Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Table 3: Activity of Algerian Corsairs during the 17 th & 18 th Centuries Period Captured Ships Captives’ Estimations Source 1605-1632 600 ships 4,800-7,200 Davis, 92 1609-16 466 English and 3,300-5,600 Davis, 92 Scottish ships 1613-21 936 ships and boats 1,720 Grammont, xxiii, 138 1617, 1200 Dan, 314 Madeira 1622-1642 300 British ships 7,000 Earle, 41 (annual average, 350 captives) 1625, Plymouth (Eng. Channel) 27 ships 200 Davis, 92 1627, Reykjavik 400 or 800 Dan, 315; (Iceland) Lane-Pole, 233 1628-1634 80 French ships 1331 captives Dan, 322 1631, Baltimore 237 Dan, 315 (Ireland) 1672-82 353 English ships 2,800-4,200 Davis, 92 1674-1775 11 ships 400 Fontenay, 1346 (6 months) (based on d’Arvieux) 1677-1680 160 British ships 1,300-1,900 Morgan, v 1712-1720 74 ships 1,668 Davis, 93 1714-27 466 English ships 393 Davis, 93 1785-93 13 American ships 136 American State Papers Source: Data is collected from the different sources used in Chapter I. Note: This table gives an idea about prizes and captives and is exclusively based on western accounts. The numbers are enormous and sometimes contradictory; therefore, they have to be taken with caution. 84
2. The Legal Context of Corsairing Capture of individuals and property was indeed a true war of religion between two hostile camps, Muslim and Christian, in which captives occupied an important place. Furthermore, captures did not take place in a vacuum; they occurred in a legal context called ‘corsairing’ or ‘privateering’ depending on the terminology used by the different antagonists. The practice consisted of attacking enemy shipping and making prize of goods and human beings and then disposing of them as legal property. Assaulting enemies on the high seas was so rigorously regulated by customs and laws of the different players that it was accepted as legal practice. Yet, in western writings, what is commonly accepted as lawful activity when it was undertaken by Christian corsairs and privateers is tagged piracy when it was undertaken by Muslims corsairs. Indeed, the edging between ‘corsairing’ and ‘piracy’ is so thin that western writers have often used these two words interchangeably to suit their views and interpretations. Yet, in international law, these terms definitely have different meanings. While the first may be assimilated to an act of war undertaken or authorized by a sovereign state against a lawful enemy, the second remains by definition a “robbery or other violent action, for private ends and without authorization by public authority, committed on the seas outside the normal jurisdiction of any state.” 73 Generally, as the line between corsairing and piracy is often hard to draw, “any act of doubtful legality committed on the seas is apt to be 73 “Piracy,” Encyclopædia Britannica. (Accessed 17 May 2008). 85
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
Page 45 and 46: 1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
Page 47 and 48: In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
Page 49 and 50: Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
Page 51 and 52: 2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
Page 53 and 54: Penon. The failure of the cannonade
Page 55 and 56: Mediterranean against the Habsburg
Page 57 and 58: Once in control of the land, Khayre
Page 59 and 60: part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
Page 61 and 62: In addition to Turks, the crews inc
Page 63 and 64: the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
Page 65 and 66: One finds himself here far from the
Page 67 and 68: counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
Page 69 and 70: Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
Page 71 and 72: Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
Page 73 and 74: Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
Page 75 and 76: Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
Page 77 and 78: chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
Page 79 and 80: Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
Page 81 and 82: established perceptions, goes furth
Page 83 and 84: (barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
Page 85 and 86: meaning a person speaking beneath h
Page 87 and 88: Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
Page 89 and 90: asis for a variety of programs and
Page 91 and 92: freedom of navigation. Slavery was
Page 93 and 94: however, the pace of capture and en
Page 95: slaves. 71 However, in the absence
Page 99 and 100: confronts when looking into diploma
Page 101 and 102: corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
Page 103 and 104: shipping, they operated like pirate
Page 105 and 106: “commission of war from some fore
Page 107 and 108: may be seen as “a cost-efficient
Page 109 and 110: shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
Page 111 and 112: This confusion in legal interpretat
Page 113 and 114: fanatics who had already sworn enmi
Page 115 and 116: treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
Page 117 and 118: harm” or nothing more than a “p
Page 119 and 120: were sometimes harsh—and in that
Page 121 and 122: these treaties survived for more th
Page 123 and 124: Other developments affected Algiers
Page 125 and 126: Ireland, for example, became within
Page 127 and 128: privileges, was going to recur to t
Page 129 and 130: at Algiers. Later, the government a
Page 131 and 132: utter. For this reason, visits of A
Page 133 and 134: council of prizes, were sold by auc
Page 135 and 136: elations between Algiers and wester
Page 137 and 138: 2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
Page 139 and 140: destruction of the Algerian fleet w
Page 141 and 142: compensation for the occupation of
Page 143 and 144: small in numbers to settle conquere
Page 145 and 146: the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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