Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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experience and competence of captains, due to few naval engagements, had diminished the character and affected the reputation of the whole navy. The size and armament of the fleet are better known for the period 1737- 1827 than for preceding ones because of the availability of yearly records as summarized in Table 2 (Naval Force of Algiers, 1737-1827). The French consulate at Algiers recorded the activities of the corsairs in registers that went uninterrupted throughout that period. That was possible because the peace treaties Algiers signed with the different European countries required it. For identification questions, the ships from both countries were to carry passes, or passports, so as to avoid harassment and capture. The passports also permitted legalization of prizes. As far as the treaty with France is concerned, the Algerian corsairs had to get two documents from the French Consulate before going out cruising: a nationality certificate and a passport. Those served as protection for the corsairs and their prizes against capture by the French fleet but also allowed them to visit French ports (in cases of bad weather, wreckage, or need for supplies). 107 The registers in question, therefore, preserved all the information relating to the fleet and corsairing. 108 For matters of comparison, one should keep in mind that at its zenith in 1625, the Algerian fleet counted a hundred vessels of different sizes. 109 During the 1630s, and according to Dan, it 107 E. Rouard de Card, Traités de la France Avec les pays de l’Afrique du Nord: Algérie, Tunisie, Tripolitaine, Maroc (Paris: A. Pédone, Éditeur, 1906), pp. 52-60. 108 Albert Devoulx edited those records in 8 volumes entitled: Les archives du consulat-géneral de France à Alger (1865). 109 Fontenay, “La course dans l’économie portuaire,” p. 1327. 54
counted 70 vessels. One hundred years later, and this is where the records start; only 17 vessels totalizing 100 guns formed the fleet. Table 2: Naval Force of Algiers, 1737-1827 Year Largest ships Total Vessels Total Guns Pierriers Note 1737 1 18 guns 17 100 127 1740 1 16 guns 14 74 206 1750 1 58 guns 12 272 50 1760 2 44 guns 27 322 1763, 5 merchantmen 1770 1 42 guns 13 196 1780 4 18 guns 28 360 4 1790 1 26 guns 4 36 Almost non-existent 1800 2 36 guns 16 335 (1) named The American 1810 1 50 guns 11 269 A squadron (3 frigates & 1 brick commanded by Rais Hamidou) 1816 1 50 guns 15 401 6 Prior to British-Dutch expedition 1816 1 22 guns 2 40 After British-Dutch expedition 1817 1 22 guns 7 120 (1) 14 guns (built at Leghorn, Italy for Algiers) 1818 1 46 guns 11 252 (1) 46 guns (sent by the Sultan) (1) 36 guns (sent by King of Morocco) (1) 32 guns (built at Algiers) 1820 1 46 guns 14 320 1821, a squadron (8 ships) sent to Turkey to help in war against Greek. 1825 1 12 guns 2 24 1926, a squadron (8 ships) sent to Turkey to help in war against Greek. 1827 1 50 guns 14 296 (1) 62 guns & (1) 40 guns, (were at Alexandria, Egypt) The last passport delivered by the French Consul to Algerian corsairs was dated May 26, 1827. Note: Pierriers are swivel guns used for throwing stones. Source: Devoulx, “La marine de la régence d’Alger.” 55
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
Page 15 and 16: situated in the United States or Eu
Page 17 and 18: At a time the clash between Islam a
Page 19 and 20: may interrupt the flow of reading,
Page 21 and 22: elations with the United States cou
Page 23 and 24: Finally, other series cover miscell
Page 25 and 26: the same way the Mediterranean syst
Page 27 and 28: Part One Algiers in European Diplom
Page 29 and 30: States in the 1770s down to the con
Page 31 and 32: the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
Page 33 and 34: Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
Page 35 and 36: Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
Page 37 and 38: with the aim of imposing vassalage
Page 39 and 40: 1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
Page 41 and 42: western writers emphatically invoke
Page 43 and 44: fighting for Christian faith agains
Page 45 and 46: 1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
Page 47 and 48: In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
Page 49 and 50: Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
Page 51 and 52: 2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
Page 53 and 54: Penon. The failure of the cannonade
Page 55 and 56: Mediterranean against the Habsburg
Page 57 and 58: Once in control of the land, Khayre
Page 59 and 60: part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
Page 61 and 62: In addition to Turks, the crews inc
Page 63 and 64: the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
Page 65: One finds himself here far from the
Page 69 and 70: Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
Page 71 and 72: Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
Page 73 and 74: Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
Page 75 and 76: Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
Page 77 and 78: chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
Page 79 and 80: Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
Page 81 and 82: established perceptions, goes furth
Page 83 and 84: (barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
Page 85 and 86: meaning a person speaking beneath h
Page 87 and 88: Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
Page 89 and 90: asis for a variety of programs and
Page 91 and 92: freedom of navigation. Slavery was
Page 93 and 94: however, the pace of capture and en
Page 95 and 96: slaves. 71 However, in the absence
Page 97 and 98: 2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
Page 99 and 100: confronts when looking into diploma
Page 101 and 102: corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
Page 103 and 104: shipping, they operated like pirate
Page 105 and 106: “commission of war from some fore
Page 107 and 108: may be seen as “a cost-efficient
Page 109 and 110: shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
Page 111 and 112: This confusion in legal interpretat
Page 113 and 114: fanatics who had already sworn enmi
Page 115 and 116: treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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