Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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ملخص في أعقاب أحداث التاسع من سبتمبر،‏ ومع تزايد العداء تجاه الإسلام ، ظهر اهتمام بتاريخ أول مواجهة بين الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية ومسلمي شمال إفريقيا.‏ بالنسبة لغالبية المؤرخين الأمريكيين تعتبر فترة ‏"الحروب البربرية"‏ سابقة مباشرة للمواجهة الأمريكية الحالية مع ما يسمى بإرهابيي القاعدة و أن الإرهاب الإسلامي قد وجد منذ نشوء الولايات المتحدة على اعتبار أن 1124 ‏"قطاع البحر"‏ واستعبدوا مسيحيين أبرياء وجعلوهم يدفعون جزية وفدية.‏ البرابرة اعتدوا على التجارة البحرية الأمريكية و لدعم هذه التأويلات لم يترددوا في نقل فترة اية القرن الثامن عشر و بداية القرن التاسع عشر إلى القرن الواحد و العشرين.‏ و كانت النتيجة معادلة غير سليمة بحيث مساو اليوم أصبح إرهابي لقرصان الأمس،‏ و بقلب المعادلة حول القرصان المسلم – و الذي نعت آنذاك بقاطع البحر – إلى إرهابي.‏ على اعتبار أنه يمكننا الموافقة على فكرة أن المصالح الأمريكية يمكن أن تكون قد تضررت من القرصنة التي سادت حوض البحر الأبيض المتوسط آنذاك إلا أن هذا لا يجعل من قراصنة الأيالة العثمانية،‏ الجزائر،‏ لا قطاع بحر ولا إرهابيين.‏ زيادة على هذا فإن الخلط بين فعلي القرصنة من جهة و النهب في البحر من جهة أخرى و إسناده إلى المسلمين فقط دون سائر الممارسين له في البحر المتوسط يجعل المسألة أكثر تعقيدا بحيث يجعله ينم عن أفكار صليبية كانت قد سادت في العصور الوسطى.‏ في فترة اية القرن الثامن عشر أيضا أعطت أمريكا انطباعا و كأا أجبرت على استعمال القوة العسكرية ضد مسلمين أدعت أم مارسوا إرهاب البحر تحت غطاء الجهاد.‏ رغم أن السياق الذي مورست فيه العلاقات الدولية آنذاك لا يمكن مقارنته بالسياق السائد اليوم،‏ إلا أنه بالفعل توجد تشاات حميمة بين الاثنين غير أن هذه الأخيرة معاكسة تماما لما تؤمن به غالبية الأمريكيين اليوم.‏ إذ أصبح واضحا الآن أن معظم الذرائع التي استعملت لتبرير ‏"الحرب على الإرهاب"‏ هي قصص ملفقة قصد ا تغطية برامج أخرى فإن أول مواجهة لأمريكا مع القراصنة الجزائريين إذا أخضعت للتدقيق تظهر أن نفس الذرائع كانت قد استعملت لتمرير نفس الأهداف.‏ و ليست سياسة التخويف جديدة في التاريخ الأمريكي،‏ فقد استعمل آنذاك مفهوم ‏"الرعب الجزائري"‏ و دعاية قطاع البحر لقمع الانشقاق السياسي وتعزيز التماسك الداخلي للولايات المتحدة،‏ و كذلك استعمل لتغطية عدوان الأسطول الأمريكي على الجزائر تحت قناع دفاعي لتعزيز المصالح الأمريكية الخارجية.‏ هذا و قد نفذت تلك البرامج السياسية في التحضيرية.‏ تجاهل تام للقوانين و المواثيق الدولية و عقلنت تحت غطاء مهمة المسيحيين 1124 حسب المفاهيم الإنجليزية هناك فرق واضح في المعنى بين كلمتي هذه الأطروحة.‏ في اللغة العربية ، رغم أن كلمة أن كلمة , وcorsair pirate 491 corsair و هو أحد العناصر التي تقوم عليها تقابلها كلمة قرصان – و هي كلمة مشتقة أصلا من اللغة الإيطالية – إلا pirate لا يوجد لها مقابل.‏ رغم هذا هناك كلمات عدة توحي بنفس المعنى منها ب و سلب.‏ و عليه فعبارة ‏"قطاع البحر"‏ تستعمل هنا للدلالة على pirates العربية.‏ على الرغم من أن هده العبارة – حسب علمي المتواضع–‏ لا توجد أصلا في اللغة
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434:
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454: Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456: intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458: Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 459 and 460: other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462: Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 463 and 464: not assist Great Britain in such wa
Page 465 and 466: Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468: those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470: consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472: and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474: Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476: Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478: having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480: Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482: Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
Page 483 and 484: Silsbee, of that place, while on a
Page 485 and 486: In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488: Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
Page 489 and 490: furnished at the market price, and
Page 491 and 492: of the United States, and the citiz
Page 493 and 494: said Admiral, your servant, all tha
Page 495 and 496: amicable sentiments towards the Uni
Page 497 and 498: understanding between them and the
Page 499 and 500: était d’aussi bonne prise que le
Page 501 and 502: GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
Page 503: Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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