Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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jurisdiction; and his ships of war, or any convoys sailing under his authority, shall upon all occasions take under their protection all vessels belonging to the subjects, people, or inhabitants of the said United States, or any of them, and holding the same course or going the same way; and shall defend such vessels as long as they hold the same course, or go the same way, against all attacks, force, and violence, in the same manner as they ought to protect and defend vessels belonging to the subjects of the most christian king. ARTICLE V In like manner the said United States, and their ships of war, and convoys sailing under their authority, shall protect and defend all vessels and effects belonging to the subjects of the most christian king ; and endeavour to recover and restore them, if taken within the jurisdiction of the said United States, or any of them. ARTICLE VI The most christian king and the said United States, shall not receive nor suffer to be received, into any of their ports, havens, roads, countries, islands, cities or towns, any pirates or sea robbers, or afford or suffer any entertainment, assistance or provision to be afforded to them; but shall endeavour by all means, that all pirates and sea robbers, and their partners, sharers, and abettors, be found out, apprehended, and suffer condign punishment ; and all the vessels and effects piratically taken, and brought into the ports and havens of the most christian king, or the said United States, which can be found, although they be sold, shall be restored, or satisfaction given therefore; the right owners, their agents or attorneys demanding the same, and making the right of property to appear by due proof. ARTICLE VII The most christian king shall protect, defend and secure, as far as in his power, the subjects, people and inhabitants of the said United States, and every of them, and their vessels and effects of every kind, against all attacks, assaults, violences, injuries, depredations or plunderings, by or from the king or emperor of Morocco, or Fez, and the states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli, and any of them, and every other prince, state and power on the coast of Barbary in Africa, and the subjects of the said king, emperor, states and powers, and of every of them, in the same manner, and as effectually and fully, and as much to the benefit, advantage, ease and safety of the said United Slates, and every of them, and of the subjects, people and inhabitants thereof, to all intents and purposes, as the king and kingdom of Great Britain, before the commencement of the present war, protected, defended and secured the people and inhabitants of the said United States, then called British colonies in America, their vessels and effects, against all such attacks, assaults, violences, injuries, depredations and plunderings. ARTICLE VIII If, in consequence of this treaty, the king of Great Britain should declare war against the most christian king, the said United States shall 449
not assist Great Britain in such war, with men, money, ships, or any ofthe articles in this treaty denominated contraband goods. ARTICLE IX The most christian king shall never invade, nor, under any pretence, attempt to possess himself of Labrador, New Britain, Nova Scotia, Acadia, Canada, Florida, nor any of the countries, cities or towns on the continent of North America, nor of the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, St. Johns, Anticosti, nor of any other island lying near to the said continent in the seas, or in any gulph, bay or river ;it being the true intent and meaning of this treaty, that the said United States-shall have the sole, exclusive, undivided and perpetual possession of the countries, cities and towns on the said continent, and of all islands near to it, which now are, or lately were under the jurisdiction of or subject to the king or crown of Great Britain, whenever they shall be united or confederated with the said United States. ARTICLE X The subjects, inhabitants, merchants, commanders of ships, masters and mariners, of the states, provinces and dominions of each party, respectively, shall abstain and forbear to fish in all places, possessed, or which shall be possessed by the other party. The most christian king’s subjects shall not fish in the havens, bays, creeks, roads, coasts or places which the said United States hold, or shall hereafter hold; and in like manner, the subjects, people and inhabitants of the said United States shall not fish in the havens, bays, creeks, roads, coasts or places which the most Christian king possesses, or shall hereafter possess. And if any ship or vessel shall be found fishing, contrary to the tenor of this treaty, the said ship or vessel, with its lading, proof being made thereof, shall be confiscated. ARTICLE XI If in any war the most christian king shall conquer, or get possession of, the islands in the West Indies, now under the jurisdiction of the king or crown of Great Britain, or any of them, or any dominions of the said king or crown, in any other parts of the world, the subjects, people and inhabitants of the said United States, and every of them, shall enjoy the same rights, liberties, privileges, immunities and exemptions, in trade, commerce and navigation, to and from the said islands and dominions, that are mentioned in the second article of this treaty. ARTICLE XII It is the true intent and meaning of this treaty, that no higher or other duties shall be imposed on the exportation of any thing of the growth, production or manufacture of the islands in the West Indies, now belonging, or which may hereafter belong to the most christian king, to the said United States, or any of them, than the lowest that are or shall be imposed on the exportation thereof to France, or to any other part of the world…. Source: SJ, 2:7-30, Plan of a Treaty with France, 17 September 1776. 450
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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Page 417 and 418: use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430: Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432: Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434: Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436: _____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438: _____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440: Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442: MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444: Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446: Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448: _____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450: Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452: Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454: Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456: intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458: Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 459 and 460: other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461: Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 465 and 466: Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468: those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470: consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472: and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474: Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476: Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478: having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480: Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482: Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
Page 483 and 484: Silsbee, of that place, while on a
Page 485 and 486: In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488: Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
Page 489 and 490: furnished at the market price, and
Page 491 and 492: of the United States, and the citiz
Page 493 and 494: said Admiral, your servant, all tha
Page 495 and 496: amicable sentiments towards the Uni
Page 497 and 498: understanding between them and the
Page 499 and 500: était d’aussi bonne prise que le
Page 501 and 502: GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
Page 503 and 504: Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
Page 506: ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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