Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 1797-1801 John Adams Timothy Pickering, 1797-1800 John Marshall, 1800-1801 Mustafa Ben Brahim, 1798-1805 1797: Jul., Barlow leaves Algiers Aug. USA concludes a peace treaty with Tunis with the help of the Dey who advances money and guarantees the treaty 1798: Jan., Richard O’Brien arrives at Algiers as American Consul General; Feb., In the United States, Congress fathers the publication of the journal of John Foss, a former American captive at Algiers, which appeared under the title: A Journal of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss 1799: Feb., William Eaton arrives at Algiers and meets Dey Mustafa 1800: Oct., Dey ‘freights’ the George Washington to take tribute to the Sultan in Constantinople; Algerine flag hoisted on the main mast of the American battleship; wide fulminations in the United States considering it national humiliation 1801-1809 Thomas Jefferson James Madison, 1801-1809 Ahmed, 1805-1808 Ali Khodja, 1808-1809 1801: Soon after inauguration, Jefferson orders ‘squadron of observation’ into the Mediterranean 1801-1805: First Barbary War, effective naval warfare with Tripoli and Muscle show at Tangier, Morocco and Tunis 1803: Nov., Tobias Lear succeeds to O’Brien as Consul General at Algiers 1807: Oct., treaty repudiated; Algiers’ corsairs capture 2 American vessel—the crews (9 Americans) were kept prisoners at Algiers for 40 days Dec., Peace reestablished after Americans paid for arrearages 1808: Mar., New crisis developed but was contained speedily 385
Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 1809-1817 James Madison Robert Smith, 1809-1811 James Monroe, 1811-1817 Hadj Ali Khodja, 1809-1815 Hadj Muhammed, 1815 Omar Agha, 1815-1817 1812: Jul., Disagreement about payments in stores; Lear ordered to leave Algiers. He left with 16 others Americans who were present at Algiers Aug., Seizure of an American vessel; 10 prisoners 1815-1816: Second Barbary War; American squadrons threaten Algiers Apr. U. S. sends two squadrons to the Mediterranean Jun. 15, Decatur’s Squadron encounters Meshuda, the flagship of the Algerian fleet; Rais Hamidou killed in a four-hour battle Jun. 28, Squadron appears at the bay of Algiers and threatens to capture Algerian squadron, then out at sea, if the treaty was not signed Jun. 29, Dey signs treaty at the mouth of canons; Algiers releases American captives and renounces tribute payments and enslavement of captives in the event of future hostilities; squadron leaves July 8. 1816: Mar.-Apr. Squadron anchored at Algiers Aug., a joint British-Dutch bombardment ravages the port and the city Aug., American squadron returns to Algiers Dec. 8, American squadron returns to Algiers; second treaty signed; confirms precedent treaty with slight modification altering Article 18. 1817-1825 James Monroe John Quincy Adams 1817-1825 1822: The Department of State ignored the treaty of 1816 and it was not ratified until February 1822. Source: Data is collected from the different sources used for part II of this work. 386
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
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Page 355 and 356: Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362: I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 363 and 364: 2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
Page 365 and 366: Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Page 369 and 370: dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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Page 379 and 380: On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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Page 383 and 384: Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386: armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388: dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
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Page 395 and 396: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397: Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406: corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408: statutes and treaties. In this capa
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Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430: Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432: Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434: Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436: _____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438: _____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440: Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442: MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444: Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446: Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448: _____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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