Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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European powers but also with the ‘Coast of Barbary’ states. In 1801, Jefferson initiated a policy which consisted of keeping the U.S. navy squadrons in constant cruises near the cost of North Africa alleging protection of American traders against pirates’ attacks. In fact, the Americans were intent upon terminating tribute and acquiring the status of a major naval power on the same basis as the great European powers. After two wars fought successfully against France and Great Britain, the American devised plans for attacking Algiers. The crisis which developed in 1812 over the delivery of stores was exploited almost three years later and served as a justification for sending squadrons to Algiers. With American squadrons patrolling in the Mediterranean and threatening Muslim states, the United States entered an era of gunboat diplomacy. With Algiers, the Americans declared war in 1815 and forced two treaties on the Dey of Algiers at the mouth of cannons thus shattering supremacy of Algiers’ corsairing diplomacy. A dissection of the so-called Second Barbary War, 1815-1816 shows in fact that American late 19 th century imperialism was given expression earlier in the exhibitions of naval force at the shores of Algiers and repeated threats to use that force in case Algiers did not abide by America’s terms. By the end, corsairing diplomacy crumbled; a fact which gave way to American gunboat diplomacy and subsequently European colonialism in the area. 383
Table 10: The United States and Algiers: a Timeline, 1776-1816 The Executive UNITED STATES Department & Secretary ALGIERS/ RULERS MAJOR EVENTS 1774-1781 Continental Congress Committee of Secret Correspondence (1775-77) Committee for Foreign Affairs (1777-80) Muhammed Ben Uthman, 1766-1791 1776: Sept., Plan of treaty which seeks to obtain ‘protection’ against Algiers under treaties with Christian powers 1778: Feb., Treaty with France guarantees no more than ‘good offices’ of the King 1781-1789 Confederation Congress Department of Foreign Affairs: Robert Livingstone (1781-83) John Jay (1784-90) 1785: May, British Consul Charles Logie arrives at Algiers Jul.-Aug., Algerian corsairs captures two American ships; 21 prisoners 1786: Mar., 25-Apr. 20, John Lamb at Algiers; he negotiates for ransom of prisoners 1787: The Algerine Spy in Pennsylvania was published anonymously, later it was attributed to the American playwright Peter Markoe USA adopts a new constitution 1789-1797 George Washington Department of State: Thomas Jefferson 1790-93 Edmund Randolph 1794 Timothy Pickering 1795-97 Hassan, 1791-1798 1792: Mar., James L. Cathcart becomes Chief- Christian Secretary for Dey Hassan Pasha 1793: Sep., truce between Algiers and Portugal Oct.-Nov., Algerian corsairs capture American ships (11); 115 prisoners 1795: Sep., Joseph Donaldson, Jr. arrives at Algiers and concludes a peace treaty with the Dey at a record time of 42 hours 1796: Mar., Joel Barlow arrives at Algiers Apr., Donaldson leaves for Livorno to seek funds 1796: July, American prisoners released; reach Philadelphia Feb. 1797 1796: Nov., Americans negotiate peace treaty with Tripoli under the auspices of the Dey who advances money and guarantees the treaty 384
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346: Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348: concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
Page 349 and 350: the source of much dissatisfaction
Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353 and 354: specifying that the United States h
Page 355 and 356: Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362: I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 363 and 364: 2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
Page 365 and 366: Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Page 369 and 370: dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
Page 371 and 372: treaty was sacred and that was agre
Page 373 and 374: those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
Page 375 and 376: the war with France had just ended,
Page 377 and 378: justified by a belief in the moral
Page 379 and 380: On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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Page 383 and 384: Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386: armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388: dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390: the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394: demonstration of American skill and
Page 395: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 399 and 400: Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406: corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408: statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410: distinction between corsairing and
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Page 413 and 414: and for over than two hundred years
Page 415 and 416: the weak finances of the Confederat
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Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430: Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432: Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434: Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436: _____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438: _____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440: Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442: MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444: Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446: Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456:
intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458:
Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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