Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Table 1: Spanish Expeditions against Algiers, 1505-1784 Year & Allies Seize of Expedition Command Outcome Consequences 1505 12,000 men landed at Mers-el-Kebir Diego Fernandez de Cordova Occupy Mers-el- Kebir 1508- 1509 100 galleys and small ships & 11,000 troops take Oran Cardinal Ximenez Pedro Navarro (military commander) The Spaniards Occupy Oran, 4,000 killed, 5,000 taken to Spain as slaves; ½ million ducats booty The Dey of Algiers takes control Oran (1708) 1510 25 galleys & 5,000 troops Pedro Navarro Occupy the Penon and Bejaia Barbarossa conquers the Penon (1529); Salah Rais expels the Spaniards from Bejaia (1554) 1512, Genoa Occupy Jijel The Barbarossa take control of Jijel (1514) 1516 60 ships & 8,000 soldiers siege and land at Algiers Diego de Vera Complete failure: almost ½ half the troops were killed or captured. Fleet re-embark in total anarchy Arroudj takes Algiers and consolidates his kingdom; For Christians: lost opportunity to remove corsairs from Algiers 1519 Sicily, & King of Tlemcen 80 ships & 10,000 soldiers cannonade then land at Algiers Hugo de Moncada 26 ships and 4,000 soldiers were lost in a storm, the rest killed or captured Kheireddine strengthens his position; pushes conquest to Constantine, Collo, and Annaba 1531 Genoa A major sea battle. Christian and Muslim galleys destroyed Alvar Gomez A brief siege, Algiers falls for a while This naval encounter ends Ottoman- Habsburg warfare in the western Mediterranean 36
Spanish Expeditions against Algiers, 1505-1784 (continued) 1541, Holy Roman Empire, Malta, & Papacy Armada of 516 galleys, and about 40,000 troops siege then land at Algiers King Charles V total disaster: Armada decimated by a storm, then pursued by inhabitants Algiers invincible: For almost 200 years afterwards, Spain would refrain from attacking it 1541-1732, long interlude; coincides with the rise of the regency of Algiers to naval supremacy in the Mediterranean More powerful European countries would take over the crusade 1732 Landing at Ain et-Turk 1775 An expedition of 18,000 men and over 150 ships blockaded Algiers Pedro Castejon & Alexander O’Reilly Reoccupation of Oran total disaster: Armada decimated by a storm 1790, Algiers sieges Oran and reoccupies it in 1792 1784 Algiers Cannonaded Angelo Barcelo After 300 years of crusading, will and faith of Algiers remained intact 1786, a 100 years truce signed, humiliating for Spain Source: Data is collected from the different sources used in Chapter I 37
Page 1 and 2: REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
Page 3 and 4: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
Page 5 and 6: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
Page 7 and 8: TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
Page 9 and 10: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
Page 13 and 14: corsairing from within the context
Page 15 and 16: situated in the United States or Eu
Page 17 and 18: At a time the clash between Islam a
Page 19 and 20: may interrupt the flow of reading,
Page 21 and 22: elations with the United States cou
Page 23 and 24: Finally, other series cover miscell
Page 25 and 26: the same way the Mediterranean syst
Page 27 and 28: Part One Algiers in European Diplom
Page 29 and 30: States in the 1770s down to the con
Page 31 and 32: the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
Page 33 and 34: Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
Page 35 and 36: Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
Page 37 and 38: with the aim of imposing vassalage
Page 39 and 40: 1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
Page 41 and 42: western writers emphatically invoke
Page 43 and 44: fighting for Christian faith agains
Page 45 and 46: 1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
Page 47: In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
Page 51 and 52: 2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
Page 53 and 54: Penon. The failure of the cannonade
Page 55 and 56: Mediterranean against the Habsburg
Page 57 and 58: Once in control of the land, Khayre
Page 59 and 60: part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
Page 61 and 62: In addition to Turks, the crews inc
Page 63 and 64: the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
Page 65 and 66: One finds himself here far from the
Page 67 and 68: counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
Page 69 and 70: Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
Page 71 and 72: Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
Page 73 and 74: Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
Page 75 and 76: Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
Page 77 and 78: chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
Page 79 and 80: Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
Page 81 and 82: established perceptions, goes furth
Page 83 and 84: (barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
Page 85 and 86: meaning a person speaking beneath h
Page 87 and 88: Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
Page 89 and 90: asis for a variety of programs and
Page 91 and 92: freedom of navigation. Slavery was
Page 93 and 94: however, the pace of capture and en
Page 95 and 96: slaves. 71 However, in the absence
Page 97 and 98: 2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
Page 99 and 100:
confronts when looking into diploma
Page 101 and 102:
corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
Page 103 and 104:
shipping, they operated like pirate
Page 105 and 106:
“commission of war from some fore
Page 107 and 108:
may be seen as “a cost-efficient
Page 109 and 110:
shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
Page 111 and 112:
This confusion in legal interpretat
Page 113 and 114:
fanatics who had already sworn enmi
Page 115 and 116:
treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
Page 117 and 118:
harm” or nothing more than a “p
Page 119 and 120:
were sometimes harsh—and in that
Page 121 and 122:
these treaties survived for more th
Page 123 and 124:
Other developments affected Algiers
Page 125 and 126:
Ireland, for example, became within
Page 127 and 128:
privileges, was going to recur to t
Page 129 and 130:
at Algiers. Later, the government a
Page 131 and 132:
utter. For this reason, visits of A
Page 133 and 134:
council of prizes, were sold by auc
Page 135 and 136:
elations between Algiers and wester
Page 137 and 138:
2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
Page 139 and 140:
destruction of the Algerian fleet w
Page 141 and 142:
compensation for the occupation of
Page 143 and 144:
small in numbers to settle conquere
Page 145 and 146:
the return of Algerian captives ens
Page 147 and 148:
Christians’ enslavement at a time
Page 149 and 150:
1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
Page 151 and 152:
Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
Page 153 and 154:
Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
Page 155 and 156:
3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
Page 157 and 158:
privateering, was not officially ab
Page 159 and 160:
precisely the best landing place fo
Page 161 and 162:
The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164:
At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166:
Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168:
principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170:
Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172:
y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174:
also did it with the view of making
Page 175 and 176:
Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
Page 177 and 178:
legally, they did not hesitate to c
Page 179 and 180:
the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
Page 181 and 182:
1622. England’s relations with Al
Page 183 and 184:
adventurers who were roaming in the
Page 185 and 186:
“would, it is more than probable,
Page 187 and 188:
was taken by the utmost seriousness
Page 189 and 190:
“could still seek their fortunes
Page 191 and 192:
But Owing to hostilities triggered
Page 193 and 194:
“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
Page 195 and 196:
Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
Page 197 and 198:
American commissioner who throughou
Page 199 and 200:
void because they emanated from a n
Page 201 and 202:
is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
Page 203 and 204:
Algiers particularly as a “pettif
Page 205 and 206:
independence, the Continental Congr
Page 207 and 208:
Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
Page 209 and 210:
his letter book more than did the D
Page 211 and 212:
Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
Page 213 and 214:
ulers of Algiers to doubt American
Page 215 and 216:
Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
Page 217 and 218:
CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
Page 219 and 220:
the Americans, the Europeans were k
Page 221 and 222:
diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
Page 223 and 224:
trade against the North African sta
Page 225 and 226:
and neutrality of shipping—contin
Page 227 and 228:
Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
Page 229 and 230:
markets and consequently economic p
Page 231 and 232:
American diplomatic relations becau
Page 233 and 234:
further French intervention on thei
Page 235 and 236:
earlier sniveling fears and accusat
Page 237 and 238:
Dutch side what had already been de
Page 239 and 240:
the part of that state or its subje
Page 241 and 242:
If the British government suffered
Page 243 and 244:
esources, and so contemptible, that
Page 245 and 246:
of the existing ‘balance of power
Page 247 and 248:
encouraged the piratical states to
Page 249 and 250:
Britain and France and makes them r
Page 251 and 252:
Then, it was only when the American
Page 253 and 254:
every ten years according to custom
Page 255 and 256:
according to which the draft treati
Page 257 and 258:
American agents, however, without i
Page 259 and 260:
American vessels, Britain hoped to
Page 261 and 262:
Passports seemed not to bother the
Page 263 and 264:
Algiers, and for other reasons, was
Page 265 and 266:
was instructed to redeem cheap on t
Page 267 and 268:
supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
Page 269 and 270:
proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
Page 271 and 272:
edemption, and promise of Lamb to
Page 273 and 274:
leave favorable impressions at Algi
Page 275 and 276:
the states warning against travel t
Page 277 and 278:
d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
Page 279 and 280:
2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
Page 281 and 282:
American turned up at his court he
Page 283 and 284:
His unguarded expressions, his hint
Page 285 and 286:
Lamb’s first option was not heele
Page 287 and 288:
extermination of that “race of se
Page 289 and 290:
But, he carried on, “when they ta
Page 291 and 292:
Finally, comparing the total cost o
Page 293 and 294:
conclusion of a peace treaty with A
Page 295 and 296:
New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
Page 297 and 298:
Dey. That was noted by the American
Page 299 and 300:
if there is a probability of a war,
Page 301 and 302:
prepare to support such of the frig
Page 303 and 304:
“union of force” open to Europe
Page 305 and 306:
ecomes even more amazing when in th
Page 307 and 308:
given American predilection for agg
Page 309 and 310:
Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311 and 312:
edemption of the remaining captives
Page 313 and 314:
the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
Page 315 and 316:
O’Brien letter supported the Swed
Page 317 and 318:
1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
Page 319 and 320:
Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
Page 321 and 322:
Affairs, with respect to the truce.
Page 323 and 324:
personally written to him.” 47 Th
Page 325 and 326:
1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
Page 327 and 328:
presents on the arrival of an Ambas
Page 329 and 330:
ut diplomatically they were conside
Page 331 and 332:
Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
Page 333 and 334:
passport issued by the United State
Page 335 and 336:
known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
Page 337 and 338:
the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
Page 339 and 340:
April 3, the Dey announced that, as
Page 341 and 342:
that money for redeeming American p
Page 343 and 344:
called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346:
Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348:
concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
Page 349 and 350:
the source of much dissatisfaction
Page 351 and 352:
egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353 and 354:
specifying that the United States h
Page 355 and 356:
Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358:
But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360:
As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362:
I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 363 and 364:
2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
Page 365 and 366:
Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
Page 367 and 368:
Lear would be able to prevail on th
Page 369 and 370:
dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
Page 371 and 372:
treaty was sacred and that was agre
Page 373 and 374:
those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
Page 375 and 376:
the war with France had just ended,
Page 377 and 378:
justified by a belief in the moral
Page 379 and 380:
On June 28, the squadron arrived at
Page 381 and 382:
the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
Page 383 and 384:
Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386:
armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388:
dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390:
the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392:
For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394:
demonstration of American skill and
Page 395 and 396:
Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398:
Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400:
Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402:
The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404:
Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406:
corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408:
statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410:
distinction between corsairing and
Page 411 and 412:
altered the geopolitical concerns o
Page 413 and 414:
and for over than two hundred years
Page 415 and 416:
the weak finances of the Confederat
Page 417 and 418:
use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
Page 419 and 420:
BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422:
2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424:
3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426:
Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428:
Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434:
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446:
Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456:
intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458:
Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 459 and 460:
other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462:
Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 463 and 464:
not assist Great Britain in such wa
Page 465 and 466:
Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468:
those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470:
consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472:
and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474:
Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476:
Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478:
having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480:
Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482:
Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
Page 483 and 484:
Silsbee, of that place, while on a
Page 485 and 486:
In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488:
Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
Page 489 and 490:
furnished at the market price, and
Page 491 and 492:
of the United States, and the citiz
Page 493 and 494:
said Admiral, your servant, all tha
Page 495 and 496:
amicable sentiments towards the Uni
Page 497 and 498:
understanding between them and the
Page 499 and 500:
était d’aussi bonne prise que le
Page 501 and 502:
GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
Page 503 and 504:
Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
Page 506:
ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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