominates. 

6. There is often a great variation in the height and density of the cover crop. 

Under these circumstances it is advisable, if possible on management grounds, to 

leave the crop untreated for a few years until the taller, clean growing species 

have suppressed much of the lower cover and thus made it easier to penetrate the 

area with men and tools and to select the desirable shade trees. 

Density of canop'y to be opened out prior to planting 

7. The taller cover has been found to be more beneficial to the new crop. It is 

therefore desirable during the selection of the cover crop to retain those trees with 

a light foliaged crow,n which is high above the ground: the stems should be sturdy 

to obviate falling over. 

8. It is however desirable to remove initially all trees larger than eight inches 

(twenty centimetres) diameter at five feet (1.5 metres) from the ground and also trees 

with heavy spreading crowns. Such trees should always be removed before planting 

takes place as it is not possible except by girdling to remove them subsequently 

without incurring damage to the new crop. 

9. It is also desirable to remove all dense shade-bearing low shrubs such as privet 

(Ligustrum vu/gare), dogwood (Cornus sanguinea), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), 

blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and holly (flex aquifolium), prior to planting, except 

on the most shallow soils overlying chalk or limestone or where frost is severe. In 

such cases any form of controlled cover in !the early stages of the new crop is 

beneficial. 

10. It is advisable to tend the cover to form a single canopy rather than to 

allow the over-shade to remain at different levels. 

11. The amount of overhead cover to be retained at the time of planting the 

new crop should not form a complete canopy, especially where it is low. 

12. Recent experience of planting under too dense a canopy has proved this by 

heavy mortality. During the wet summer of 1958 the losses were due to the new 

crop having insufficient light and remaining permanently wet and cold, particularly 

on the clay soils. 

13. Heavy losses during the extremely dry summer of 1959 were also ,encountered 

and this was attributed not only to insufficient light but to the excessive removal of


soil moisture by the overcrop down to a considerable depth and the consequent 

complete drying out of the top soil late in the season. This has been particularly 

disastrous in cases where an over-wood of ash was used in too dense or even a 

complete canopy. 

14. The amount of canopy to be retained at the time of planting varies with the 

species, the height of the cover crop and the light intensity of the locality. There is 

need for more drastic opening up where the light intensity is low, especially in 

industrial sites with polluted atmosphere. 

15. The ideal canopy to be retained would appear to be approximately 60 per cent 

to 70 per cent when the cover is tall, but as the height of the cover decreases so the 

opening of the canopy should be greater, so that with a low type of such species 

as hazel coppice (C()lrylus avellana) the cover should provide approximately a 40 

per cent to 50 per cent canopy. 

16. The species nlost preferred are birch (Betula)., oak (Quercus) and elm (Ulnlus). 

These species have a type of crown which permits a certain penetration of light which 

is favourable to the newly planted crop. Ash (Fraxinus) provides a similar type 

of cover but it removes very large quantities of moisture and nutrients from the soil. 

17. Sycamore (Acer), lime (Tilia), sweet chestnut (Castanea) and hornbeanl 

(C'arpinus) cast considerable shade and the large leaves of sycamore (A cer) and 

chestnut (C"astanea) which provide such an excellent leaf mould free from weeds 

prior to planting can cover up" at the tinle of leaf fall, those plants which are too 

small. 

18. Jf pure, these last species must have the canopy reduced to about 40 per cent 

PLATE 

Norway spruce and beech 

planted five years ago under an 

overhead cover of birch and ash. 

The second renloval of the ovefcrop 

is now due. 

I

EUROPEAN FORESTRY COMMISSION 33 

PLATE 2 

Thorn scrub on heavy clay. 

This type is quite unsuitable 

for cover and should be completely 

cleared except for the 

taller trees in the background 

which could be retained as 

cover. The largest tree is too 

large and should be felled before 

planting. The dense growth of 

grass appears on such sites when 

the scrub is renloved. 

if the cover is tall, and if the cover is low it should be reduced to .no more than 

25 per cent to 30 per cent. 

19. Where mixtures occur the overcrop should be treated on its merits according 

to the species present. 

New Crop Species 

20. This system is essentially most suited to the use of the more shade tolerant 

trees and those species which would su-ffer from frost and exposure if planted 

without cover. 

21. It should be emphasised that the use of overhead cover is a means to the 

establishment of the most desirable species in relation to the permanent site factors 

and the cover should be manipulated accordingly. 

22. The species which have been successfully used are beech (Fagus sylvatica), 

western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), w-estern red cedar (Thuya plicata), 

Lawson cypress (Cha'maecyparis lawsoniana), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), 

Norway spruce (Picea abies), grand fir (Abies grandis) and occasionally noble fir 

(Abies procera) Abies veitchii and Cryptofneria' ja'ponica 

23. All these species appear to thrive under similar light conditions initially. 

24. These facts are based on the assumption that the choice of species for the 

site is correct 1 

for it is quite clear that the shade tolerant quality of any species is 

dependent on all other conditions for growth being suitable... and that if a species is 

planted on an unsuitable soil or with inadequate rainfall., or in a polluted atmosphere, 

it is far less tolerant of shade than the same species growing in its ideal 

environment. 

4

Empire Forestry Review

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